1: MATTER- ITS

PROPERTIES AND
MEASUREMENT
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1: MATTER- ITS PROPERTIES AND MEASUREMENT
Petrucci: General Chemistry
Principles and Modern Applications

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII

XVIII XIX XX
XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII

1.1: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Scientists search for answers to questions and solutions to problems by using a procedure called
the scientific method. This procedure consists of making observations, formulating hypotheses,
and designing experiments, which in turn lead to additional observations, hypotheses, and experiments in repeated cycles

1.2: PROPERTIES OF MATTER

1.3: CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. The basic building block of matter is the atom, the smallest unit of an element
that can enter into combinations with atoms of the same or other elements. In many substances, atoms are combined into molecules.
On earth, matter commonly exists in three states: solids, of fixed shape and volume; liquids, of variable shape but fixed volume; and
gases, of variable shape and volume.

1.4: MEASUREMENT OF MATTER - SI (METRIC) UNITS

1.5: DENSITY AND PERCENT COMPOSITION: THEIR USE IN PROBLEM SOLVING
1.6: UNCERTAINTIES IN SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS
1.7: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1.E: EXERCISES

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1.1: The Scientific Method
Learning Objectives
To identify the components of the scientific method

Scientists search for answers to questions and solutions to problems by using a procedure called the scientific method. This
procedure consists of making observations, formulating hypotheses, and designing experiments, which in turn lead to
additional observations, hypotheses, and experiments in repeated cycles (Figure 1.1.1).

Figure 1.1.1 : The Scientific Method. As depicted in this flowchart, the scientific method consists of making observations,
formulating hypotheses, and designing experiments. A scientist may enter the cycle at any point.
Observations can be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative observations describe properties or occurrences in ways that do not
rely on numbers. Examples of qualitative observations include the following: the outside air temperature is cooler during the
winter season, table salt is a crystalline solid, sulfur crystals are yellow, and dissolving a penny in dilute nitric acid forms a
blue solution and a brown gas. Quantitative observations are measurements, which by definition consist of both a number and
a unit. Examples of quantitative observations include the following: the melting point of crystalline sulfur is 115.21 °C, and
35.9 grams of table salt—whose chemical name is sodium chloride—dissolve in 100 grams of water at 20 °C. An example of a
quantitative observation was the initial observation leading to the modern theory of the dinosaurs’ extinction: iridium
concentrations in sediments dating to 66 million years ago were found to be 20–160 times higher than normal. The
development of this theory is a good exemplar of the scientific method in action (see Figure 1.1.2 below).
After deciding to learn more about an observation or a set of observations, scientists generally begin an investigation by
forming a hypothesis, a tentative explanation for the observation(s). The hypothesis may not be correct, but it puts the
scientist’s understanding of the system being studied into a form that can be tested. For example, the observation that we
experience alternating periods of light and darkness corresponding to observed movements of the sun, moon, clouds, and
shadows is consistent with either of two hypotheses:
1. Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours, alternately exposing one side to the sun, or
2. The sun revolves around Earth every 24 hours.
Suitable experiments can be designed to choose between these two alternatives. For the disappearance of the dinosaurs, the
hypothesis was that the impact of a large extraterrestrial object caused their extinction. Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately),
this hypothesis does not lend itself to direct testing by any obvious experiment, but scientists collected additional data that
either support or refute it.
After a hypothesis has been formed, scientists conduct experiments to test its validity. Experiments are systematic
observations or measurements, preferably made under controlled conditions—that is, under conditions in which a single
variable changes. For example, in the dinosaur extinction scenario, iridium concentrations were measured worldwide and

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compared. A properly designed and executed experiment enables a scientist to determine whether the original hypothesis is
valid. Experiments often demonstrate that the hypothesis is incorrect or that it must be modified. More experimental data are
then collected and analyzed, at which point a scientist may begin to think that the results are sufficiently reproducible (i.e.,
dependable) to merit being summarized in a law, a verbal or mathematical description of a phenomenon that allows for general
predictions. A law simply says what happens; it does not address the question of why.
One example of a law, the Law of Definite Proportions, which was discovered by the French scientist Joseph Proust (1754–
1826), states that a chemical substance always contains the same proportions of elements by mass. Thus sodium chloride (table
salt) always contains the same proportion by mass of sodium to chlorine, in this case 39.34% sodium and 60.66% chlorine by
mass, and sucrose (table sugar) is always 42.11% carbon, 6.48% hydrogen, and 51.41% oxygen by mass. Some solid
compounds do not strictly obey the law of definite proportions. The law of definite proportions should seem obvious—we
would expect the composition of sodium chloride to be consistent—but the head of the US Patent Office did not accept it as a
fact until the early 20th century.
Whereas a law states only what happens, a theory attempts to explain why nature behaves as it does. Laws are unlikely to
change greatly over time unless a major experimental error is discovered. In contrast, a theory, by definition, is incomplete and
imperfect, evolving with time to explain new facts as they are discovered. The theory developed to explain the extinction of
the dinosaurs, for example, is that Earth occasionally encounters small- to medium-sized asteroids, and these encounters may
have unfortunate implications for the continued existence of most species. This theory is by no means proven, but it is
consistent with the bulk of evidence amassed to date. Figure 1.1.2 summarizes the application of the scientific method in this
case.

