1 Recovery of High Added Value

Trends in Food Science & Technology 26 (2012) 68e87
Review
Recovery of high
added-value with a final purpose of discussing the prevalent problems
that restrict the commercialization of similar procedures.
components from Introduction

Food processing wastes have long been considered as a mat-
food wastes: ter of treatment, minimization and prevention due to the en-
vironmental effects induced by their disposal. Nowadays,
food wastes account as a source of valuable nutraceuticals
Conventional,
Brunet, & Cetkovi

(Schieber, Stintzing, & Carle, 2001; Sonja, Canadanovi
c, 2009) and deal with the prospects of
c-
feeding fast growing population in 21st century (Parfitt,

emerging Barthel, & Macaughton, 2010). Perspectives originate
from the enormous amounts of food related materials that
technologies and are discharged worldwide and the existing technologies,

which promise the recovery, recycling and sustainability
of high-added value ingredients inside food chain.
commercialized According to the Food and Agriculture Organization,
roughly one-third of the edible parts of food produced for hu-
man consumption gets lost or wasted globally. This amount
applications accounts about 1.3 billion tn/year and reflects not only the
food processing wastes, but also the “food losses”
(Gustavsson, Cederberg, Sonesson, van Otterdijk, &
Charis M. Galanakis* Meybeck, 2011). The latest term accounts for the decrease
in edible food mass that is lost, discarded or degraded in dif-
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology
ferent stages of food supply chain like production, postharvest
and Food Science, Cyprus University of Technology,
handling, processing, distribution and consumption
P.O. Box 50329, CY 3603 Lemesos, Cyprus (Permanent
(Gustavsson et al., 2011; Parfitt et al., 2010). “Food wastes”
address: Chemical Analytical Laboratories
are residues of high organic load, which are usually derived
“Galanakis”, Skalidi 34 GR-73131 Chania, Greece.
during raw materials processing to foodstuff and result in liq-
Tel.: D30 28210 93056; fax: D30 28210 88981;
uid or solid form. The fact that these substances are removed
e-mail: [email protected],
from the production process as undesirable materials defines
[email protected])
them as “wastes” in most European legislations (Commission
Regulations 442/1975/EEC; 689/1991/EEC). Nevertheless,
Food wastes are today considered as a cheap source of valu- discharging of wastes does not account the potentiality of
able components since the existent technologies allow the re- re-utilizing them inside the food chain. For this reason, the
covery of target compounds and their recycling inside food term “food by-products” is increasingly used among the re-
chain as functional additives in different products. The goal lated scientists in order to notify that “food wastes” are ulti-
of the current article is to classify food waste sources and mate substrates for the recapture of functional compounds
high-added value ingredients prior to exploring the recovery and the development of new products with a market value.
stages, conventional and emerging technologies applied from For example, phenols and carotenoids from fruit by-
the raw material to the final or encapsulated product. Safety products could be applied as natural food or beverage pre-
and cost aspects were discussed, too, while a survey of pat- servatives since they extend the shelf-life of the product by
ented methodologies leading to real products was listed, delaying the formation of off-flavors and rancidity
(Oreopoulou & Tzia, 2007). Pectin could be utilized as gel-
ling agent in confectionary or as fat replacement in meat
* Corresponding author. products (Galanakis, Tornberg, & Gekas, 2010c). Water
0924-2244/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2012.03.003
C.M. Galanakis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 26 (2012) 68e87 69
insoluble fibers (i.e. hemicelluloses) are able to improve in- South and Southeast Asia rice is more prevalent
testinal regulation (Rodrıguez, Jimenez, Fernandez- (Gustavsson et al., 2011). Grinding of wheat and de-
Bola~nos, Guillen, & Heredia, 2006) and thereby are hulling of rice generates by-products like bran or straw,
destined to supplement food products or ready meals. which are rich in high nutritional proteins (Prakash,
Cheese processing whey is an abundant source of lactose 1996), dietary fibers and particularly glucuronoarabinoxy-
and proteins, and thus it is designated for the delivery of lans (Hollmann & Lindhauer, 2005; Sun & Tomkinson,
monosaccharides and oligopeptides in nutritional supple- 2002). Oat mill waste (originated from rolled oat grains)
ments and soft drinks, respectively (Madureira, Tavares, has been suggested for the extraction of b-glucan with ad-
Gomes, Pintado, & Malcata, 2010). Protein hydrolyzates vanced gelling properties (Patsioura, Galanakis, & Gekas,
from fish by-products have also been proposed as seafood 2011).
flavors for soups or surimi (Kristinsson & Rasco, 2000). Among the several roots and tubers, potato is the largest
Schieber et al. (2001) and latter Russ and Meyer-Pittroff crop worldwide, while cassava is very popular in South
(2004) revised the utilization of by-products from the plant Asia and America (FAOSTAT, 2009). Processing of pota-
and food processing industries by exploring the potentiality toes is conducted mainly for the production of chips or
of the most popular substrates as separate cases. Sonja French fries and corresponding solid wastes consist of peels
et al. (2009) reported the valorization of fruit by-products or cull potatoes (Schieber et al., 2001). Potato peels and
as a source of phytochemicals using a similar approach. processing wastewater have been thoroughly investigated
More recently, Parfitt et al. (2010) followed a philosophic for the extraction of phenols (Oreopoulou & Tzia, 2007).
consideration for the quantification and evaluation of food Nevertheless, cassava peel has only been studied as a sub-
waste applications within food supply chains in the near fu- strate for microbial protein enrichment (Falade &
ture. Despite the omnipresence of hypothetic scenarios, Akingbala, 2011) and not for the preparation of food addi-
high quality studies and patented methodologies, the labeled tives. In the case of oil crops and pulses, sunflower and soy-
products derived from food waste are today rather limited and bean are the dominating crops in Europe and North
concern mainly whey protein isolates. The present review America, respectively, while their seeds are destined to
classifies food waste sources and corresponding high-added the extraction of phytosterols (Copeland & Belcher,
value components, while it focus on the common recovery 2001). Olive is a very popular oil crop in the Mediterranean
stages, conventional and emerging technologies applied region that can also be considered in the fruits’ group. Olive
from the source to the final product. Moreover, it explores mill pomace and wastewater have been widely valorized as
patented methodologies that led to commercial products a source of bioactive phenols and more recently pectin
and ultimately discusses the main problems behind develop- (Galanakis, Tornberg, & Gekas, 2010a; Obied et al., 2005).
ing a laboratory methodology to a real market product. Generally, fruits and vegetables processing wastes are
the most widely investigated substrates for the extraction
Sources and target ingredients of several types of antioxidants and dietary fibers
Food wastes are composed of complex ingredients, which (Table 1). This is due to the fact that corresponding by-
have been discharged from the original material. The wastes products are made of soft tissues rich in both ingredients,
originated by various branches of the food industry can be di- which allow their simultaneous extraction in two separate
vided in two main groups (plant or animal origin) and 7 sub- streams. Citrus is among the largest fruit crop worldwide
categories (Table 1). In low-income countries, food wastes and substrates like lemon by-products have been applied
are primary generated during agricultural production and for the production of pectin and flavonoids (narirutin) at
secondarily during postharvest handling or storage. Food los- the same time (Kim, Lee, Lee, & Kim, 2004; Masmoudi
ses in industrialized countries are shared between agricul- et al., 2008). Orange peel has also been utilized for the re-
tural and consumption stages (Gustavsson et al., 2011). On covery of flavonoids (i.e. hesperidin), essential oils and ca-
the other hand, scientists focus mainly on the recovery of rotenoids (Chedea, Kefalas, & Sociacu, 2010; Di Mauro,
functional compounds derived from agricultural and food Fallico, Passerini, Rapisarda, & Maccarone, 1999; Farhat
processing by-products. These sources are abundant, concen- et al., 2011). The latest compounds have been delivered
trated in rather few locations and less susceptible to deterio- from carrot peels, tomato pomace and skin, too
ration compared to the wastes produced at the end of food (Chantaro, Devahastin, & Chiewchan, 2008; Strati &
supply chain. The latter materials would normally be distrib- Oreopoulou, 2011).
uted across a broad range of households and subsequently be Animal originated wastes contain high amount of pro-
accumulated at numerous regions as a result of preparing teins that are too valuable to be discharged on the environ-
meals. This fact complicates their valorization as sources ment. The majority of meat by-products is produced in
for valuable components recovery since an additional collec- slaughterhouses and consists of materials that cannot be
tion stage is needed and corresponding biological stability is sold. Typical examples include bones, tendons, skin, beef
dramatically reduced due to the growth of pathogens. lung or sheep visceral mass (Darine, Christophe, &
With regard to the cereals, wheat is the dominant crop Gholamreza, 2010; Russ & Meyer-Pittroff, 2004). Fish
supply in medium- and high-income countries, while in and seafood result in appreciable amounts of wastes during
70
Table 1. Food wastes origin, sources and corresponding target ingredients for recovery.
Waste origin Production stage with the largest lossesa Selected sources Target ingredients References
Agricultural Postharvest handling Consumer
production & storage phase
Plant
(i) Cereals DCb DCb ICc Rice bran Albumin & globulin Prakash (1996)
Hemicellulose B & Hu, Huang, Cao, and Ma (2009)
insoluble dietary fiber
Wheat middling Arabinoxylans Ramseyer, Bettge, and Morris (2011)
Wheat straw Hemicellulose Sun and Tomkinson (2002)
Wheat bran Glucuronoarabinoxylans Hollmann and Lindhauer (2005)
C.M. Galanakis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 26 (2012) 68e87

Oat mill waste b-Glucan Patsioura et al. (2011)
Malt dust Glucose, arabinose & Fischer and Bipp (2005)
galactose
Brewery’s spent grains Arabinoxylans Roos et al. (2009)
(ii) Root & tubers DCb & ICc DCb & ICc e Potato peel Phenols Oreopoulou & Tzia, 2007
Sugar beet molasses Organic acids Fischer and Bipp (2005)
(iii) Oil crops & pulses DCb & ICc DCb e Sunflower seed Phytosterols Copeland and Belcher (2001)
Soybean seed Phytosterols Copeland and Belcher (2001)
Soybean oil waste Phytosterols Yang et al. (2010)
Soybean wastewater Albumin Jishan et al. (2009)
Olive pomace Phenols Obied et al. (2005)
Olive mill wastewater Phenols & pectin Galanakis (2011)
(iv) Fruits & vegetables DCb & ICc DCb e Cold hardy mandarin peel Narirutin Kim et al. (2004)
Orange peel Hesperidin Di Mauro et al. (1999)
Apocarotenoid Chedea et al. (2010)
Limonene Farhat et al. (2011)
Lemon by-product Pectin Masmoudi et al. (2008)
Apple pomace Pectin Wang et al. (2007)
Apple skin Phenols Schieber et al. (2001)
Peach pomace Pectin Pagan, Ibarz, Llorca, and Coll (1999)
Apricot kernel Protein Sharma, Tilakratne, and Anil (2010)
Grape pomace Dietary fiber Schieber et al. (2001)
Grape skin Phenols Pinelo, Arnous, and Meyer (2006)
Wine lees Calcium tartate Braga, Silva, and Alves (2002)
Enocyanin Braga et al. (2002)
Banana peel Cyanidin-3-rutinoside Pazmino-Duran, Giusti, Wrolstad, and
Gloria (2001)
Rejected and processed Soluble and insoluble Martin-Cabrejas, Esteban, Lopez-Andreu,
kiwifruits dietary fiber Waldron, and Selvendran (1995)
Carrot peel b-carotene Chantaro et al. (2008)
Phenols Chantaro et al. (2008)
Tomato pomace Lycopene Lavecchia and Zuorro (2008)
Tomato skin Carotenoids Strati and Oreopoulou (2011)
Cauliflower floret & curd Pectin Femenia, Lefebvre, Thebaudin, Robertson,
and Bourgeois (1997)
processing (i.e. 9e15% and 6e8% of marine catches in in-
Shenghui, 1995; Tzoumaki et al. (2011)

dustrialized and developing countries, respectively) and in-
on, and Figueroa (1999)
vestigators have proposed the delivery of proteins and

Selmane, Christophe & Gholamreza
Stine, Pedersen, Smiley and Bechtel

omez-Juarez, Castellanos, Ponce-
lipids from fish skin, head & bones (Gehring, Gigliotti,

Moritz, Tou, & Jaczynski, 2011; Gustavsson et al., 2011).
El-Sayed and Chase (2011)

El-Sayed and Chase (2011)
Besides, cheese whey is one of the most popular substrates
Tahergorabi et al. (2011)
Bund and Pandit (2007)

for the extraction of proteins and saccharides, as it is mas-
Gehring et al. (2011)
Gehring et al. (2011)
Bhaskar et al. (2007)
Darine et al. (2010)
sively produced during cheese manufacture and possesses

Noyola, Calder
a very high ratio of mass per product mass (4.0e11.3),

the so-called specific waste index (Russ & Meyer-Pittroff,
2004).
(2012)
(2008)
G
Recovery stages and conventional technologies

The extraction, fractionation and isolation of high
added-value compounds from food wastes usually follow
the principles of analytical chemistry. Thereafter, modifica-
Protein concentrates
Protein hydrolyzates
tions are accordingly introduced into the applied methodol-

b-Lactoglobulin
Chitosan/Chitin
a-Lactalbumin
ogy with an ultimate goal of:

Proteins
Proteins
Proteins
Proteins
Proteins
Lactose
(a) maximizing the yield of the target compounds,

Lipids
(b) suiting the demands of industrial processing,

(c) clarifying the high added-value ingredients from impu-
Fish leftovers (skin, head & bones)
rities and toxic compounds,

(d) avoiding deterioration and loss of functionality during
Slaughterhouse by-products
processing and
(e) ensuring the food grade nature of the final product.
Shrimp & crab shells
Chicken by-products
Sheep visceral mass
Surimi wastewater
Among the numerous methodologies found in literature,

five distinct recovery stages can principally be observed, al-
Bovine blood
Cheese whey
though steps are sometimes eliminated or oversubscribe

Beef lung
each other. Processing often progresses from the macro-

scopic to the macromolecular level and afterwards to the
extraction (or removal) of specific micro-molecules, prior
DCb & ICc
to the purification and encapsulation of the target ones

(Fig. 1A). This downstream scheme is selected if two dif-
ICc
ferent ingredients are recovered or the valuable component

e
is a micromolecule (i.e. antioxidant). In reverse, when the

“IC” for “industrialized, medium- or high-income countries”.
target compound is a macromolecule (i.e. protein), the sec-

ond stage may be omitted.
The macroscopic pre-treatment aims the adjustment of
the food waste matrix according to the water content, enzy-
“DC” for “developing or low-income countries”.
matic activity and permeability of the bioresource tissues.

This stage includes only one process that is depended on
DC2
According to Gustavsson et al. (2011).
the nature and the structure of the substrate (i.e. solid,

e
sludge or wastewater). If the substrate is fruit or vegetable

DCb & ICc
by-product, a wet milling step is necessary to facilitate and

improve the yield of the following separation and extraction
DCb
DCb
stages (Oreopoulou & Tzia, 2007). This is conducted via

swelling and tissue softening that allows the higher diffu-
sion of extractants inside food matrix. On the other hand,
(vii) Dairy products
(vi) Fish & seafood
if the substrate is a wastewater (i.e. of olive oil industry),

(v) Meat products
concentration (thermal or vacuum) is utilized with a final

purpose of removing water and increasing content of valu-
able components. Thermal process causes also activation or
Animal
de-activation of key enzymes (i.e. pectin methyl esterase or

a
c
b
polyphenol oxidases), which subsequently affect the yield

72 C.M. Galanakis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 26 (2012) 68e87
I. Macroscopic Pre-treatment I. Macroscopic Pre-treatment
Wet Milling, Thermal and/or Vacuum Concentration, Foam-Mat Drying, Electro-Osmotic Dewatering,
Mechanical Pressing, Freeze Drying,
Low-Temperature Plasma Treatment
Centrifugation & Microfiltration
II. Macro- & Micro- molecules Separation II. Macro- & Micro- molecules Separation
Alcohol Precipitation, Ultrafiltration, Colloidal Gas Aphrons, Ultrasound-Assisted
Isoelectric Solubilization-Precipitation, Crystallization, Pressurized Microwave-
Extrusion Assisted Extraction
III. Extraction III. Extraction

Solvent, Acid, Alkali, Microwave-Assisted, Ultrasonics, Laser Ablation, Pulsed Electric
Steam Diffusion, Hydrodistillation, Field, High Voltage Electrical Discharge,
Supercritical fluid Liquid Membranes, Pervaporation
IV. Isolation & Purification IV. Isolation & Purification

Adsorption, Chromatography, Magnetic Fishing, Aqueous
Two-Phase Separation,
Nanofiltration
Membrane Ion Exchange
Electrodialysis
Chromatography
V. Product V. Product
formation formation
Spray- & Freeze-Drying, Nanotechnology,
Pulsed fluid bed
Emulsions,
A Extrusion B agglomeration
Fig. 1. Recovery stages of high-added value components from food wastes: (A) established and (B) emerging technologies.
and the quality of target compounds such as pectin and phe- hydrocolloids), which are collected in the so-called alcohol
nols (Galanakis, Tornberg, & Gekas, 2010d, 2010e). Ther- insoluble residue (Galanakis et al., 2010a; Koubala et al.,
mal drying at high temperatures has been applied in sugar 2008). This method is selected because it is cheap, non-
beet pulp and apple pomace (Schieber et al., 2001), but toxic and easy of use. Nevertheless, it is neither selective
dewatering could alternatively be conducted with mechan- nor able to separate the complexes between the smaller
ical pressing in order to avoid thermal-induced yield reduc- (i.e. phenols) and the larger (i.e. proteins, pectin) mole-
tion and loss of functionality. Nevertheless, athermal cules. This can be observed i.e. by comparing the recovery
processes (i.e. freeze drying) possesses other disadvantages, of phenols from mango peel in the presence and absence of
i.e. increased cost due to the presence of vacuum conditions ethanol precipitation prior to a resin adsorption process
and low shelf-life of the treated matrix, as thermal- (Table 2). Specifically, this step resulted in a yield reduction
processing provides microbial pasteurization on it. Other from 34.9 to 24.9%, probably due to a partial removal of
technologies such as centrifugation or microfiltration have phenols in the alcohol insoluble residue. Isoelectric solubi-
also been suggested in the pre-treatment stage, because lisation/precipitation allows the selective solubility of pro-
they are able to remove solids, oils and fats. These compo- teins from meat, fish or marine by-products with
nents are susceptible to autoxidation, cause deterioration of concurrent removal of lipids, bones or skin (Gehring
the substrate and restrict mechanical processing such as et al., 2011; Tahergorabi, Beamer, Matak, & Jaczynski,
substrate flow, mixing and homogenization (Dıaz, Perreira 2011). This process requires a pH shifting around proteins’
& Cobos, 2004; Galanakis et al., 2010a). Besides, the re- isoelectric point. When the pH value is equal to the isoelec-
capture of components with specific properties requires in tric point (i.e. w3.5 in surimi wastewater), proteineprotein
some cases a more complicated approach during pre-treat- hydrophobic attraction overcomes proteinewater electro-
ment. For example, phytosterols in raw materials exist par- static affinity and causes isoelectric precipitation
tially in ester form and thus the pre-treatment involves (Bourtoom, Chinnan, Jantawat, & Sanguandeekul, 2009).
a hydrolysis step under high pressure and temperature Conversely, when the pH value is different from the iso-
(1.5e50 MPa and 200e260 C) or saponification with alka- electric point, proteinewater attraction and proteinepro-
line solution (Fernandes & Cabral, 2007). tein electrostatic repulsion are favored and subsequently
With regard to the second recovery stage, alcohol pre- an isoelectric solubilization occurs (Gehring et al., 2011).
cipitation is the most popular method for the separation Membranes are also able to perform similar grading proce-
of smaller compounds (i.e. antioxidants, acids or ions) dures, i.e. to remove protein concentrates from cheese whey
from macromolecules (i.e. pectin, dietary fibers or (Barba, Beolchini, Cifoni, & Veglio, 2001) or separate
Table 2. Approximate efficacy of different technologies applied for the recovery of target compounds from several waste sources.
Target Food waste source Applied technologies Recovery yield Reference

