State and Administration Under the Mauryas

Mauryan Empire was the first major empire in the history of India. Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire after
throwing the Nanda dynasty with the help of Kautilya. Mauryan administration was highly centralized. Administration,
from the central level to the village level is well structured. There are various officers at different levels, who form a chain
to give the final reports to the king who is at the centre of the system. Both Kautilya and Megasthenes give detailed and
noteworthy accounts that speak volumes about the efficient organization of the empire. We get reference of the empire
from the contemporary accounts: -
MEGASTHENES’ INDICA Megasthenes was the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator who had been sent to the Court of
Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote about the things he observed, however, it must be pointed out that he was not the most
acute of observers and got several things wrong (e.g., his statements that there are no slaves, and that Indians do not know
writing). His work survives only in second-hand paraphrases in later texts. Several contradictions arise in Megasthenes’
Indica and Kautilya’s Arthashastra. For instance: their discussions on fortifications, city administration, army administration
and taxation speak of contradictory things.
ASHOKA’S INSCRIPTIONS Ashoka’s inscriptions mostly contain explanations of dhamma, the king’s efforts to propagate it,
and his own assessment in doing so. Some of them directly indicate his allegiance to Buddha and his close relationship with
sangha. However, he does make a few specific references to the administration and, social and economic aspects of the
Mauryan empire. These inscriptions are in the form of rock edicts, pillar edicts and cave inscriptions. Most of them are
written in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script. Some could be found even in the Kharoshthi script. A few inscriptions are
in Greek and Araimic as well.
ARTHASHASTRA by Kautilya is one of the most influential treatises in Indian Civilization in Political Science. Within a
monarchical state this work discusses nearly all facets of governance. Framework of Arthashastra means wealth, earth,
political science. This treatise is divided into seventeen books dealing with virtually every subject related to the running a
state-taxation, diplomacy, military policy, economics, bureaucracy etc. Arthasastra stands for moral ethics in the conduct
of state affairs. The Arthashastra is the first Indian text to define a state. Kautilya's approach to governance and the
statecraft was logical. He conceptualized the kingship state and office to be human artefacts. The system of checks and
balances between the King, the unions and the people obviously worked well as long as the King allowed to work.
Arthashastra promotes sound ethics for the conduct of state affairs.

Concept of state: The state institution is established to allow the person to practice his/her dharma. King was seen as an
embodiment of virtue, as a dharma guardian. The Maurya state was a monarchy with a powerful king at the centre of the
political system. Like every other man, he too was ruled by his dharma. And if any of the King's acts went against the
prevailing notion of dharma, the associations and/or individual people would be free to challenge him. King was not the
sole interpreter of dharma. In fact, there was no specific institution (like the ecclesiastical courts) vested with the authority
of interpreting dharma. Every individual was deemed competent to interpret it. This was an important factor in ensuring
the non-religious character of the Vedic state. Its concept of the ‘saptangya rajya’ considers the state as consisting of seven
inter-related and inter-locking constituent limbs or elements (angas): -
1. Swami (the King) 2. Amatya (the ministers) 3. Janapada (the territory and the people) 4. Durga (the fortified capital) 5.
Kosh (the treasury) 6. Danda (justice or force) 7. Mitra (ally).
Kautilya glorified the State and found the Kingship office to be the source of all the legal and moral authority associated
with the state. The King was an integral part of the social order. However, King was to regard himself as an agent of the
people and had to abide by his dharma as laid out in the Shastras. The institution of the Kingship was sacred but not the
person who happens to hold it. Kautilya did not adhere to the idea of 'The Monarch's Divine Sources.' King weren't the
god's vicar. In his opinion, monarchy was a human institution, and thus controlled by a human being. The king was
supposed to be more than a mere human being, however, since he was the guardian of the whole dharma society. He
himself had to demonstrate exemplary conduct. He had no private life and all his acts were publicly scrutinised. The King
has had to follow a dharma of his rajya. There was actually no particular organization having the authority to interpret
dharma. Every person was deemed capable of understanding it.
Laws were derived from four sources-dharma (scared law), vyavhara (evidence), charita (history and custom), and
rajasasana (the King's edicts). Kautilya prescribes that any disagreement is decided on four bases of justice. In case of
conflict amongst the various laws, dharma was supreme. The role of law in society was to bring about a just order in
society and the King and his subordinates were to shoulder the significant mission. As rightly pointed out by Kautilya in his
famous verse- “In the happiness of his subjects lies the King’s happiness, In their welfare his welfare.” The Arthashastra
gives great import to the King - the protector of the kingdom. Moreover, the Arthashastra stresses the idea that the king
must be accessible to his officials and his subjects at all times, and warns the king that his inaccessibility would cause
confusion and disaffection, and would make him a prey to his enemies. This advice, it would seem, was followed implicitly
by the Mauryas, as Megasthenes affirms that the king is available for consultation even when he is being massaged.
Kautilya insists that the king can be successful only if he adopts three general practices. He must give equal attention to all
matters.
Council of Ministers or Amatyas: - The council of ministers were an important anga of Kautilya’s Saptanga. In his edicts,
Ashoka refers to them as part of ministerial or advisory council. The smaller council, which formed a regular part of the
government machinery is called the ‘Mantri-Parishad’. This is different from the larger body of the Council of Ministers that
assisted the king in the administrative work. There is no specific number of the ministers that constituted the council. It
varied according to need. In addition to these, there were numerous Superintendents and Adhyakshas (departmental
heads). The nature of ministerial power and responsibility was immense. Since the ministers played a very crucial political
role, Kautilya specifically talks about the modes of selecting them. He is of the opinion that the “ministerial qualifications
shall depend solely on qualifications, and not on the considerations of family, or backstair influence.” Before employing
ministers, their characters had to be tested by secret agents, and only those were selected who proved themselves to be
superior to the allurements that usually lead a man astray from his duties.

