Chapter 3

The Cellular Level of

Organization

Lectures by Dr. Yukti Sharma

 Learning Objectives
 Define a cell, and discuss modern cell theory.

 Discuss structure and function of plasma membrane.

 Discuss transport of substances across plasma membrane.

 Describe cytoplasm and its components.

 Cytosol and organelles: cytoskeleton, centrosome, cilia and flagella, ribosomes,

endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, proteasomes,
mitochondria.

 Define a nucleus and discuss its parts: nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm, nucleolus,
chromosomes.

 Discuss structure of chromosomes, and processes of transcription and translation.

 Describe cell division

 Discuss cellular diversity.

 Discuss medical terminology related to changes in normal structure, shape and function
of the cells
 The Cell
 A cell is the basic unit of all living things.
 Prokaryotic cells
 Eukaryotic cells
 A Generalized Cell

 All eukaryotic cells are composed of three main

parts:

1. Plasma membrane or “plasmalemma”

2. Cytoplasm - a gelatin-like substance, plus

structural fibers and organelles (but not the
nucleus)

3. Nucleus - contains the genetic library of the

cell
 A Generalized Cell
1. The plasma membrane forms the cell’s
outer boundary and separates the cell’s
internal environment from the outside
environment.
 A Generalized Cell
2. The cytoplasm contains all the cellular
contents between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus.
 A Generalized Cell
3. The nucleus is a large organelle that contains DNA
in molecules called chromosomes.

 Each chromosome consists

of a single molecule of DNA
and associated packaging
proteins.
 A chromosome contains
thousands of hereditary
units called genes.
 A Generalized Cell
 Figure shows a generalized body cell labeled with the
plasma membrane, cytoplasm (and organelles) and nucleus.
 The Plasma Membrane
 The plasma membrane is much more than just a “fence” – it
is a flexible yet sturdy, “intelligent” semipermeable regulator
that:

 Covers and protects the cell

 Controls what goes in and

comes out

 Links to other cells

 The Plasma Membrane
 The Fluid Mosaic Model describes the
arrangement of molecules within the
membrane: They resemble a sea of
phospholipids with protein “icebergs”
floating in it.
 The Plasma Membrane
 The structure of the membrane

 Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer - cholesterol

and glycolipids (sugar-lipids) also contribute.

 Integral proteins - extend into or through the

bilayer.

• Transmembrane proteins

• Peripheral proteins
 The Plasma Membrane
 Glycoproteins are membrane proteins with
a carbohydrate group attached that protrude
into the extracellular fluid.

 The Glycocalyx
 The Plasma Membrane
 The Functions of the membrane proteins
 Transporters - selectively move substances
through the membrane.

 Receptors - for cellular recognition; a ligand is a

molecule that binds with a receptor.

 Enzymes - catalyze chemical reactions

 Others act as cell-identity markers.

 Functions of Membrane Proteins
1. Transport
2. Receptors for signal transduction
3. Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

(1) Transport (2) Receptors (3) Attachment

 Functions of Membrane
Proteins
4. Enzymatic activity
5. Intercellular joining
6. Cell-cell recognition
Enzymes

CAMs Glycoprotein
Enzymatic activity Intercellular joining Cell-cell recognition
 The Plasma Membrane
 Examples of different membrane proteins
include

 Ion channels

 Carriers

 Receptors
 The Plasma Membrane

 Examples of different
membrane proteins
include
 Enzymes
 Linkers
 Cell identity markers
 The Plasma Membrane
 Because of the distribution of lipids and the
proteins embedded in it, the membrane
allows some substances across but not
others; this is called Selective permeability

courtesy of Dr. Jim Hutchins

 Membrane Permeability
 For those substances that are needed by the cell but
for which the membrane is impenetrable (impermeable),
transmembrane proteins act as channels and
transporters.
 Transport Processes
 Passive processes involve substances
moving across the cell membranes without
the input of any energy - they are said to
move “with” or “down” their concentration
gradient ([gradient] , where [ ] indicates
“concentration”).
 Active processes involve the use of energy,
primarily from the breakdown of ATP, to
move a substance against its [gradient].
 Transport Processes
 Passive processes
 Diffusion of solutes
 Diffusion of water (called osmosis)
 Facilitated diffusion (requires a specific channel
or a carrier molecule, but no energy is used)
 Active processes
 Various types of transporters are used, and
energy is required.
 Concentration gradients
 Concentrations of some key ions are very
different on the inside versus the outside
of cells creating a gradient
IN: OUT:
[Na+] = low [Na+] = high
[K+] = high [K+] = low
[Ca2+] = very [Ca2+] = low
low [Cl-] = high
[Cl-] = low

(blood,
interstitial fluid)
 Passive Transport Processes
 Diffusion is the passive spread of particles
through random motion, from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration.
 Amount of substance and the steepness of the
concentration gradient.

