Problem solving

and reasoning
 Topic Outline
• Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
• Examples of Reasoning
• Direct Proofs
• Indirect Proofs
– Proof of the Contrapositive
– Proof by Contradiction
• Disproof
– Proof by Counterexample
– Disproof with Contradiction
• Proof by Principle of Mathematical Induction
• Wealways hear arguments that persuade us to
believe because we think that these arguments
that we hear are manifesting truthfulness. Some
people verify these arguments and may come up
with a sound proof – that is, to verify them or
refute them. One way to verify or refute
arguments is to analyze the statements using
the concepts of inductive and deductive
reasoning.
What is reasoning?
- the drawing of inferences or
conclusions from known or
assumed facts through the use
of reason.
A Closer Look at Inductive vs.
Deductive Reasoning
 Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

• The difference:
inductive reasoning uses patterns to
arrive at a conclusion (conjecture)

deductive reasoning uses facts, rules,

definitions or properties to arrive at a
conclusion.
• Inductive reasoning - Think of it like a
We start with specifics and move to
generalities

• Deductive reasoning – think of it like a

We start with generalities and move to
specifics.
• Inductive reasoning – logical process in which multiple
premises, all believed to be true or found true most of
the time are combined to obtain a specific conclusion.
This reasoning is used in applications that involve
prediction, forecasting, or behavior.
– A conclusion that is reached by inductive reasoning may or may
not be valid. An example of inductive reason is when you notice
that all mice you see around you are brown, and you make the
conclusion that all mice in the world are brown.
– Question: Can you say for certain that this conclusion is correct?
– Answer: No, because the conclusion is based on a few
observations.
• Inductive reasoning
– We may also arrive at a conjecture whose
conclusion is based on inductive reasoning.
– There are instances however when even if all
the premises are true in a statement, inductive
reasoning still allows for a false conclusion.
– Not all premises arrive at a valid conclusion.
 Examples of Inductive Reasoning
Some examples
1) Every quiz has been easy. Therefore, the
test will be easy.
2) The teacher used PowerPoint in the last
few classes. Therefore, the teacher will
use PowerPoint tomorrow.
3) Every fall there have been hurricanes in
the tropics. Therefore, there will be
hurricanes in the tropics this coming fall.
• Deductive Reasoning (Syllogism) – the process of
reaching conclusions based on previously known facts.
– Formed by two statements (Major and Minor Premises) and a
conclusion which must be true if the two statements are true.
– A conclusion that is reached by deductive reasoning are valid and
can be relied on. An example of it is when you know for a fact
that all pennies are copper-colored. Now, if your friend gave you
a penny, what can you conclude about the penny? You can
conclude that the penny will be copper-colored.
– Question: Can you say for certain that this conclusion is correct?
– Answer: Yes, because your statement is based on facts.
 Deductive Reasoning

An Example:

The catalog states that all entering

freshmen must take a mathematics
placement test. (Major Premise)
You are an entering freshman.
(Minor Premise)
Conclusion: You will have to take a
mathematics placement test.
 Inductive or Deductive Reasoning?

Geometry example…
What is the measure of angle x?
x

Triangle sum property -

60◦ the sum of the angles of
any triangle is always
180 degrees. Therefore,
angle x = 30°
 Inductive or Deductive Reasoning?

Geometry example…

What is the next shape in the sequence?

90% of humans are right handed.
Joe is human.
Therefore, Joe is right handed.

DEDUCTIVE
You are a good student.
You get all A’s.
Therefore, your friends must get
all A’s too.

INDUCTIVE
All oranges are fruits.
All fruits grow on trees.
Therefore, all oranges grow on
trees.

DEDUCTIVE
Mikhail hails from Russia.
Russians are tall.
Therefore, Mikhail is tall.

INDUCTIVE
Classify the argument as deductive or
inductive:

1. I ate a chili dog at Joe’s and got

indigestion.
2. I ate a chili dog at Ruby’s and got
indigestion.

Therefore, chili dogs give me indigestion.

Classify the argument as deductive or
inductive:

1. All spicy foods give me indigestion.

2. Chili dogs are spicy food.
Therefore, chili dogs give me indigestion.
• Syllogism:
an argument composed of two statements or
premises followed by a conclusion.

• Valid:
an argument is valid if the conclusion of the
argument is guaranteed to follow from the
premises.
• Invalid:
an argument is invalid if there is at least one
instance where the conclusion does not follow from
the premises
 Draw a Venn diagram to determine
if the argument is valid or invalid:

1. No one who can afford health insurance is

unemployed.
2. All politicians can afford health insurance.

Therefore, no politician is unemployed.

