Journal of Building Engineering 35 (2021) 102067

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Journal of Building Engineering

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Mechanical and durability properties of recycled aggregate concrete

produced from recycled and natural aggregate blended based on the
Densified Mixture Design Algorithm method
Duy-Hai Vo a, b, Mitiku Damtie Yehualaw c, Chao-Lung Hwang b, Min-Chih Liao d, *,
Khanh-Dung Tran Thi d, Yu-Fan Chao d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Technology and Education, The University of Danang, 48 Cao Thang Street, Hai Chau District, Danang City, 550000, Viet
Nam
b
Taiwan Building Technology Center, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 43, Sec. 4, Keelung Rd., Taipei, 10607, ROC, Taiwan
c
Faculty of Civil and Water Resource Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
d
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 43, Sec. 4, Keelung Rd., Taipei, 10607, ROC, Taiwan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The aim of this study was to reuse recycled concrete aggregates for concrete production by using the Densified
Construction demolished waste Mixture Design Algorithm (DMDA) method for blended aggregates and mixing design based on the evaluation of
Recycled aggregate characteristics of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). Recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) was used to replace 30%,
Durability
40%, and 50% of the natural coarse aggregate (NCA), respectively, by volume in the samples, and the fine
DMDA method
aggregate was a combination of 70% natural fine aggregate (NFA) and 30% recycled fine aggregate (RFA) by
volume. A series of tests, including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity
(UPV), electrical surface resistivity (ESR), thermal conductivity (TC), water absorption, and the rapid chloride
penetration test (RCPT) were conducted in accordance with the relevant standards. The results illustrated that
blending aggregates following to DMDA method suggested an optimum proportion of RCA level which exhibited
with highest volume of aggregate per unit volume of combination of RCA and NCA. The results revealed 40%
RCA content as the optimum replacement level. Furthermore, the 40% RCA concrete mix exhibited good
hardening properties in terms of being only slightly below the 30% RCA mix and significantly higher than the
50% RCA mix. All of the RAC mixtures designed by DMDA method with low cement consumption exhibited good
strength development and good durability through 120 days of curing.

1. Introduction The utilization of recycled aggregate (RA) from CDW reduces not only
pollution and landfill space utilization, but also the demand for natural
Demand for concrete is growing globally because of continued aggregates. Based on this, the potential to use RA in commercial appli­
vigorous growth in the construction industry. This has led to a rapid cations has been of interest to many researchers and organizations. The
increase in aggregate consumption due to the high volume (around 70% European Demolition Association has estimated that around 30% of
by volume) of aggregate content in concrete mixtures [1]. An estimated waste products may be reused in Europe and that the volume and
40.2 billion metric tons of aggregates were consumed by the construc­ composition of waste products vary by area [3]. The use of RA has been
tion industry worldwide in 2014 [2], with consumption growing estimated to be around 3% of total aggregate consumption [4]. Typi­
annually by 5.2% and expected to reach around 51.79 billion metric tons cally, the proportion of RA includes around 65–70% natural aggregate
in 2019. Thus ensuring an adequate and affordable supply of aggregates by volume, with the remainder comprising old, adhered mortar.
to meet this demand is critical. In addition, the high demand of the Several studies have proposed a variety of methods for reusing CDW
construction industry has increased the production of construction in concrete production to reduce the consumption of newly extracted
demolish waste (CDW) which is substantially disposed to landfill plots. natural resources. Previous studies have found that incorporating RA

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.-C. Liao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.102067
Received 7 July 2020; Received in revised form 2 December 2020; Accepted 2 December 2020
Available online 3 December 2020
2352-7102/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.-H. Vo et al. Journal of Building Engineering 35 (2021) 102067

into concrete mixtures impacts negatively on material strength and investigated through 120 days of curing.
engineering properties [2,5,6]. The major difference with natural
aggregate is that old, adhered mortar on the surface of RA causes higher 2. Materials and experimental methods
porosity and lower material density [7–9], which result in higher water
absorptivity [3]. In addition, the weak, interfacial bonding between the 2.1. Materials
aggregate and binder matrix presented by the old adhered mortar of RA
[9] also affected to the performances of concrete produced by RA. In this study, type I Portland cement (OPC), GGBFS, and class F fly
However, although the compressive strength of concrete decreases with ash (FA) were used as the binder. The chemical compositions and
higher RA content, this effect is negligible at low levels of RA (≤20%) physical properties of the raw materials are shown in Table 1. The
[10]. Gomez-Soberon [11] illustrated that the higher porosity was found experiment used local tap water as the mixing water. In addition, super
in concrete samples that had a relatively high proportion of recycled plasticizer (SP) type G was added to achieve desired workability in the
coarse aggregate (RCA) content of between 15% and 100%. Moreover, RAC samples. All of the raw materials used in this study met relevant
Olorunsogo and Padayachee [12] used different percentage of RCA to ASTM standards. The aggregates were a combination of natural aggre­
replace natural coarse aggregate (NCA) (0%, 50% and 100%), finding a gate and recycled concrete aggregate obtained from CDW. The river
negative effect of RCA content on the durability of concrete samples. sand used in this study was NFA of a particle size below 4.75 mm, while
Thomas et al. [13] designed concrete specimens using different pro­ the NCA was collected from crushed stone with a maximum particle size
portions of RCA as partial replacements for NCA, water-to-cement ratios, of 19 mm. The RA was collected from the CDW after it had been crushed
and cement content, showing a reduction in concrete strength and into aggregate material, as shown in Fig. 1. RA was then separated into
durability with increased levels of RCA replacement. The incorporation RFA and RCA in accordance with ASTM C33. The physical properties
of 25% RCA did not alter the strength properties of concrete signifi­ and particle-size distribution of these aggregates are displayed in Table 2
cantly. Higher cement content improved the strength and durability of and Table 3, respectively.
concrete mixtures. On the other hand, using CDW as a recycled fine
aggregate significantly influenced concrete strength and durability. The 2.2. Aggregate-blending procedure
full replacement of NFA with 100% RFA greatly increased the water
absorption of concrete mixtures to, as much as, 46% of the level In this study, the DMDA method was used to find the optimum
absorbed by NFA [14,15]. Although 100%-RFA-content concrete has proportion of RCA content. First, nine different samples mixtures were
been shown to have 29–33% less compressive strength than its 100% produced, with RCA replacing NCA in ratios of between 20% and 100%
NFA counterpart at 28 days of curing [16,17], 30%-RFA-replacement by volume, respectively, at increasing intervals of 10%. At each point,
concrete has been shown to exhibit only insignificant reductions in the aggregate structure of NCA and RCA was assumed to be well-packed
mechanical and durability properties [14,17–19]. In order to improve using the hand dry-rodding method in accordance with the ASTM C29
the quality of RA, Dimitriou et al. [20] reduced the mortar content on RA standard. The detail procedures are described in the following:
by using concrete mixer, which rotated within 5 h at a speed of 10 rpm.
The result illustrated that this treatment method can reduce mortar Step 1: Mix RCA and NCA together uniformly. Use the quartering
content to 9% and significantly improve the quality of concrete. While, method to divide the blended aggregate into four equal parts, as
Fathifazl et al. [21] have developed “Equivalent mortar volume (EMV)” shown in Fig. 2.
method to find the optimum proportion of RCA content based on particle Step 2: Take parts 1 and 3 to fill into the measure. Note that you have
packing of recycled concrete aggregate. The concrete designed by EMV consumed part 1 before taking part 3. Divide the volume of the
method consumed lesser amount of cement and exhibited a greater measure into three layers and fill each layer with blended aggregate.
mechanical and durability properties in comparing to ACI method. Rod each layer of blended aggregate with 25 strokes of the tamping
Another concerning problem is that the concrete industry consumes rod. Ensure that the surface of the measure is flat.
an enormous amount of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), which Step 3: Measure the weight of the container and the blended aggre­
significantly affects the environment due to the large CO2 emissions gate (W1,3 ).
generated during OPC production [22]. Moreover, large amounts of Step 4: Repeat step 2 using parts 2 and 4, and measure the weight of
energy and raw materials are consumed in the OPC production process the container and blended aggregate (W2,4 ).
[23]. Many studies have been conducted to examine how to reduce the Step 5: Calculate the error between W1,3 and W2,4 . If the error is less
environmental impact of cement consumption through the partial than 1%, continue to step 6. Otherwise, return to step 1 and repeat.
replacement of traditional cementitious with pozzolanic materials such Step 6: Repeat step 1 to step 5 using different weight ratios of RCA
as rice husk ash, fly ash, or granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and NCA.
[24–26]. In addition, alkaline activated materials may be valid re­ Step 7: Calculate the total weight and the unit weight of the blended
placements for OPC in concrete production [27–29]. aggregate for each RCA replacement level.
A brief review of the literature illustrates that the consumption of
aggregates and cement is raising in the construction sector worldwide. Table 1
Therefore, it is necessary to use RA in concrete production and to reduce Physical and chemical analyses of raw materials.
the amount of cement used in concrete mixtures. Nearly all the studies
Items GGBFS FA OPC
that have investigated the effects of RA on concrete specimens have
demonstrated negative effects on engineering properties [30–32]. Physical properties Specific gravity 2.85 2.17 3.15
Mean particle size (μm) 8.83 14.61 16.82
However, limited research has suggested an approach to blending RA
Fineness (cm2/g) 6000 3110 3310
and natural aggregate to find the optimum proportion of RA content. Chemical compositions (%) SiO2(S) 27.00 64.09 20.20
Moreover, the concrete mixtures in previous studies were designed using Al2O3(A) 10.60 22.58 4.13
high amounts of cement content (≥350 kg/m3) [13,30,33]. Therefore, Fe2O3(F) 0.60 4.55 2.98
this study aims to suggest a method to blend RCA and NCA to find the S+A+F 38.20 91.22 27.31
CaO 58.70 1.00 61.64
proportion of RCA that has the least harmful impact on the properties of MgO 0.00 0.66 4.92
concrete specimens. In addition, the concrete mixtures were designed SO3 0.90 0.23 2.55
using the Densified Mixture Design Algorithm method (DMDA) with low K2O 1.40 1.46 0.44
cement content (≤350 kg/m3) to produce recycled aggregate concrete. Na2O – 0.43 0.39
TiO2 1.00 0.59
Moreover, all of the mechanical properties and the durability were –

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D.-H. Vo et al. Journal of Building Engineering 35 (2021) 102067

Fig. 1. Aggregates from construction demolished waste.