 Temperature

 Surface area

 Diffusion distance
What can/can’t diffuse through the cell
membrane?
 Passive Transport Processes
 Channel-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
 Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion

Passive Transport Processes
An example of Channel-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion is
the passage of potassium ions through a gated K+
Channel

 An example of Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion is the

passage of glucose across the cell membrane.
Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane
Extracellular fluid
Small lipid-
Lipid- Lipid-insoluble insoluble Water
soluble solutes solutes molecules
solutes

Lipid
bilayer

Cytoplasm

(a) Simple diffusion (b) Carrier-mediated facilitated (c) Channel-mediated (d) Osmosis, diffusion
directly through the diffusion via protein carrier facilitated diffusion through a specific
phospholipid bilayer specific for one chemical; binding through a channel channel protein
of substrate causes shape change protein; mostly ions (aquaporin) or
in transport protein selected on basis of through the lipid
size and charge bilayer

Figure 3.7
 Passive Transport Processes
 Osmosis is the net movement of water
through a selectively permeable membrane
from an area of high water concentration to
one of lower water concentration.
 Water can pass through plasma membrane
in 2 ways:
 through lipid bilayer by simple diffusion
 through aquaporins (integral membrane
proteins)
Effect of Membrane Permeability
on Diffusion and Osmosis

Figure 3.8a
Effect of Membrane Permeability on
Diffusion and Osmosis

Figure 3.8b
Osmosis in Cells
 KEY CONCEPT
 Concentration gradients tend to even out due
to random motion of particles
 In the absence of a membrane, diffusion
eliminates concentration gradients
 When different solute concentrations exist on
either side of a selectively permeable
membrane, either:
1. diffusion of permeable molecules equalizes
concentrations OR
2. osmosis moves water through the
membrane to equalize the concentration
gradients
Active Transport Processes
K+ is released and Extracellular fluid
Binding of cytoplasmic
Na+ sites are ready to
Na+ to the pump protein
bind Na+ again; the
stimulates phosphorylation
cycle repeats.
Na+ by ATP.

Na+

Na+ Na+

Na+
Cytoplasm Na+
K+
ATP
P
K+
ADP
Cell
Phosphorylation
K+ K+ causes the
protein to
Na+ Na+ change its shape.

Na+ Na+
Concentration gradients
of K+ and Na+ Na+

K+

K+
K+

K+

Loss of phosphate The shape change

restores the original P expels Na+ to the
conformation of the outside, and
pump protein. Pi extracellular K+ binds.

K+ binding triggers
release of the
Secondary Active Transport Mechanisms
 Transport in Vesicles
 Vesicle - a small spherical sac formed by budding off
from a membrane
 Endocytosis - materials move into a cell in a vesicle
formed from the plasma membrane three types:
 receptor-mediated endocytosis
 phagocytosis
 bulk-phase endocytosis (pinocytosis)
 Exocytosis - vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane,
releasing their contents into the extracellular fluid
 Transcytosis - a combination of endocytosis and
exocytosis
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Bulk-phase Endocytosis
 Cytoplasm - 2 Components
1. Cytosol - intracellular fluid, surrounding the
organelles
- The site of many chemical reactions
- Energy is usually released by these reactions.
- Reactions provide the building blocks for cell
maintenance, structure, function and growth.
 2. Organelles
- Specialized structures within the cell
 The Cytoskeleton
 Network of protein
filaments
throughout the
cytosol

 Provides structural
support for the cell
 The Cytoskeleton
 Types
 Microfilaments
 Intermediate
filaments
 Microtubules
 Organelles
 Centrosome - located near the nucleus, consists of two
centrioles and pericentriolar material
 Organelles
 Cilia - short, hair-
like projections
from the cell
surface, move
fluids along a cell
surface
 Flagella - longer
than cilia, move
an entire cell; only
example is the
sperm cell’s tail
Organelles
 Organelles
 Ribosomes - sites of protein synthesis
 Organelles
 Endoplasmic
reticulum - network of
membranes in the
shape of flattened sacs
or tubules

- Rough ER - connected
to the nuclear envelope,
a series of flattened
sacs, surface is studded
with ribosomes,
produces various
proteins
 Organelles
 Golgi complex - consists of 3–20 flattened,
membranous sacs called cisternae.
Processing and Packaging
 Organelles
 Lysosomes - vesicles that form from the Golgi
complex and contain powerful digestive enzymes
 Organelles
 Peroxisomes
 Smaller than lysosomes