compounds g compound/100 g g compound/100 g compound
waste dry matter contained in the waste
Pectin Lemon peel, Freeze drying, acid-assisted extraction, 11.2 51.9 Masmoudi et al. (2008)
pulp & pips centrifugation, sequential ethanol
precipitation
Lemon peel Drying, acid-assisted extraction 13.0 e Panchev et al. (2011)
Laser ablation, drying, acid-assisted 15.2 e Panchev et al. (2011)
extraction
Orange peel Drying, acid-assisted extraction 13.1 e Panchev et al. (2011)

Laser ablation, drying, acid-assisted 16.5 e Panchev et al. (2011)
extraction
Orange albedo Microwave-assisted extraction 0.8 e Liu et al. (2006)
Soxhlet extraction 1.7 e Liu et al. (2006)
Microwave- & pressure-assisted 19.6 35.0 Fishman et al. (2000)
extraction, filtration, washing &
centrifugation
Phenols Olive mill Concentration, acid-assisted 1.0 14.5 Galanakis et al. (2010b)
wastewater extraction, ethanol precipitation,
concentration, dilution,
microfiltration, ultrafiltration
Drying, pressurized & superheated 4.7 for total phenols, e Jap
on-Lujan and Luque de
ethanol-assisted extraction 2.8 for hydroxytyrosol, Castro (2007)
1.6 for tyrosol
Sea buckthorn Microwave-assisted extraction 1.2 for total phenols, e Perino-Issartier et al. (2011)
berries pomace 0.1 for isorhamnetin 3-O-
rutinoside
Conventional solideliquid extraction 0.7 for total phenols, e Perino-Issartier et al. (2011)
0.2 for isorhamnetin 3-O-
rutinoside
Mango peel Acid-assisted extraction, resin 0.14 for total phenols, 34.9 for total phenols, Berandini et al. (2005)
adsorption, methanol elution, 0.12 for mangiferin 70.4 for mangiferin
evaporation & freeze-drying
Acid-assisted extraction, ethanol 0.10 for total phenols, 24.9 for total phenols, Berandini et al. (2005)
precipitation, evaporation, resin 0.08 for mangiferin 52.9 for mangiferin
adsorption, methanol elution,
evaporation & freeze drying
White grape Water extraction 0.26 e Boussetta et al. (2009)
pomace Water extraction & high voltage 0.44 e Boussetta et al. (2009)
electrical discharge
(continued on next page)
73
pectin and potassium during ultrafiltration of high added
Bhattacharjee et al. (2006)

value components recovered from olive mill wastewater
Pereira, Diaz, and Cobos

(Galanakis, Tornberg, & Gekas, 2010b). In the first exam-
Pereira et al. (2002)

ple, different membranes’ combinations have been pro-
Barba et al. (2001)
posed (Table 2), although the higher yield (52.9%) was

observed by applying only one ultrafiltration step. Never-
Reference
theless, the application of sequential membranes could

(2002)
eventually increase protein selectivity. Membrane proce-

dures are efficient and easy going, but they possess high
sensitivity in feed content, i.e. potential variations of the
latest generate fouling problems that restrict membrane ap-
g compound/100 g compound
plications. Pectin and other polysaccharides (i.e. hemicellu-

loses, starch or chitin) separation can also be performed in
contained in the waste
7.8 for b-lactoglobulin

33.3 for total proteins,
special occasions by changing the micro-structure of the

by-product substrate via high mechanical energy input
and extrusion technology (Zeitoun, Pontalier, Marechal,
& Rigal, 2010).
Extraction, which is the next and most important stage
52.3
14.6
90.3
39.5
26.1
of downstream processing, is well-documented with differ-

ent methodologies employed towards the target molecules
and their physicochemical characteristics (i.e. solubility
or volatility). Solvent extraction is very convenient, since
the solvent provides a physical carrier to transfer the target
molecules between different phases (i.e. solid, liquid and
0.04 for b-lactoglobulin
vapor). Phenols are easily solubilized in polar protic me-

0.4 for total proteins,
g compound/100 g
diums like hydroalcoholic mixtures, while corresponding

waste dry matter
fractions can be obtained on the basis of polarity by varying

Recovery yield
alcohol concentration (Galanakis, Goulas, Tsakona,

Manganaris, & Gekas, in press; Tsakona, Galanakis &
Gekas, 2012). Among the several alcohols, ethanol is
7.0
5.9
3.5
most preferable because it is rather cheap and possesses

e
“GRAS” status (Generally-Recognized-As-Safe according

to American Food and Drug Administration). On the other
Ultrafiltration, diafiltration (2 steps) &
Centrifugation, ultrafiltration (3 steps)
hand, carotenoids such as tomato lycopene are more lipo-

ultrafiltration, diafiltration & freeze
Skimming, ultrafiltration (1 step) &
Stirring, crystallization & ethanol
soluble and thereby polar aprotic or non-polar solvents

Sonocrystallization & ethanol
(i.e. acetone or ethyl acetate, respectively) are preferred

& ion-exchange membrane
Skimming, microfiltration,
(Strati & Oreopoulou, 2011). At this case, the solvent

should be removed completely from the extract prior its
Applied technologies
re-utilization in food products. The extraction of phenols,

chromatography
carotenoids and flavorings sometimes occurs in combina-

freeze drying
precipitation
precipitation
tion with pressurized and distillation processes, which ac-

celerate the process and extract volatile compounds,
drying
drying
respectively. On the other hand, enzyme-assisted extraction

has been used as a pre-treatment step in order to soften the
structural integrity of botanical materials (Sowbhagya &
Food waste source
Chitra, 2010). Solvent extraction may be accomplished in

a packed bed reactor operating under reflux of the solvent
Cheese whey
Casein whey
Paneer whey
or in an agitated vessel, followed by filtration of the extract.

Sequential extraction steps increase the extract yield, but
also the consumed time and cost of the process
Table 2 (continued )
(Oreopoulou & Tzia, 2007). With regard to pectin and

hemicelluloses extraction, several authors have recommen-
compounds
ded protocols using ethanol as a precipitant, followed by

acid or alkali treatment (Koubala et al., 2008). In some
Proteins
Lactose
Target
cases, extraction has been occurred prior to precipitation

step, i.e. during pectin and phenols elution from olive
mill wastewater and mango peels. Inversion of processing as it is highly soluble in CO2 and possesses food grade na-
stages has been suggested in order to utilize a part of the ture as described above. The drawbacks of supercritical
added ethanol as surfactant (penetrates into the capillary fluids extraction are the many parameters to optimize,
porous structure of fruit tissues) and dissociate the pectine the difficulty of extracting polar compounds without add-
phenols complexes with a subsequent release of both coming modifiers and in some cases the co-extraction of non-
pounds in alcohol insoluble residue and ethanolic extract, target classes of compounds.
respectively (Berardini, Kn€ odler, Scieber, & Carle, 2005; The fourth recovery stage aims at the isolation or the
Galanakis et al., 2010d). clarification of the target compounds from co-extracted im-
Microwave-assisted extraction raised interest over the purities. Adsorption, supported by resins, activated carbons
last years, as microwave energy is able to heat solvents or polysaccharide-based materials is an attractive process
rapidly and thus accelerating transfer of analytes from that enables the separation of selected low molecular
the sample matrix into the solvent. This technique is weight phenols from dilute solutions with high capacity
easy to handle, requires moderate solvent and has recently and insensitivity to toxic substances (Soto, Moure,
been applied for the extraction of pectin and phenols from Domınguez, & Parajo, 2011). Moreover, it requires a rela-
apple pomace and potato by-products, respectively tively simple design, operation and scale up, which adsor-
(Oreopoulou & Tzia, 2007; Perino-Issartier, Zill-e- bents can be easily regenerated and re-utilized.
Huma, Abert-Vian, & Chemat, 2011; Wang et al., 2007). Nevertheless, this process is time consuming and demands
Compared to the conventional solideliquid extraction, it further research with regard to the sorption behavior of in-
has been reported to increase substantially recovery of to- dividual components in complex mixtures. Adsorption has
tal phenols from berries pomace, although it resulted in typically been applied for the isolation of flavonoids and
less extraction of particular compounds such as isorham- phenols (i.e. hesperidin) from orange peel as well as pheno-
netin 3-O-rutinoside (Table 2). Besides, it can be com- lic acids (ferulic, cinnamic, gallic etc) from olive mill waste
bined with other technologies such as steam diffusion (Di Mauro et al., 1999; Ferri, Bertin, Scoma, Marchetti, &
and hydrodistillation to enhance extractability of volatile Fava, 2011). Besides, the principles of adsorption have
compounds (Farhat et al., 2011). Essential oil constituents been applied in ion exchange or affinity chromatography
(i.e. from citrus by-products) are traditionally extracted for the fractionation of polyvalent and charged whey pro-
with steam diffusion, although this process has disadvan- teins or phenols from olive mill wastewater (El-Sayed &
tages such as thermal deterioration and difficult removal Chase, 2011; Fernandez-Bola~nos et al., 2002). Chromato-
of solvent from the extract. Contrarily, in hydrodistillation graphic methods are laboratory-intensive, solvent and
the botanical material is completely immersed in boiling time consuming, but they can also ensure the recapture of
water, which acts as a barrier to prevent overheating of target molecules in pure forms destined for pharmaceutical
the essential oils. At this case, recovery is facilitated by and functional applications.
distillation of two immiscible liquids (i.e. water and essen- Membrane processes perform more direct and selective
tial oil), based on the principle that the combined vapor separations nanofiltration like this between monovalent
pressure equals the ambient pressure at the boiling point. and multivalent ions. Besides, they can optimize lactic
Supercritical fluid extraction is another modern technique acid purification with simultaneous recovery of whey pro-
that involves the use of a gas (i.e. CO2) above its critical teins in the concentrate stream. Reverse osmosis allows
temperature and pressure. This means that the carrier ex- only water molecules to pass through the membrane pores,
hibits physicochemical properties intermediate between while nanofiltration is an alternative method when monova-
liquid and gas. It is employed for difficult separation pro- lent salt permeation is desirable (Galanakis, Fountoulis, &
cesses based on low quantity of valuable products, while
Gekas, 2012; Gonzalez, Alvarez, Riera, & Alvarez, 2008;
its main advantage is the low solvent consumption and Li, Shahbazi, Williams, & Wan, 2008). Nanofiltration has
the absence of corresponding residues in the extract also been suggested for the clarification of a phenol con-
(Sowbhagya & Chitra, 2010). Other advantages include taining beverage derived from olive mill wastewater by re-
rapid extraction, concentration and high selectivity. Super- moving polymerized phenolic fractions (Galanakis et al.,
critical fluid extraction is suitable for fragrance extraction, 2010b). Electrodialysis is a type of technology that ar-
while it has been industrially applied for the recovery of ranges ion-exchange membranes alternately in a direct cur-
hydroxytyrosol from olive mill wastewater (Crea, 2002). rent electrical field and separates particles according to
Latter applications include the extraction of phenols and their charges. Owning to its distinguished properties, it
volatile sesquiterpenes from Brazilian cherry seeds has been utilized to treat salt containing solutions and con-
(Santos, de Souza, Ferreira, & de Oliveira, 2011) as well centrate the contained macromolecules, i.e. to de-
as the recovery of anthocyanins from grape peels mineralize an oligosaccharides’ extract from soybean sheet
(Ghafoor, Park, & Choi, 2011). Previous reports referred slurry and separate peptides from a snow crab by-product
to the extraction of low-solubility, high molecular weight hydrolyzate (Doyen, Beaulieu, Saucier, Pouliot, &
and polar solutes (i.e. carotenoids) using co-solvents, too. Bazinet, 2011; Wang, Ying, Jiang, Yang, & Jahangir,
Ethanol has been successfully employed for this purpose, 2009). Drawbacks of membrane processes are mainly
related to stability and lifetime of the materials, while elec- Emerging technologies
trodialysis removes incompletely weak acids. Utilization of conventional recovery methods are often
The final step of downstream processing is product for- restricted by several problems that are difficult to over-
mation (encapsulation or drying), which is not a recovery come. These include:
operation, but it should occasionally be taken into account.
Encapsulation entraps bioactive food components inside (a) overheating of the food matrix,
a physical barrier (coating material), preserves their stabil- (b) high energy consumption and general cost,
ity, masks undesirable organoleptic characteristics and pro- (c) loss of functionality and poor stability of the final
tects them against environmental stresses. In addition, it is product,
a useful tool to prevent non-functional interactions with (d) accomplishment of increasingly stringent legal require-
food matrix during their utilization as additives and im- ments on materials safety.
prove their delivery into foods. In the case of recovering
polysaccharides, dietary fibers or proteins, encapsulation Emerging technologies based on non-thermal concepts
stage is replaced with drying. On the other hand, polysac- (i.e. pulsed electric fields promise to surpass most of the
charides (starch, cellulose, cyclodextrin, inulin, pectin, above challenges and optimize processing efficiency).
gums, carrageenans, alginate etc) and proteins are typically Besides, advanced encapsulation with nanoparticles en-
used as coating materials. Whey protein gels and dietary hances stability, provides moisture- and pH-triggered con-
fibers from soybean solid residue, palm trunk and oil trolled release, enhanced bioavailability and consecutive
palm frond have been valorized for this purpose, too delivery of multiple active ingredients (Jaeger, Janositz,
(Betz & Kulozik, 2011; Fung, Yuen, & Liong, 2011). Since & Knorr, 2010; McClements & Rao, 2011). These modern
compounds are typically derived in liquid form, many en- technologies are today suggested for their application in
capsulation technologies are based on drying. Spray drying various processes within food industry and they could be
is the most widely used encapsulation technique in the easily adapted in the recovery downstream of valuable
food industry because it is an economic, flexible, easy han- compounds from corresponding wastes (Fig. 1B).
dling and continuous operation. It has been employed for For instance, macroscopic pre-treatment like drying
the encapsulation of tomato carotenoids (lycopene, a-caro- could be performed using foam-mat technique. This is an
tene and b-carotene) from industrial residues (Duarte et al., old technology (developed in the early 70s), but it is herein
2011) and phenolics (i.e. myricetin, quercetin, quercetin-3- considered together with emerging technologies since it at-
b-glucoside, caffeic acid and p-coumaric acid) from wine tracted attention lately due to the efforts for diminution of
lees (Perez-Serradilla & de Castro, 2011). The disadvan- thermal processes. Foam-mat drying is based on the conver-
tage of spray drying is the yield reduction caused by the sion of a semisolid material to stable foam using inert
thermal destruction of labile antioxidants, i.e. volatile gases, foaming agents as well as rapid supply of hot air.
low molecular weight phenols. Freeze drying preserves This alternative and relatively simple method provides
better the labile compounds compared to spray drying, as high stability against deteriorative microbial, chemical
the whole process is conducted under very low tempera- and biochemical reactions. Moreover, it requires lower tem-
tures and vacuum conditions. On the other hand, freeze peratures and shorter drying time that allow the removal of
drying is a time and energy consuming methodology. water from heat-sensitive and viscous substrates such high-
Melt extrusion is used to modify polysaccharides (i.e. sugar fruit by-products (i.e. mango pulp or apple puree)
breakdown starch to increase its palatability) and encapsu- containing labile antioxidants (Rajkumar, Kailappan,
late flavors or nutrients. In this process, the core ingredient Viswanathan, Raghavan, & Ratti, 2007). As some liquids
is dry fed and melted into a sheath of coating material so- do not form readily or collapse during drying, alternative
lution. In particular, a combination of shear forces and heat technologies like the electrically-assisted mechanical dew-
is applied so that the crystalline structure is transformed atering has been suggested. This moisture leveling process
into an amorphous phase. Extrusion is low yield, solvent combines the conventional pressure consolidation with
consuming and solute degrading process but it requires electrostatic effects. The latest are induced by electrochem-
shorter residence time, lower chemical and water consump- ical double layers, which are formed at the particleewater
tion. Other not-drying methods like liposome and emulsion interface of colloidal aqueous suspensions. The so-called
entrapment are typically used in more specific applications, electro-osmotic dewatering does not over dry surface of
i.e. to entrap lipophilic tomato carotenes or hydrophilic the substrate and thus it can be more effective for solideli-
phenols from potato peel, prior to their exploitation against quid mixtures consisting of gelatinous particles. However,
lipid peroxidation in fish-rapeseed oil mixtures if the processing liquid contains many kinds of colloidal
(Habeebullah, Nielsen, & Jacobsen, 2010; Kiokias & components and possesses high viscosity, then it does not
Oreopoulou, 2006). Further information on the encapsula- operate properly. In recent years, several researches sug-
tion of food ingredients and phenols can be found in the gested the application of this method for the dewatering
reviews reported by Desai and Park (2005) and Fang and of a biscuit sewage sludge or tomato pomace and saved en-
Bhandari (2010). ergy up to 70% compared to thermal process (Citeau,
Larue, & Vorobiev, 2011; Jumah, Al-Asheh, Banat, & Al- replacing seeding, which is an intermediate procedure re-
Zoubi, 2005). quiring the addition of preformed lactose fibrils before heat
More sophisticated technologies such as low- treatment step. The latest process results in impressive lac-
temperature (“cold”) plasma could be applied for particular tose recovery yield increase, i.e. from 14.6 to 90.3% (Table
reasons, i.e. when a non-thermal microbial or enzymatic in- 2). In any case, crystallization should proceed in much con-
activation of the food substrate is desirable (Wan, Coventry, trolled pressure and temperature conditions since a slight de-
Swiergon, Sanguansri, & Versteeg, 2009). Cold plasmas are crease can cause destabilization during manufacturing.
quasineutral fluid-gas mixtures consisting of highly ener- Other combined methods like pressurized microwave-
getic electrons, ions or molecules. They are produced by assisted extraction with mechanical pressure have been
electrical discharges under various vacuum levels. Depend- proposed for the recapture of several metabolites covering
ing on the quasineutrality and the presence of free charge a large range of structures and polarities, i.e. terpenes, fla-
carriers, the most intrinsic attribute of the plasma state is vonoids or pectin from orange albedo and peels. At these
its tendency to minimize external electric and magnetic cases, the advantages of microwave preheating (capillary-
fields inside the bulk of the sample in contrast to its behav- porous development and inactivation of pectin methyl es-
ior in the surrounding sheaths. Cold plasma inactivates very terase) sum up with these of pressure (treatment cell walls
efficiently microbial spores on surfaces, but it has not find rapture, enhanced pectin release and solubilization) result-
another application in the downstream processing yet. ing in accelerated process with low solvent consumption.
On the other hand, the utilization of colloidal gas aphrons The pressure procedure can be carried out either in series
has raised scientific interest over the last years for the sepa- as a pre-treatment stage, i.e. by hand-pressuring substrate
ration of macro- from micro-molecules. Colloidal gas aph- and solvent inside a cloth (Liu, Shi, & Langrish, 2006), or
rons are surfactant-stabilized micro-bubbles (10e100 mm) simultaneously with microwave extraction inside an ap-
generated by intense stirring of a surfactant solution at propriate vessel. The latter process is conducted under
high speeds (i.e. >5500 rpm) prior to encapsulation in controlled pressure and temperature, i.e. up to 50 psi and
a soapy film. They possess unique properties such as in- w150 C, respectively (Fishman, Chau, Hoagland, &
creased interfacial area and high stability compared to con- Ayyad, 2000). Pressurized microwave-extraction has
ventional foams, while they can easily be pumped from the been referred to increase recovery yield of pectin from or-
generation side to the point of use without loss of their orig- ange albedo more 10-fold compared to conventional ex-
inal structure. The external surface of the micro-bubble may tractions, while pressure in combination with
be charged according to the nature of surfactant (i.e. cationic, superheated ethanol has been reported to extract very effi-
anionic or non-ionic). Reversely charged molecules will ad- ciently phenols from olive mill wastewater (Table 2). The
sorb, resulting in their selective separation from the bulk liq- main limitations of pressurized processes are related to the
uid without mechanical aid. For instance, cationic possible degradation of thermolabile ingredients as well as
(cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) and non-ionic (Tween) to the demanding variables control associated with the
surfactants have recaptured phenols (gallic acid) and pro- operation.
teins (b-casein), respectively, with colloidal gas aphrons Extraction under non-classical conditions is a dynami-
(Jarudilokkul, Rungphetcharat, & Boonamnuayvitaya, cally developing area in applied research and industry.
2004; Spigno, Dermiki, Pastori, Casanova & Jauregi, Ultrasound waves have been successfully utilized for
2010). However, the main drawback of this separation this purpose, as their cavitational effect accelerates heat
method is the presence of surfactant in the product stream. and mass transfer by disrupting the plant cell walls and
Proteins segregation has also been conducted via facilitates the release of extractable compounds, i.e. phe-
ultrasound-assisted crystallization, a process considered in nolic compounds from citrus peel or coconut shells and
terms of nucleation and crystal growth (De Castro & hemicelluloses from wheat straw (Chemat, Zill-e-Huma,
Priego-Capote, 2007). Ultrasonic irradiation is known to & Khan, 2011; Sun & Tomkinson, 2002). Using ultra-
generate cavitation in the liquid being irradiated. Cavitation sounds, extraction can be completed in minutes with
produces local supersaturation leading to spontaneous nucle- high reproducibility and low solvent consumption, al-
ation. The collapse of the cavities generated by shockwaves, though an additional filtration step is still required. Pulsed
which facilitate the solute transfer process to the crystal face, electric field is a non-thermal food processing technology
enhances the growth rate and assists in de-agglomeration of high potentiality. An external electric field can induce
(Bund & Pandit, 2007). Sonocrystallization provides faster critical electrical potential across the cell membrane that
and thoroughly uniform primary nucleation compared to leads to pores development, breakdown and increased
conventional process, initiation of secondary nucleation permeability. The accelerated mass transfer caused by
and production of smaller, purer and uniform crystals. pulsed electric fields has been applied for the enhanced
Ultrasound-assisted crystallization has been used to acceler- extraction of phenols from grape seeds, water soluble
ate whey proteins removal, with a final purpose of recovering pigments (betalains) from red beetroot and pectin
lactose (De Castro & Priego-Capote, 2007; Patel & Murthy, from apple pomace (Liu, Vorobiev, Savoire, &
2010). In particular, it is able to reduce induction time by Lanoiselle, 2011; Vorobiev & Lebovka, 2010). Besides,
this technology is able to de-activate enzymes in the first membranes, too. In this case, the barrier is formed by a liq-
stage, relatively to low-temperature plasma treatment uid film which separates two miscible liquids and controls
(Wan et al., 2009). the mass transfer between both phases. Thus, a solute from
Other electrically induced extraction technologies such the fluid phase is transported across the membrane to strip-
as pulsed ohmic heating and high-voltage electrical dis- ping phase by diffusion. Liquid membranes attain high se-
charges have been proposed, too. Ohmic heating is a tech- lectivity and uses energy more efficiently compared to
nique, in which heat transfer accelerates by placing the other separation systems, but their low stability has so far
sample between two electrodes and exposing it to a direct limited the industrial exploitation (San Roman, Bringas,
or alternative current (typically 20e80 V/cm). High volt- Iba~nez, & Ortiz, 2009).
age electric discharge is a similar method based on treat- The contact of two immiscible liquid phases has alterna-
ment of liquid samples. The latter are again placed in tively been employed, but for the isolation of valuable
a chamber between two electrodes, while short pulses compounds (fourth recovery stage). Specifically, aqueous
(40e60 kV/cm, 2e5 ms) are applied to produce break- two-phase separation is a technique that is based on the in-
down of liquid and fragmentation of particles. If the compatibility of two different hydrophilic polymers in the
food material is in solid form, a dielectric liquid (i.e. tap common solvent water or aqueous solutions of polymers
water) is added into the chamber. High voltage electric and salts above certain critical concentrations. This method
discharge does not need the addition of organic solvent, is very efficient for the extraction of proteins and enzymes
but it requires high air generation capacity (Vorobiev & from crude cell extracts, while it has recently been em-
Lebovka, 2010). This method has been assayed for the ex- ployed for the partitioning of whey b-lactoglobulin and
traction of solutes from soybeans, potato or fennel, oil a-lactalbumin (Jara & Pilosof, 2011) as well as the isola-
from oilseeds and recently phenols from white grape pom- tion of citrus ascorbic acid (Reis et al., 2011). Aqueous
ace as shown in Table 2 (Boussetta, Lanoiselle, Bedel- two-phase systems provide mild conditions that preserve la-
Clotour, & Vorobiev, 2009; Liu et al., 2011). Besides, bile ingredients and their interfacial stress is far lower than
the photodynamic effect induced to materials by laser irra- the typical water-organic solvent mixtures, resulting in less
diation has been utilized in order to extract active sub- damage of the extracted molecules. However, the main
stances (aromas, anthocyanins, polysaccharides and drawbacks include long separation time and numerous re-
proteins) from biological entities and basically solid sur- quired processing steps. Magnetic fishing is another inter-
faces (Panchev, Kirtchev, & Dimitrov, 2011). Extraction esting technology that involves the use of magnetic
is usually conducted with a pulsed laser, but if the laser in- particles bearing either ion-exchange groups or an immobi-
tensity is sufficiently high, the material is ablated with lized affinity or hydrophobic ligands. The target protein
a continuous laser beam wave. If the laser flux is low binds to these particles and can be eluted after washing
enough, the material is heated by the adsorbed energy out any impurities (El-Sayed & Chase, 2011). For example,
and evaporates or sublimates, otherwise (at high laser Heebool-Nielsen, Justesen, and Thomas (2004) assayed
flux) it is converted to plasma. Laser ablation possesses a supermagnetic cation-exchanger to adsorb lactoferrin
a lot of advantages, i.e. it does not require solvents, it is and lactoperoxidase from crude bovine whey prior to the
easily automated, heating is minimal and gentler than adsorption of b-lactoglobulin using an anion-exchanger.
abrasive techniques. Laser ablation has been referred to Such high magnetizations behaviors exhibited the advan-
enhance acid-assisted pectin extraction from citrus peels tage that the magnetic particles could be easily separated
(Table 2). from the solution and rapidly re-dispersed by shaking in
The extraction of aromas can also be performed with the following processing batch. Magnetic fishing is very
membrane processes and specifically pervaporation. The gentle to the target proteins and peptides, but binding and
latest is a technique used for the separation of liquid mix- elution can only be conducted in batch mode and high res-
tures by means of partial vaporization across a solid barrier, olution is restricted. Whey proteins have also been isolated
which is a semi-selective membrane. Compared to tradi- combining ion-exchange chromatography with membrane
tional processes, pervaporation has many advantages, i.e. separation. Thereby, Bhattacharjee, Bhattacharjee, and
avoiding heat damage to sensitive aromas, low energy con- Datta (2006) purified whey proteins (up to 90%) via two
sumption and elimination of separation steps due to the ab- stages of ultrafiltration and ion-exchange chromatography.
sence of additional solvents (Aroujalian & Raisi, 2007). At this case, the separation is based on the reversible elec-
Nevertheless, if the supply contains suspended solids or dis- trostatic interaction between a charged protein molecule
solved salts, membrane fouling may be occur and thereby and the oppositely charged chromatographic membrane
an effective pre-treatment step is required. Pervaporation (ion exchanger). Membrane ion-exchange chromatography
has been suggested as a deodorization process of food in- is highly selective, but it is slower compared to conven-
dustry effluents (i.e. cauliflower blanching water) with a si- tional membrane separations. Specifically, the embedded
multaneous valorization of flavor compounds (Souchon, ion exchange resin particles within the membrane present
Pierre, Athe-Dutour, & Mari, 2002). Finally, the elution a diffusive path length that can slow down dynamic
of aromas and solutes has been proposed by using liquid binding.
With regard to the product formation stage, an innova- Safety and cost aspects
tive technique combines pulsed electric field with fluid Although the yield of the aforementioned technologies is
bed agglomeration for the production of instant soy protein important for the industrialization of recovery processing,
isolate (Dacanal & Menegalli, 2010). Fluidized bed ag- other factors such as product safety and general cost govern