Step 8: Calculate the volume of the blended aggregate for each RCA
Table 2
replacement level.
Physical properties of the aggregates.
Step 9: Draw a curve showing the volumes of blended aggregate and
Items NFA RFA NCA RCA of RCA content.
Water absorption (%) 1.40 10.00 1.00 7.34 Step 10: Based on this curve, find the maximum volume of blended
OD-Specific gravity (kg/m3) 2600 2320 2700 2410 aggregate and RCA content that corresponds to this replacement
Fineness modulus (FM) 2.90 2.72 6.42 6.71
level is the optimum proportion of RCA content.
Note: NFA: Natural fine aggregate; RFA: Recycled fine aggregate; NCA: Natural
coarse aggregate; RCA: Recycled coarse aggregate. The results for the blended aggregate are shown in Fig. 3. The vol­
ume of aggregate per cubic meter increased slightly from 0.607 m3 to
0.612 m3 when the proportion of RCA content increased from 20% to
Table 3 40% by volume. As shown in Fig. 3, increasing RCA content significantly
Particle-size distribution of the aggregates.
and negatively influenced aggregate volume, with aggregate volume
Passing percentage (%) decreasing over 0.01 m3 as the volume of RCA rose from 40% to 50%
Size NCA RCA ASTM C33 NFA RFA ASTM C33 and decreasing to 0.545 m3 at the 100% RCA replacement level. Based
25 100 100 100
on this result, the proportion of 40% RCA content was selected as the
19 100 92.6 90–100 optimum level for blended aggregate.
9.5 51.6 31.4 20–55
4.75 6.3 4.4 0–10 100 100 95–100
2.3. Mixture proportions according to DMDA
2.36 0.1 0.8 0–5 76.8 100 80–100
1.18 54.4 84.7 50–85
0.6 40.1 62.2 25–60 The concrete mixtures were designed using the DMDA method [6,
0.3 21.3 43.8 5–30 25], shown in Table 4. The detail procedure as mentioned in Appendix,
0.15 7.9 23.7 0–10 DMDA method uses FA as a filler material. FA fills the voids between fine
Note: NFA: Natural fine aggregate; RFA: Recycled fine aggregate; NCA: Natural aggregate particles, and the combination of FA and fine aggregates fills
coarse aggregate; RCA: Recycled coarse aggregate. the gaps between coarse aggregate particles. This method increases the
density of the aggregate matrix in concrete mixtures and minimizes the
void ratio. In addition to acting as a filler, FA acts as a pozzolanic

Fig. 2. The blended aggregate according to quartering method.

Fig. 3. Volume of blended aggregate.

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D.-H. Vo et al. Journal of Building Engineering 35 (2021) 102067

Table 4
Mixture proportions of recycled aggregate concrete.
Items Ingredient proportion (kg/m3)

w/b Fly ash cement slag RFA NFA RCA NCA WW WSP

3RC30RF30 0.3 91 320 107 260 679 197 515 144 11.3
4RC30RF30 0.4 93 242 81 268 700 203 532 162 4.2
5RC30RF30 0.5 97 177 59 279 728 211 553 161 5.9
3RC40RF30 0.3 89 357 119 256 669 239 402 160 11.6
4RC40RF30 0.4 96 243 81 276 721 258 433 159 8.5
5RC40RF30 0.5 98 195 65 280 731 261 439 168 10.5
3RC50RF30 0.3 90 362 121 258 675 288 323 160 11.5
4RC50RF30 0.4 98 244 81 280 731 312 350 163 5.9
5RC50RF30 0.5 98 201 67 282 737 315 352 165 17.4
3C 0.3 74 293 98 0 920 0 881 132 7
4C 0.4 74 245 82 0 920 0 881 158 2.4
5C 0.5 76 188 63 0 949 0 909 160 3.3

Note: Ww: weight of water; Wsp: Weight of superplasticizer.

xRCyRFz: x-water to binder ratio; y- RCA content; z- RFA content.

