mathematics

Article
Optimal Sizing of Stand-Alone Microgrids Based on Recent
Metaheuristic Algorithms
Ahmed A. Zaki Diab 1, * , Ali M. El-Rifaie 2, * , Magdy M. Zaky 3 and Mohamed A. Tolba 4,5, *

1 Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, Minia 61111, Egypt
2 College of Engineering and Technology, American University of the Middle East, Egaila 54200, Kuwait
3 Nuclear Research Center, Engineering Department, ETRR-2, Atomic Energy Authority (EAEA),
Cairo 11787, Egypt; [email protected]
4 Nuclear Research Center, Reactors Department, Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority, Cairo 11787, Egypt
5 Electrical Power Systems Department, Moscow Power Engineering Institute, 111250 Moscow, Russia
* Correspondence: [email protected] (A.A.Z.D.); [email protected] (A.M.E.-R.);
[email protected] (M.A.T.)

Abstract: Scientists have been paying more attention to the shortage of water and energy sources all
over the world, especially in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). In this article, a microgrid
configuration of a photovoltaic (PV) plant with fuel cell (FC) and battery storage systems has been
optimally designed. A real case study in Egypt in Dobaa region of supplying safety loads at a
nuclear power plant during emergency cases is considered, where the load characteristics and the
location data have been taken into consideration. Recently, many optimization algorithms have been
developed by researchers, and these algorithms differ from one another in their performance and
effectiveness. On the other hand, there are recent optimization algorithms that were not used to
solve the problem of microgrids design in order to evaluate their performance and effectiveness.





 Optimization algorithms of equilibrium optimizer (EQ), bat optimization (BAT), and black-hole-based
Citation: Diab, A.A.Z.; El-Rifaie, A.M.; optimization (BHB) algorithms have been applied and compared in this paper. The optimization
Zaky, M.M.; Tolba, M.A. Optimal algorithms are individually used to optimize and size the energy systems to minimize the cost. The
Sizing of Stand-Alone Microgrids energy systems have been modeled and evaluated using MATLAB.
Based on Recent Metaheuristic
Algorithms. Mathematics 2022, 10, 140. Keywords: isolated microgrids; cost of energy (COE); loss of power supply probability (LPSP);
https://doi.org/10.3390/ optimization techniques
math10010140

Academic Editor: Zbigniew

Leonowicz
1. Introduction
Received: 9 December 2021
Recently, Egypt has shown interest and determination to be one of the worldwide
Accepted: 27 December 2021
energy producers. In 2030, Egypt plans to increase its renewable energy production to 30%
Published: 4 January 2022
of its demand to support the rising population and growth [1–3]. Egypt’s location provides
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral it with an excellent average irradiance all over the year. In addition, the wind energy atlas
with regard to jurisdictional claims in shows a great ability to depend on wind energy. In the last decade, the total installed
published maps and institutional affil- capacity of new and renewable energy sources of wind and solar power plants has been
iations.
raised from 1157 MW in 2017/2018 to 2247 MW in 2018/2019 with an increase of 94.2%, as
reported in the 2018/2019 annual report of the Egyptian electricity holding company [4,5].
Likewise, the total energy generated from wind and solar sources, which are connected to
the unified national grid, has been increased from 2871 GWh in 2017/2018 to 4543 GWh in
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
2018/2019 with a growth rate of 58.2% [1–6]; on the other hand, solar energy generation
This article is an open access article
has increased by 184% reaching a value of 1525 GWh in 2019 [1–6].
distributed under the terms and Several renewable energy configurations have been designed and evaluated for such
conditions of the Creative Commons cases. Different configurations that are based on solar, wind, and fuel cells have been
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// introduced [7–9]. Solar PV energy is a great source of clean energy in Egypt source; the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ high average irradiance all over the year [4], as well as the low costs of both operation and
4.0/). maintenance, led to a remarkable increase in the investments in PV plants to be the safest

Mathematics 2022, 10, 140. https://doi.org/10.3390/math10010140 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/mathematics

Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 2 of 25

source in distant zones [7–9]. PV plants became the main energy source in most of the
presented system configurations in Egypt as well as other countries [1–9]. Wind energy,
storage batteries, geothermal, wave, tidal energies, and fuel cells are other sources that can
be used with PV forming a hybrid system. The necessity of hybridization of other energy
sources with PV sources is due to the variation in the generated solar energy with many
factors such as meteorological conditions. Another suggested case study of a microgrid
is to feed the nuclear power plants (NPPs) during emergencies, enhancing the electrical
system safety and NPP reliability.
Design of emergency power systems provides electrically independent and physically
separated power distribution divisions. One is designated odd and the other even. The
distribution design provides power to redundant station loads and prevents failures or
damage of one division cascaded to the others. Integration of all power sources in a
microgrid arrangement enhances the safety of operation, normal shutdown, and unplanned
shutdown, as well as overall plant safety. In addition, it mitigates the negative impact of
emergency power absence on the environment. Solar and/or wind energy may supply the
services and emergency load, while fuel cells can be used as storage devices.
Backup diesel generators have been used for compensating the lack of solar energy
in the shortage periods [10]. However, the dependency on fossil fuels is still the main
problem besides environmental conditions [3]. On the other side, batteries storage units are
the first decision as a traditional storage component. The battery storage units assist the
system to be both stable and reliable. More attention has been paid to reducing the cost of
battery units and raising its efficiency and lifetime. Researchers have proposed the usage of
battery units to improve the power quality of power systems that are being interconnected
with renewable energy sources [7–10]. Fuel cells have been utilized as a reliable storage
device with acceptable efficiency [11]. Fuel cells have distinguished advantages compared
to the battery units, which include lower cost and less negative effect on the environment.
Water-based FC with a combined electrolyzer unit is the standard type that is used with
renewable energy sources. From the reported papers [7–12], it could be noted that the
battery storage units increase the cost of the COE of all configured systems. Moreover,
the grid-connected hybrid systems, in most cases, have the best COE. The reasons may
be summarized in the lower cost of kWh obtained from the grid compared to the initial
costs obtained from renewable energy sources. However, in recent years, acceptable rate
reduction in the initial costs of renewable energy sources increased the chances of using
such sources.
Several research studies have been carried to develop a reliable procedure to optimize
the configuration of hybrid energy systems. Few reported attempts considered real case
studies, while others focused on the techniques and methodologies [12–21]. Great efforts
have been made to better manage the uncertainties of renewable energy systems (RES), cost
of energy (COE), and load demands (LD) by various recent research studies. In [22], the
authors proposed the management strategy of RES uncertainties, the electricity price, and
LD based on a hybrid stochastic/robust (HSR) optimizer in different scenarios, which have
the advantage of improving the convergence characteristics. The authors in [23] developed
a distributed robust optimization approach to overcome the restrictions of the dispatchable
flexible resources taking into account the uncertainties from RES and LD based on different
constraints that can be appropriate in piratical schemes with tacking the transmission loss
in the consideration.
In 2020 [12], a hybrid configuration composed of PV plant, WT plant, battery units,
and diesel generators was designed, involving a comprehensive comparison between the
different possible configurations. The simulation and optimization process has been done
using HOMER® (Hybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources, Boulder County,
CO, USA) and NEPLAN® (NEPLAN AG, Zurich, Switzerland) platforms. A case study
in Egypt has been considered for evaluating the designed configurations to determine
the best configuration involving renewable and conventional energy sources. The results
showed that the most effective design is the interconnected grid system with PV and diesel
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 3 of 25