glomeration consists of particle fluidization by hot air the final decision for the selected methodology. These as-
flow and superficial particle wetting caused by the atomiza- pects are very critical in the case of emerging technologies,
tion of a solvent or a liquid binder. The latest process is en- as they could be too sophisticated in comparison to the
hanced in pulsed fluid regime, which reduces air and energy yield improvement that they are promising. Nevertheless,
consumption. In any case, modern process includes in most it is rather impossible to make cost estimations since pro-
cases the preparation of nanoemulsions. The latest are part posed methodologies found in literature either investigate
of a broad class of multiphase colloidal dispersions which particular recovery stages or include different technologies
are non-equilibrium systems and possess high efficiency, in each stage or deal with numerous substrates and waste
bioavailability and physical stability due to their nanome- streams of several contents or have been tested only in lab-
trix droplet size (10e100 nm). Their fabrication proceeds oratory scale experiments. Besides, safety considerations
with two main methods: high and low energy. The first concern basically the unknown impact of innovative tech-
uses mechanical energy (i.e. high shear stirring, high- nologies and not the proven negative effects on consumers.
pressure homogenization or ultrasound) capable of generat- With regard to the macroscopic pre-treatment stage, con-
ing intense disruptive forces, which breakdown oil and ventional techniques such as concentration, centrifugation
water phases, leading to the formation of tiny oil droplets. or microfiltration are generally assumed as safe since
The low energy method is based on the spontaneous forma- most of them have been widely applied in different food in-
tion of droplets within mixed oil-water-emulsifier systems dustry sectors and corresponding products. Nevertheless,
when the solution conditions are altered. High-energy ap- thermal concentration deteriorates the initial substrate and
proaches are more popular in industrial food operations, be- accelerates the formation of Maillard by-products of un-
cause they are already well-established in the production of known origin and impact on human health. Contrarily, vac-
conventional emulsions. Likewise, they are more capable uum processes (i.e. concentration and freeze drying)
for large-scale production using a variety of different start- demand additional energy consumption resulting in higher
ing materials (McClements & Rao, 2011). For instance, operational cost. On the other hand, foam-mat dryers pos-
curcumin and grape marc extract nanoemulsions (up to sess high capital cost due to the large surface area needed
200 nm) have been prepared using lecithin and corn oil, re- to process large quantities of foamed fruit substrate.
spectively, as emulsifier in a high-pressure homogenization However, the reduction in energy consumption can reach
process (Amendola et al., 2011). On the other hand, b-car- 80% compared to conventional dryers (Jakubczyk,
otene and b-lactoglobulin nanoemulsions (280 and Gondek, & Tambor, 2011; Rajkuma et al., 2007). Electro-
<100 nm, respectively) have been prepared by dissolving osmotic dewatering requires also higher capital cost
them in hexane, prior to combining homogenization with compared to conventional dewatering equipment since it
evaporation (Silva et al., 2011; Troncoso, Aguilera, & is typically used in combination with pressure or vacuum
McClements, 2011). The formation of nanoemulsions con- conditions. Moreover, as with any mining process, safety
tribute to the improvement of b-carotene dispersion ability precautions must be taken during processing due to the
in water, coloring strength potential and bioavailability dur- production of trapped hydrogen gas at the cathodes and
ing gastro-intestinal passage. Other formulations such as physical contact of the personnel with electrical apparatus
nanocapsules and nanocrystals are produced in more spe- (Citeau et al., 2011; Jumah et al., 2005). Cold plasma treat-
cific applications, i.e. during acid hydrolysis of crude ment is the most typical example of an effective, but expen-
crab shells that disperse chitin spontaneously into rod-like sive emerging technology. Although it possesses low
crystalline particles (Tzoumaki, Moschakis, Kiosseoglou, operational cost with regard to energy consumption (a pro-
& Biliaderis, 2011). Nanocapsules are vesicular systems duction of 1 tn/d requires only 90 kW/h 0.05$/kW/
in which the active compound is confined to a cavity h ¼ 4.5$/h), it has high input cost due to the input feed
consisting of an inner liquid core surrounded by a polymeric gas. In the case of processing with nitrogen, the cost would
membrane (Fang & Bhandari, 2010). For instance, be 9e72$/h; however if the feed gas is helium the cost
nanocapsules with a coating material made of alginic could be in the range of 636e9096$/h (Niemira, 2012).
acid-calcium cross-links have been used to entrap liposolu- Moreover, the chemical residue and corresponding toxico-
ble beta-carotene. The obtained formulations could then logical effects of cold plasma have not been investigated
be used to naturally color water-based foods from dark or- yet.
ange to yellow depending on the concentration of the en- Conventional technologies (i.e. ultrafiltration and alco-
trapped b-carotene. Nanocapsules have also been applied hol precipitation) for macro- and micro-molecules separa-
to mask the taste and odor of tuna fish oil (rich in u-3 tion are considered both as safe and cheap. On the other
fatty acids) that is integrated into bread (Neethirajan & hand, colloidal gas aphrons is also a low cost technique,
Jayas, 2001). but its safety is depended on the use of biodegradable
and non-toxic surfactants, as these compounds are coming as the applied polymers are generally expensive due to their
in contact (or included) with the streams containing the tar- purity and food grade nature (i.e. dextrans).
get ingredients. Ultrasound-assisted crystallization and Finally, the safety of the conventional processes in-
pressurized microwave-assisted extraction are considered volved in the last formation stage is depended on the nature
as green and safe technologies, but the investment cost of of the involved materials, while advanced (pulsed) fluid bed
the second is much higher. agglomeration is generally considered as safe. On the other
With regard to the extraction step, conventional hand, product safety of nanoparticles is the main obstacle
methods using acid, alkali, solvents and supercritical fluids for their utilization. Indeed, their impact on biological cells
are considered as safe in the case the involved materials is in some cases unpredictable, due to their bioactive nature
exist inherently in foods or possess food grade nature and induced cells membrane permeability (Frewer et al.,
(i.e. carbon dioxide gas). For instance, ethanol and citric 2011). Besides, there are some concerns in spite of adding
acid are preferred compared to the generally more effi- nanoemulsions in foodstuff, i.e. they may alter the route of
cient, but toxic methanol and corrosive hydrochloric lipophilic compounds adsorption. Experimental studies
acid, respectively. Besides, the presence of microwaves should also be performed in order to answer questions
during extraction procedure reduces the need for concen- about potential toxicological effects of exposure to nano-
trated acids and subsequently minimizes potential hazards particles released in the air.
caused by fast and excessive pressure conditions. Micro-
wave extraction requires moderate investment compared Patented processes, applications and market products
to supercritical fluids processing. Hydrodistillation and Commercialization of valuable components derived
steam diffusion require relatively high energy consumption from food wastes is usually a four stages approach:
due to the applied temperatures. Both processes are non-
toxic, although the increased temperatures can cause (a) laboratory research of the recovery procedure and char-
deterioration of labile compounds such as essential oils. acterization with regard to the functional properties of
Ultrasound processing and pervaporation are safe emerg- the final product,
ing technologies with low investment cost and energy con- (b) obtainment of patent legal rights,
sumption compared to the traditional hydrodistillation, (c) semi-industrial (pilot plan) and industrial development
respectively. Nevertheless, the safety of liquid membranes of the process,
is depended on the organic phase and surfactant applied. (d) exploitation of applications in the food sector and prod-
This process is relatively cheap, although corresponding uct confirming in the market.
instability could increase the general cost. High voltage
electrical discharge and laser ablation require high capital The accomplishment all of the above steps is necessary
cost and energy consumption, while in the second case in order to establish a successful product-specific process.
safety precautions are needed during handling. Pulsed Table 3 presents a collection of related patents that have
electric field is another rather technology with high capital been converted to commercial applications. Verification
cost. For example, if fruit mash is disintegrated (i.e. 10 tn/ of the connection between market existing products and
h), a unit of 10 kJ/kg with an average output power of patented processes was confirmed via patent applicant
30 kW is required. This unit costs around 150,000V name in each case. Process and product matching is not al-
(T€opfl, 2006). ways possible due to the secrecy of companies regarding
Concerning the fourth recovery stage, conventional tech- their production line and the fact that products are often
nologies like nanofiltration and electrodialysis are assumed promoted referring the initial food source and not the waste.
as safe, while adsorption and chromatographic techniques Citrus peel is one of the firsts wastes that have been utilized
are depended on the toxicity of the materials involved in for the recapture of valuable compounds such as essential
the process. Electrodialysis possesses generally higher oils, flavonoids, sugar and pectin via sequential solvent ex-
cost than nanofiltration, while both membrane processes traction (Bonnel, 1983). Industrial exploitation of citrus
are speculated as cheap techniques. Nevertheless, depend- peel accounts almost 30 years, while the derived product
ing on the frequency of membrane sheet discharge, the op- (so-called “sugar syrup”) includes all the above compounds
erational cost could be very high. Besides, the efficacy of and is applied as natural instead of artificial (aspartame,
adsorption materials regeneration and chromatographic col- saccharine, etc) sweetener in foods. This product is typi-
umn cleaning affects proportionally the cost. For this rea- cally used to enhance sweetness and flavor of juices.
son, membrane capsules and corresponding ion-exchange Whey (or milk serum) comprises the most investigated
chromatography offers lower operating and capital invest- food by-product for recovery purposes and at the same
ment costs compared to conventional columns. Magnetic time represents a typical example of target compounds
materials are rather expensive and thereby should be re- complete valorization (Fig. 2). It is produced in different
cycled many times in order to reduce operational cost of forms depending on milk and cheese manufacture. Protein
magnetic fishing (Heebool-Nielsen et al., 2004). Aqueous concentrates and saccharide mixtures are the most common
two-phase separation is another safe, but costly technique ingredients derived from whey treatment since numerous
Table 3. Patented methodologies leading to commercial applications of product-specific food wastes.
Food waste source Patents application number Applicant/Company Title Products/Brand names Potential/Commercialized Inventors/Reference
applications
Citrus peel waste AU1983/0011308D Tropicana Products Treatment of citrus fruit Sugar syrup Food natural sweetener Bonnell (1983)
Inc. (Florida, USA) peel
Cheese whey PCT/SE1993/000378 Alfa-Laval Food Method for obtaining a-lactalbumin & Food supplements & Jensen and Larsen
Engineering AB high-quality protein b-lactoglobulin additives (1993)
(Lund, Sweden) products from whey containing product
PCT/US2002/010485 Davisco Isolation of Whey protein Isolate/ Food supplements Davis et al. (2002)
International Foods glycoproteins from BiproÒ
Inc. (Le Sueur, USA) bovine milk
MX2006/PA09536 Kraft Foods Holding Method of deflavoring De-flavored whey Food supplements Crowely and Brown

Inc. (Northfield, whey protein using proteins (2007)
USA) membrane
electrodialysis
Olive mill waste PCT/US2001/027132 CreAgri, Inc Method of obtaining a Hydroxytyrosol/HidroxÒ Food supplements & Crea (2002)
(Hayard, USA) hydroxytyrosol-rich cosmetics
composition from
vegetation water
PCT/ES2002/000058 Consejo Superior de Method for obtaining Hydroxytyrosol (99.5%)/ Conserving foods, Fernandez-Bola~
nos
Investigaciones purified hydroxytyrosol HytoliveÒ functional ingredient in et al. (2002)
Cientificas (Madrid, from products & by- bread
Spain)/Genosa IþD products derived from
S.A. (Malaga, Spain) olive tree
PCT/SE2007/001177 Phenoliv AB (Lund, Olive waste recovery Olive phenols & dietary Natural antioxidants in Tornberg and Galanakis
Sweden) fibers containing foodstuff & fat replacement (2008)
powders in meatballs, respectively
Tomato waste PCT/EP2007/061923 Biolyco SRL (Lecce, Process for the Lycopene Food antioxidant & Lavecchia and Zuorro
Italy) extraction of lycopene supplement (2008)
Soy protein isolate CN2008/10238791 ShanDong Method for extracting Soybean albumin Food additive & supplement Jishan et al. (2009)
wastewater Wonderful Industry and recycling albumin
Group Co. Ltd from whey wastewater
(Shandong, China) from production of soy
protein isolate
Shrimp & crab shell CN1994/1001978 Qingdao Preparation of chitosan Chitosan (85%) food Food thickener & fruit anti- Shenghui (1995)
Zhengzhongjiahe derivative fruit & grade staling agent
Export & Import Co., vegetable anti-staling
Ltd. (Shandong, agent
China)
De-pectinated apple CN2008/1139768 Yantai Andre Pectin Process for extracting Apple dietary fiber Dietary supplement Anming et al. (2010)
pomace Co. Ltd. (Yantai, non-pectin soluble granules
China) pomace dietary fibers
Grape & cranberry seed JP1998/0075070 Kikkoman Corp. Protein food Proanthocyanidin Coloring additive in soy Ariga et al. (1999)
(Chiba, Japan) sauce
Pomegranate rind & CN2010/1531940 Xi’an App Chem- Method for preparing Ellagic acid (40%) & Food antioxidants & Guangyu and Zhang
seedcase residues Bio(Tech) Co., Ltd punicalagin & ellagic Punicalagin (40%) cosmetics (2011)
(Xi’an, China) acid from pomegranate
rind
81
I. Macroscopic Pre-treatment
Cyclones / Rotating Filters
Whey Casein fines Processed
cheese
Centrifugal Separators
Whey Cream Butter-flavored
& confectionary
II. Macro- & Micro- molecules Separation products
Whey Protein
Micro-/Ultra-filtration
Defatted Concentrates
Whey Manufacture of
(WPC) soft & semi-
Deproteinized Heat Coagulation
Glycoproteins hard cheeses
Whey
III. Extraction
Crystallization, Centrifugation Supplement in
Completely Crude Lactose diet food,
Deproteinized aroma stabilizer
Hydrolysis
Whey
Glucose/
Galactose Syrup Sweetener
IV. Isolation & Purification
WPC Glycoproteins
Electrodialysis Chromatography
V. Product
Formation
De-flavored WPC
Bodybuilding
Freeze/Spray α-Lactalbumin &Nutritional
Drying β-Lactoglobulin Supplements
Lactoferrin
Fig. 2. Recovery and valorization of high-added value components from cheese whey.
processes and products exist in the market (Table 3). The and LDL-cholesterol levels in mammals (Davis, Nelson,
first step of whey treatment usually includes skimming Keenan, & Pins, 2003).
for the removal of casein fines and whey cream that are The new trend in the recovery of valuable compounds
used in confectionary. Thereafter, defatted whey is sub- from food wastes regards the valorization of olive mill
tended to membrane filtration in order to concentrate pro- wastewater as a source of phenols. For instance, commer-
teins. For example, the industrial concentration of cial hydroxytyrosol isolation is based on olive mill waste-
a-lactalbumin and b-lactoglobulin from whey has long water acid treatment, prior to an incubation process,
been conducted using two sequential microfiltration steps which converts oleuropein to hydroxytyrosol, and a super-
(Jensen & Larsen, 1993). Afterwards, deproteinized whey critical fluid extraction. The latest proceeds with a column
is further treated for the separation of glycoproteins in liq- operating in the countercurrent mode, where a nonselective
uid form. This process includes sequentially heat coagula- porous membrane is the separator or barrier interface be-
tion, cooling, precipitation and centrifugation (Davis tween the hydroxytyrosol containing fluid and dense gas.
et al., 2002). The protein free supernatant is rich in lactose Finally, an encapsulation is conducted using freeze or spray
and thereby is further treated with a time-temperature de- drying with a coating agent such maltodextrin or gelatin
pended crystallization by adding seed crystals. Lactose is (Crea, 2002). The obtained material is a GRAS-certified
separated in crude form and utilized either as a supplement product used as functional supplement or food preservative.
in diet food or aroma stabilizer. In special occasions, it can Hydroxytyrosol has been recovered from olive mill waste
be enzymatically hydrolyzed to produce a saccharide con- in pure form (99.5% per weight) using chromatographic
taining syrup used as sweetener. Whey protein concentrates columns filled with two resins: a non-activated ionic and
and liquid glycoproteins are treated as well with electrodi- an XAD-type non-ionic (Fernandez-Bola~nos et al., 2002).
alysis in alkalic environment and ion-exchange chromatog- The final product is available on the market and used par-
raphy have been employed in the industry as well to ticularly as preservative in bakery products. Hydroxytyro-
de-flavor whey protein concentrates and clarify glycopro- sol has been referred to possess advanced antiradical
teins prior their final spray and freeze drying, respectively. properties in comparison to vitamins E and C as well as
Concentrated and purified proteins are generally included to prevent oxidative deterioration of fish oils lipids
in nutritional supplements and disposed to the market by (Fernandez-Bola~nos, Rodrıguez, Rodrıguez, Guillen, &
targeting athletes market. According to well-documented Jimenez, 2006). A more recent methodology reports the re-
studies, whey proteins (hydrolyzed or not) addition in foods capture of phenols and dietary fibers in two different pow-
(i.e. yogurts) is beneficial due to their ability to reduce total ders. At this case, 3-phase olive mill wastewater is defatted
and the dehydrated mixture is extracted using ethanol in This procedure is not as simple in practice as it seems the-
combination with an organic acid. Thereafter, separation oretically. For instance, researchers should also conquer
of phenols and dietary fibers is conducted by precipitation complicated problems like broad content variations of bio-
of the latest in condensed ethanol (Tornberg & Galanakis, resources and waste collection in the source. In the first
2008). The phenol containing extract has been proposed case, the biomaterial specifications change from time to
as a healthy and tasty additive to drinks and foodstuff, time and thus the corresponding character or functionality
while the dietary fiber containing material and specifically of the final product is altered. Moreover, restrictions in
its water soluble fraction (pectin) has been proved to re- mass and energy balances may be generated during pro-
strict oil uptake of low fat meatballs during deep fat frying cessing. In the second case, an additional transportation
(Galanakis et al., 2010a, 2010c). cost should be accounted and microbial deterioration of
Similarly to water-soluble phenols, the industrial recov- the initial bioresource should be avoided. These problems
ery of insoluble carotenoids is now in progress. Thereby, can only be solved in terms of proper management, but in
the recovery of lycopene from tomato waste has been pro- practice this is not always feasible. Besides, scale up of
posed to proceed using sequential extraction with a non- compounds recovery and further valorization meets the
polar and a polar solvent (Lavecchia & Zuorro, 2008), same problems encountered in food formulations produc-
while the whole methodology is lately under industrial de- tion. In particular, scale up is usually accompanied with
velopment, too. Lycopene is one of the most popular natu- a rapid development of complex interactions due to exten-
ral pigments (red) and antioxidant agent accepted by food sive handling, increased air incorporation and transition of
industry, while in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo studies have batch to continuous processes. Thereby, recovered mate-
demonstrated that its addition to foods is inversely associ- rials often receive a higher degree of scrutiny, which results
ated to cancers and cardiovascular diseases (Kong et al., in partial loss of product functionality. This is an important
2010). drawback to overcome, since industrially recovered com-
Another industrial project recycles albumin from soy- pounds are used in foods constrainedly at higher concentra-
bean wastewater, which is generated during soy protein iso- tions compared to the predicted ones. Subsequently,
late production. The methodology is based on separation induced organoleptic character of the final product is al-
with membranes, flash distillation and at last spray drying. tered and process cost is increased. Limiting factors such
The obtained powder is consumed as nutritional supple- as mixing and heating time can affect the quality, too.
ment similar to whey protein isolates (Jishan et al., A commercially feasible product can be manufactured
2009). Besides, natural shrimp and crab shells are valorized only if a certain degree of flexibility and alternative choices
as a rich source of food grade chitosan (>85% per weight), can be adapted in the developing methodology. Simplified
which is extracted in practice with alkali and chloroacetic processes (with few steps) not only tend to scale-up easier,
acid treatment (Shenghui, 1995). This product is sold as but also possess a cheaper production. Besides, experience
thickener in vegetable oils or as anti-rancidity agent in has shown that a project focused on the recovery technolo-
meat products (Kanatt, Chander, & Sharma, 2008). Finally, gies without investigating and establishing definite food-
soluble dietary fibers granules are produced from de- targeted applications of the final product, is doomed to
pectinated apple pomace and disposed to the market as fail. This is happening either because the final product
dietary supplements. The recovery stages comprise of an al- might not be as beneficial as it has been proposed in re-
kaline and solubilization process, concentration, sediment search level, or it is difficult to survive competition in the
cleaning and drying (Anming et al., 2010). Dietary fibers market as a non-specific functional ingredient. Moreover,
may be incorporated into food products as inexpensive, if active compounds are applied in pure form, their safety
non-caloric bulking agents for partial replacement of flour, should be checked similarly to synthetic antioxidants in or-
fat or sugar. Their aim is to enhance water retention and im- der to obtain a market release permission. This procedure
prove emulsion or oxidative stability. However the quantity includes long and sophisticated assays on different species
of added fiber is finite, because it can cause undesirable of laboratory animals. In the case of recovering compounds
changes to the color and texture of foods. in natural extracts, the criteria are not so strict, because
these materials are generally considered as food compo-
Conclusive remarks and future trends nents. Nevertheless, concentration of compounds in crude
The recovery of valuable compounds from food wastes extracts is lower compared to purified materials, while
is an important challenge for the field related scientists, co-extracted ingredients affect negatively the taste of the fi-
though the commercial implementation is a complex ap- nal product.
proach depending on several parameters that should be con- Following all the above considerations, future investiga-
sidered. Apart from the criteria described above, tions should target the development of safer and tailored-
researchers should manage to succeed scale up without af- made processes. This could be accomplished by avoiding
fecting the functional properties of the target compound extreme processing conditions (i.e. using non-thermal tech-
and develop a product that meet the consumers’ high qual- nologies) and applying GRAS-status solvents and materials.
ity standards for safety and organoleptic characteristics. However, what is needed more is the conduction of integral
studies, which include not only recovery protocols, but also calcium tartate and grape pigments. American Journal of Enology
specific applications and preservation assays in order to se- and Viticulture, 53, 41e45.
Bund, R. K., & Pandit, A. B. (2007). Rapid lactose recovery from
cure industrial exploitation and sustainability of the final paneer whey using sonocrystallization: a process
product, respectively. Encapsulation is the key recovery optimization. Chemical Engineering and Processing, 46,
stage that needs further investigation, as it is able to im- 846e850.
prove functionality and extent the shelf-life of the product. Chantaro, P., Devahastin, S., & Chiewchan, N. (2008). Production of
Conclusively, researchers will soon deal with the prospect antioxidant high dietary fiber powder from carrot peels. LWT-Food
Science and Technology, 41, 1987e1994.
of applying emerging technologies and particularly nano- Chedea, V. S., Kefalas, P., & Socaciu, C. (2010). Patterns of carotenoid
techniques with an ultimate goal to optimize overall pigments extracted from two orange peel wastes (valencia and
efficiency of suggested methodologies. This concept will navel var.). Journal of Food Biochemistry, 34, 101e110.
definitely reopen debate concerning the safety of products Chemat, F., Zill-e-Huma, & Khan, M. K. (2011). Applications of
recovered from food wastes and the impact (beneficial or ultrasound in food technology: processing, preservation and
extraction. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 18, 813e835.
not) of recycling them inside food chain. Citeau, M., Larue, O., & Vorobiev, E. (2011). Effect of electrolytes
content on the electro-osmotic dewatering of agro-industrial
sludge. In P. S. Taoukis, N. G. Stoforos, V. T. Karathanos, &
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 26 (2012) 68e87