Provincial Administration: - Ashokan empire was a centralised empire but we get reference of provincial Administration
from the Ashokan edicts which states about 4 provinces: - Tosali (EAST), Ujjain (WEST), Suvarnagari (SOUTH), and Taxila
(NORTH). The Kumaras (the royal Princes) were appointed to govern these provinces. There was council of ministers at the
provincial level which not only acted as a check on the Kumara but at times had direct relations with the King. The
ministers at Provincial level were appointed both by King and Kumara.

District and Village Level Administration: -The Arthashastra suggests an elaborate administrative structure at the district
and village level. Ashokan inscriptions suggest that the pradeshika, rajuka and yukta were important officers at the district
level. The work of these officers was survey and assessment of land, Tours and inspections, Revenue Collection,
Maintaining Law and order. Pradeshika were in charge of the overall administration of a district. Much of their work
consisted of touring. The IVth Pillar Edict states that the Ashoka grants to the Rajukas independent authority to carry out
his instructions related to public welfare. The yuktas mentioned in the IIIrd Rock Edict appear to have been subordinate
officials. Their duties largely consisted of secretarial work and accounting.
Sthanika was an officer in charge of the administration of large units similar to districts. Under him worked the accountant
called Gopa. He was in charge of units ranging from 10 to 15 villages. At the village level, there as a village headman called
Gramika. The Gopa looked into the accounts and kept the statistics of a group of villages. His work was to keep record of
taxes, revenue and finances, maintaining records of land used for various purposes, recording Income and expenditure,
demarcating village boundaries.

City Administration: -The official responsible for the maintenance of law and order in the city was the Nagaraka (City
Superintendent). He was assisted by two subordinate officials, the Gopa and the Sthanika.
According to Megasthenes, the officials are divided into six committees each with a membership of five. These committees
are related to:
a) Industrial arts and craft
b) Entertainment of foreigners
c) Registration of Births and Deaths
d) Trade and Commerce
e) Public sale of Manufactured Articles
f) Collection of tax on Sold Goods.
While the Arthashastra gives no such list of committees, these descriptions correspond to the work performed by various
adhyakhshas. According to him there was Panyadhyakshas to look after Trade and commerce. Taxes on sold good were
looked after by Sulkadhyakshas, Jail was under the control of Bandhanagaradhyaksha, manufactured goods were looked by
superintendents like Lohadhyakshas and Sauvarnika. Arthashastra refers to variety of activities of city Administration,
regulations related to them and penalties on their breach.

Espionage System: - Spies were essential to the Mauryan administration. They were recruited from various strata of
society, from orphaned children to Brahman widows and shudra women, including a variety of state employees. Given the
nature of their work, they were expected to merge themselves with the group that they had to spy on. Often, they worked
under the guise of disciples, ascetics, householders, recluses, merchants, mendicant women and prostitutes. Secrecy was
highly emphasized. Not only were the spy’s unknown to the general public, but they were unknown to each other as well.
Most likely, they were given written instructions. They evolved systems of signs, symbols, and cipher-writing for
communicating with each other. Spies were not only sent to foreign countries, but more often they were employed to keep
a check on the high-ranking officials and princes. They would also help in the detection of crime and eliciting the public
opinion.

