UNIT I 

 
MATHEMATICS IN NATURE 

CHAPTER I: PATTERNS AND

NUMBERS IN NATURE 
Types of Patterns in Nature 

Abstraction  1. Symmetry. The Cambridge Dictionary defines

symmetry as “the quality of having parts
that match each other, especially in a way
The ability and habit of finding and that is attractive, or similarity of shape or
recognizing patterns and symmetries is contents”. In Mathematics, an object is said
innate to human consciousness. Our to be symmetric when it remains unchanged
ancestors observed and learned from their after transformations such as rotations and
surroundings for survival.  By observing scaling are applied into it. 
the recurrences of phenomena and the
events before and after such experiences. 
They also noted the unique visual
characteristics that help them distinguish
poisonous plants from edible ones. Hence,
we can say that pattern recognition is a way
to survive. 
Pattern recognition alone is not enough to 2. Fractals. Fractals are never-ending
ensure survival. For us to be able to use this patterns that are self-similar across
ability, we must first have an environment different scales. It implies that zooming
that exists with patterns and symmetries. on the digital image of the object do not
Fortunately, our universe is filled with so give new details, but only appears the
many patterns and symmetries that we tend same as that of the original image. The
to see them as ordinary. image reappears over and over again no
matter how many times the object is
Have you ever wondered how magnified. 
magnificent it is that the left and right
wing of a butterfly looked like they
mirrored each other? Have you ever
wondered why almost all trees look the
same? Have you ever wondered why the
features on your left side is the same as
those on your right side? 
3. Spirals. These are curve patterns made by a 2.
series of circular shapes revolving around R
a central point. Spiral patterns are very
common in nature – from biological
molecules that make up organisms to the
body plans of certain plants and animals to
typhoons and galaxies.

4. Chaos. These are simple patterns created

from complicated underlying behavior.
This pattern is used to describe a kind of
order that lacks predictability, constant otational Symmetry. Also called radial
feedback, repetition, and self-similarity  symmetry in Biology, this kind of
symmetry is exhibited by objects when
their similar parts are regularly
arranged around a central axis and the
patter looks the same after a certain
amount of rotation.

Symmetries of Our Surroundings 

In our everyday language, we refer to
symmetry as a sense of harmonious and
beautiful balance and proportion. Nature
is filled with patterns, especially different
kinds of symmetries.

1. Reflective Symmetry. Also called mirror

symmetry or line symmetry is made with
a line going through an object which
divides it into two pieces which are
mirror images of each other.  
3. Translational Symmetry. This kind of Example 1. Analyze the given
symmetry is exhibited by objects which do sequence for its rule and identify the
not change its size and shape even if it next three terms. 
moved to another location. Note that the
movement does not involve reflection or 2, 5, 9, 14, 20 
rotation. (Deal with the World of Today Solution 
Through Mathematics, pp.  3-4)
The difference between the first
term and the second term is 3. The
difference between the second and third
terms is 4. The difference between the
third and fourth terms is 5. The difference
between the fourth and the sixth terms is
6. Following this rule, we can deduce that
the next three terms can be obtained by
adding 7, 8, 9 respectively, to the current
term. Hence, the next three terms are 20 +
7 = 27, 27 + 8 = 35, 35 + 9 = 44.

The Fibonacci Sequence 

It is named after the Italian
UNIT I  Mathematician Leonardo of Pisa, who is
MATHEMATICS IN NATURE  known for his nickname Fibonacci. He is
said to have discovered this sequence as he
CHAPTER II: The Fibonacci Sequence looked at how a hypothesized group of
and the Golden Ratio  rabbits bred and reproduced. The terms of
the sequence is illustration below; 
0+1=1 0, 1, 1
Abstraction 
1+1=2 0, 1, 1, 2
As we have seen in the previous chapter,
the human mind is hardwired to recognize 1+2=3 0, 1, 1, 2, 3
patterns. In mathematics, we can generate 2+3=5
patterns by performing one or several
mathematical operations repeatedly. 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5
Supposedly we choose the number 3 as the
first number in our pattern, we choose to 3+5=8
add 5 to our first number, resulting in 8,
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
which is our second number. Repeating the
process, we obtain 13, 18, 23, 28, as the 5 + 8 = 13
succeeding numbers that form our pattern.
In mathematics, we call these ordered lists 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13
of numbers as a sequence.
Generating a Sequence 
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …
 The sequence starts with 0 and 1, Earlier it’s been said that the
the succeeding terms in the sequence can Golden Ratio fascinates Mathematicians
be generated by adding the two numbers and even artists. It is because The Golden
preceding numbers.  Ratio together with the Fibonacci
Sequence seem to be a common
The Golden Ratio  occurrence in nature. It’s as if they are the
The Fibonacci Sequence is very rule, a blueprint, to which nature or the
interesting such that if you take the ratio universe follows.  
of the preceding and succeeding terms,
one can obtain a very special number.  