generators without any storage devices with a COE of 0.124 USD/kWh. A procedure for
designing an isolated microgrid in Con Dao Island in Vietnam has been presented in [13].
The results through HOMMER show that a reliable operation of the designed microgrid.
Away from the fixed configurational platforms, many optimization algorithms have
been proposed and applied for determining the optimal configuration of the microgrids.
In [14], the optimal sizing of the energy storage system using the state of energy model
was reported for an active distribution network. The results show an effective reduction
in the possible error in the sizing optimization considering the case of insufficient data
at the planning stage. In [15], a valuable effort has been made to present a method for
optimizing the size of battery and ultracapacitor hybrid storage systems. The technique
can be used for plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) and smart grids. The presented energy
management method had been applied in real-time applications with Markov chain and
stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) algorithm. Moreover, a village in Egypt has been
recognized as a case study. A complete system from PV, wind, and diesel generators with
battery storage units has been developed to feed people with electricity [10]. A fuel cell and
renewable energy sources have been combined in an energy hybrid system [11]. Various
optimization algorithms of water cycle optimizer, hybrid particle swarm, whale optimizer,
and moth-flame optimizer have been applied for designing different configurations of
microgrids involving photovoltaic, diesel generators with battery storage units or hydro-
electric pumped storage considering real data have been presented in [6,11]. The results
show that the whale optimization algorithm and whale optimization algorithm gives the
best results regarding the best COE and convergence characteristics for the specified case of
study. A grid-connected photovoltaic and wind turbine hybrid system has been designed
with the application of the methods of GA and PSO as presented in [16]. The results
showed that the COE waw minimized by continuing feeding to the load demand. A techno-
economic of a stand-alone hybrid system involving hybrid pumped and battery storage
with photovoltaic has been presented with the application of the algorithms of GA, firefly
algorithm, and grey wolf optimizer in [17]. In [17], a case of study for feeding a low load
has been considered. The results prove the ability of the grey wolf optimizer to minimize
the COE of the system. To improve the energy-use efficiency in a case study related to
agricultural fields, GA has been applied to optimize the configuration of a hybrid energy
system for reducing environmental impacts [18]. In Spain, a PV/WT/Biomass/H2/fuel
cell hybrid system based on model predictive control and genetic algorithm results in a
COE of 0.123 USD/kWh [19].
The application of the optimization techniques is essential for finding solutions and
optimal configuration of the energy systems in many fields, such as agricultural, milling
industry, nuclear power plant systems, and flood control operations, to find the optimal
configuration with satisfying the constraints [20,21]. The optimization leads to finding
the optimum and finest solutions between reasonable alternates, which ensure satisfying
the considered problem constraints. Additionally, the complex task, the multidisciplinary
problem of designing the microgrid systems considering many variables and constraints,
leads to implementing it as an optimization problem to achieve one or more objectives such
as minimizing cost, minimizing loss of power supply probability, and/or maximizing the
energy reliability.
This paper presents a comprehensive comparison between the performances of three
metaheuristic methods of equilibrium optimizer (EQ), bat optimization (BAT), and black-
hole-based optimization (BHB) to optimize and get the techno-economic optimal configura-
tion of microgrids to evaluate their effectiveness. Acceptable convergence characteristics
of the three optimization techniques have been proved considering other optimization
problems. However, no attempt has been made to present a comprehensive comparison
between the performance of the three algorithms to optimize the sizing of such a hybrid
energy system of this paper. Therefore, for a closer look at their performance, the applica-
tion of these methods was considered to optimize the hybrid energy system (PV plant, FC
systems, and battery storage systems) considering a real case study of Egypt in the Dobaa
 energy system of this paper. Therefore, for a closer look at their performance, the applica-
tion of these methods was considered to optimize the hybrid energy system (PV plant, FC
systems, and battery storage systems) considering a real case study of Egypt in the Dobaa
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 region. Moreover, statistical tests were performed to evaluate the robustness of 4 ofthe
25 three

applied algorithms.
The article is developed as follows: Section 2 illustrates methods involving the system
region. Moreover,
configurations, statistical
complete tests were
microgrid performed to model,
mathematical evaluateenergy
the robustness of the three
management methodol-
applied algorithms.
ogy, the sizing of microgrid problem formalization, the applied optimization techniques,
The article is developed as follows: Section 2 illustrates methods involving the system
and the case of study. The numeric results and discussions are executed in Section 3. The
configurations, complete microgrid mathematical model, energy management methodol-
last section
ogy, contributes
the sizing to the
of microgrid conclusion
problem of the proposed
formalization, work.
the applied optimization techniques,
and the case of study. The numeric results and discussions are executed in Section 3. The
2. last
Methods
section contributes to the conclusion of the proposed work.
2.1. System Configurations
2. Methods
2.1.The configuration
System of a stand-alone microgrid is illustrated in Figure 1. This is a gen-
Configurations
eral configuration thatofcontains
The configuration a PVmicrogrid
a stand-alone power plant with FC.
is illustrated Moreover,
in Figure 1. Thisaisbattery was in-
a general
cluded as a storage
configuration device.a This
that contains system
PV power is with
plant designed to introduce
FC. Moreover, an was
a battery essential solution
included as in
remote areas.
a storage device. This system is designed to introduce an essential solution in remote areas.

Figure
Figure1.
1. Arrangement
Arrangement ofofthe
thestudied
studied microgrid.
microgrid.

2.2. Complete Microgrid Mathematical Model

2.2. Complete Microgrid Mathematical Model
2.2.1. Solar System
2.2.1. Solar System
The solar system is modeled considering the variations of the produced power from
theThe solarsystem
PV solar systemwith
is modeled considering
both irradiance the variations
and temperature. Theofmodel
the produced power from
of the produced
power is illustrated using Equations (1) and (2) [10,11].
the PV solar system with both irradiance and temperature. The model of the produced
power is illustrated using Equations (1) and (2) [10,11].
G (t)
PPV (t) = NPV PPV_rated ηPV ηWire × (1 − β T ( TC (t) − TC_nom )) (1)
Gnom G(t )
PPV (t )= N PV PPV _ ratedηPV ηWire × (1−βT (TC (t )−TC _ nom )) (1)
Gnom
where NPV and PPV_rated indicate the PV modules number and the nominal power of each,
while η PV and η wire represent the efficiencies of the PV and connected wire, respectively.
Moreover, G(t) and Gnom represent solar irradiance at the operating temperature and
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 5 of 25

the standard one of 1000 W/m2 , respectively. BT , TC , and TC_nom indicate temperature
coefficient module, cell temperature, and standard temperature of 25 ◦ C, respectively.
Furthermore, the cell temperature is estimated as follows:

TTest
TC (t) − Tambient = G (t) (2)
800
where Tambient and TTest denote the module’s ambient and tested temperatures, respectively.

2.2.2. Battery Storage Unit

Battery storage units have been used to mitigate the variation of the PV and wind-
generated power, which vary with many uncontrolled operation conditions, for instance,
irradiance, temperature, and wind speed. The usage of storage units will be useful to
control power flow to loads. Several studies reported that the lead-acid battery has a wide
usage for such applications because of its availability and competitive price with respect to
other battery types. Factors affecting the battery bank sizing include lifetime, temperature
as well as depth of discharge (DOD) [10,24]. The capacity boundary of the battery banks
can be weighed considering the state of charge (SOC).
Moreover, SOC respecting the storage banks is determined using the charging and
discharging energy. The state of charge is estimated using time as per Equations (3)–(6).
There are two modes of operation: the first one is the charging mode, while the other is the
discharging mode. In the period of charging, the charged energy is calculated as follows:

PWT (t) − Pload (t)

ECH (t) = ( + PPV (t)) × ηCH × ∆t (3)
ηconv

where ECH (t) represents the charged energy during ∆t, which is one hour at instant t. Pload (t)
represents the load power at the same instant t, while η conv and η CH are the efficiencies of
converter and charging, respectively. Moreover, the state of charge is estimated as

SOC (t) = SOC (t − 1)(1 − σ ) + ECH (t) (4)

where SOC (t) and SOC(t − 1) denote battery SOCs at two instances of t and t − 1, one-
to-one. Additionally, σ denotes the rate of self-discharging. While the discharging mode
energy and SOC can be calculated as follows:

Pload (t) − PWT (t)

EDIS (t) = ( − PPV (t)) × ηDIS × ∆t (5)
ηconv

SOC (t) = SOC (t − 1)(1 − σ ) − EDIS (t) (6)

where EDIS (t) represents the discharging energy at a time t. At the same time, η DIS denotes
the discharging efficiency of the battery.