Revenue Administration: - State revenue derived from various channels. The High Treasurer (Sannidhata) was responsible
for the storage of the royal treasure, and of the state income both in cash and kind. The Collector-General or officer in
charge of revenue (Samahartta) worked in conjunction with the treasurer. He was responsible for the collection of revenue
from various parts of the empire. Besides them there was a body of clerks (karmikas). Arthashastra states that all ministers
shall together report the accounts of each department. This suggests a system of joint responsibility. However, in case of
fraud or embezzlement of finances, heavy punishment is suggested for that individual minister or department. From cities,
revenue was generated by way of salt tax (shulka), liquor tax and tax on wealthy people. There is a list of 21 types of taxes
collected by the fort (durga).
From villages, the land tribute was the basic revenue. Two types of revenue were obtained from the land:
Bhaga (one-quarter of the produce) and Hiranya (cash tax on special classes of crops).
Megasthenes refers that land was thoroughly surveyed and 1/4 th of the produce was taken as state demand, on the other
hand Arthashastra refers to 1/3rd as state revenue. Even the taxes on merchants travelling by road or water. Kautilya refers
to Some other kinds of taxes like Senabhaktam and Pindakara.Besides these there were large no of customary dues.
Expenditure was largely on salaries and public works which includes the cost of building and maintaining roads, wells, rest-
houses, and also irrigation works such as the dams. Expenses of the royal court and the royal family are also drawn from
the revenue collected.

The Army: - The maintenance of the army was the concern of the commander-in-chief and the superintendent of the
infantry. Megasthenes writes that army consisited of Infantry, Cavalry, elephants, Chariots and admiral of the fleets.
Kautilya also refers to Chturangbala (infantary, cavalry, elephants and Chariots) as the four divisions of the army which
should be placed under officers known as the patyadhyaksha, ashvadhyaksha, rathadhyaksha and hastadhyaksha
respectively. Further Kautilya recommends that the army should be recruited from all four varnas. The office of the
Commander-in-chief must be occupied by someone who is skilled in handling the four branches of the army. Arthashastra
refers to recruitment policy, war plans and fortifications. Kauytilya classified troops into hereditary, hired, those supplied
by forests and those furnished by Allies.

Judicial Administration: - The arajat state (lawlessness) was regarded with frustration, as it militated against dharma
practice. In many ancient Vedic texts, there is reference to the MatsyaNyaya (Fish Law) which prevails in the state of
nature. State which wields coercion instruments (danda), is formed to pull society out of this hell hole. While Megasthenes
writes that crimes were not very high, Kautilya suggests a wide range of strict punishments which indicates that crime was
not uncommon. He mentions 13 kinds of criminals who can destroy the peace of the land. To hear the matters, courts were
established at different levels – centre, province, city, district and village. There are two kinds of courts – Dharmasthya and
Kantakasodhna. There is a reference of separate judges for civil cases. The sources of law are derived from Dharma,
Vyavhara, Charitra and Rajassana. Central court that was held in the capital was presided over by the king or the Chief
Justice (Pradvivaka) and included four or five judges chosen for their erudition in law. This was the highest court of justice.
Apart from this, to try the criminal matters, a panel of three magistrates (Pradeshti) was appointed.
Kautilya also talks about marriage laws. In one instance, he mentions that a woman would not be entitled to Stridhan at
her marriage if she marries against her father’s choice. The property of a man without sons should be taken by his uterine
brothers or those living together with him, as also by his unmarried daughter. At the partition carried out when the father
is alive, the father should neither favour anyone nor exclude anyone from the partition without any reason”. “When the
father has left no wealth, the older brothers should look after the younger ones, except those who behave dishonestly.
Partition takes place only among those who have reached the age for legal transactions. A king should take a property that
has no heir, excluding what is required for the maintenance of the wife and the funeral expenses, with the exception of
property belonging to Vedic scholars. Among sons born from the same wife, the share of eldest consists of goats among
Brahmanas, horses among Kshatriyas, cows among Vaishyas, and sheep among Sudras. Among sons from wives belonging
to four social classes, the son a Brahmana wife should take four shares, the son Kshatriya wife should take three shares,
the son of Vaishya wife should take two shares and the son of Sudra wife should take only one share. Sisters do not partake
of the inheritance; they receive from their mother’s personal belongings, the brass eating utensils she used and her
ornaments. The son of a Brahmana born to a wife of the class immediately next receives an equal share; the son of a
Kshatriya or Vaishya, half a share; an equal share if he possesses manly qualities. When between two wives, one as the
same class as the husband and the other not, there is only one son, he takes the entire estate; and he should support the
relatives”.
Disputes regarding wages shall be decided on the strength of evidences furnished by witnesses. In the absence of
witnesses, the master who has provided his servant with work shall be examined. Failure to pay wages shall be punished
with a fine of ten times the actual wages; misappropriation of wages shall be punished with a fine of five times the amount
of the wages. Punishment for crimes ranges from fines to mutilation of limbs to death. The nature of the punishment
depended on the nature, gravity, and circumstances of the crime, and also on the varna of the offender and plaintiff. For
most crimes, the higher varnas were given lighter punishment than the lower ones. Kautilya has his own view on
punishments. According to him, he who inflicts severe punishments becomes oppressive to all creatures. He who inflicts
mild punishments is overpowered. He who inflicts just punishments is respected. Punishments when directed with
consideration unites people with virtue, wealth and desire. When it is misapplied with anger and greed through ignorance,
it irritates even the hermits and the ascetics, not to speak of households. When punishment is not applied at all, it
produces a state of anarchy called Matsyanyaya. In the absence of one who wields the sceptre, the strong man devours the
wea Punishment for crimes ranges from fines to mutilation of limbs to death. The nature of the punishment depended on
the nature, gravity, and circumstances of the crime, and also on the varna of the offender and plaintiff. For most crimes,
the higher varnas were given lighter punishment than the lower ones. The free-will of the king was restricted to a certain
extent by the customary reverence for Brahmanas. The Brahmins were exempted from capital punishment. However, a
Brahmin convicted of high treason could be executed by drowning instead of being burnt alive as the case with the other
castes. Brahmins convicted of certain other offences could be branded in the face and then either banished or sent to the
mines for life. Brahmanas and ascetics were exempted from liability to judicial torture for securing a confession. Kautilya,
has advocated the use of torture for extorting confessions. According to him, “those whose guilt is believed to be true shall
be subjected to torture.” Kautilya refers to eighteen kinds of torture including to seven varieties of whipping. In certain
cases, the victim was subjected to one or all of the above kinds of torture, the torture of women was supposed to be half
of the prescribed standards.

The greatness of the ancient Mauryan Empire can be understood and rightly appreciated only when one studies the
intricacies of the working of the administration in the Mauryan state. Due care is given to the most minute affairs.
Seemingly there is an officer to look after nearly every thinkable purpose. The army is the most important state institution,
which comes as no surprise given the extent of the empire. The magnanimity of the empire, the literary texts that come
from this period, primarily Kautilya’s Arthashastra form an indispensable part of India’s history.

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Ashokan Dhamma

INTRODUCTION: - Ashoka, the greatest of the Maurya’s, formulated the policy of dhamma which occupies a significant
place in the Mauryan polity. Though the word dhamma is sometimes associated with religion, but actually it was a secular
policy having certain social and political implications. The word dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word dharma.
The term dharma has been variously translated as piety, moral life, duty, righteousness and religion. Some historians link
Ashoka’s policy of dhamma with Buddhism. According to V.A. Smith, Ashoka actually became a Buddhist monk for a short
span of his life. Smith believes that he was both a monk and a monarch at the same time. D.R. Bhandarkar claims that
Ashoka was a Buddhist and his policy of dhamma was actually original Buddhism as preached by the Buddha. Radha Kumud
Mookerji also formulates that as far as the personal religion of Ashoka is concerned, it may be taken as Buddhism. The
Ashoka’s dhamma is not a royal policy and does not promote any particular religion. Ashoka’s dhamma was a general
policy- a guideline to live.