 Draw a Venn diagram to determine
if the argument is valid or invalid:

1. All homeless people are unemployed.

2. Roseanne is not a homeless person.
Therefore, Roseanne is not unemployed.
 Draw a Venn diagram to determine
if the argument is valid or invalid:

1. All doctors are men.

2. My mother is a doctor.
Therefore, my mother is a man.
What is the most likely next
number:

1, 2, 4, 7, ____

4, 7, 10, 1, _____

31, 28, 31, 30, _____

 Proofs of Mathematical Statements
● A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth
of a statement. It is a demonstration that if some
fundamental statements (axioms) are assumed to be
true, then some mathematical statement is
necessarily true. That is, a proof must demonstrate
that a statement is true to all cases.
● In math, informal proofs which are generally
shorter, are generally used.
 Definitions
• A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be
true using:
– definitions
– other theorems
– axioms (statements which are given as true)
– rules of inference
• Definition – a precise and unambiguous
description of the meaning of a mathematical
term. It characterizes the meaning of a word by
giving all the properties and only those properties
that must be true.
 Definitions continued

• Axiom (postulate) is a statement that is not

proven or demonstrated but considered either to
be self-evident. In other words, an axiom is a
logical statement that is assumed to be true.
• A lemma is a ‘helping theorem’ or a result which is
needed to prove a theorem.
• A corollary is a result which follows directly from a
theorem.
 Definitions continued
• Less important theorems are sometimes called
propositions.
• A conjecture is a statement that is being
proposed to be true.
• Once a proof of a conjecture is found, it
becomes a theorem.
• However, it may turn out to be false.
 Even and Odd Integers

Definition: The integer n is even if there exists an

integer k such that n = 2k, and n is odd if there
exists an integer k, such that n = 2k + 1.
Note that every integer is either even or odd and no
integer is both even and odd.

We will need this basic fact about the integers in

some of the example proofs to follow.
1.) DIRECT PROOF – when the conclusion is established by
logically combining the axioms, definitions, and earlier
theorems. A direct proof of a mathematical theorem
“p →q” is usually done by putting known axioms and theorems
in the form “p → r , r → s , s → t , .., z → q” . Therefore, “p →q”
by the Law of Syllogism/ Transitivity.
Outline Proof:
•Goal: p → q
•Technique:
1. Assume that p is true.
2. Then prove q. Use rules of inference, axioms, and logical
equivalences to show that q must also be true.
 Direct Proof
Illustration:
Prove: “If n is an odd integer, then n2 is odd.”
Proof:
Assume that n is odd.
Then n = 2k + 1 for an integer k.
Squaring both sides of the equation, we get:
n2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k2 + 4k +1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1= 2r + 1, where r = 2k2 + 2k is an integer. 
We have proved that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is an odd integer.
( or QED marks the end of a proof.)
 Direct Proof

Illustration:
Prove: “If n is an even integer, then n2 is even.”
Proof:
 Direct Proof

Illustration:
Prove: “If a and b are consecutive integers, then
the sum a+b is odd.”
Proof:
Direct Proof
2. INDIRECT PROOF – assume the negation
of the conclusion of argument to be proved.
Types of Indirect Proofs:
2.1. Proof by Contrapositive
2.2. Proof by Contradiction
2.1.) PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE
•Since a conditional statement and its contrapositive are
equivalent, proving the contrapositive is true would
imply the original statement is also true.
PRINCIPLE OF CONTRAPOSITIVE INFERENCE
“From ~q → ~p, we may conclude p → q”
Proof Outline:
•Goal: p → q
•New Goal: ~q → ~p
•Technique: 1. Assume that ~q is true.
2. Then prove ~p.
Proof by Contrapositive
Proof by Contrapositive
2.2. PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
•Also known as reduction ad absurdum, Latin for “by
reduction to the absurd”. It is shown that if some
statement were true, a logical contradiction occurs,
hence the statement must be true.
•Instead of trying to prove a statement p directly, we
demonstrate (indirectly) how ~p → (q^~q) for some
statement q.
•Remarks: *(q^~q) is always false statement or
contradiction. * This would imply that p is always
true.
•~p → (q^~q) = ~T→ (T^~T)
= F → (T^F) = F → F = T.
PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
Outline Proof:
•Goal: q
•Technique:
1. Assume that ~q is true.
2. Then find a contradiction.
Proof by Contradiction
3. DISPROOF – to prove the statement is
FALSE.
Types of Disproof:
3.1. Proof by Counterexample
3.2. Proof by Contradiction
3.1.) PROOF BY COUNTEREXAMPLE
•If a proposition cannot be proved, then try disproving it.
•Disproving a statement means proving its negation is
true. That is, proving the statement FALSE by
counterexample.
•The proposition ~(p → q) is equivalent to p → q in a case
wherein the hypothesis of the argument is satisfied but
the conclusion does not follow.
Proof Outline:
•Goal: Disprove p.
•Technique: 1. Prove ~p.
 Proof by Counterexample
Illustration:
Prove: “For every integer a, the integer
f(a) = a2-a+11 is prime.”
Proof:
 Proof by Counterexample
Illustration:
Prove: “Every prime integer is odd.”
Proof:
3.2.) DISPROOF WITH CONTRADICTION
•If a proposition cannot be proved, then try disproving it.
•Disproving a statement means proving its negation is
true. That is, proving that the statement is FALSE by
counterexample.
•To disprove p, prove ~p with contradiction. That is,
assume that p is true and deduce a contradiction.
Proof Outline:
•Goal: Disprove p.
•Technique: 1. Assume p is true.
2. Deduce a contradiction.
 Disproof with Contradiction
Illustration:
• Prove: “There is a real number x for which
x4<x< x2.
Proof: