SUSPENSION BRIDGES | SHREYAS M C

Introduction to bridges
Bridge is a structure that provides passage over obstacles (such as valleys,
rough terrain or bodies of water) closing the way beneath.
They first begun to be used in ancient times when first modern civilizations
started rising in the Mesopotamia. From that point on knowledge, engineering, and
manufacture of new bridge building materials spread beyond their borders, enabling
slow but steady adoption of bridges all across the world.
Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge and the nature
of the terrain where the bridge is constructed.

Components of bridges:

Figure 1

Figure 2

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Classification of bridges:

1. Based on structure

a) Beam bridges:
Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by substructure
units (Piers or abutments). It can be either simply supported when the beams only
connect across a single span, or continuous when the beams are connected across
two or more spans.
Very basic type of bridges that are supported by several beams of various
shapes and sizes. They can be inclined or V shaped.

b) Truss bridges:
A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a
truss. This truss is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units.
Very popular bridge designs that uses diagonal mesh of posts above the bridge.
The two most common designs are the king posts (two post in the centre) and
queen posts (two diagonal posts, two vertical pots and horizontal post that connect
two vertical posts at the top).

c) Cantilever bridge:
Cantilever bridges are built using cantilever-horizontal beams supported on
only one end. Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend
from opposite sides of the supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacle the
bridge crosses.
They support their load through diagonal bracing. They often use truss
formation both below and above the bridge.

d) Arch bridge:
An arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a
curved arch. Arch bridges work by transferring the weight of the bridge and its
loads partially into a horizontal thrust restrained by the abutments at either side.
They are made with one or more hinges, depending of what kind of load and
stress forces they must endure.

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e) Suspension bridge:
A bridge in which the weight of the deck is supported by vertical cables
suspended from further cables that run between towers and are anchored in
abutments at each end.
The earliest suspension bridges were made of ropes covered with pieces of
bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from towers that are attached to
caissons. The caissons are implanted deep into the bed of the lake, river or sea.

f) Cable stayed bridge:

Bridge that uses deck cables that are directly connected to one or more
vertical columns. Cables are usually connected to columns in two ways – harp
design (each cable is attached to the different point of the column, creating harp
like design of “strings” and fan design (all cables connect to one point at the top of
the column).

2. Based on materials
 Timber bridge
 Concrete bridge
 Stone bridge
 R.C.C bridge
 Steel bridge
 P.C.C bridge
 Composite bridge
 Aluminum bridge

3. Based on function
 Aqueduct (canal over a river)
 Viaduct (road or railway over a valley)
 Pedestrian
 Highway
 Railway
 Road cum rail
 Pipeline bridge

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4. Based on method of connections

 Pin connected
 Riveted
 Welded bridge

5. Based on the length of the bridge

 Culvert (less then 6m)
 Minor bridge (6m to 60m)
 Major bridge (above 60m)

6. Based on degree of redundancy

 Determinate bridge
 Indeterminate bridge

7. Based on anticipated type of service and duration of use

 Permanent bridge
 Temporary bridge
 Military bridge

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Suspension bridges:
A suspension bridge is one wherever several cables are set up across two or
many towers that support the bulk of the bridge's weight and force. The cables run
from the tower to the anchorages.
Suspension bridges are robust and might span long distances. They are high-
priced as a result of they take an extended time to create and need an oversized
quantity of the fabric. They are sometimes found across harbours with tons of boat
traffic. The first parts of a bridge are a try of main cables stretching over two towers
and hooked up at every finish to an anchor. Smaller cables hooked up to the most
cables support the route.
Many suspension bridges are already renowned for their frequent usage. The
most components of a span are the towers, anchors, main cables, suspension cables,
and therefore the route. A span is extremely completely different from arch bridges,
although there will be an arch in an exceeding span. Altogether suspension bridges,
the route hangs from huge steel cables that are draped over two towers and secured
into solid concrete blocks, referred to as anchorages, on each end of the bridge. Cars
cut down on the route, however, because the route is suspended, the cables transfer
the load into compression within the two towers. The two towers support the bridge's
weight.

Figure 3

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Components of suspension bridges:

Figure 4

1. Main Cables: Cable that runs along the top of the bridge and is anchored at the
ends. This Cable was once built as gigantic chains until it was found that a cable
made of thousands of steel wire would be much stronger. Some suspension bridges
contain more than 10000 wires in each cable. These cables create the strongest
suspension bridges out there.
2. Suspender Cables: These cables are also made similar to the main cables; however,
they are not as thick. These cables help suspend the deck and are made from steel.
3. Deck: The deck is the main area of the bridge where vehicles and people travel. This
part of the bridge is made up of multiple steel trusses and is the span of the bridge.
4. Towers: The towers are where the cables attach to create the perfect parabolic
shape with the next tower in order to create the strongest hold.
5. Tower Foundation: The foundation is the part that the tower rests on, this can
either be on ground or even below water. Below water foundations require a lot
more time and effort to create successfully.
6. Anchors: Anchors are where the main cables attach to at the ends of the bridges.
The anchors can be created with rock or if there is no strong enough rock, the
foundation can be man-made out of tonnes of concrete.

Types of suspension bridges

i. Simple suspension bridge

It is a bridge that has no towers nor piers and is suspended on the cables that
are anchored at their ends and nothing else. It is also known as a rope bridge,

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swing bridge, suspended bridge, hanging bridge and catenary bridge and is the
oldest variant of the suspended bridge.
The deck of this bridge follows is arched downwards and upwards and has
additional ropes at a higher level which form the handrail. It is a pedestrian bridge
and cannot carry modern roads and railroads. "Simple-suspension bridge" can also
be name for a suspended deck bridge that has a deck which is not stiffened, hence
- "simple".

Figure 5

ii. Under spanned suspension bridges

An under spanned suspension bridge (also upper deck suspension bridge) is a
rare type of suspension bridge that was developed in the early 19th century. It differs
from its ancestor, the simple suspension bridge, in that the deck is raised on posts
above the main cables. The raised deck is less stable than a deck laid on or hung
below the cables, and very few under spanned suspension bridges have been built.

Figure 6

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iii. Cable-stayed bridge

A cable stayed bridge has one or more towers, from which cables support the
bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables or stays, which run directly from the
tower to the deck, normally forming a fan-like pattern or a series of parallel lines.
This is in contrast to the modern suspension bridge, where the cables supporting the
deck are suspended vertically from the main cable, anchored at both ends of the
bridge and running between the towers. The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans
longer than cantilever bridges and shorter than suspension bridges. This is the range
within which cantilever bridges would rapidly grow heavier, and suspension bridge
cabling would be more costly.

Figure 7

iv. Stressed ribbon bridge

Stressed ribbon bridge is a modern, improved variant of a classical simple
suspension bridge. It has a rigid deck which lays on suspension cables which are in
turn embedded in the deck. Deck follows a catenary arc between supports and is
stressed in traction, which adds to its stiffness and prevents swaying and bouncing
like at simple suspended bridge.
This bridge is usually made of concrete reinforced by steel tensioned cables
and can carry vehicle traffic. Concrete plates are premade and placed to form the
initial structure. Sandbags are place upon the tiles to prestress cables that hold the
tiles and gaps between the tiles are filled with concrete. When the concrete dries,
sandbags are removed and cables compress, stiffening the bridge and making it more
durable.

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Figure 8

v. Self-anchored suspension bridge

Self-anchored suspension bridge has its main cables attached to the ends of
the deck rather than ground like standard suspended bridge which allows for
construction on elevated piers, or in areas of unstable soils where anchors would be
loosen over time. This method of building appeared in mid-19th century and was
designed by Austrian engineer Josef Langer in 1859. American engineer Charles
Bender patented this method in United States in 1867. Earliest bridges built with this
method in United States Were Three Sisters Bridges of Pittsburgh, built between
1924 and 1928. Suspension cables cannot be anchored until the deck is finished with
this design so a false-work is used to hold them until then.

Figure 9

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Manufacturing process and design:

Materials used:
Many of the components of a suspension bridge are made of steel. The girders
used to make the deck rigid are one example. Steel is also used for the saddles, or
open channels, on which the cables rest atop a suspension bridge's towers. When
steel is drawn (stretched) into wires, its strength increases; consequently, a relatively
flexible bundle of steel wires is stronger than a solid steel bar of the same diameter.
This is the reason steel cable is used to support suspension bridges. For the Akashi
Kaikyo Bridge in Japan, a new low-alloy steel strengthened with silicon was
developed; its tensile strength (resistance against pulling forces) is 12% greater than
any previous steel wire formulation. On some suspension bridges, the steel wires
forming the cables have been galvanized (coated with zinc). The towers of most
suspension bridges are made of steel, although a few have been built of steel-
reinforced concrete.

Manufacturing:

Figure 10

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Figure 11

Construction of a suspension bridge involves sequential construction of

o Tower construction
o Anchorage construction
o Cable construction
o Deck construction

Tower construction
Tower foundations are prepared by digging down to a sufficiently firm rock
formation. Some bridges are designed so that their towers are built on dry land,
which makes construction easier. If a tower will stand in water, its construction
begins with lowering a caisson (a steel and concrete cylinder that acts as a circular
damn) to the ground beneath the water; removing the water from the caisson's
interior allows workers to excavate a foundation without actually working in water.
When the excavation is complete, a concrete tower foundation is formed and
poured.
Construction details vary with each unique bridge. As an example, consider the
Akashi Kaikyo Bridge. Each of its two steel towers consists of two columns. Each
column is composed of 30 vertical blocks (or layers), each of which is 33 ft (10 m)

Figure 12

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Anchorage construction
Anchorages are the structures to which the ends of the bridge's cables are
secured. They are massive concrete blocks securely attached to strong rock
formations. During construction of the anchorages, strong eye bars (steel bars with a
circular hole at one end) are embedded in the concrete. Mounted in front of the
anchorage is a spray saddle, which will support the cable at the point where its
individual wire bundles (see Step 5) fan out— each wire bundle will be secured to
one of the anchorage's eye bars.