material based on its chemical composition. A combination of RFA and 3. Results and discussion
NFA with a volume ratio of 3/7 was used as the fine aggregate for the
concrete mixtures in this study, and NCA was replaced by RCA at three 3.1. Compressive strength
levels of 30%, 40%, and 50% by volume. Water-to-binder (W/B) ratios
of 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 were observed in this study. Moreover, 25% of the The compressive strength development in the RAC specimens is
cement was replaced with slag by volume to minimize cement illustrated in Table 5. The compressive strength test was regularly per­
consumption. formed until 120 days of curing, with a positive association shown be­
tween compressive strength and curing time, which is similar to the
2.4. Test program control mixture that was made with no RA [13,35]. With increased
curing time, the hydration reaction may contribute to the hydration
Concrete cylinder specimens of 100 × 200 mm were prepared to product and improve compressive strength in the RAC specimens.
analyze the hardened properties and durability of the RAC specimens. Notably in this study, the concrete mixtures were designed by DMDA
All of the tests were conducted through 120 days of curing in confor­ method with low cement content and high by-products levels. The high
mance with relevant standards. In accordance with ASTM C39 and additive contents of FA and GGBFS contributed to the long-term hy­
ASTM C496, respectively, three cylinder samples were used to conduct dration reaction and to the higher compressive strength values in later
compressive strength and splitting tensile strength tests for each RAC age days. Moreover, increases in the W/B ratio were associated with
group. UPV analysis was conducted in accordance with ASTM C597. reductions in compressive strength in all the mixtures. For example, as
Durability was assessed using several tests, including water absorption, the W/B ratio increased from 0.3 to 0.4 and to 05, compressive strength
electrical surface resistivity (ESR), and the rapid chloride penetration at 28-day significantly reduced from 51.5 MPa to 37.1 MPa and to 29.5
test (RCPT). Water absorption was measured by comparing the weight- MPa, respectively, in the 30% RCA group mixture.
difference percentage between the oven-dry condition and wet- As shown in Table 5, using RA negatively affected compressive
saturated condition of each sample. A four-point Wenner array device strength, with strength development in the concrete mixtures up to 120
[34] was used to determine the ESR of the RAC specimens, and the RCPT days curing age decreasing as RA content increased. The old mortar in
was conducted, follow the ASTM C1202. Finally, the thermal conduc­ the original aggregates exhibited the worst mechanical properties,
tivity of the samples was measured using Isomet 2014 equipment, which especially in terms of high porosity and water absorption, both of which
directly measures thermal conductivity within 10 min using a surface affect concrete-mixture strength. In addition, the poor connection be­
probe fitted with a temperature sensor. tween aggregate and old mortar led to the creation of a weak interaction
zone, which led to low concrete-sample strength [13]. Furthermore, the
inherent micro cracks in the transition zone caused by the crushing
process RA may be another reason for the poor strength of
recycled-aggregate concrete [13,35].
Compressive strength significantly decreased as the proportion of
RCA increased. At 28 days of curing, the compressive strength of RAC
Table 5 specimens with various levels of RCA content and W/B ratios ranged
Strength development of recycled aggregate concrete. from 24.6 MPa to 51.5 MPa. In terms of the blended coarse aggregates,
Items Compressive strength (MPa) 40% RCA content was found to be optimal. As shown in Fig. 4, strength
3-day 7-day 28-day 56-day 91-day 120-day loss in the RAC specimens at 28 days of curing was progressively lower
in specimens with progressively higher W/B ratios. In addition, higher
3RC30RF30 31.9 39.6 51.5 52.1 56.5 60.0
4RC30RF30 31.0 32.6 37.1 39.8 40.4 43.1 RCA content was associated with larger reductions in strength of con­
5RC30RF30 19.2 21.3 29.5 31.0 34.2 36.2 crete mixtures. In comparison with reference mixture at 28-day
3RC40RF30 27.9 39.2 50.5 52.0 54.0 55.7 compressive strength, the counterpart with 30% RCA content suffered
4RC40RF30 26.8 29.7 35.1 35.3 37.4 38.4 a strength reduction of 0.7–10.6% at various w/b ratios, when in the
5RC40RF30 17.1 21.0 28.8 30.8 33.8 35.8
counterpart with 40% RCA content, the strength loss was recorded from
3RC50RF30 25.1 34.6 46.9 48.7 52.3 54.1
4RC50RF30 23.1 25.3 30.7 32.4 35.3 37.9 3.0 to 15.2%. However, this reduction was fairly significant as it reached
5RC50RF30 15.3 18.4 24.6 29.5 33.5 35.2 from 17.2 to 25.8% in the mixture containing 50% RCA content.
3C 33.6 41.5 57.6 57.9 61.7 63.3 Therefore, based on the DMDA method, 40% RCA content results in the
4C 31.9 32.8 41.4 46.2 49.7 51.8
highest volume of blended aggregate and lowest voids between the
5C 19.9 25.3 29.7 31.2 34.9 37.6

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D.-H. Vo et al. Journal of Building Engineering 35 (2021) 102067

Table 7
Splitting tensile strength of recycled aggregate concrete.
Items Splitting tensile strength (MPa)

7-day 28-day 56-day 91-day 120-day

3RC30RF30 3.64 4.7 4.75 4.98 5.28

4RC30RF30 2.7 3.54 3.63 3.85 4.09
5RC30RF30 2 3.27 3.41 3.64 3.81
3RC40RF30 3.43 4.57 4.64 4.89 5.26
4RC40RF30 2.65 3.42 3.47 3.71 3.93
5RC40RF30 1.84 3.23 3.36 3.44 3.66
3RC50RF30 3.31 4.16 4.27 4.49 4.69
4RC50RF30 2.47 3.33 3.45 3.64 3.89
5RC50RF30 1.8 2.75 2.85 3.37 3.58
3C 3.68 5.06 5.1 5.42 5.58
4C 3.13 3.61 3.64 4 4.21
5C 2.46 3.44 3.6 3.75 4.06

3.3. Splitting tensile strength

The splitting tensile strength of RAC was found to decrease with

Fig. 4. Compressive strength loss in RAC specimens at 28 days of curing.
increasing levels of aggregate replacement, as shown in Table 7. This
trend saw the most significant improvement in splitting tensile strength
aggregates in the concrete mixture, which promotes structural density between 7 and 28 days of curing, after which improvements continued
and reduces strength reductions in concrete samples. By contrast, 50% at a reduced rate up to 120 days of curing. Moreover, all of the RAC
RCA content results in a significant drop in compressive strength due to specimens showed lower splitting tensile strength than the control group
the negative properties of RA and the greater porosity in the blended specimens. Strength loss increased as RCA content increased. Splitting
aggregate, which results in a less-compact structure and greater loss in tensile strength reduced by around 1.9%–7.1% in the RAC specimens
strength. with 30% RCA content and by around 7.7%–20% in the RAC specimens
with 50% RCA content. In addition, lower splitting tensile strength in
3.2. Cement strength efficiency RAC specimens was associated with higher W/B ratios. Reduced split­
ting tensile strength may be explained by the presence of old mortar
The cement strength efficiency of RAC focuses on the strength adhering to RA, which is known to increase the porous structure and
development per kilogram cement. As shown in Table 6, strength effi­ water absorption of materials and to reduce material strength. In this
ciency increased with curing time, which was supported by the hydra­ study, the presence of fine FA particle as a filler material occupied
tion process involving the cement, GGBFS, and FA. The addition of RA structural pores and enhanced the tensile strength of the RAC specimens.
reduced the strength efficiency of the RAC specimens in comparison To improve the splitting tensile strength of concrete that contains RA,
with the reference mixtures. On the other hand, the strength efficiency Mukharjee and Barai [36] suggested using nano-silica as the filler ma­
of the RAC specimens increased with higher W/B ratios, while strength terial, which they found improved the bond between hydration products
efficiency declined at higher W/B ratios in the control group. At 120 and RA [13]. As shown in Fig. 5, the splitting tensile strength and
curing days, the strength efficiency of the RAC specimens attained compressive strength results were found to share a close relationship,
70–90% of the strength efficiency of the control mixture, while mixture with higher compressive strength corresponding to greater splitting
5RC30RF30 attained a strength efficiency result that was even higher tensile strength.
than the reference sample. This result demonstrates that using RA in the
production of RAC in accordance with the DMDA method offers benefits
in terms of material strength as well as in terms of reducing cement
consumption, energy consumption, and generating fewer CO2
emissions.

Table 6
Cement strength efficiency of recycled aggregate concrete.
Items Cement strength efficiency (MPa/kg/m3)

3-day 7-day 28-day 56-day 91-day 120-day

3RC30RF30 0.1 0.124 0.161 0.163 0.177 0.188

4RC30RF30 0.128 0.135 0.153 0.164 0.167 0.178
5RC30RF30 0.109 0.12 0.166 0.175 0.193 0.205
3RC40RF30 0.078 0.11 0.141 0.146 0.151 0.156
4RC40RF30 0.11 0.122 0.145 0.146 0.154 0.158
5RC40RF30 0.088 0.108 0.148 0.158 0.173 0.183
3RC50RF30 0.069 0.095 0.129 0.134 0.144 0.149
4RC50RF30 0.095 0.104 0.126 0.133 0.145 0.155
5RC50RF30 0.076 0.092 0.122 0.147 0.167 0.175
3C 0.115 0.141 0.196 0.197 0.21 0.216
4C 0.13 0.134 0.169 0.188 0.203 0.211
Fig. 5. The relationship between compressive strength and splitting tensile
5C 0.106 0.135 0.158 0.166 0.186 0.2
strength in RAC specimens.

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D.-H. Vo et al. Journal of Building Engineering 35 (2021) 102067