1/0 = Undefined 21/13 =

1.615 
1/1 = 1 34/21 = 1.619 
2/1 = 2 55/34 = 1.617 
3/2 = 1.5 89/55 = 1.618 
The most common example
5/3 = 1.667 144/89 = 1.618  is depicted by the nautilus.  Its
shell growth follows the
8/5 = 1.6 233/144 = 1.618  spiral pattern shown on the figure.
13/8 = 1.625  The shell growth follows a
rotation. Every time it grows, it
The interesting thing about the ratio of creates a cavity or a partition that
the Fibonacci numbers is that the ratios tend is approximately 1.618034 times
to approach the number 1.618 even if we larger than the previous cavity.
continue to repeat the ratio over and over This repeats in successive rotations
again. As a matter of fact, even if we try to and  
get the ratio of the numbers after 233, we complete a spiral pattern. It can be  
will still obtain an answer with several seen that the spiral is a connected  
decimal places but can be rounded off to the curve from a rectangle, which is also a
fixed number approximately equal to collection of the squares of the numbers
1.618034. in the Fibonacci Sequence 
This irrational number, 1.618034, Surprisingly, the human face
is called the Golden Ratio. This number follows the Golden Ratio. For instance,
has been popular to mathematicians and the vertical distance from the lips to the
artists because of its frequent appearance eyes is approximately 1.618034 the
in nature.   distance between the lips and the chin.
The distance between the hairline on the
The Fibonacci Sequence, Golden Ratio, forehead and the eyebrows is 1.618034
and Nature.  times the distance between the nose and
the eyebrows. 
 UNIT II: THE LANGUAGE OF Addition +  Add, added
MATHEMATICS  to, plus, the
sum of,
CHAPTER I: Mathematical Language more than,
and Symbols the total of,
increased
Abstraction  by 
Mathematics is the only language Subtraction - Subtract, subtract
that is understood by any nation. It from, less, minus,
transcends the language barrier and it is not less than,
affected by cultural differences. The word decreased by,
“Nothing” can be translated in different diminished by,
words but it is also translated into difference
mathematical symbol “0” that is recognized between,
by everybody. A formula means the same
regardless of the language accompanying it.  Multiplication Multiply, times, the
×or ( ) product of multiply
Characteristics of Mathematical by, times as much as
Language 
Division ÷ or /  Divide, divided by,
the quotient of, the
The Language of Mathematics is a structure that
ratio of, equal
is used by mathematicians, engineers, and
amounts of, per
scientists to communicate mathematically.  
1. Precise - makes exact and accurate Equation =  Equals, is equal to,
expressions  exactly as, equivalent
2. Concise - say things briefly  to, as similar to, is
3. Powerful - express complex thoughts Writing Expression and Equation 
with a comparative event.
Expressions are numbers and/or
variables that are connected by
operation. An  Equation usually has
Mathematical expression is a name given to words like “equals”, “is equal to” or
any mathematical object of interest. It “is”. 
does not state a complete thought.  
Example 2.1: 
Mathematical sentence expresses a Convert the English sentence into a
complete thought, it asks about the truth mathematical equation. 
of a sentence. It is either True or False
or Sometimes true or sometimes false.
Mathematical Mathematical
Expression  Sentence
Mathematical Operations and Symbols
and their Word Expressions  1. 5  1. 5 is an odd
Operation  Word Expression number

2. 2 + 5  2. 2 + 5 = 7 

3. 5 × 6  3. 5 × 6 = 30

4. (4 + 5) − 2  4. (4 + 5) − 2 = 7
 “Twelve and a number is sixteen”  Write each mathematical sentence in words
Step 1: Identify the variable/s and/or Algebraic   English Sentence
constants  Expression