 Detoxify several toxic substances such as alcohol

 Abundant in the liver

 Proteasomes
 Continuously destroy unneeded, damaged, or
faulty proteins

 Found in the cytosol and the nucleus

 Organelles
Mitochondria - the “powerhouses” of the cell
 Generate ATP
 Have inner and outer mitochondrial membranes similar in
structure to the plasma membrane
 Cristae - the series of folds of the inner membrane
 Matrix - the large central fluid-filled cavity
 Self-replicate during times of increased cellular demand or
before cell division
 Contain own DNA
• Inherited only from your mother
Mitochondria
Nucleus
 Packing of DNA into a
Chromosome of a Dividing Cell
 Overview of Gene Expression

The Central Dogma

DNA > RNA > Protein.
Translation
Translation
Translation
Translation
Translation
Translation
Translation
Transcription
 Somatic Cell Division - Mitosis
 The cell cycle is a sequence of events in which a body
cell duplicates its contents and divides in two
 Human somatic cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes
(total = 46)
 The two chromosomes that make up each pair are called
homologous chromosomes (homologs)
 Somatic cells contain two sets of chromosomes and are
called diploid cells
 Cell Division
 Interphase - the cell is not dividing
- The cell replicates its DNA
- Consists of three phases, G1, S, and G2,
replication of DNA occurs in the S phase
Mitotic phase - consists of a nuclear
division (mitosis) and a cytoplasmic
division (cytokinesis) to form two identical
cells
The Cell Cycle
DNA Replication
 Nuclear Division: Mitosis
 Prophase - the chromatin fibers change into chromosomes.

 Metaphase - microtubules align the centromeres of the chromatid

pairs at the metaphase plate.

 Anaphase - the chromatid pairs split at the centromere and move

to opposite poles of the cell; the chromatids are now called
chromosomes.

 Telophase - two identical nuclei are formed around the identical

sets of chromosomes now in their chromatin form.
 Cytoplasmic Division: Cytokinesis
 Division of a cell’s cytoplasm to form two
identical cells

 Usually begins in late anaphase

 The plasma membrane constricts at its

middle, forming a cleavage furrow

 The cell eventually splits into two daughter

cells.
Mitosis
Mitosis
Mitosis
Mitosis
Mitosis
Mitosis
 1 1 Centrosome:
Centrosome:
Centrioles
Centrioles
Pericentriolar
Pericentriolar
material
material
Nucleolus
Nucleolus
Nuclear
Nuclear
envelope
envelope
Chromatin
Chromatin
Plasma
Plasma
membrane
membrane
6 all at
LM LM all700x
at 700x Cytosol
Cytosol
(a)
(a)
INTERPHASE
INTERPHASE
2 2

Kinetochore
Kinetochore

Centromere
Centromere
Mitotic
Mitotic
spindle
spindle
Chromosome
Chromosome (microtubules)
(microtubules)
(two
(two
chromatids
chromatids
(f) IDENTICAL CELLS IN INTERPHASE Fragments
Fragments
of of

Mitosis
joined
joined
at at
5 nuclear
nuclear
envelope
envelope
centromere
centromere
Early
Early (b) PROPHASE
(b) PROPHASE Late Late
Metaphase
Metaphase
plate
plate

3 3
Cleavage
Cleavage
furrow
furrow

(c) METAPHASE
(c) METAPHASE
4 4

(e)
(e)TELOPHASE
TELOPHASE

Cleavage
Cleavage
furrow
furrow

Chromosome
Chromosome

EarlyEarly
Late
Late
(d) (d)
ANAPHASE
ANAPHASE
 Reproductive Cell Division
 During sexual reproduction, each new
organism is the result of the union of two
gametes (fertilization), one from each
parent.
 Meiosis - reproductive cell division that
occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) that
produces gametes with half the number of
chromosomes.
 Haploid cells - gametes contain a single set
of 23 chromosomes.
 Fertilization restores the diploid number of
chromosomes (46).
 Reproductive Cell Division
 Meiosis occurs in two successive stages: meiosis I and
meiosis II .

 Each of these two stages has 4 phases: prophase,

metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

 Summary - Meiosis I begins with a diploid cell and ends

with two cells having the haploid number of
chromosomes; in Meiosis II, each of the two haploid cells
divides, and the net result is four haploid gametes that are
genetically different from the original diploid starting cell.
Meiosis and
Cytokinesis
Comparison
of Mitosis
and Meiosis
 Cellular Diversity
 The average adult has
nearly 100 trillion cells.
 There are about 200
different types of cells.
 Cells come in a variety of
shapes and sizes.
 Cellular diversity permits
organization of cells into
more complex tissues and
organs.