Table 8 compressive strength test, with the highest blended aggregate volume
Ultrasonic pulse velocity of recycled aggregate concrete. (40% RCA content) minimizing the volume of the voids matrix and
Items Ultrasonic pulse velocity (m/s) improving UPV values. In addition, previous research has indicated the
suitability of using the UPV test to assess the strength and durability of
7-day 28-day 56-day 91-day 120-day
concrete materials [35,40]. As shown in Fig. 6, a higher compressive
3RC30RF30 4245 4410 4464 4495 4526 strength responds to a higher UPV result with close relationship between
4RC30RF30 3941 4201 4354 4399 4406
5RC30RF30 3842 3966 3976 4063 4116
these variables of high coefficient of determination (R2) about 0.892 and
3RC40RF30 4242 4403 4430 4445 4499 0.928 with RAC group and the control group, respectively.
4RC40RF30 3843 4196 4213 4233 4288
5RC40RF30 3768 3959 3964 4005 4063
3RC50RF30 4142 4350 4412 4422 4471 3.5. Electrical surface resistivity (ESR)
4RC50RF30 3774 4066 4082 4092 4130
5RC50RF30 3738 3939 3958 3992 3998 ESR is a value that is used to indicate the expected durability of a
3C 4763 4878 4884 4912 4926 concrete mixture. Generally, packing microstructures have higher ESR
4C 4546 4657 4687 4690 4723
5C 4391 4442 4482 4501 4538
values because of lower diffusion of chemical matter [6]. For
high-performance concrete, Buenfeld and Newman [41] recommended
an ESR value of 20 kΩ-cm is considered for the good durability
3.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) requirement. As shown in Table 9, the ESR significantly increased with
curing age from 7 days up to 120 days. This table points that all the RAC
Table 8 has demonstrated the results of UPV tests on the RAC spec­ mixtures had ESR values below 20 kΩ-cm at 7 days and that these results
imens conducted between 7 and 120 days of curing. The UPV values rose sharply after 28 days of curing. At 120 days of curing, the ESR
increased with curing time and, at 120 days, reached 3998–4526 m/s values of the RAC specimens ranged from 47.3 to 97.3 kΩ-cm with
with different W/B ratios and RCA content levels. In general, concrete various W/B ratios and levels of RCA content, which indicates good
with high pulse velocity result is indicative of good strength and quality. durability. Generally, the ESR values are low at 7 age days, reflecting the
According to Malhotra suggestion [37], concrete is considered to be low level of pozzolanic reaction expected at early curing ages. However,
highly durable with UPV results, in the range of 3660–4575 m/s. In this in later age days, the use of high amounts of GGBFS and FA contributed
study, although all of the RAC specimens exhibited lower UPV values to the pozzolanic reaction, which reduced the volume of capillary pores
than their reference mixture peers, however, all of the RAC mixtures that and improved the impermeability of the concrete samples [24]. More­
were designed using the DMDA method reached a good standard of over, the concrete samples exhibited higher ESR values at lower W/B
durability, with UPV values higher than 3660 m/s, even at only 7 days of ratios. This finding concurs with earlier study [6]. In addition, the RAC
curing. The group mixture with a W/B of 0.3 obtained the highest UPV specimens showed a lower ESR result than specimens in the control
values, with decreasing UPV values in other, higher W/B ratio groups group for each W/B group, with higher levels of RCA associated with
[24]. The incorporation of RA affected negatively on UPV values of the significantly lower ESR values. For example, with the same W/B of 0.3,
RAC specimens. At 28 days of curing, reductions of 9.5%–12.7% in UPV the control group had a 120-day ESR of 100.8 kΩ-cm, while the 30%,
values were achieved in specimens of various levels of RCA content and 40% and 50% RCA specimens had 120-day ESR values of 97.3 kΩ-cm,
W/B ratios. The low density of RA particles contributed to lower 95.4 kΩ-cm, and 94.5 kΩ-cm, respectively. This result reflects a trend
compressive strength and UPV results. Moreover, the poor interface similar to that of the concrete specimens designed using the DMDA with
transition zone with old mortar returned the worse results for the RAC normal aggregates [6]. The incorporation of RA results in higher water
specimens [38,39]. Using the DMDA blended method illustrated the absorption and higher voids in the concrete sample because of the old
optimum proportion of RCA as 40% of NCA by volume. A reduction in adhered mortar and the porous paste [38,42,43], which improve the
UPV value, between 0.12% and 0.18%, was found as the RCA level diffusion of ions of hydration solution in the pores, leading to reduce
increased from 30% to 40%. However, this range shifted sharply ESR values.
downward to 0.5%–3% when the RCA was increased from 40% to 50%.
The explanation for this phenomenon has already been addressed in the
3.6. Water absorption

The level of water absorption in the RAC specimens significantly

reduced with curing time, as shown in Table 10. The contribution of the
hydration reaction resulted in a denser concrete structure at later curing
ages, which reduced water absorption results [44]. Water absorption in
the RAC specimens ranged from 2.1% to 6.06% at 91 days of curing with

Table 9
Electrical surface resistivity of recycled aggregate concrete.
Items Electrical surface resistivity (KΩ-cm)

7-day 28-day 56-day 91-day 120-day

3RC30RF30 16.1 36.4 56.7 77 97.3

4RC30RF30 11.8 27 42.2 72.6 90.7
5RC30RF30 10.3 20.6 30.9 41.2 51.5
3RC40RF30 14.2 34.5 54.8 75.1 95.4
4RC40RF30 11.5 26.7 41.9 64.3 85.3
5RC40RF30 9 19.3 29.6 39.9 50.2
3RC50RF30 13.3 33.6 53.9 74.2 94.5
4RC50RF30 10.9 26.1 41.3 62.4 80.2
5RC50RF30 6.1 16.4 26.7 37 47.3
3C 16.4 37.5 58.6 79.7 100.8
4C 12.3 27.4 41.5 76.3 94.3
5C 10.4 21 29.5 42.3 48.6
Fig. 6. The relationship between UPV values and compressive strength results.

6
D.-H. Vo et al. Journal of Building Engineering 35 (2021) 102067

Table 10
Water absorption of recycled aggregate concrete.
Items Water absorption (%)

28-day 56-day 91-day 120-day

3RC30RF30 2.41 2.31 2.27 2.1

4RC30RF30 4.27 4.19 3.77 3.53
5RC30RF30 5.4 5.21 5.09 5.07
3RC40RF30 3.56 2.73 2.67 2.58
4RC40RF30 4.48 4.39 4.26 4.01
5RC40RF30 5.89 5.49 5.3 5.16
3RC50RF30 4.04 3.32 3.14 3.08
4RC50RF30 4.63 4.44 4.34 4.25
5RC50RF30 6.5 6.32 6.09 6.06
3C 2 1.98 1.85 1.83
4C 4.18 3.85 3.45 3.42
5C 4.86 4.57 4.39 4.15