Figure 13

Cable construction
When the towers and anchorages have been completed, a pilot line must be
strung along the cable's eventual path, from one anchorage across the towers to the
other anchorage. Various methods can have been used to position the pilot line.
Today, a helicopter might be used. Or the line might be taken across the expanse by
boat and then lifted into position. When the pilot line is in place, a catwalk is
constructed for the bridge's entire length, about 3 ft below the pilot line, so workers
can attend to the cable formation.
To begin spinning the cable, a large spool of wire is positioned at the
anchorage. The free end of the wire is looped around a strand shoe (a steel channel
anchored to an eye bar). Between the spool and the strand shoe, the wire is looped
around a spinning wheel that is mounted on the pilot line.
This wheel carries the wire across the bridge's path, and the wire is looped
around a strand shoe at the other anchorage; the wheel then returns to the first
anchorage, laying another strand in place. The process is repeated until a bundle of
the desired number of wire strands is formed (this varies from about 125 strands to

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more than 400). During the spinning, workers standing on the catwalk make sure the
wire unwinds smoothly, freeing any kinks. As spools are exhausted, the end of the
wire is spliced to the wire from a new spool, forming a continuous strand. When the
bundle is thick enough, tape or wire straps are applied at intervals.

Figure 14

Once the vertical cables are attached to the main support cable, the deck
structure must be built in both directions from the support towers at the correct rate
in order to keep the forces on the towers balanced at all times. A moving crane lifts
deck sections into place, where workers attach them to previously placed sections and
to the vertical cables that hang from the main suspension cables.
To keep wires together. The wire coming off the spool is cut and secured to the
Anchorage. Then the process begins again for the next bundle.
The number of bundles needed for a complete cable varies; on the Golden
Gate Bridge it is 61, and on the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge it is 290. When the proper
number has been spun, a special arrangement of radially positioned jacks is used to
compress the bundles into a compact cable, and steel wire is wrapped around it. Steel
clamps are mounted around the cable at predetermined intervals to serve as
anchoring points for the vertical cables that will connect the decking to the support
cable.

Deck construction
After vertical cables are attached to the main support cable, the deck structure
can be started. The structure must be built in both directions from the support
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towers at the correct rate in order to keep the forces on the towers balanced at all
times. In one technique, a moving crane that rolls atop the main suspension cable
lifts deck sections into place, where workers attach them to previously placed
sections and to the vertical cables that hang from the main suspension cables,
extending the completed length. Alternatively, the crane may rest directly on the
deck and move forward as each section is placed.

Finishing
When the deck structure is complete, it is covered with a base layer (e.g., steel
plates) and paved over. Painting the steel surfaces and installing electric lines for
lighting are examples of other finishing steps. In addition, ongoing maintenance
procedures begin. For example, a permanent staff of 17 ironworkers and 38 painters
continue to work daily on the Golden Gate Bridge, replacing corroding rivets and
other steel components and touching up the paint that protects the bridge.

Design of suspension bridges:

The Road Deck

The road deck of a suspension bridge is very important. Most deck designs are made
from open trusses that allow wind to pass through.

The Building Steps

• First huge concrete caissons are sunk into the bed rock to provide a solid base for
the towers.
• Next the towers are constructed on top of the caissons.
• Giant anchor points are created on both ends of the bridge to keep tension in the
cables.
• Then the main cables are strung across the span of the bridge.
• A temporary walkway is constructed beneath the main cables so that construction
can begin on the road deck.
• Suspender cables are put into place as the road deck is built to provide strength.
• When the road deck is finished, a layer of concrete is poured over the steel,
followed by a layer of asphalt.

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Loads on suspension bridge and its working

The diagram below shows the tension in the cables of a suspension bridge.
These cables are capable of withstanding tension but offer no resistance to
compression. These types of bridges work in a completely different way to the arch
bridge.

Figure 15

Compression
The force of compression pushes down on the suspension bridge's deck, but
because it is a suspended roadway, the cables transfer the compression to the
towers, which dissipate the compression directly into the earth where they are firmly
entrenched.

Tension
The supporting cables, running between the two anchorages, are the lucky
recipients of the tension forces. The cables are literally stretched from the weight of
the bridge and its traffic as they run from anchorage to anchorage. The anchorages
are also under tension, but since they, like the towers, are held firmly to the earth,
the tension they experience is dissipated.
Almost all suspension bridges have, in addition to the cables, a supporting
truss system beneath the bridge deck (a deck truss). This helps to stiffen the deck and
reduce the tendency of the roadway to sway and ripple.
They come in two different designs: the suspension bridge, recognized by the
elongated 'M' shape, and the less-common cable-stayed design, which has more of
an 'A' shape.
The cable-stayed bridge does not require two towers and four anchorages as
does the suspension bridge. Instead, the cables are run from the roadway up to a
single tower where they are secured.
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Figure 16

HOW DO SUSPENSION BRIDGES WORK?

On the Severn Bridge, the two main cables act a bit like a washing line. The
tension in a washing line supports the weight of the clothes that are pegged to it. In
the same way, the tension in the main cables supports the weight of the deck and
traffic. The bridge deck is hung from the main cables using wire hangers (rather than
clothes pegs). And because the main cables are held up by the towers, the weight of
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the whole bridge is carried down through the towers, on to the underlying
foundations.
If you put something heavy on a washing line, it will sag at that point. With a
suspension bridge, the road is supported by a stiffening girder, which spreads out the
weight of the traffic, so avoiding excessive sag under an exceptional load. If you hang
something on a washing line away from the centre, the point will not only sagbut it
will also move towards the nearest end (try it!). Similarly, as a heavy load travels over
a suspension bridge, it will not only dip downwards at the point of the load, it will
also move longitudinally towards the nearest tower.

If you stand on the walkway of the Severn Bridge, you can feel it moving as the
traffic travels over it. If you stand by one of the towers and watch the expansion
joint, you can sometimes see the whole bridge moving as the weight of the traffic
travels across. We should not worry that the bridge moves. It is meant to do this. This
is how it absorbs the weight of the traffic and transfers it into the main cables.

Figure 17

Diagram showing the main loads in a suspension bridge

The tension in the main cables carries the whole weight of the bridge deck and
the traffic. This tension is resisted by the anchorages at each end, just as the tension
in a washing line is resisted by whatever it is tied to at each end. And because the
main cables are held up by the towers, the weight of the whole bridge is transferred
through the towers to the ground.

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Advantages and disadvantages of suspension bridges

Advantages:
→Low Construction Costs
What makes suspension bridges practical is the inexpensiveness of these bridges due
to required materials needed for construction. With three basic necessities such as
cables, anchorages and roadways, suspension bridges are possible to construct.
Having said, this, suspension bridges are great solutions to provide communities with
functioning and useful bridges without much need for funding. These are beneficial in
areas that lack infrastructure funds. And in the case of allotting budget for projects,
the inexpensive costs in building these types of bridges can allow for other projects
to be financed.

→Long span
Another advantage of suspension bridge is the possibility to construct them at
different lengths, from 2,000 to 13,000 feet and is lengthier than other types of
bridges. This makes it possible to build suspension bridges to connect very long-
distance locations. Depending on the demand and possibility given, these bridges can
be under spanned like the Pont des Bergues and the Mickle wood Bridge. On the
other hand, three long suspension bridges are in Denmark, Japan and China.

→Ease of Maintenance
Apart from inexpensive construction costs, suspension bridges are known for their
minimal maintenance requirements. Once construction is completed, there are no
immediate needs for additional materials like cables. What is called for is simply
regular maintenance. Moreover, it is known for durability and longevity, making
major repairs not needed as often. Consequently, maintenance costs are also not
that high.

→Versatility
Suspension bridges do not only cost less to build, they can also be built practically
anywhere so long as there are places for building support towers and anchorages.
This is also because of the design which is suspended in the air, no inflow restrictors
are needed to be placed underneath. They can also bear the beatings of earthquakes.

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→Attractive
Tourists, local and foreign in America love to cross the Brooklyn Bridge and visit the
Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. Compared to truss and beam bridges,
suspension bridges are more aesthetically pleasing because of the different shapes of
these bridges. The curved and linear features of these bridges make them structurally
beautiful. This is on top of the cables giving support to these bridges, making them
versatile bridges.

→Has Flexibility
One common reason that the choice to build a suspension bridge is reached is if it is
being built in a high earthquake zone, like California. This is because suspension
bridges are flexible due to the cable system they are held up by. The bridge can
“move” with the wind and during natural disasters such as an earthquake.

→Simple Construction
No access is needed from below the bridge while it is being constructed, making it a
great choice for areas that ships and waterways need to stay clear.

→Can Be Built High Up

Suspension bridges can be built very high up over waterways. This is essential for any
area that needs to be able to allow passing ships to come through.

Disadvantages:
❖ Loss of Income
Despite the low costs of constructing suspension bridges and the job opportunities
they offer, the length of time needed to finish building these bridges are long. What
happens is that the businesses that are within the vicinity will be affected since
business operations will be hampered. Consequently, there will be loss of sales and
profit. This can have a negative impact on the economy of the city or town. Also,
bridges built to connect locations between bodies of water can affect the course of
ships carrying supplies since they need to divert their routes. This can also result to
loss of money since deliveries of goods can take longer.

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❖ Weak in Winds
Despite flexibility and strength to withstand earthquakes, these bridges are not too
strong when it comes to powerful winds caused by hurricanes. Too much strong
winds can result to damages to suspension bridges. A classic example is the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge which collapsed on November 7, 1940 in winds of at only 40 miles
per hour. Although the disaster was blamed on design and construction, what
happened that time presented risks associated with suspension bridges.
❖ Load Limitations
Another disadvantage of suspension bridge is the material used which are the cables.
These cables have limitations when it comes to bearing the weight of loads. Although
it can allow a minimal weight with regard to vehicles passing through, too much
weight can lead to the breaking of cables.