NEED FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF DHAMMA The basic idea of the implementation of Ashoka’s dhamma was an attempt
to solve some of the problems that a complex society faces. Ashoka dhamma was governed by his private beliefs of how to
deal with these kinds of problems. For understanding the need of implementing one need to pour into the social, political,
economic and religious background.
The Mauryan empire witnessed a change in the social structure of the society with the use of iron which leads to surplus
production. With the large-scale clearance of the extremely fertile middle Gangetic zone and introduction of new methods
of cultivation of paddy by transplantation the production per hectare substantially increased. Hence there was a change in
rural economy into a more sophisticated town. Use of black polished ware pottery is an indicator of material prosperity.
Other indicator is the punched marked silver coins. Trade routes were changing- moving towards a more structured and
developed society. Society was changing in another way as well. There was an adoption of a very rigid Varna System. Caste
system was very prevalent and it was sharpening the division in the society. The Mauryan empire also contained a
noticeable foreign population like the Greeks. In the North-Western part of the kingdom, the centre of this foreign element
and of a cosmopolitan Indo-Greek intellectual life, was the city of Taxila. Hence, emergence of urban culture demanded a
more flexible organisation. Incorporation of tribes in the social fabric was also difficult. This was the situation when
emperor Ashoka ascended the throne. Varna system was on rise. Brahmanas were in a very dominant position and they
ruled over other sections of society. Major opposition was from commercial classes. Buddhism was emerging. It appealed
to the lower castes because it opposed the dominance of brahmanas. Dismissed the concept of sacrifices. Ashoka
ascended the throne, the state system over a period of more than two hundred years, had grown very elaborate and
complex. The centralised nature of the Mauryan empire also compelled the ruler to propagate a state ideology in the form
of dhamma. Chandragupta Maurya on conquering the Nanda domains, completed the policy of centralisation with great
success as is evident from the Arthashastra. The central control of the ruler had to be maintained at all costs and this could
be achieved by adoption of either of two policies. One was that of exercising a ruthless control through armed strength.
However, king favoured the other option of adopting a new belief all together. The Mauryan imperial system had become a
very complex phenomenon. There was diversity in culture, religion, practices, social and political pattern. Heterodox sects
like Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikism had risen, hence there was a tension with brahmanas. Moreover, the tribal were not
aware of anything like this. It seems that the inculcation of the dhamma was largely dictated by political reasons— the
need for consolidating the state. The policy of Dhamma-Vijaya was suited to the new conditions of building a giant empire,
which was to incorporate numerous tribes and peoples at different levels of political, socio-economic and cultural
development.

Ashoka used the medium of Inscriptions or Edicts to expand the policy of Dhamma. Through this he was trying to establish
direct communication with the subjects. His inscriptions can be divided into 2 categories: -
Small group of Inscriptions which reveals that king was a follower of Buddhism
Major and Minor Rock Edicts consists of Ashoka’s proclamation to the public.
To explain the idea of Dhamma, a distinction was drawn between social responsibility and Ashoka’s own commitment as
Buddhist. In his policy of dhamma, Ashoka nowhere mentions the basic themes of Buddhism.
CONTENT OF THE EDICTS: - Let us examine the contents of some of the Edicts of Ashoka.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT I declares prohibition of animal sacrifice and holiday of festive gatherings.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT II relates to measures of social welfare. It mentions medical treatment for men and animals,
construction of roads, wells, tree planting etc. MAJOR ROCK EDICT III declares that liberality towards Brahmanas and
Sramanas is a virtue, respect to mother and father etc.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT IV focuses majorly on non-violence and good behaviour to friends, relatives and elders. The killing of
animals was also stopped.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT V refers to the appointment of Dhamma-mahamattas, these special officers were appointed to look
after the interests of all sects. The implementation of the policy of Dhamma was entrusted in their hands. The appointment
of Dhamma-mahamattas for all communities and sects— the Jains, the Buddhist and the Ajivikas— indicates the difference
of dhamma as a set of ethical rules from any particular religious doctrine. It was a kind of universal religion.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT VI is an instruction to Dhamma-mahamattas to bring their reports to the king any time. The second
part deals with speedy administration and transaction of smooth business.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT VII is a plea for toleration among all the sect. It appears from the edict that tension among the sects
were expressed intensely. In the same edict he further says that, “many hundred thousand of living beings were formerly
slaughtered every day in the kitchen of Priyadarshi, Beloved of the Gods, for the sake of curry. But now when this record
relating to the dhamma is written, only three living creatures are killed daily for the sake of curry, viz., two birds and one
animal. Even this animal is not slaughtered regularly. These three living beings too shall not be killed in future.”
MAJOR ROCK EDICT VIII states that the Dhammayatras would be undertaken by the emperor. It would enable the emperor
to come into contact with various sections of people. The king would give up the hunting expedition.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT IX attacks the ceremonies practised after birth, illness, marriages etc by mothers and wives. It laid
stress on performance of dhamma.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT X denounces fame and glory and reasserts the merits of following dhamma.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT XI is a further explanation of the policy of dhamma.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT XII reflects the anxiety of the king felt due to the conflict between sects and carries his plea for
harmony.
MAJOR ROCK EDICT XIII is of paramount importance in understanding the Ashokan policy of Dhamma. This edict pleads for
conquest by dhamma instead of war. This edict talks about the war of Kalinga as well. The scene of the war presented a
horrible sight, therefore, Ashoka primarily focused on spreading his message of Dhamma and the concept of Dhamma-
Vijaya instead of military victories. This inscription of Dhamma has been engraved so that any sons or great grandson that
he would have should not think of gaining new conquests; would only consider the conquest by Dhamma to be a true
conquest. This is Ashoka’s testament against war.