components from Introduction

feeding fast growing population in 21st century (Parfitt,

technologies and are discharged worldwide and the existing technologies,

C.M. Galanakis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 26 (2012) 68e87

processing (i.e. 9e15% and 6e8% of marine catches in in-

Shenghui, 1995; Tzoumaki et al. (2011)

vestigators have proposed the delivery of proteins and

Stine, Pedersen, Smiley and Bechtel

lipids from fish skin, head & bones (Gehring, Gigliotti,

El-Sayed and Chase (2011)

Bund and Pandit (2007)

sively produced during cheese manufacture and possesses

a very high ratio of mass per product mass (4.0e11.3),

Recovery stages and conventional technologies

tions are accordingly introduced into the applied methodol-

ogy with an ultimate goal of:

(a) maximizing the yield of the target compounds,

(b) suiting the demands of industrial processing,

rities and toxic compounds,

Sheep visceral mass

Among the numerous methodologies found in literature,

though steps are sometimes eliminated or oversubscribe

each other. Processing often progresses from the macro-

to the purification and encapsulation of the target ones

ferent ingredients are recovered or the valuable component

is a micromolecule (i.e. antioxidant). In reverse, when the

target compound is a macromolecule (i.e. protein), the sec-

matic activity and permeability of the bioresource tissues.

According to Gustavsson et al. (2011).

the nature and the structure of the substrate (i.e. solid,

sludge or wastewater). If the substrate is fruit or vegetable

by-product, a wet milling step is necessary to facilitate and

stages (Oreopoulou & Tzia, 2007). This is conducted via

if the substrate is a wastewater (i.e. of olive oil industry),

concentration (thermal or vacuum) is utilized with a final

de-activation of key enzymes (i.e. pectin methyl esterase or

polyphenol oxidases), which subsequently affect the yield

I. Macroscopic Pre-treatment I. Macroscopic Pre-treatment

Isoelectric Solubilization-Precipitation, Crystallization, Pressurized Microwave-

Extrusion Assisted Extraction

III. Extraction III. Extraction

Steam Diffusion, Hydrodistillation, Field, High Voltage Electrical Discharge,

Supercritical fluid Liquid Membranes, Pervaporation

IV. Isolation & Purification IV. Isolation & Purification

Target Food waste source Applied technologies Recovery yield Reference

C.M. Galanakis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 26 (2012) 68e87

pectin and potassium during ultrafiltration of high added

Bhattacharjee et al. (2006)

Pereira, Diaz, and Cobos

Bund and Pandit (2007)

Bund and Pandit (2007)

Pereira et al. (2002)

posed (Table 2), although the higher yield (52.9%) was

theless, the application of sequential membranes could

eventually increase protein selectivity. Membrane proce-

plications. Pectin and other polysaccharides (i.e. hemicellu-

7.8 for b-lactoglobulin

special occasions by changing the micro-structure of the