❖ Limited Applications
Suspension bridges, despite their cost-effectiveness in construction and flexibility
when it comes to site location, have limitations when it comes to its use. This is
because they can be destroyed by strong winds and not durable enough to hold
limitless weight, careful consideration should be taken before construction. That said,
they can only be used by general traffic.

❖ Soft Ground Issues

If the suspension bridge needs to be built in an area that has soft ground, like over
water, very extensive foundation work in order to make it safe for heavy loads.

❖ Too Flexible
Flexibility of the suspension bridge design is a major advantage, until conditions
become severe. Underneath extreme winds or very heavy the load the bridge can
move so much that the bridge would need to be closed.

❖ Cannot Support High Traffic

Since very little support is needed underneath the deck of the bridge, and the cables
are light, the bridges are very light weight. This restricts the amount of traffic and the
weight of heavy loads that can use it.

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LITERATURE REVIEW
Paper 1
Jakkula A
“A History of Suspension Bridges in Biographical Form”
Bulletin of the-Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, TX,
Jul 2020, p 48.

Results
→ Some access below may be required during construction, to lift the initial
cables or to lift deck units.
→ This access can often be avoided in cable-stayed bridge construction.
→ Although the hybrid stayed suspension bridge system developed and built by
the Roebling’s was highly successful, the system was not used after the
Brooklyn Bridge. By the turn of the century analytical methods for deck
stiffened suspension bridges (without stays) had progressed to the point
where they could provide safe and efficient designs. Further the inclined stays
proved difficult to properly pretension during construction and maintain during
the lifetime of a bridge.

Paper 2
Steinman D. B.
"Ohio River Suspension Bridge at Portsmouth"
Engineering News Record, Oct 20, 2020, pp 620-627.

Results
→ Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge.
→ Less material may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can
achieve, leading to a reduced construction cost. Bridge decks can have deck
sections replaced in order to widen traffic lanes for larger vehicles or add
additions width for separated cycling/pedestrian paths. Considerable stiffness
or aerodynamic profiling may be required to prevent the bridge deck vibrating
under high winds. The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other (non-
suspension) types of bridges makes it more difficult to carry heavy rail traffic
where high concentrated live loads occur.

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Paper 3
Neelandran, G Gayatri, J Rasigan, Tulasi
(Analysis and Design of Suspension Bridge)
Williams Pub. Co., Chicago, IL, 2021, pp-202-256.

Results
→ Except for installation of the initial temporary cables, little or no access from
below is required during construction, for example allowing a waterway to
remain open while the bridge is built above. May be better to withstand
earthquake movements than heavier and more rigid bridges.

Paper 4
T. Subramani, J. Karthick Rajan, V.R. Perumal, A. Palani, P. Kesavan
(Design and Analysis of Suspension Bridge)
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, Volume. 4,
Issue. 6 (Version 5), pp 289- 295, 2021.

Results
→ The suspension cable bridge is may furnish quarters and facilities for
assemblage of human beings for social business or leisure functions and might
have interaction inside the preserving portion of its premises for shops and
organizations whose continuity is call for suitable to a suspension cable bridge.
→ Special consideration during design should be taken into account since cables
are very slender elements that are affected by external conditions. Cable
vibration is a common phenomenon in cables.
→ To prevent the excessive vibration amplitudes from affecting the integrity of
the structure, damping devices are being implemented.
→ This project deals with 240m span length x 7.5m carriage
→ width suspension bridge with basic bridge components such as Deck slab,
Cable design, Suspenders and Pile foundation, abutments they are designed
both Manual and Analysis using Sap, Results are shown in this Document.

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Case study
CASE STUDY – 1
VIDYASAGAR SETU
West Bengal

Figure 18

Vidyasagar Setu, also known as the Second Hooghly Bridge, is a bridge over the
Hooghly River in West Bengal, India.
It links the city of Kolkata to Howrah.
Official Name: Vidyasagar Setu
Design: Cable Stayed Road Bridge with dead load composite deck structure
Total Length: 822.96 metres (2,700 ft)
Width: 35 metres (115 ft)
Longest Span: 457.2 metres (1,500 ft)
Construction Started: 3 July 1979
Opened to Traffic: 10th October 1992
Daily Traffic: 85,000 vehicles

Salient features:
• Side Spans- 182.88m each
• Pylon- 122m high, 152 cables
• Cable Weight- 1400 mt
• Steel Work- 13200 mt. (appx), Supply, Fabrication & erection.
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Vidyasagar Setu is the longest cable-stayed bridge in India and one of the longest
in Asia with a total length of 823 metres (2,700 ft). It was the second bridge builds
across the Hooghly River; the first, the Howrah Bridge (also known as Rabindra Setu)
3.7 kilometres (2.3 mi) to the north, was completed in 1943. This bridge named after
the educationist reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, it cost Indian Rupees
3.88 billion to build.
Construction began on 3 July 1979, and the
bridge was commissioned on 10 October 1992 by
the Hooghly River Bridge Commission. The bridge is
under the control of the Hooghly River Bridge
Commissioners. The bridge is used by around
30,000 vehicles daily, considerably less than the
bridge's capacity of 85,000.
Population and commercial activity grew rapidly
after India gained independence in August 1947. Figure 19

The only link across the Hooghly River, the Howrah

Bridge, between Howrah and Kolkata, was subject to much traffic congestion, with
over 85,000 vehicles every day. This necessitated planning for a new bridge across
the river so that it could connect to the major cities of Mumbai (Bombay), Delhi and
Chennai(Madras) through the national highways located close to the bridge.
Vidyasagar Setu is a cable-stayed bridge, with 121
cables in a fan arrangement, built using steel pylons
127.62 metres (418.7 ft) high. With a total length of
823 metres (2,700 ft), Vidyasagar Setu is the longest
cable-stayed bridge in India and one of the longest in
Asia. The deck is made of composite steel-reinforced
concrete with two carriageways. The total width of
the bridge is 35 metres (115 ft), with 3 lanes in each
direction and 1.2 metres (3 ft 11 in)-wide footpath Figure 20

on each side. The deck over the main span is 457.20

metres (1,500.0 ft) long. The two side spans are supported by parallel wire cables and
are 182.88 metres (600.0 ft) long. Vidyasagar Setu is a toll bridge with free bicycle
lanes. It has capacity to handle more than 85,000 vehicles in a day. The bridge was
designed by Schlaich Bergermann & Partner, and checked by Freeman Fox & Partners
and Bharat Bhari Udyog Nigam Limited. Construction was carried out by
the consortium of "The Braithwaite Burn and Jessop Construction Company Limited

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 SUSPENSION BRIDGES | SHREYAS M C

(BBJ). The Hooghly River Bridge Commission (HRBC) was responsible for the
commissioning operations of the bridge.

The design of the bridge differs slightly from other bridges, which are of live load
composite construction. The difference is in the
dead load design concept adopted for this bridge
and concreting of the side spans done with support
provided by the intermediate trestle. The deck is
designed with a grid structure of girders. One set of
girders are at the end and another set in the middle,
which are braced by girders spaced on an average at
4.2 metres (14 ft) centre to centre.

A deck crane was used for the construction of

the main span of the bridge. A specially designed
crane of 45 tonne capacity was used to erect the
pylons of the bridge. The structural steel used in the
bridge weighs about 13,200 tonnes. The pylons,
which are 128 metres (420 ft) in height, are
designed as free-standing portals. They are provided Figure 21
with two cross portal members, one at the bottom
and another at the top, below the pylon head. The deck is connected to the end piers
by bolts embedded in the chambers of the piers. Pylons made of 4x4m (13x13ft) steel
boxes of riveted construction were raised on the two side spans of the bridge; one
set is on the Calcutta side and the other is on the Howrah side. The six pylons on the
Calcutta side of the bridge were installed using 75 MT and 50 MT cranes, while on the
Howrah end, a single 50 MT crane was used. Anchorage of the pylon with the base of
piers was affected through Dywidag rods, duly anchored in the piers. Cables were
erected from the four pylon heads with the help of 32 MT hoist frames. The hoist
frames were mounted on top of each pylon. Sheave blocks, winches and snatch
blocks were used to facilitate the lifting, and cables inside the pylons were stressed
with jacks. Pressure grouting was performed to fill the voids between the wire and
the high-density polyethylene (HDPE) tubes. A two-tonne tower crane, fixed inside
the pylons, lifted the cables into position.

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 SUSPENSION BRIDGES | SHREYAS M C

CASE STUDY – 2
BANDRA-WORLI SEA LINK
Mumbai, Maharashtra

Figure 22

The Bandra-Worli Sea Link, officially known as Rajiv Gandhi Sea Link, is a bridge over
the Mahim Bay in Mumbai, Maharashtra.
It links Bandra in the western suburbs of Mumbai with Worli in South Mumbai
o Design: Cable-stayed bridge
o Total length: 5600 meters
o Width: 40 meters (115 ft)
o Longest span: 2×250 meters (820ft)
o Clearance below: 20 meters
o Designed by: Dar Al-Handasah Consultants
o Constructed by: Hindustan Construction Company
o Opened on: 30 June 2009
o Daily traffic: 45,000 – 61,000 vehicles per day
➢ The BWSL is an eight-lane highway (two, four-lane roads) over a cable-stayed bridge
with pre-stressed concrete viaduct approaches (and two dedicated bus lanes).
➢ The bridge structure and surrounding infrastructure consists of:
• A 449m-long embankment with 16-lane toll plaza on the Bandra side
• A 800m-long precast segmental approach bridge on the Bandra side