2.2.3. Electrolyzer
The electrolyzer is implemented based on the water-electrolysis concept, producing
hydrogen and oxygen by flowing a DC-current among two electrodes. Subsequently, the
hydrogen is gathered on all sides of the anode surface. According to the water electrolyzer
mentioned by [25–27], the generated hydrogen is gathered at a pressure of 30 bar. This value
is very high as compared with the produced one from the reactant-pressure to supply the
proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). In many studies, the generated hydrogen
from the electrolyzer can be supplied to the hydrogen tank, or its pressure is increased
to 200 bar by a compressor to boost the energy stored density [25]. The other studies
stated that the hydrogen evaluated from the electrolyzer is applied to a low-pressure tank
until it is charged; therefore, a compressor is utilized to force the stored hydrogen to a
high-pressure tank. Hence, the energy depleted by the compressor is decreased because it is
not in the process of launching the whole time [25,26]. In this work, the generated hydrogen
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 6 of 25

is applied to the hydrogen tank. The electrolyzer can be simulated via the transmitted
power from the DC-bus to the hydrogen tank, and it can be expressed by the following
formula [25–27],
PElectro−tank = Pren− Electro × ηElectro (7)
where PElectro −tank is the output electrolyzer power that is injected into the hydrogen tank.
Pren−Electro is the output electrolyzer power. The η Electro is the electrolyzer efficiency.

2.2.4. Hydrogen Tank

In the proposed work, the hydrogen tank is simulated via the energy-stored quantity
(Etank ) in the hydrogen tank at a time t. The Etank can be formulated as follows [25]:
 
Ptank− FC (t)
Etank (t)= Etank (t − 1) + PElectro−tank (t) − × ∆t (8)
ηstorage

where Ptank−FC (t) is the equivalent power that pulled out from the hydrogen tank and
applied to the fuel cell (FC), and η storage is the efficiency of the storage tank, and it indicates
the losses, and it can be provided as 95% for all operating scenarios [25]. ∆t is the interval
of the simulation process, and it is deemed to be one hour in the proposed work.
The mass of stored hydrogen Mtank in the tank can be expressed by the following
equation [25–27]:
E (t)
Mtank (t) = tank (9)
HHVH2
where HHV H2 is the higher heating value of hydrogen (HHV). In line with [26], the amount
of HHV is deemed as 39.7 kWh/m2 . The energy stored in the tank comes among a
predefined upper and lower limit of the tank capacity. According to some issues related to
hydrogen nature, there is a recommendation that the low quantity (lower limit) of stored
hydrogen is not discharged and can be considered here by 5%. Consequently,

Mtank,min ≤ Mtank (t) ≤ Mtank,max (10)

where Mtank is ranged between the upper Mtank,max and lower Mtank,min limits of hydrogen
tank at time t.

2.2.5. Fuel Cell (FC)

The electrolysis of the hydrogen FC is working in reverse to generate electric current
when the hydrogen is recombined with the oxygen. However, the PEMFC is manufactured
in large generating sizes to be reliable with a short-power release time of around 1–3 s [25].
In this work, the efficiency of the FC (η FC ) is considered to be 50% constant value.
Therefore, the produced power can be estimated in a simple way based on the input power
Ptank−FC and η FC of the FC by the following formula:

PFC−inv = Ptank− FC × η FC (11)

2.2.6. DC/AC Converter

The main roles of the inverter are to convert the produced DC power from renewable
sources and the FC source into AC power, besides exceeding the supplied power to the
grid. In this study and based on [28], the inverter efficiency (η inv ) is supposed to be 90%
as a constant value. Hence, the output power of the inverter can be estimated using the
following equation:
Pinv− AC = ( PFC−inv + Pren−inv ) × ηinv (12)

2.3. Energy Flow Scenarios

The methodology of the energy management system in a microgrid is planned to
ensure continued energy covering the load demand. The energy management can be con-
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 7 of 25

cluded in the following six scenarios. The first three scenarios are related to the generated
energy from PV being less than the demand load; in this case, the battery and FC should
be operated to cover the load demand energy. The other three scenarios are related to the
generated energy from PV being larger than the demand load; in this case, the battery and
FC should be operated to store the extra energy.

2.3.1. Case 1
Scenario I:
The battery should operate in the discharging mode of the battery to feed the load
demand when renewable energy does not cover it. So, in this case, the load power shearing
is as follows:

Pload (t) × ∆t = ( PPV (t) × ηconv ) × ∆t + EDIS (t) × ηconv (13)

Scenario II:
Continuously; if the renewable energy and battery do not cover the load demand, this
is the time of FC operation. The generated power from the FC is estimated as

PFC (t) × ∆t = ( Pload (t) − PPV (t) × ηconv ) × ∆t − EDIS (t) × ηconv (14)

Scenario III:
Continuously; if the renewable energy, battery, and FC, does not suffice the load needs,
there is a shortage in the energy to supply the load needs. The LPS should be calculated to
be minimized. Moreover, a solution of DG may be used.

2.3.2. Case 2
Scenario IV:
On the other hand, when the generated energy from renewables exceeds the load
demand, the battery will be operated in charging mode. The power fellow in this scenario
will be demonstrated as follows:

Pload (t) × ∆t = ( PPV (t) × ∆t − ECH (t)) × ηconv (15)

Scenario V:
Sometimes the battery is full in the time of the renewable energy is exceeds the load
demand. In this scenario, the extra energy will be stored in the FC tank. The power fellow
in this interval is expressed as:

Pload (t) × ∆t = ( PPV (t) × ∆t − PElectro−tank (t)) × ηconv (16)

Scenario VI:
Sometimes, the battery is full in the time of the renewable energy is exceeds the load
demand. The extra energy is supplied to the dummy load in this scenario. The dummy
load in this interval is expressed as

Pdummy (t) × ∆t = ( PPV (t) × ηconv − Pload (t)) × ∆t − ECH (t)) × ηconv − PFC−inv (t) × ηconv (17)

All scenarios can be visualized as the flowchart of Figure 2.

 Sometimes, the battery is full in the time of the renewable energy is exceeds the load
demand. The extra energy is supplied to the dummy load in this scenario. The dummy
load in this interval is expressed as

Mathematics 2022, 10, 140Pdummy ( t ) × Δ t = ( PPV ( t ) × η conv − Pload ( t )) × Δ t − E CH ( t )) × η conv − PFC − inv ( t ) × η conv (17)
8 of 25

All scenarios can be visualized as the flowchart of Figure 2.

Start Scenario I
return PV energy
Scenario II less than
Read data of Solar radiation, and
load power, units cost and desired Load Demand
Scenario III
LPSP
Scenario IV
Obtain the PV module, Electrolyzer, Hydrogen PV energy
tank, Fuel Cell, and battery specifications larger than
Scenario VI
Load Demand
Calculate energy balance Scenario V
E B (t ) = ( PPV (t ) × ηconv − Pload (t )) × Δt

No No Yes No
SOC (t − 1) > SOCmin EB > 0 SOC (t − 1) < SOCmax
draw energy hydrogen Energy to electrolysis
tank
Yes Yes
P (t ) − PWT (t ) P (t ) − Pload (t )
E DIS (t ) = ( load − PPV (t )) × η DIS × Δt ECH ( t ) = ( WT + PPV (t )) × η CH × Δt
ηconv η conv

Yes Yes
EDIS (t ) ≤ SOC (t − 1) − SOCmin ECH (t ) ≤ SOCmax − SOC (t − 1)

No
SOC (t ) = SOC (t − 1) − EDIS (t ) No SOC (t ) = SOC (t − 1) + ECH (t )
SOC (t ) = SOCmax
SOC (t ) = SOCmin

Calculate LPS Pdummy (t) ×Δt = ECH (t) − (SOCmax − SOC(t −1))

return Scenario II
return

Scenario III
LPS should be
minimized Exceed Energy to
Check the Mass of Check the Mass of
Dummy Load
H2 in the tank H2 in the tank
No Mtank(t-1)>Mtank, min Mtank(t-1)<Mtank, max
No
M tan k (t ) = M tan k (t − 1)
M tan k (t ) = M tan k (t − 1)
Yes Yes
Calculate LPS
Calculate Ptank-FC using Eq. (8) Calculate PElectro-tank using Eq. (4) Pdummy (t ) × Δt = ( PPV (t ) × ηconv − Pload (t )) × Δt
return
Calculate mass of H2 consumed Calculate mass of H2 added using
using Eq. (5 & 6) Eq. (5 & 6)
return
Yes Yes
Mconsumed < Mtank (t −1) − Mtank,min Madded < Mtan k,max − Mtan k (t −1)

Calculate mass of H2 in the tank

No using Eq. (5 & 6) No
M tan k (t ) = M tan k ,min M tan k (t ) = M tan k ,max

return

Figure
Figure 2.2.Scenarios
Scenariosofofenergy
energymanagement
managementflowchart.
flowchart.

2.4. Sizing of Microgrid Problem Formalization

2.4.1. Optimized Objective Function Indices
There are many indices that should be minimized to ensure the excellent design of
the microgrid. Three indices have been considered, which are (1) the cost of rnergy (COC),
(2) loss of power supply probability (LPSP), and (3) the dummy load (Pdummy ) [10,29,30].
Therefore, the objective function is composed of the four indices with a weighted ratio. The
system will be designed in order to minimize the weighted objective function.
(1) Cost of Energy (COC)
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 9 of 25

The net present cost (NPC) is utilized to estimate the whole cost of the hybrid micro-grid.
The system annual cost of investment Cann_tot can be expressed by the following formula:

Cann_tot = Cann_cap + Cann_rep + Cann_oper&maint (18)

where, Cann_cap , Cann_rep , and Cann_oper&maint are the annual costs of the system components,
system components’ replacements, operation and maintenance, respectively.
(a) The Annual Capital Cost of the Microgrid System
The capital recovery factor (CRF) is utilized changing the initial investment to annual
capital costs based on the following equation:

r × (1 + r ) Msys
CRF (r, Msys ) = (19)
(1 + r ) Msys − 1

where r and Msys are the rate of interest (%) and the life span of the whole hybrid system
under study.
The annual capital cost of the individual subsystems is evaluated using the next
expressions,
Cann_cap_PV = Ccap_PV ∗ CRF (r, MPV )



ann_cap_FC = Ccap_FC ∗ CRF (r, M FC )
 C
(20)
 Cann_cap_batt = Ccap_batt ∗ CRF (r, Mbatt )

Cann_cap_conv = Ccap_conv ∗ CRF (r, Mconv )


where Ccap_PV , Ccap_batt , Ccap_FC , and Ccap_conv are the initial capital cost of PV system
integration, the initial cost of the battery bank, and the initial cost of all components of
FC, respectively. MPV , Mbatt , and MFC are the lifetime of PV modules, battery banks, and
FC, consequently.
Therefore, the annual capital investment cost of the hybrid system is formulated
as follows:
Cann_cap = Cann_cap_PV
+Cann_cap_batt
(21)
+Cann_cap_FC
+Cann_cap_conv
where Cann_cap_PV , Cann_cap_batt , Cann_cap_FC , and Cann_cap_conv are the annual-capital-cost
share of the integration of the PV, FC, battery bank, and converter, consequently.
(b) The Operation and Maintenance Cost
The operation and maintenance cost of the proposed scheme is estimated in the
following form:
Coper&main = Coper&main_PV ∗ t PV
+Coper&main_batt ∗ tbatt
(22)
+Coper&main_conv ∗ tconv
+Coper&main_FC ∗ t FC
where, Coper&main_PV , Coper&main_batt , Coper&main_conv , and Coper&main_FC are the operation
and maintenance costs of PV, battery banks, converter, and FC per unit time, respectively.
t PV , tbatt , tconv , and t FC are the operating time of PV, battery banks, converter, and FC,
respectively.
(c) The Annual Replacement Cost
The replacement cost of the hybrid system components during its lifetime is deter-
mined by the next formula [10–27],
nrep   jMsys /(nrep +1)
1+i
Crep = ∑ KCrep Cu 1+r
(23)
j =1
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 10 of 25

where, i, KCrep , Cu , and nrep are the inflation-rate of replacement, the unit’s size utilized in
the system, the cost of the replaced units, besides the number of the replacements during
the project time Msys .
Hence, the net present cost (NPC) is expressed as follows,

Cann_tot
NPC = (24)
CRF
The cost of energy (COE) is defined as the generated electrical energy cost from the
hybrid system in (USD/kWh). The COE is expressed as

Cann_tot NPC
COE = h=8760
= ∗ CRF (25)
∑h=1 Pload ∑hh=
=1
8760
Pload

(2) Loss of Power Supply Probability (LPSP)

The LPSP is defined as a design factor. It takes the measurements of the insufficient
operation probability of the power supply in the case of the hybrid microgrid is unsuc-
cessful in satisfying the energy demand. The loss of power supply LPS(t) is given by the
following formula:
LPS(t) = PLoad (t) × ∆t
−( PPV (t) × ηconv ) × ∆t
(26)
− EDIS (t) × ηconv
− EFC (t) × ηconv
LPSP is known as a practical index to estimate the reliability in the issues of the
optimum capacity of hybrid renewable energy systems. Thus, the LPSP is evaluated based
on the summation of the LPS(t) overall load demand within all study periods, and it can
be mathematically written as follows:

∑8760
t=1 LPS ( t )
LPSP = (27)
8760
∑t=1 Pload (t) × ∆t

2.4.2. The Proposed Objective Function

The objective function (OF) of this work is proposed to minimize the COE, LPSP, in
addition to the dummy load (Pdummy ) based on the optimization technique. Subsequently,
the OF is created in the following expression:

OF = ψ1 ∗ COE + ψ2 ∗ LPSP + ψ3 ∗ Pdummy (28)

In this work, the weighting factors Ψ 1 , Ψ 2 , and Ψ 3 are selected based on trial and
error to achieve the best results. This selection is considered according to the following
conditions; weighting factors summation are equal to unity, their values  (0, 1), and the
Ψ 2 value must be higher than Ψ 1 , and Ψ 3 values for ensuring the whole system reliability.
Therefore, the produced Ψ 1 , Ψ 2 , and Ψ 3 values are 0.2, 0.6, and 0.2, respectively.

2.4.3. Design of Constrains for Optimization

In off-grid hybrid systems, the operation of the system components must be considered
based on constraints. To ensure the optimal operation of the system to confirm the condition
in Equation (29), the generated energy at a time (t) is balanced with the energy consumed
by the load. This constraint can be expressed as follows:

PLoad (t) × ∆t = ( PPV (t) × ηconv

+ PWT (t) + PDG (t)) × ∆t
(29)
+ Ebatt (t) × ηconv
+ EFC (t) × ηconv
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 11 of 25

Equation (30) is considered as one of the optimization policies to assure that the power
storage per hour by hydrogen tank at a time should be performed within limits, and it can
be represented as
Mtank,min ≤ Mtank (t) ≤ Mtank,max (30)
Avoiding the over/under charging issues, the SOS of the battery bank is constrained
between its maximum SOCmax and minimum SOCmin values. Where the SOCmax is con-
sidered the full size of the battery, on the other hand, the SOCmin is subjected to the depth
of discharge. This condition can be illustrated by Equations (31) and (32):

SOC (t + 1) = SOC (t)(1 − σ ) (31)

SOCmin ≤ SOC (t) ≤ SOCmax (32)

The LPSP can be lower than the system indicator of predefined reliability (β L ). In this
work, the β L is equal to 0.04 [10]. This can be formulated as follows:

LPSP ≤ β L (33)

2.5. Optimization Algorithms

2.5.1. Bat Optimization (BAT)
Bat algorithm (BA) is inspired by the echolocation manner of bats detecting their
foods [31]. Only mammals can detect their prey based on sonar waves “echolocation”
avoiding barriers in the darkness. Based on the echolocation attitude, bats can determine
the distance of object “prey” as follows [31]:
• Based on the echolocation characteristics, the bat can detect their prey and recognize
the variation between food and surrounding barriers.
• The flying bat is in a random form toward a place (xi ) via velocity (vi ) and frequency
(Fmin ), wide wavelength (λ), and loudness (Lo ) for detecting the prey. It has the
capability to control its pulses λ/Fmin based on pulse rate emission r via a range of 0–1
to approximate its goal.
• Based on [31], the loudness has been supposed to be ranged from maximum value (Lo )
to a minimum value (Lmin ).
The virtual movements of ith bat can be evaluated based on xi and vi in D-dimension.
Additionally, the values of xi and vi are upgrading at each iteration, and the process can be
defined as follows:
Fi = Fmin + β·( Fmax − Fmin ) (34)
vit = vit−1 + ( xit−1 − x ∗ ) Fi (35)

xit = xit−1 + vit (36)

where β  [0, 1] is a random vector that is extracted from a uniform distribution, and x* is
the current global best solution from all bats. Locally, if a current best solution is so far,
then it is generated new solutions based on a local walk randomly as formulated below:

xnew = xold + ε· Lt (37)

where ε  [−1, 1] is a random number, and Lt is the average of loudness at t time. In the
case of the bat being very close to prey, it reduces its loudness increasing the emitted rate of
pulses. It can be assumed that when a bat detected its prey, then the Lo = 1 and Lmin = 0,
and it can be formulated as

Lit+1 = α· Lit ; rit+1 = rio [1 − exp(−γ·t)] (38)

Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 12 of 25

where α and γ are constant values that are α > 0 and γ < 1. In addition,

Lit+1 → 0; rit → r o as t → ∞ (39)

Mathematics 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEWNotethat the initial values of Lo and ri can range between 0 and 1. 13 of 27
The steps of the BAT technique process can be deduced in the flowchart in Figure 3.

Figure3.3.Flowchart
Figure FlowchartofofBAT
BATtechnique.
technique.

2.5.2.
2.5.2. Black-Hole-Based OptimizationTechnique
Black-Hole-Based Optimization Technique(BHB) (BHB)
The
TheBHB
BHBtechnique
techniquewaswasinspired
inspiredby bythe
theblack-hole
black-holephenomenon
phenomenon[32]. [32].ItItisisa apopulation-
popula-
based algorithm,
tion-based where
algorithm, a “black-hole”
where a “black-hole” is is
known
knownasasthe thebest
best solution/candidate
solution/candidate ofof thethe
population
population at at every
every iteration, and the
iteration, and the other
other solutions
solutionsare areknown
knownasas“normal
“normalstars”. stars”.The
The
basic
basic election
election of the black hole is one one of of the
the genuine
genuine candidates
candidatesofofthe thepopulation.
population.The The
black hole attracts
black hole attracts all solutions based on their current placement,
solutions based on their current placement, including a random including a random
number.
number.The Thenormal
normalstars
starscan
canbebepulled
pulledaround
aroundthe theblack
blackhole
holeafter
afterthetheinitializing
initializingprocess.
pro-
In addition, the black hole will allow the too-closed stars to be gone
cess. In addition, the black hole will allow the too-closed stars to be gone forever. forever.
The
The proposed
proposed BHB can be formulated
formulated in inthe
thefollowing
followingprocess
process[32]:[32]:
Process
Process 1: Initializing. Forstars,
Initializing. For stars,aapopulation
populationsize size“N”
“N”has
hasbeenbeen generated
generated with
with ran-ran-
dom
domsittings
sittings in a research space
space that
thatisisdistributed
distributedininlimited
limitedupper
upper andand lower
lower boundaries.
boundaries.
Process
Process 2:2: Run
Run the
the program
programperforming
performingall allconstraints
constraintsfor forevery
everystar starofofthe
thepopulation.
popula-
Iftion.
the If
satisfied star constraints,
the satisfied then then
star constraints, it is workable;
it is workable;otherwise, it is it
otherwise, notis workable.
not workable.
Process
Process 3:3: Evaluate the
the fitness
fitness function
functionfor forevery
everyworkable
workablestar.star.
Process
Process 4:4: Record the best
best fitness/star
fitness/starasasthe theblack-hole
black-holeXBH XBH star.
star.
Process
Process 5: count tt ==1.1.
5: Start with count
Process
Process 6:6: Alter the sitting
sitting ofof every
everystarstarbased
basedon onthethefollowing
followingEquation
Equation(40): (40):
t +1 t t
Xit+
X 1 = =XiX
i
t + +rand
i
(0,1) ∗ ( X BH −−XXit););
randi (0,
i 1) ( XBH i (40)
(40)
i = i1,=2,
1, 3, .,N
2, .3,. ..., N

where t is the iteration number, Xi is the sitting of the star at iteration t, and XBH is the
sitting of the black-hole in the search space.
Process 7: If a star gets a sitting where the parameters of the proposed design are
lower than previous, then update their sittings as the following:
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 13 of 25

Mathematics 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 27

where t is the iteration number, Xi is the sitting of the star at iteration t, and XBH is the
sitting of the black-hole in the search space.
Process 7: If a star gets a sitting where the parameters of the proposed design are
 tsittings t 
lower than previous, then update their X +1→if  Fas t +1following:
( Xthe
i )< F ( X BH )  
t +1  i 
XBH =  h i  (41)
 Xit+1X→ t +1i→
f ifF (FX(tX+1t +1
) <) ≥ F ( X
X t ))  
t +1  BH h  i i BH 
BH
i
XBH = (41)
 X t +1 → i f F ( X t +1 ) ≥ F ( X t ) 
BH i BH
Process 8: Calculate the radius of events horizon R based on the following Equation
(42):
Process 8: Calculate the radius of events horizon R based on the following Equation (42):
F(X )
R =F (NXBHBH)
R= (42)
(42)
N  F (X )
i
∑i =F1( Xi )
i =1
where the F(XBH) is the fitness content of the black hole, and the F(Xi) is the fitness content
where the F(XBH ) is the fitness content of the black hole, and the F(Xi ) is the fitness content
of ith star.
of ith star.
Process 9: If a star passes the event horizon R of the black hole, alter it with a new
Process 9: If a star passes the event horizon R of the black hole, alter it with a new one
one in a random sitting in the space. Otherwise, go to process 6.
in a random sitting in the space. Otherwise, go to process 6.
Process 10: Raise generation count t = t + 1.
Process 10: Raise generation count t = t + 1.
Process 11: If t ≤ tmax, start again from process 6. Otherwise, stop.
Process 11: If t ≤ tmax , start again from process 6. Otherwise, stop.
According to the above process, the flowchart of the proposed BHB technique is
According to the above process, the flowchart of the proposed BHB technique is shown
shown in Figure 4.
in Figure 4.

Figure4.4.Flowchart
Figure Flowchart
ofof BHB
BHB technique.
technique.
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 14 of 25

2.5.3. Equilibrium Optimizer (EQ)

The EQ technique was created by Farmarzi in 2020 [33]. It is a meta-heuristic technique
that simulates the dynamics and equilibrium mass balance schemes. This technique can
be initiated with concentrations of ith particles “C” via special number and dimensions as
recorded in the following equation:

Ci = Bl + r ·( Bu − Bl ) (43)

where the Bl and Bu are the lower and upper boundaries of the search space, the r  (0, 1) is
uniform random.
Based on evaluating the fitness function, the “C” can be upgraded via computing the
equilibrium solutions to deduce the best candidates. The upgrading process of the EQ
technique can be deduced in the following form:

G
Cnew = Ceq + (1 − E) + (C − Ceq )· E (44)
µ

where the exponential term “E” and the rate of generation “G” can be known as

E = a1 sign(m1 − 0.5)(e−λt − 1) (45)

iter
a2 ( max_iter )
iter
t = (1 − ) (46)
max_iter
 
0.5r1 (Ceq − C ) E → i f r2 ≥ GP
G= (47)
0 → i f r2 < GP
where a1 and a2 are constants and equals 2 and 1, respectively, m1  (0, 1) is random vector,
iter and max_iter are the iteration number and the maximum one respectively. r1 and
r2  [0, 1] are random numbers, GP = 0.5 and it is the generated probability.
Within every upgrading, the proposed fitness function is calculated for every particles’
concentration to evaluate their states and to include the best so far particles. Based on
Equation (44), the upgrading process of every concentration particle re-generated depends
on the sharing of three sections. The first section is random, and it is extracted from the
equilibrium pool. The other sections focus on the variations in concentrations. The last two
sections are in charge of the exploitation accuracy and the global searching in the research
space to deduce the optimum issues, respectively.
Figure 5 illustrates the flowchart of the proposed EQ technique.

2.6. Case Study

To evaluate the energy management system based on various optimization algorithms,
a real study case was introduced with the purpose of designing a hybrid renewable en-
ergy system, and it was selected in the Dobaa region in Egypt. The microgrid has been
designed for the emergency operation of the projected nuclear station of Dobaa in Egypt
at Geographical coordinates of 30.040566, 26.806641 (30◦ 020 2600 , 26◦ 480 2400 ) [34]. For the
emergency operation, the microgrid should be disconnected from the electrical grid. The
location of the site, as mentioned, is in the Dobaa nuclear station, as shown in Figure 6. The
data of horizontal solar radiation are presented in Figure 7. As the temperature represents
an essential factor for the PV performance, the monthly average temperature is shown in
Figure 8. The estimated emergency average load demand per month and the estimated
load curve per day are introduced in Figures 9 and 10. The load curve was calculated and
estimated based on the expected load of the plant in an emergency. It should be noted the
residential loads in the period from 7 pm to 10 pm. Other domestic facilities were recorded.
The average load and the maximum load demand were 265 kW and 420 kW, respectively.
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 15 of 25
Mathematics 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 27

Mathematics 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 27

Figure5.5.Flowchart
Figure Flowchart of EQ
EQ Technique.
Technique.

2.6. Case Study

To evaluate the energy management system based on various optimization algo-
rithms, a real study case was introduced with the purpose of designing a hybrid renewa-
ble energy system, and it was selected in the Dobaa region in Egypt. The microgrid has
been designed for the emergency operation of the projected nuclear station of Dobaa in
Egypt at Geographical coordinates of 30.040566, 26.806641 (30°02′26″, 26°48′24″) [34]. For
the emergency operation, the microgrid should be disconnected from the electrical grid.
The location of the site, as mentioned, is in the Dobaa nuclear station, as shown in Figure
6. The data of horizontal solar radiation are presented in Figure 7. As the temperature
represents an essential factor for the PV performance, the monthly average temperature
is shown in Figure 8. The estimated emergency average load demand per month and the
estimated load curve per day are introduced in Figures 9 and 10. The load curve was cal-
culated and estimated based on the expected load of the plant in an emergency. It should
be noted the residential loads in the period from 7 pm to 10 pm. Other domestic facilities
were recorded. The average load and the maximum load demand were 265 kW and 420
kW, respectively.

Locationofofthe
Figure6.6.Location
Figure the studied
studied microgrid.
microgrid.

Direct normal irradiation—hourly averages [Wh/m²]

1000
 Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 16 of 25

Figure 6. Location of the studied microgrid.

Direct normal irradiation—hourly averages [Wh/m²]

1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 10 - 11 - 12 - 13 - 14 - 15 - 16 - 17 - 18 - 19 - 20 - 21 - 22 - 23 -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Mathematics
Mathematics 2021,
2021, 9, x9,FOR
x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 18 18
of of
27 27
Figure7.7.Solar
Figure Solarradiation
radiationfor
forthe
thestudy
studyarea.
area.

Airtemperature—hourly
Air temperature—hourlyaverages
averages[°C]
[°C]
40.0
40.0
30.0
30.0
20.0
20.0
10.0
10.0
0.00.0
0 -0 -1 -1 -2 -2 -3 -3 -4 -4 -5 -5 -6 -6 -7 -7 -8 -8 -9 -910
- 10 - 11
- 11 - 12
- 12 - 13
- 13 - 14
- 14 - 15
- 15 - 16
- 16 - 17
- 17 - 18
- 18 - 19
- 19 - 20
- 20 - 21
- 21 - 22
- 22 - 23
- 23 - -
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9101011111212131314141515161617171818191920202121222223232424

Jan
Jan Feb
Feb Mar
Mar Apr
Apr May
May Jun
Jun
JulJul Aug
Aug Sep
Sep Oct
Oct Nov
Nov Dec
Dec
. .
Figure
Figure Temperature
8.8.8.
Figure Temperature for
Temperature the
forfor study
the
the area.
study
study area.
area.

Figure
Figure
Figure 9.9.9.
TheThe
The average
average
average load
load
load demand
demand
demand per
perper month.
month.
month.
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 17 of 25

Figure 9. The average load demand per month.

Figure 10. The load curve per day of the study area.
Figure 10. The load curve per day of the study area.
3. Results and Discussions
3. Results and Discussions
MATLAB package was used in order to determine the optimal configuration-based
individual
MATLAB optimization
package wasalgorithms.
used inFor each
order toalgorithm,
determinethe themaximum iterations and
optimal configuration-based
search agents number were considered to be 200 and 30, respectively. According
individual optimization algorithms. For each algorithm, the maximum iterations to this and
work, the capacity of the proposed microgrid (hybrid system) is realized as PV rated
power and their modules number, the mass of hydrogen tank, number of battery units,
the rated power of the electrolyzer and fuel cell. The optimization algorithm should
determine the configuration of the energy system to minimize the objective function. The
data specifications of the system components can be found in [11] and are given in Table 1.

Table 1. The system components’ descriptions [11].

Capital Cost Replacement O&M

Component Lifetime (yr) Efficiency (%) Unit
(USD/Unit) Cost (USD/Unit) (USD/Unit–yr)
PV array 7000 6000 20 20 0.15 1 kW
Electrolyzer 2000 1500 25 20 75 1 kW
Hydrogen tank 1300 1200 15 20 95 1 kg
Fuel cell 3000 2500 175 5 50 1 kW
Battery bank 146.5 102.55 - 10 86 12 V (50 Ah)
DC/AC converter 800 750 8 15 90 1 kW

3.1. The Optimal Configuration of Energy System

Table 2 displays the comprehensive outcomes of the optimization procedures of BAT
algorithm, equilibrium optimizer, and black hole algorithm. The minimum value of each
is highlighted in the table for visualizing the best results. The minimum best objective
function was obtained by the EQ algorithm. Moreover, the best COE is 0.289129, which
is obtained by BAT algorithm, while LPSP and dummy Load indices with BAT algorithm
are 0.045548 and 0.113331, respectively, which indicate more load is not covered in certain
periods and other periods; the dummy load index shows that more surprise energy is
dissipated. The results of the EQ algorithm for LPSP and dummy load are 0.043986 and
0.113607, respectively. This indicates that although the COE is higher than that of the BAT
algorithm, the LPSP of 0.0436418 was obtained, which results from more uninterrupted
energy to the load.
 Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 18 of 25

Table 2. Optimization parameters of microgrid configurations based on the three algorithms.