Constant: Twelve and a number is 1. 6 + a = 40  Six more than a

sixteen  number is forty
Variable: Twelve and a number is 2. 5b = 40  Product of a number
sixteen and five is forty
Step 2: Determine the
connectors/operations.  3. k ÷ 5 = 40  The ratio of a number
and five is forty
Connectors: Twelve and a number is
sixteen  4. 2m - 4 = 40  Twice a number less
four is forty
Step 3: Translate the constants,
variables, and connectors/operations 5. b + 4 = 40  Four added to a
into symbols Twelve and a number is number is forty
sixteen 
12 + x = 16 Other Mathematical Symbols and their
Meaning
Write each phrase or sentence as an Symb Symbol Meaning/
algebraic equation.  ol  Name  definition
Phrase/Sentence  Algebraic ≠ not equal inequality
Form sign 
1. Twice as old as Tom is 2g = 30 ≈ approxim approximation
30  ately
equal
2. Grace’s age divided by (ℎ ÷ 5) −
5 all less than  three is 3=1 >  strict greater than
one inequality 
3. Elizabeth’s age 3k= <  strict less than
multiplied by three 45 inequality 
is  forty-five
≥ inequality  greater than or
4. The ratio of twenty-four 24 ÷ y equal to
and the number  of =6
workers is 6 ≤ inequality  less than or
equal to
5. Amy’s age less two is f−2=
twenty-one  21 ( )  parentheses  calculate
expression  
Example 2.3:  inside first
[ ]  brackets  calculate
expression  
inside first

<<  Much less Much less than

than 

>>  Much Much greater

greater  than
than

{ }  braces  set

!  exclamation  Factorial

∴ therefore  Conclusion

A∩ intersection  Objects that

B  belong to set 
A and set B

A∪ Union  Objects that UNIT II 

B  belong to set  LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS 
A or set B
Chapter III: Four Operations on Sets 

A⊆ subset  Set A is a Set Operations

B  subset of B.
set  A is 1. Union- the union of two set is the
included in B set containing all the elements from
both of those sets. A ᴖ B is read as
A⊄ Not subset  Set A is not “A union B”
B  a subset of 
set B A ᴖ B={ x| x ∈ A∨x ∈ B }
A’  complement  All
objects
that do
not 
belong to
set A

A×B  Cartesian   All ordered

product  pairs of A and 
B
The Venn Diagram

The Venn diagram was named

after John Venn, the mathematician
who devised it. It is a way of picturing
relationships between groups of things
or sets. In some sources, the Venn
diagram is referred to as “Euler
diagrams”. In our discussions, we will
use the Venn diagram as our
terminology.

To draw a Venn diagram, we

first draw a rectangle which is called
our “universe”. In the context of Venn
diagrams, the universe is “everything
we are working with right now”, or
“everything that we are focusing right
now”.

Let’s deal with the following list of

things: moles, swans, rabbits, geese,
worms, horses, cat. This list would be
our universe or the Universal set.

U = {moles, swans, rabbits, geese,

worms, horses, cat, platypus}

To begin drawing the Venn

diagram, start drawing a
rectangle. The rectangle
represents the region that
contains the elements in out
Universal set.
 Notice that the platypus is listed in
Let say we can classify our list of both of the circles. Hence, there is a
animals as being small and fury or region such that the two circles
being a duck - bill. We draw circles overlap each other and that region is
inside our universe to display the two where the platypus is listed. The Venn
classifications. diagram should be drawn like this:

The overlap of the two circles,

containing only the platypus, is
called the “intersection of the two
sets. The region outside the two
circles, containing horse and worms
is the complement of the union of
the two sets. Hence, we can say in
Roster notation;
Now we fill-in the diagram.
Moles, rabbits, cat, and, platypus
(platypus is a small and fury animal)
are all small and fury. Swans,
geese, and platypus are duck-billed.
Worms and horses are both neither
small and fury, and duck-billed but
they are members of our universal Solving Problems Using Venn
Diagram
set. Hence, they are outside the two
circles.
The Venn diagram is a powerful
tool in solving problems that
involves sets since it presents
the relationships between sets
visually.
Example 2.9:

100 students were interviewed. 28

took PE, 31 took Biology, 42 took
English, 9 took
PE and Biology, 10 took PE and
English, 6 took Biology and
English,

4 took all three subjects.

1. How many students took none of

the three subjects?
2. How many students took PE but not
Biology and English?
3. How many students took Biology
and PE but not English?