Analysis by various Historians: - According to R.C. Majumdar, the aspect of dhamma which Ashoka emphasised was a code
of morality, rather than a system of religion. He never discussed meta-physical doctrines nor referred to God or soul, but
simply asked the people to have control over their passions. According to K.A.N. Sastri, “the promotion of toleration and
harmony among different religious sects and kindness towards animal life were two particular aspects of the dhamma to
which Ashoka gave very special attention.” Dhamma had no formal definition or structure. It stressed on dual toleration-
people; their beliefs and ideas. According to Romila Thapar, this toleration was not a passive co-existence but an active
frame of mind in which opinions are expressed in a manner that does not cause any offence. Obedience towards the
elders, teachers, Brahmanas, Sramanas etc. generosity towards needy and consciousness towards slaves and servants. It
also emphasised on the principle of non-violence (giving up of wars). It also focused on non-killing of animals. Dhamma
also focused on welfare measures like planting of trees, digging wells. It also prohibited sacrifice practices which was very
prevalent in those days. The Ashokan policy of Dhamma has been an issue of intense controversy and debate amongst the
scholars. Some scholars point that he was a partisan Buddhist and have equated dhamma with Buddhism. It has been
suggested that it was the original Buddhist though that was being preached by Ashoka as Dhamma and later on certain
theological additions were made to Buddhism. This kind of thinking is based on some Buddhist Chronicles. According to
many historians Ashoka’s policy of dhamma was primarily responsible for the disintegration of the Mauryan empire. Critics
point out two serious drawbacks of the policy of dhamma which led the empire to the path of disintegration.
1) It was responsible for military pacifism. Some writers ascribe the downfall of the Mauryas to Ashoka’s policy of ahimsa
or non-violence. Ashoka after the war of Kalinga, did not wage any other war and instead of conquest of territories, he
began with the conquest by the dhamma. As a result of this the military strength of the Mauryan empire decline. According
to K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, “Ashoka’s pacifism, his abandonment of war as an instrument of policy, and his exhortation to his
successors to follow him in this respect, had nothing doctrinaire about it, and was kept within limits by a wise awareness of
the complexity of the human situation and motives. There is no evidence that he diminished the strength of army or
weakened the defences of the empire.”
2) It invited Brahminical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policy of Ashoka. Some holds Ashoka responsible for pursuing a
policy which resulted in the Brahminic revolt like. But H.C. Raychaudhary, K.A. Nilkanta Sastri, R.K. Mookerjee and Romila
Thapar disagree with this viewpoint. They point out that there is no adequate ground to believe that Ashoka ill-treated the
Brahmins and the latter rose against his successors in a body. The prohibition of animal sacrifices should not be interpreted
as an attack on the Brahmins. The ancient sages had themselves condemned animal sacrifices and advocated the principle
of ahimsa or non-violence. This was particularly maintained in the Upanishads.

Ashoka defined the ideal way in which a life should be led which contained the basic ethics and the principles not specific
to any particular religion, but genesis of all, to lead a satisfactory life which will bring an individual closer to the path of
God. One of the major emphasis was on the path of Ahimsa. Ashoka’s Dhamma was subject to a lot of criticism. The
Dhamma policy didn’t target any particular section of the society like in case of Brahmins: it tried to equalise all the people
and dissolve the long-lead Varna System. Change is not easily accepted; it is always revolted. Another point of debate is
regarding the demolition of the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka’s dhamma or the adoption of the path of Ahimsa cannot be solely
responsible for the downfall. There must be numerous political, economic and social factors which lead to the instability in
the kingdom, one of them could be a weak successor. Thus, we may conclude that the dhamma policy of Ashoka found in
the edicts is another name for the moral or virtuous life and it stands upon the common grounds of all religions. It cannot
be called sectarian in any sense. It is completely cosmopolitan, capable of universal application, and based on the
acceptance of the crux of all religions. In the moral interest of the diverse population of his empire Ashoka designed a
policy in the form of dhamma which could be imposed upon all his subjects irrespective of their personal faith and beliefs.
Thus, he laid the foundation of a universal religion.