various levels of RCA content and W/B ratios, which is slightly higher
than in the control group. Water absorption was 1–1.5% higher in 50%
RCA content group mixtures than in 30% RCA content group mixtures.
Fig. 7. The relationship between UPV and thermal conductivity results in
Increasing the percentage replacement of natural aggregates earned the
RAC specimens.
worse water absorption performance. As can be seen in Table 2, the
7.34% water absorption levels of RCA were sharply higher than the 1%
increased the void structure, while the old adhered mortar reduced the
of natural aggregate. Moreover, the presence of parent mortar adhered
volume of the aggregate content. The result reduced TC because
on RCA increased the void structure and micro cracks in the RAC
aggregate exhibits the highest TC of all concrete mixture constituents
specimens, leading to higher water absorption results [11]. Besides,
[45]. In addition, a linear regression was used to describe the relation­
higher W/B ratios also resulted in higher water absorption. Higher water
ship between UPV value and TC in the RAC specimens, with higher UPV
content reduced the solid phase in the concrete specimens, which re­
values presenting higher TC results at a correlation that approximates
flected the lower-density structure of concrete samples. The results of
the R2 coefficient of 0.88, as shown in Fig. 7.
Thomas et al. [13] concur with this finding.

3.7. Thermal conductivity (TC) 3.8. Chloride penetration resistance test (RCPT)

The influence of various levels of RCA content and W/B ratios on the The average result of the chloride penetration test for each mixture is
thermal conductivity of the RAC specimens are illustrated in Table 11. shown in Table 12. The chloride diffusion decreased significantly with
Thermal conductivity tests were conducted from 7 to 120 days of curing, curing time. The RAC specimens exhibited moderate chloride migration
with results showing an increase over curing time. TC increased signif­ at 28 days and reached the low range at 91 days of curing. Of particular
icantly between day 7 and day 28 and then increased only minimally note, the mixture 3RC30RF30 registered very low chloride ion pene­
afterward. As pozzolanic reactions between GGBFS and FA are not ex­ trability, as tested in accordance with ASTM C1202. The increase in
pected at early curing ages, the specimens were found to have a rela­ long-term hydration reactions contributed to greater hydration products
tively porous structure and lower TC at 7 days of curing. After 120 days, formation, which created an impermeable region that stopped further
the RAC specimens recorded TC values between 1.16 and 1.88 W/mK, chloride ion penetration [46].
which is lower than control group, which recorded TC values between As shown in this table, all of the RAC specimens exhibited the higher
2.05 and 2.5 W/mK, with a W/B ratio between 0.5 and 0.3. Besides, the chloride penetration value than the reference mixture for each W/B
increase in the W/B ratio resulted to the lower TC value of the specimens ratio. Multiple factors affected chloride penetration, including void
because the thermal conductive value of cement particles is higher than structure, internal micro cracks, the interface bonding between aggre­
water [45]. Moreover, higher water content reduced the solid phase in gate and cement paste, and the properties of the aggregate [47]. The
the concrete specimens, which strongly affected to the TC of concrete chloride migration result increased remarkably as RCA content
specimens. On the other hand, increasing the RCA content reduced the increased from 30% to 50%. The higher RCA proportion increased the
TC of the RAC specimens remarkably. The contribution of the RCA porosity of the specimens, especially in terms of increasing the

Table 11 Table 12
Thermal conductivity of recycled aggregate concrete. RCPT results of recycled aggregate concrete.
Items Thermal conductivity (W/m.k) Items RCPT results (coulombs)

7-day 28-day 56-day 91-day 120-day 28-day 91-day

3RC30RF30 1.59 1.77 1.8 1.85 1.88 3RC30RF30 1709 869

4RC30RF30 1.34 1.42 1.45 1.49 1.5 4RC30RF30 2552 1288
5RC30RF30 1.13 1.27 1.28 1.32 1.33 5RC30RF30 3536 1576
3RC40RF30 1.41 1.5 1.64 1.68 1.7 3RC40RF30 2299 1043
4RC40RF30 1.26 1.35 1.36 1.38 1.39 4RC40RF30 2772 1313
5RC40RF30 1.07 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.27 5RC40RF30 4032 1652
3RC50RF30 1.34 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.5 3RC50RF30 2380 1175
4RC50RF30 1.21 1.28 1.29 1.31 1.32 4RC50RF30 3334 1518
5RC50RF30 1.04 1.1 1.13 1.15 1.16 5RC50RF30 4540 1721
3C 2.29 2.4 2.45 2.47 2.5 3C 1311 790
4C 1.69 1.96 2 2.05 2.1 4C 2543 1262
5C 1.8 1.91 1.95 2.03 2.05 5C 3502 1564

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D.-H. Vo et al. Journal of Building Engineering 35 (2021) 102067

occurrence of micro cracks on the transition zone between RA and the

cement paste, which plays a significant role in the transport mechanisms
of concrete [48] and leads to greater chloride migration. In addition, the
higher W/B ratio negatively affected the chloride penetration resistance
of the RAC specimens. As shown in Table 12, the group mixture of 30%
RCA content showed chloride ion penetration at 869, 1288, and 1576
coulombs for W/B ratios of 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5, respectively. Higher W/B
ratios increase water absorption (Table 10) as well as porosity, both of
which may decrease resistance to chloride ion migration significantly.
This finding concurs with the findings of other research [13,49]. Finally,
the relationship between RCPT value with ESR and water absorption
results of RAC was described in Fig. 8 with close relationship between
these variables. The result showed the lower chloride penetration value
corresponded to the lower water absorption and higher ESR results.

