BIOCHEMISTRY – GLUCOSE - most important carbohydrate in

REVIEWER biochemistry
- Almost all cells derive energy from the oxidation of
BIOCHEMISTRY - the systematic study of the chemical glucose through glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and
substances found in living organisms, their oxidative phosphorylation
organization & chemical interactions with each other,
and the principles of their participation in the
processes of life.
BIOCHEMICAL SUBSTANCE - a chemical substance
THE CELL STRUCTURE
found within a living organism.
TYPES OF BIOCHEMICAL SUBSTANCE  TWO MAIN GROUPS
 BIOINORGANIC SUBSTANCE – water (70%) and  PROKARYOTE - Greek - meaning “before the
inorganic salts (5%) nucleus”; single- celled organisms
 BIOORGANIC SUBSTANCES – carbohydrates  EUKARYOTE - Greek - meaning “true nucleus”
(2%), lipids (8%), proteins (15%), and nucleic  FIVE KINGDOMS
acids (2%). • Monera - prokaryotic organisms; includes
CELL BASIC NEEDS bacteria and cyanobacteria
 Materials • Protista - unicellular eukaryotes: yeast, Euglena,
 Information Volvox, Amoeba, and Paramecium
 Energy
• Fungi - molds and mushrooms
THREE MAIN CLASSES OF FOODSTUFFS
• Plantae
 Carbohydrates – plants (cell walls) while animals
• Animalia
(energy)
 Lipids - materials to make cell membranes and as • Fungi, plants, and animals are multicellular
sources of chemical energy. eukaryotes (with few unicellular eukaryotes)
 Proteins - particularly important in both the
structures and functions of cells
INFORMATIONS SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
 ENZYMES - do not originate the cellular script.
They only help to carry out directions that are
encoded in the molecular structures of the
nucleic acids
 HORMONES & NEUROTRANSMITTERS - two
other components of cellular information,
depend on the presence of right enzymes not
only for their existence but for their functions.
BIOCHEMICAL SUBSTANCES - basic nutritional needs.
 Vitamins
 Minerals
 Water
 Oxygen
METABOLISM - reactions of a living cell that result in
highly coordinated and purposeful activity
FREQUENT REACTIONS
o nucleophilic substitution
o elimination CELL MEMBRANE - permits and/or enhances the
o addition absorption of essential nutrients into the cell while
o isomerization preventing the diffusion of needed metabolites
o hydrolysis • component biomolecules:
o oxidation – reduction
 – Lipids: phospholipids, cholesterol  ROUGH ER - primarily involved in synthesis of
(provide the basic structure of biological membrane proteins and proteins for export
membranes) from the cell
– Proteins (embedded in the membranes  SMOOTH ER - appears to be involved in the
and provide channels/carriers for the biosynthesis of steroids, phospholipids, and
transport of ions and nutrients) complex polysaccharides
– Carbohydrates
RIBOSOMES - consist of ~50% RNA (rRNA)
CYTOPLASM - structureless and highly viscous 50% protein
(AQUEOUS PHASE)  involved in protein synthesis in the cell and are
- contains a wide variety of solutes including proteins, sometimes referred to as the “workbench” for
enzymes, nucleic acids (RNA), several electrolytes, protein synthesis
metabolites for cellular utilization (e.g., glucose), and  two unequal subunits (formed when protein synthesis
waste products of cellular activity (e.g., urea, happens and separate when not)
creatinine, uric acid, etc.)
GOLGI APPARATUS - the “packaging stations” of the
NUCLEUS - the “information center” of the cell; the cell; responsible for sorting and packaging several
machinery for converting that information into types of proteins, small molecules, and new
protein molecules, site of DNA and RNA synthesis membrane components
• contains a comparatively large amount of
nucleoprotein (50% DNA and 50% proteins, LYSOSOMES - membrane-bound organelles
histones and prolamins located in the containing a variety of hydrolytic and degradative
chromosomes, and a small amount of RNA; >95% enzymes and having an optimum pH of 5.0
of nucleic acids of the cell is in the nucleus  Digestive system and suicide bag
(PHAGOCYTOSIS)
NUCLEOLUS - small, round dense body present within
the nucleus; essentially a cluster of looped PEROXISOMES - contains oxidative enzymes that
chromosomal segments; contains 10-20% of the total oxidize amino acids, uric acid, and various 2-
RNA of the cell, chiefly mRNA hydroxyamino acids using O2 with the formation of
• serve as a storehouse for mRNA prior to its H2O2
movement into the cytoplasm by way of the
nuclear pores  WATER IN THE CELL
 THE SOLVENT - enables water-soluble, water-
MITOCHONDRIA - second largest organelle; miscible, or emulsifiable substances to be
carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids are oxidized to transferred in the body not only in the blood but
CO2 and H2O by molecular O2, and the energy set free also intercellularly and intracellularly
is converted into the energy of ATP  IN BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS - ionization is a
 site for cellular respiration prerequisite to many biochemical reactions and
 The inner membrane, in which the enzymes ionization takes place in water
of electron transport and energy conversion  IN PHYSIOLOGIC REGULATION OF BODY TEMP
are located, is convoluted to form shelves  HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT - enables the body to
termed cristae. store heat effectively without greatly raising its
temperature
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - a system of  HIGH HEAT CONDUCTIVITY - permits heat to
interconnected tubules or canaliculi extending be transferred readily from the interior of the
throughout the cell cytoplasm and is continuous with body to the surface
the outer nuclear membrane
  HIGH LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION - causes – tetra saccharides (stachyose)
a great deal of heat to be used in its – free oligosaccharides, other than disaccharides,
evaporation and thus cools the surface of the are less common in nature
body – usually found associated with proteins and lipids
 CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS in complex molecules that serve structural and
- IN VIVO (inside – within the organisms) regulatory functions
- IN VITRO (outside – in the glass) 4. POLYSACCHARIDES
 SPEED – presence of enzymes affects the speed of a – consist of tens of thousands of monosaccharide
reaction units covalently bonded
 MILDNESS - energy is taken up and released in a – homopolysaccharides – polymers of a single
gentle way, not violently monosaccharide (glycogen, cellulose, starch)
 ORDERLINESS - a high degree of orderliness is due – heteropolysaccharides – contain more than one
to the existence of cell specialization kind of monosaccharide (hyaluronic acid, heparin,
chondroitin sulfate)
CARBOHYDRATES 5. DERIVED CARBOHYDRATES
 most abundant class of bioorganic molecules on – those where carbohydrate moieties have
earth undergone some reactions converting them into
 also referred to as saccharides because of the other products
sweet taste of many carbohydrates – sugar acids, sugar alcohols, deoxy sugars, and
 storehouse of chemical energy (glucose, starch, sugar amines
glycogen) grouped together according to the number of
 supportive structural components in plants and carbons they contain
some animals (cellulose, chitin) may either be:
 form part of the structural framework of DNA &  AN ALDOSE - contains aldehyde group
RNA  A KETOSE - contains ketone group
 carbohydrate “markers” on cell surfaces play key presence of a ketone group is usually indicated by
roles in cell-cell recognition processes. using the ending “ulose” in naming the sugar
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES - Classification - e.g., levulose