Items BAT EQ BHB

Best objective function 0.112231 0.1074 0.108078
PV (kw) 339.6977 339.6308 348.8188
Battery 4695.026 4909.019 4893.064
Best solution Electrolyzer (kw) 459.6776 452.9702 491.7788
Tank (kg) 88.80917 87.25968 107.2796
FC (kw) 34.73013 34.10566 35.4967
COE 0.289129 0.291437 0.302562
NPV 546067.9 550426 571437.7
LPSP 0.045548 0.043986 0.039623
Dummy load 0.113331 0.113607 0.118959

The net present values are 546067.9, 550426, and 571437.7 for BAT, EQ, and BHB
optimizers, respectively. Although the net present value of EQ is higher than that of BAT
by 0.9664%, the recommended design is that of the EQ algorithm. This recommendation
is because of the decrease of the LPSP with the EQ algorithm rather than that of the BAT
algorithm. In general, the two designs based on BAT and EQ algorithms can be considered
Mathematics 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
concerning the priority of LPSP or COE. Figures 11 and 12 visualize the obtained results of 20 of 2
the various configurations of the microgrid based on the three algorithms.

Figure
Figure 11.11. Indices
Indices of energy
of the the energy system
system based based on various
on various algorithms.
algorithms.

3.2. Performance of Different Algorithms

Figure 13 illustrates the convergence curves for the proposed BAT, EQ, and BHB
techniques. From this figure, the proposed optimizers can achieve the optimal values of
the recommended objective function to be 0.112231, 0.1074, and 0.108078 for BAT, EQ, and
BHB algorithms, respectively, which indicated that the EQ has the best minimum objective
function. Nevertheless, Figure 13 demonstrates that the EQ is the fastest one compared
with BAT and BHB optimization techniques. The detailed results of the three algorithms
are presented in Section 3.3.
 Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 19 of 25

Figure 11. Indices of the energy system based on various algorithms.

ematics 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure
Figure 12. 12. Configuration
Configuration of thesystem
of the energy energy system
based basedalgorithms.
on various on various algorithms.

3.2. Performance of Different Algorithms

Figure 13 illustrates the convergence curves for the proposed BAT, EQ, a
techniques. From this figure, the proposed optimizers can achieve the optimal v
the recommended objective function to be 0.112231, 0.1074, and 0.108078 for BAT,
BHB algorithms, respectively, which indicated that the EQ has the best minimum
tive function. Nevertheless, Figure 13 demonstrates that the EQ is the fastest o
pared with BAT and BHB optimization techniques. The detailed results of the thr
rithms are presented in Section 3.3.

Figure 13. Convergence curves of the three algorithms.

Figure 13. Convergence curves of the three algorithms.
3.3. Statistical Results
The BAT algorithm was implemented for 30 individual runs. The statistical results of
3.3.BAT,
the Statistical Results
EQ, and BHB algorithms are listed in Table 3. The results show that the minimum
and maximum obtained cost functions of the BAT algorithm are 0.112231 and 0.13043,
The BAT algorithm was implemented for 30 individual runs.
respectively, while the stranded division and the average obtained results of the BAT
the BAT,
algorithm are EQ, and
0.117865 andBHB algorithms
0.469301, are
respectively. On thelisted in Table
other hand, 3. The
the statistical results
results
show that the obtained minimum and maximum values of the cost functions of the EQ
and maximum obtained cost functions of the BAT algorithm ar
algorithm are 0.1074 and 0.112216, respectively, while the stranded division and the average
respectively,
values EQ algorithmwhile the and
are 0.223387 stranded division Moreover,
0.110812, respectively. and thethe average
table shows obtaine
gorithm are 0.117865 and 0.469301, respectively. On the other han
show that the obtained minimum and maximum values of the c
algorithm are 0.1074 and 0.112216, respectively, while the strande
 Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 20 of 25

that the minimum and maximum obtained cost functions of BHB are 0.108078 and 0.124731,
respectively. In comparison, the stranded division and the average results of BHB are
0.41938 and 0.114019, respectively. The obtained results show that the best-obtained results
are acceptable for all algorithms, but EQ and BHB algorithms are better algorithms rather
than BAT. Furthermore, the statistical indices show that the divisions between the results
of individual runs of the BAT algorithm are bigger than those of the EQ and BHB.

Table 3. Statistical results of the three algorithms of BAT, EQ, and BHB.

Items BAT EQ (Best Results) BHB

cost_min 0.112231 0.1074 0.108078
cost_maxworst 0.13043 0.112216 0.124731
cost_mean 0.117865 0.110812 0.114019
cost_median 0.117716 0.112215 0.113443
cost_sD 0.469301 0.223387 0.41938
RE 1.506026 0.762435 1.649028
MAE 0.005634 0.003412 0.005941
RMSE 0.007282 0.004053 0.007231
eff 95.36117 96.95946 94.91016
p 1.73 × 10− 6 1.82 × 10−5 1.73 × 10−6
h 1 1 1

The convergence curves of the 30 individual runs are shown in Figure 14 for the three
algorithms. Furthermore, the boxplot of the best objective functions is shown in Figure 13.
On the other side, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was performed to validate the application
of the BAT, EQ, and BHB algorithms. The results show that the value of the rank h is 1
for the three algorithms, which indicates that the test rejects the null hypothesis of zero
median. Moreover, the p is 1.73 × 10− 6 , 1.82 × 10−5 , and 1.73 × 10−6 , which proves the
robustness of the BAT, EQ, and BHB algorithms, respectively. The box plot has been plotted
for the three algorithms for more visualization of the performance of the three algorithms,
Mathematics 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 27
as shown in Figure 15. The figure demonstrates the superiority of the EQ algorithm for
optimizing the size of the microgrid for the considered case study.
Best Score

(a) BAT (b) EQ (c) BHB

Figure14.
Figure 14.Convergence
Convergence curves
curves of of
thethe three
three algorithms
algorithms overover 30 runs:
30 runs: (a) 30-run
(a) 30-run convergence
convergence curves
curves
of BAT, (b) 30-run convergence curves of EQ, and (c) 30-run convergence curves
of BAT, (b) 30-run convergence curves of EQ, and (c) 30-run convergence curves of BHB. of BHB.
 (a) BAT (b) EQ (c) BHB

Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 Figure 14. Convergence curves of the three algorithms over 30 runs: (a) 30-run convergence
21 of 25 curves
of BAT, (b) 30-run convergence curves of EQ, and (c) 30-run convergence curves of BHB.

(a) BAT (b) EQ (c) BHB

Figure
Figure 15. Boxplots
15. Box plotsofof
thethe three
three algorithms
algorithms over
over 30 30 (a)
runs: runs:
box(a)
plotbox plot(b)
of BAT, of box
BAT, (b)ofbox
plot EQ, plot
and of EQ,
and
(c) (c)
boxbox
plotplot of BHB.
of BHB.