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 SUSPENSION BRIDGES | SHREYAS M C

• A 600m-long cable-stayed bridge with 125m-high towers (cable-stay system

has 2,250km of high-strength galvanized steel wires which support the 20,000t
structure)
• A 200m-long precast segmental bridge between the cable-stayed bridges
• A 350m-long cable-stayed bridge with tower heights of 54.779m and 52.829m
on the Worli side
• A 811m-long link bridge to Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (KAGK) Road at the Worli
Sea Face end

➢ Construction of the 126m high, 4.7km bridge weighing 670,000 tons involved a total
of 424 cables for main roadway, about 37,680km of steel wire, 230,000m3 of
concrete and about 135 pile caps. The project employed about 4,000 workers and
150 engineers during peak construction.

Figure 23

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 SUSPENSION BRIDGES | SHREYAS M C

PLANNING
The overall project consisted of five distinct parts, contracted separately to
accelerate the overall schedule.
a) Package I: Construction of a flyover over Love Grove junction in Worli
b) Package II: Construction of a cloverleaf interchange at the intersection of
the Western Express Highway and S.V. Road in Bandra
c) Package III: Construction of solid approach road from the interchange to the
Toll Plaza on the Bandra side along with a public promenade
d) Package IV: Construction of the central cable-stayed spans with northern
and southern viaducts from Worli to the Toll Plaza at the Bandra end
e) Package V: Improvements to Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan Road

DESIGN
Main cable-stayed span:
BWSL was designed as the first cable-stayed bridge to be constructed in open seas in
India. Due to the underlying geology, the pylons have a complex geometry and the
main span over the Bandra channel is one of the longest spans of concrete deck
attempted. Balancing these engineering complexities with the aesthetics of the
bridge presented significant challenges for the project.
The superstructures of the viaducts were the heaviest precast segments to be built in
India. They were built using a span-by-span method using overhead gantry through a
series of vertical and horizontal curves.
The 20000 metric ton Bandra-end span of the bridge deck is supported by stay cables
within a very close tolerance of deviations in plan and elevation.
Foundation and substructure:
The construction of the bridge's structure presented major engineering challenges.
These included the highly variable geotechnical conditions due to the underlying
marine geology of the seabed. At times, even for plan area of a single pile had a
highly uneven foundation bed. Further compilcations included the presence of a
variable intertidal zone, with parts of the foundation bed exposed in low tide and
submerged in high tide.
The foundations for the BWSL's cable-stayed bridges consist of 120 reinforced
concrete piles of 2,000 millimetres (6.6 ft) diameter. Those for the viaducts consist of
484 piles of 1,500 millimetres (4.9 ft). These 604 piles were driven between 6m and

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34m into the substrate in geotechnical conditions that varied from highly weathered
volcanic material to massive high strength rocks.
Pylon tower:
BWSL's largest pylon towers are 128m high
The largest pylons for the bridge consist of diamond shaped 128 metres (420 ft) high
concrete tower featuring flaring lower legs, converging upper legs, a unified tower
head housing the stays and a continuously varying cross section along the height of
tower.
The bridge's pylon towers gradually decrease in cross-section with height. They have
horizontal grooves every 3m in height, which permitted inserts. Vertical grooves in
the circular sections require special form liners, as well as require attention for de-
shuttering. The tower legs are inclined in two directions, which presented challenges
in alignment and climbing of soldiers. Construction joints were permitted at 3m
intervals only.
To build the pylons, Doka of Austria was commissioned to build a custom automatic
climbing shutter formwork system, based on their SKE-100 automatic climbing
shutter system. This was fabricated on site and employed to execute all tower leg
lifts below deck level.

STRUCTURE
The proposed Link Bridge consists of twin continuous concrete box girder bridge
sections for traffic in each direction. Each bridge section except at the cable - stayed
portion is supported on piers typically spaced at 50 meters. Each section is meant for
four lanes of traffic complete with concrete barriers and service sidewalks on one
side. The bridge alignment is defined with vertical and horizontal curves. The Link
Bridge layout is categorized into three different parts :-

Part 1 - The north end approach structure mainly with precast (PC) segmental
construction
Part 2 - The Cable Stayed Bridge at Bandra channel is with 50m - 250m - 250m -
50m span arrangement and the Cable Stayed Bridge at Worli channel is with 50m -
50m - 150m - 50m - 50m span arrangement
Part 3 - The south end approach structure mainly with precast segmental
construction

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TECHNOLOGY
➢ India’s first cable-stay, open sea bridge spans 600 m in length and 126 m in height
(equivalent to a 43 storied building). Material, components, technology, and
manpower: everything has been used in enormous amount to build the BWSL
amidst the waves of the Arabian Sea.
➢ The BWSL project involved over 3,000 workers. HCC also hired experts from
China, Egypt, Canada, Switzerland, Britain, Serbia, Australia, Singapore, Thailand,
Hong Kong, Indonesia, and Philippines to build the bridge.
➢ It was a challenge to build the bridge on a sea bed that primarily consists of sand,
weathered rocks and residual soil. To deal with it, there was carried out an
extensive subsurface exploration and drilling program. Due to a highly variable
geology, the design calculations were carefully applied pier by pier.
➢ Since the superstructure rests on the piers, the Osterberg cell (O-cell) technology
has been used for the first time in India to check pillar strength up to 9600 MT.
➢ The Polytron discs used in pier bearings has also been used for the first time in
India.
➢ The bridge has been built using precast, post-tensioned, segmental concrete
sections. Each segment weighs between 110 ton and 140 ton and the length
varies between 3000 mm and 3200 mm. An overhead crane, called the launching
truss, with self-launching capability was custom-built by HCC to lift 15 segments
at a time and lay the superstructure.
➢ Constructing 126 m tall central column (pylon) of the main cable-stay bridge,
which supports the 250 m superstructure on either side, required the highest
degree of precision engineering. The central pylon is supported by 52 piles and a
base as big as half the football field. Each pile, the portion of the pillar below the
sea surface, goes around 45 m deep into the sea bed. The arms of the pylon had
to be tilted in various phases, requiring accuracy of plus/minus 1 mm per 3 m tall
concreting. The overall bridge has been built with tolerance of plus/minus 5 mm.
➢ Each of the 424 cables used in the BWSL is made-to-order as the width and length
of each cable varies. Undoubtedly, a lot of meticulous planning and minute
calculations have gone into building the mammoth structure.
➢ The pre-cast yard was located on reclaimed land. The yard catered to casting,
storing and handling of 2342 concrete-steel pre-cast segments for the project.
➢ Fly ash, a waste product extracted from thermal power plants, was used in
concrete to make the construction durable as well as environment friendly.
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Some famous Suspension bridges in the world

1. AKASHI KAIKYO BRIDGE, Japan
→ Construction: 1988-1998
→ Also known as: Pearl Bridge
→ Architect(s)/Engineer(s) Name: Honshu
Shikoku Bridge Authority
→ Total cost: $ 6.24B
→ Daily traffic stats: 23,000 vehicles
→ Number of Lanes: 6 (3-3)
→ Length: 3,911 meters

Figure 24

2. HUBER BRIDGE, UK
→ Construction: 1972-1981
→ Architect(s)/Engineer(s) Name: Freeman
Fox & Partners
→ Total cost: $ 5B
→ Daily traffic stats: 80,000 vehicles
→ Number of Lanes: 2
→ Length: 2,200 meters

Figure 25

3. GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE, San Francisco,

California
→ Opened on: 1937
→ Architect(s)/Engineer(s) Name: McClintic-
Marshall Corporation
→ Total cost: $ 35M
→ Daily traffic stats: 110,000
→ Number of Lanes: 6
→ Length: 2,737 meters
Figure 26

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 SUSPENSION BRIDGES | SHREYAS M C

4. BROOKLYN BRIDGE, New York

→ Construction: 1869-1883
→ Architect(s)/Engineer(s) Name: New York
Bridge Company
→ Total cost: $ 5B
→ Daily traffic stats: 121,900 vehicles
→ Number of Lanes: 5
→ Length: 1,833.7 metre
Figure 27

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CONCLUSION
❖ Nowadays these suspension bridges are the pioneers in bridge construction
technology and these are the pinnacles in modern day bridge construction.
❖ Of all the bridge types in use today, the suspension bridge allows for the
longest span ranging from 2,000 to 7,000 feet.
❖ They are ideal for covering busy waterways such as Gulf, Strait, Lake etc.
❖ These bridges are mainly meant for light and heavy roadways rather than
railways.
❖ The main forces in a suspension bridge are tension in the main cables and
compression in the pillars.
❖ The aesthetic appearance of suspension bridge is another advantage in
comparison with other type of bridge

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REFERENCES
1) C Neelandran, G Gayatri, J Rasigan, Tulasi, (Analysis and Design of Suspension
Bridge) vol-6, issue 4,2021.
2) Jakkula, A. A., “A History of Suspension Bridges in Biographical Form” Bulletin of
the- Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, TX, Jul 2021, p 48.
3) Steinman, D. B. "Ohio River Suspension Bridge at Portsmouth," Engineering News
Record, Oct 20, 2020, pp 620-627.
4) F. BontempI & L. Catallo & L. Sgambi International Journal of Application or
Innovation in Engineering 2020.
5) DR. Ala’a h. AL – Zuhai International, (Analysis and Design of Suspension Bridge)
Vol11, 2019.
6) Kemp, E. L., "Links in a Suspension Bridges 1801-70," 2019, pp 255-263.
7) Tyrrell, H. G., “History of Bridge Engineering”, Williams Pub. Co., Chicago, IL, 2018,
pp-202-256.
8) Case study 1
https://www.bbjconst.com/featured-vidyasagar-setu-bridge.html

9) Case study 2
https://www.academia.edu/5169516/Final_submission_bandra_worli_sea_link

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