based on products of acid hydrolysis:

1. MONOSACCHARIDES MONOSACCHARIDES
– the simple sugars CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
– contain a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or 1. TRIOSES
polyhydroxy ketone unit  the parent member of the family of
– cannot be degraded into simpler products by monosaccharides
hydrolysis reactions  from them emanates the other members of the
– pure monosaccharides are water- soluble, white, monosaccharide family.
crystalline solids  the final form of carbohydrate into which all
2. DISACHARIDES carbohydrates, regardless of their complexity, are
– contains 2 monosaccharide units covalently degraded in the body during carbohydrate
bonded to each other metabolism.
– crystalline and water-soluble substances  D (+)- glyceraldehyde - an aldotriose
– upon hydrolysis they produce monosaccharides  Dihydroxyacetone - a ketotriose
3. OLIGOSACCHARIDES 2. PENTOSES
– contains 3-10 monosaccharide units - covalently  ALDOPENTOSES
bonded – D- (-)-xylose
– disaccharides are the most common type • a constituent of the heart muscle
– trisaccharide (raffinose) – D- (-)-ribose
 • metabolic pathways and are  Synthesized in human
important building blocks of RNA  Also called brain sugar-- part of brain and
and DNA nerve tissue
 KETOPENTOSES  Used to differentiate between blood types
- D-ribulose  Six membered cyclic form
- D-xylulose  Galactosemia (– the gene responsible for
3. HEXOSES the enzyme that converts D-galactose to D-
 the most common of all the monosaccharides glucose. Such infants cannot metabolize
 ALDOHEXOSE galactose and it builds up in the blood and
- D- (+)-mannose tissue.)
- D- (+)-glucose (A 5% (m/v) glucose 4. RIBOSE
solution is often used in hospitals as an  Part of RNA
intravenous source of nourishment for patients  Part of ATP
who cannot take food by mouth. )  Part of DNA
- D- (+)- galactose  Five membered cyclic form

 KETOHEXOSE CYCLIC FORMS OF MONOSACCHARIDES

- D- (-)- fructose CYCLIC - The dominant form of monosaccharides with
- D-mannose (found in certain bacteria, fungi, and 5 or more C atoms
plants; converted to usable glucose in the body, but HEMIACETALS AND HEMIKETALS are formed from
has no real physiological significance) the reaction between two functional groups:
aldehyde or ketone and alcohol
CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES TWO TYPES OF RING STRUCTURES
(BASED ON THEIR SPATIAL ORIENTATION) 1. FIVE-MEMBERED RING (or furanose ring, derived
 D – ISOMER from parent compound furan)
- when the –OH is written to the right of this 2. SIX-MEMBERED RING (or pyranose ring, derived
carbon in the Fischer projection formula. from parent compound pyran)
 L – ISOMER CYCLIC HEMIACETAL FORMS OF D-GLUCOSE
- when this –OH is written to the left.  The cyclic hemiacetals are readily interconvertible
BIOCHEMICALLY IMPORTANT MONSACCHARIDES in aqueous solution
1. GLUCOSE  MUTAROTATION - this interconversion of α- and
 Most abundant in nature β- anomers in solution is accompanied by a
 Nutritionally most important change in specific rotation
 Grapefruit good source of glucose (20 - 30%  only sugars that form hemiacetal or hemiketal
by mass) -- also named grape sugar, structure mutarotation
dextrose, and blood sugar (70 - 100 mg/100
mL of blood)
 Six membered cyclic form
2. FRUCTOSE
 Ketohexose
 Sweetest of all sugars; the fruit sugar
 Found in many fruits and in honey
 Good dietary sugar-- due to higher
sweetness
 Five membered cyclic form
3. GALACTOSE
 A component of milk sugar
 EPIMERS – a pair of diastereomers that differ only in
the configuration about a single carbon atom

3. LACTOSE
 human - 7%–8% lactose
 cow’s milk - 4%–5% lactose
 consists of β-galactose with a β-1,4-glycosidic
linkage to β-glucose (or α-glucose)
 LACTOSE INTOLERANCE - a condition in which
people lack the enzyme lactase needed to
hydrolyze lactose to galactose and glucose
2- ANOMERIC FORMS OF D-GLUCOSE
1. Alpha-form: -OH of C1 and CH2OH of C5 are on
opposite sides
2. Beta-form: -OH of C1 and CH2OH of C5 are on
same sides
ANOMERS - Cyclic monosaccharides that differ only in LACTOSE INTOLERANCE - lactose attracts water
the position of the substituents on the anomeric causing fullness, discomfort, cramping, nausea, and
carbon atom. diarrhea
GALACTOSEMIA - the genetic disease caused by the
DISACCHARIDES absence of the enzymes needed for conversion of
 The two monosaccharides are linked together by galactose to glucose. (MORE SEVERE)
acetal formation to form disaccharide 4. SUCROSE
 One monosaccharide act as a hemiacetal and  the common table sugar & the most abundant of
other as alcohol and the resulting ether bond is a all disaccharides found in plants.
glycosidic linkage.  produced commercially from the juice of sugar
 GLYCOSIDIC BOND - joining the 2 saccharide cane and sugar beets.
units.  the α-anomeric carbon 1 of glucose joins the β-
KINDS OF DISACCHARIDES anomeric carbon 2 of fructose (α-1,2- glycosidic
1. MALTOSE bond)
 Malt sugar, found in corn syrup, malt, and
germinating seeds
 consists of two molecules of glucose joined by
α-1,4-glycosidic bond

5. INVERT SUGAR
 has a much greater tendency to remain in solution.
 In the manufacture of jelly and candy and in the
2. CELLOBIOSE
canning of fruit, crystallization of the sugar is
 one of the major fragments isolated after
undesirable, therefore conditions leading to the
extensive hydrolysis of cellulose
hydrolysis of sucrose are employed in these
 the 2 glucose units are joined by a β-1,4-
processes; in addition, fructose is sweeter than
glycosidic linkage
sucrose
ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS

STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDES
- starch and glycogen
STRUCTURAL
- cellulose and chitin
ACIDIC
OLIGOSACCHARIDES - heparin and hyaluronic acid
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
 Commonly found in onions, cabbage, broccoli,
– starch
and wheat
– glycogen
 In humans, intestinal bacteria action on the
– cellulose
indigestible raffinose and stachyose present in
– chitin
beans produces gaseous products that can cause
– carrageenan
discomfort and flatulence
KINDS OF OLIGOSACCHARIDES
HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES
1. SOLANIN - a potato toxin, is an oligosaccharide
– hyaluronic acid
found in association with an alkaloid
– heparin
 bitter taste of potatoes is due to relatively higher
– chondroitin sulfate
levels of solanin.
– alginic acid
STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDES
POLYSACCHARIDES
1. STARCH
 many monosaccharide units bonded with
- the chief caloric distributor in the diet; the
glycosidic linkages
reserve carbohydrates for plants
 branched or unbranched
 AMYLOSE - straight chain polymer; 15 -
 homopolysaccharide or heteropolysaccharides
20% of the starch; water-soluble fraction;
 alternate name is GLYCAN
60 – 300 glucose units joined by α-1,4-
 not sweet and don’t show positive tests with
glycosidic bonds
Tollen’s and Benedict’s solutions
 AMYLOPECTIN - branched chain polymer.
 limited water solubility
80 - 85 % of the starch. the water-
insoluble fraction (composed of 300 –
6000 glucose units joined primarily by α-
1,4- glycosidic bonds and occasionally by
α-1,6- glycosidic bonds)
 2. GLYCOGEN  HIGHLY VISCOUS - serve as lubricants in the
 Animal STARCH fluid of joints and part of vitreous humor of
 glucose storage molecule of animals the eye
 stored in granules in liver and muscle  HYALURONIDASE – an enzyme that breaks
cells hyaluronic acid linkages and facilitates the
 like amylopectin, is a nonlinear polymer spread of the venom
of glucose units joined by α-1,4- and α- 2. HEPARIN
1,6-glycosidic bonds but has lower  consists of repeating units of D- glucuronic
molecular weight acid and D- glucosamine
 more highly branched structure  an anticoagulant in blood that inhibits blood
 its branches are shorter clot formation
 gives red-brown color with I2  used in open-heart surgery
3. CELLULOSE 3. ALGINIC ACID
 a fibrous carbohydrate found in all plants  locally extracted from Sargassum seaweeds
where it serves as the structural  serves as base coatings in meats and fish
component of the plant’s cell wall which reduces moisture loss and fat
 a linear polymer of glucose units joined absorption
by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds 4. CHONDROITIN SULFATE
 It serves as dietary fiber in food-- readily  consists of repeating units of D- glucuronic
absorbs water and results in softer acid-D-glucosamine sulfate
stools  structural role in cartilage, bone, and cornea
 20 - 35 g of dietary fiber is desired of the eye
everyday
 MAN CAN’T UTILIZE CELLULOSE as a DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND CARBOHYDRATES
source of glucose (lack of cellulase) 1. GLYCEMIC FOODS
  A developing concern about intake of
4. CHITIN carbohydrates involves how fast the given
 Like cellulose in both function and dietary carbohydrates are broken down to
structure glucose within the human body
 Function is to give rigidity to the  GLYCEMIC INDEX: (for rating foods)
exoskeletons of crabs, lobsters, ETC. – how quickly carbohydrates are digested
5. CARAGEENAN – how high blood glucose rises
 occurs as hydrocolloid extracted from selected – how quickly blood glucose levels return
species of red algae to normal
 locally obtained from Eucheuma striatum, LOW-GI FOODS ARE DESIRABLE
Eucheuma spinosum and Acanthapora 2. UNAVAILABLE CARBOHYDRATES
 widely used in food industry, its gelling  those not hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes
property is used in enhancing the texture of  they constitute the dietary fiber
various dairy products and in preventing oiling  FIBER in the diet aids in the formation of bulk in
off in caramel and toffee during hot weather the intestinal tract, which increases the
ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES absorption of water along the tract.
1. HYALURONIC ACID  Results to soft fecal which can be easily removed
 repeating unit is a disaccharide composed of (opposite with the hard fecal)
β-D-glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-D- 1. DIETARY FIBER
glucosamine in a β-(1🡪3)-linkage  Lack of dietary fiber may also lead to
overnutrition
 GASTRIN AND CHOLECYSTOKININ – without
these, it takes longer to reach the feeling of
satiety
 increases the bulk in the stomach and
intestines without contributing to the caloric
intake.
 ISCHAEMIC HEART DISORDER - the absence of
dietary fiber, excess cholesterol can lead to
plaque formation