3.4. Operation of the Microgrid

3.4. Operation of the Microgrid
The operation of the microgrid is investigated in this part. The performance of the
The operation of the microgrid is investigated in this part. The performance of the
microgrid is shown in Figure 16. Figure 16 illustrates the generated power change per
microgrid is shown
hour of proposed in Figure
hybrid system 16.components
Figure 16 at illustrates
the optimalthecase
generated
of the EQ power change per
technique.
hour
Figure 16a shows the load demand (Pload ), the hole generated power from the renewable Fig-
of proposed hybrid system components at the optimal case of the EQ technique.
ure 16a shows
energy (PPV ), andthe the
loaddifference
demandbetween
(Pload), the
thehole generated
renewable powerand
generation from thethe renewable
load (Pdiff ). en-
ergy (PPV), and
Moreover, Figure the16b
difference
illustratesbetween
the batterythe renewable
charge, generation
discharge, tank, andand
fuelthecellload (Pdiff
during ). More-
the
operation
over, Figure period.
16b illustrates the battery charge, discharge, tank, and fuel cell during the
operation period. Figure 16c displays the dummy load and LPSP. Because of the design
Furthermore,
conditions, it is not easy to realize the optimization requirements even though keeping
Furthermore, Figure 16c displays the dummy load and LPSP. Because of the design
LPSP or dummy load to be zero. Through the hourly period of the high generated power
conditions, it is not easy to realize the optimization requirements even though keeping
from renewables, the extra energy is utilized to charge the battery and fill the hydrogen
LPSP
tank.or
Fordummy load to of
more clearance bethe
zero. Through
energy the hourly
management period
concept of the high
behindhand generated power
the optimization
from renewables, the extra energy is utilized to charge the battery
techniques, the simulated numeric results are focused on the hybrid system performance and fill the hydrogen
tank. Forday
for one more clearance
at the optimalof the energy
conditions management
of their operation.concept behindhand the optimization
techniques,
Figure the simulated
17 displays the numeric
results forresults
a certainareday focused on the
regarding hybrid system
the optimum capacity performance
from
the EQ optimizer. According to Figure 17a,
for one day at the optimal conditions of their operation. it is noticeable that the per diem curve of
loadFigure
demand 17 includes
displaystwo the topmost
results forpoints. The day
a certain first regarding
one is nearbytheatoptimum
1 pm, where the from
capacity
temperature is high during this time. Hence, all existing equipment
the EQ optimizer. According to Figure 17a, it is noticeable that the per diem curve is required to beof load
in service to decrease the air temperature. The second topmost point is nearby at 6 pm
demand includes two topmost points. The first one is nearby at 1 pm, where the temper-
after the sunset. Within the nighttime till the early hours, the generated power from the
ature is high
renewable during
sources this time.
is very Hence, all existing
low; consequently, the battery equipment is required
and full cell are operatingto be toin service to
cover
decrease the airdemand.
the electricity temperature. The second
If the same conditionstopmost
are still,point is nearby
the LPSP, at 6 pm
as shown after the
in Figure 17c,sunset.
Within the nighttime
has a value. During the tillsunrise,
the early hours,6 the
around am, generated
the generated power
powerfrom
from thetherenewable
PV stationsources
isincreases.
very low;Consequently,
consequently, thethe battery
electric andover
energy fullthe cellload
areneeds
operating to cover
is utilized the electricity
to charge the
battery and
demand. fill up
If the samethe conditions
hydrogen tank. are Through
still, the theLPSP,daytime between
as shown in 2Figure
pm and17c, 6 pm,
hasthea value.
generated power from the nontraditional sources is higher than the load needs. Therefore,
the excess power is used to fill the tank and charge the battery, as shown in Figure 17b. The
hydrogen increased until the tank amounted to its maximum limit and the battery charging.
When the battery and the tank also are fully charged, the excess power is pushed into the
dummy load, as shown by Figure 17c.
 up the hydrogen tank. Through the daytime between 2 pm and 6 pm, the generated power
from the nontraditional sources is higher than the load needs. Therefore, the excess power
is used to fill the tank and charge the battery, as shown in Figure 17b. The hydrogen in-
creased until the tank amounted to its maximum limit and the battery charging. When the
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140
battery and the tank also are fully charged, the excess power is pushed into22the
of 25
dummy
Pload (Kw) load, as shown by Figure 17c.
PPV (Kw)
Pdiff (Kw)

(a) (b)
Pdummy (Kw)
L PS (Kw)

(c)

Figure 16. The results for the operation of the microgrid over one year considering the optimal
configuration based on EQ technique. (a) Load, PV, and the different power. (b) Performance of the
charging and discharging of the storage units for the battery and FC. (c) Dummy load and LPSP.
 Mathematics 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 27

Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 Figure 16. The results for the operation of the microgrid over one year considering the23optimal
of 25
configuration based on EQ technique. (a) Load, PV, and the different power. (b) Performance of the
Pload (Kw)
PPV (Kw)
Pdiff (Kw) charging and discharging of the storage units for the battery and FC. (c) Dummy load and LPSP.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 17. 17. Numeric
Numeric results
results of microgrid
of the the microgrid operation
operation for working
for one one working dayoptimal
day via via optimal configura-
configuration
tion using EQ technique. (a) Load, PV, and the different power. (b) Performance of the charging and
using EQ technique. (a) Load, PV, and the different power. (b) Performance of the charging and
discharging of the storage units for the battery and FC. (c) Dummy load and LPSP.
discharging of the storage units for the battery and FC. (c) Dummy load and LPSP.

4. 4. Conclusions
Conclusions and
and Future
Future Directions
Directions
InIn thispaper,
this paper,a astand-alone
stand-alonemicrogrid
microgridhas
hasbeen
beendesigned
designed to feed emergency
emergency loads
loads of
ofaa nuclear plant using
nuclear power plant usingrecent
recentoptimization
optimizationalgorithms
algorithmsofofequilibrium
equilibrium optimizer
optimizer
(EQO), bat optimization (BAT), and black hole (BH). A comprehensive comparison between
the ability and performance of the algorithms was conducted to solve the problem of
microgrids design. A configuration of a microgrid consisting of a PV plant with FC
Mathematics 2022, 10, 140 24 of 25

and battery storage systems was optimally designed, and the possibility of integrating
with a nuclear power plant to enhance the emergency power supplies was studied. The
optimization algorithms are individually used to optimize and size the energy systems to
minimize the cost and ensure the optimized microgrid’s reliability. The energy systems
were modeled and evaluated in MATLAB.
The results show that the EQ algorithm has a better performance than the other
algorithms considering the best objective function value. The objective function was
improved to 0.1074 using the EQ algorithm, while its values were 0.112231 and 0.108078
with BAT and BHB. However, the COE of the EQ-based results is higher than the BAT
algorithm, while it is lower than the BHB. On the other hand, the reliability index of the EQ
algorithm is better than the BAT algorithm, which is the main reason to increase the COE of
the EQ algorithm. The results of BHB indicate that the LPSP is a smaller one with respect
to the EQ and BAT, while the dummy load of the BHB is higher than those of the BAT and
EQ algorithms. Finally, the designed microgrid based on the EQ and BHB is recommended
based on the obtained results of the simulation of the microgrid operation and statistical
analyses. It should be remarked that the storage energy cost is considered one of the main
reasons to increase the COE and affect the system reliability. Using other renewable energy
sources such as bioenergy or wind energy may enhance the system performance. Therefore,
in future work, different configurations of off-grid and grid-connected microgrids should
be designed to include a wind power plant, bioenergy, and/or diesel generator to increase
the system’s reliability and reduce the COE.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.A.Z.D. and M.M.Z.; Methodology, A.A.Z.D. and M.A.T.;
Software, A.A.Z.D.; Data curation, A.A.Z.D., A.M.E.-R. and M.A.T.; Formal analysis, A.A.Z.D.,
A.M.E.-R. and M.A.T.; Visualization, A.A.Z.D., A.M.E.-R. and M.A.T.; Investigation, A.M.E.-R. and
M.M.Z.; Analysis, A.A.Z.D. and A.M.E.-R.; Writing—original draft, A.A.Z.D. and M.A.T.; Writing—
review and editing, A.A.Z.D., A.M.E.-R. and M.M.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The researchers (Ahmed A. Zaki Diab and Mohamed A. Tolba) are funded by a
full scholarship (Mission 2020/21 and Mission 2019/20) from the Ministry of Higher Education of
Egypt. However, the current research work is not funded by the mentioned Ministry in Egypt or any
other organization/foundation.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Non-financial competing interest.

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