4. Conclusions

The following conclusions may be drawn from the results of the

present investigation: Fig. 8. The relationship between RCPT with ESR and water absorption results
in RAC specimens.
(1) All of the RAC mixtures exhibited inferior mechanical properties
and durability to their corresponding control mixtures. construction demolished waste.
(2) The strength of the specimens reduced with increased replace­
ment of NCA with RCA. The optimum proportion of RCA content CRediT authorship contribution statement
was found to be 40% by volume according to the DMDA method,
which exhibited slightly lower strength than the 30% RCA spec­ Duy-Hai Vo: Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing,
imens. The 50% RCA specimens exhibited significantly inferior Conceptualization, Investigation. Mitiku Damtie Yehualaw: Investi­
properties. gation, Writing - original draft. Chao-Lung Hwang: Supervision, Project
(3) The RAC specimens performed well in terms of UPV value and administration, Funding acquisition. Min-Chih Liao: Supervision,
obtained results greater than 3660 m/s at 120 days of curing. Project administration. Khanh-Dung Tran Thi: Investigation. Yu-Fan
(4) Level of RCA replacement is directly proportional to the water Chao: Investigation.
absorption results, while thermal conductivity declines with ris­
ing levels of RCA content. Declaration of competing interest
(5) The RAC specimens exhibited good durability, with electrical
surface resistivity greater than 20 KΩ-cm after 56 days of curing The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
and chloride penetration below 2000 coulombs at 91 days of interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
curing. the work reported in this paper.

The results of this study demonstrate the feasibility of producing the Acknowledgements
high quality concrete using CDW as aggregate material. The application
of the DMDA method to blend aggregate and design the mixture not only This research was conducted at the Construction Material Research
improved the strength and durability of the RAC specimens but also Laboratory (CMRL) of the National Taiwan University of Science and
provided the optimal proportion of RCA for concrete hardening. Technology (NTUST), Taiwan with valuable support from the Taiwan
Increasing the use of CDW in concrete production promotes the sus­ Building Technology Center, Ministry of Science and Technology
tainable development of the construction industry. The findings of this (MOST) in Taiwan, Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan and
study contribute to the scientific knowledge on concrete made with Hwang’s Research Group.

Appendix. Mixture proportioning algorithm of DMDA method

1) Obtain the highest density by packing and calculate the least void content

The maxima aggregate structure density is determined by the hand-dry rodding method, in accordance with ASTM C29. First, the optimal fly-ash-
to-sand weight ratio is determined using Eq. (1):
WFA
αmax = (1)
WFA + WCs
Then, the coarse aggregate amount is determined using Eq. (2), in which, the amount of fly ash and sand is an optimal fly ash and sand mixture
determined by Eq. (1). Next, the amounts of aggregates and fly ash are calculated, based on the results of Eqs. (1) and (2). The volume of aggregates are
determined using Eq. (3).
WFA + WCs
βmax = (2)
WFA + WCs + WCa

Vagg = VCa + VCs + VFA (3)

And then, the voids volume between the aggregate is calculated using Eq. (4).

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D.-H. Vo et al. Journal of Building Engineering 35 (2021) 102067

Vvoids = 1 − Vagg (4)

2) Determine the amount of lubricating paste

The concrete mixture is necessarily considered to the paste volume, which obtain the desired level of workability in fresh concrete. The surface of
the aggregate particles requires a lubricated layer of paste, which is determined using VL = S*t. However, the determination of S* t is difficult, thus,
various n . Vv coefficients should be used to obtain the desired level of workability. The volume of paste is calculated using Eq. (5):
Vp = Vv + S*t = n . Vv (5)

3) Calculate the amount of aggregates

Vagg = 1 − Vp (6)
( α )
WFA = Wcs × , (7)
1− α
( )
1− β
Wca = Wcs × , (8)
β − αβ
Substituting formulas (7) and (8) into (6) yields
Vagg
Wcs = ( ) ( ) (9)
α 1 1− β
1− α γFA
+ γ1cs + β− αβ
1
γca

4) Calculate the amount of cement, slag and mixing water

Ww Wce Wsl
Vp = + + (10)
γw γ ce γsl
Using the slag as partially replacing cement with a ratio is ξ, formula (10) gives
( )
Ww
( )
Wce
Ww ξ
Wsl
Wce 1− ξ
Vp = + + (11)
γw γce γ sl
Assign the w/cm ratio is λ, then
Ww
λ= (12)
Wb

Wb = Wce + Wsl + WFA (13)

Ww = λ(Wce + Wsl + WFA ) (14)

ξ
Wsl = × Wce (15)
1− ξ
Substituting formulas (14) and (15) into (11) yields
Vp − λ WγFA
Wce = [ (w )] (16)
λ
γw
+ γ1 + 1−ξ ξ γλ + γ1
ce w sl

Finally, the amount of SP is determined in the trial batch. The detailed mixture of concrete is described in Table 4.
WCs, and WCa are, respectively, the weights of fine and coarse aggregate. The aggregates are in oven-dry condition. Ww , Wce , WFA and Wsl represent
the weight of water, cement, fly ash and slag, respectively; γ w , γ ce , γ FA and γsl represent the specific gravity of water, cement, fly ash and slag,
respectively. SP = super plasticizers. The weights of all materials are calculated in kilograms per cubic meter.

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