Figure 1.1.2 : A Summary of How the Scientific Method Was Used in Developing the Asteroid Impact Theory to Explain the
Disappearance of the Dinosaurs from Earth

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Example 1.1.1
Classify each statement as a law, a theory, an experiment, a hypothesis, a qualitative observation, or a quantitative
observation.
a. Ice always floats on liquid water.
b. Birds evolved from dinosaurs.
c. Hot air is less dense than cold air, probably because the components of hot air are moving more rapidly.
d. When 10 g of ice were added to 100 mL of water at 25 °C, the temperature of the water decreased to 15.5 °C after the
ice melted.
e. The ingredients of Ivory soap were analyzed to see whether it really is 99.44% pure, as advertised.
Given: components of the scientific method
Asked for: statement classification
Strategy: Refer to the definitions in this section to determine which category best describes each statement.
Solution
a. This is a general statement of a relationship between the properties of liquid and solid water, so it is a law.
b. This is a possible explanation for the origin of birds, so it is a hypothesis.
c. This is a statement that tries to explain the relationship between the temperature and the density of air based on
fundamental principles, so it is a theory.
d. The temperature is measured before and after a change is made in a system, so these are quantitative observations.
e. This is an analysis designed to test a hypothesis (in this case, the manufacturer’s claim of purity), so it is an
experiment.

Exercise 1.1.1
Classify each statement as a law, a theory, an experiment, a hypothesis, a qualitative observation, or a quantitative
observation.
a. Measured amounts of acid were added to a Rolaids tablet to see whether it really “consumes 47 times its weight in
excess stomach acid.”
b. Heat always flows from hot objects to cooler ones, not in the opposite direction.
c. The universe was formed by a massive explosion that propelled matter into a vacuum.
d. Michael Jordan is the greatest pure shooter ever to play professional basketball.
e. Limestone is relatively insoluble in water but dissolves readily in dilute acid with the evolution of a gas.
f. Gas mixtures that contain more than 4% hydrogen in air are potentially explosive.

Answer a
experiment
Answer b
law
Answer c
theory
Answer d
hypothesis
Answer e
qualitative observation
Answer f
quantitative observation

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Because scientists can enter the cycle shown in Figure 1.1.1 at any point, the actual application of the scientific method to
different topics can take many different forms. For example, a scientist may start with a hypothesis formed by reading about
work done by others in the field, rather than by making direct observations.
It is important to remember that scientists have a tendency to formulate hypotheses in familiar terms simply because it is
difficult to propose something that has never been encountered or imagined before. As a result, scientists sometimes discount
or overlook unexpected findings that disagree with the basic assumptions behind the hypothesis or theory being tested.
Fortunately, truly important findings are immediately subject to independent verification by scientists in other laboratories, so
science is a self-correcting discipline. When the Alvarezes originally suggested that an extraterrestrial impact caused the
extinction of the dinosaurs, the response was almost universal skepticism and scorn. In only 20 years, however, the persuasive
nature of the evidence overcame the skepticism of many scientists, and their initial hypothesis has now evolved into a theory
that has revolutionized paleontology and geology.

Summary
Chemists expand their knowledge by making observations, carrying out experiments, and testing hypotheses to develop laws
to summarize their results and theories to explain them. In doing so, they are using the scientific method.

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1.2: Properties of Matter
Learning Objectives
To separate physical from chemical properties and changes

All matter has physical and chemical properties. Physical properties are characteristics that scientists can measure without
changing the composition of the sample under study, such as mass, color, and volume (the amount of space occupied by a
sample). Chemical properties describe the characteristic ability of a substance to react to form new substances; they include
its flammability and susceptibility to corrosion. All samples of a pure substance have the same chemical and physical
properties. For example, pure copper is always a reddish-brown solid (a physical property) and always dissolves in dilute nitric
acid to produce a blue solution and a brown gas (a chemical property).
Physical properties can be extensive or intensive. Extensive properties vary with the amount of the substance and include
mass, weight, and volume. Intensive properties, in contrast, do not depend on the amount of the substance; they include
color, melting point, boiling point, electrical conductivity, and physical state at a given temperature. For example, elemental
sulfur is a yellow crystalline solid that does not conduct electricity and has a melting point of 115.2°C, no matter what amount
is examined (Figure 1.2.1). Scientists commonly measure intensive properties to determine a substance’s identity, whereas
extensive properties convey information about the amount of the substance in a sample.

Figure 1.2.1 : The Difference between Extensive and Intensive Properties of Matter. Because they differ in size, the two
samples of sulfur have different extensive properties, such as mass and volume. In contrast, their intensive properties,
including color, melting point, and electrical conductivity, are identical.
Although mass and volume are both extensive properties, their ratio is an important intensive property called density (ρ).
Density is defined as mass per unit volume and is usually expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). As mass increases
in a given volume, density also increases. For example, lead, with its greater mass, has a far greater density than the same
volume of air, just as a brick has a greater density than the same volume of Styrofoam. At a given temperature and pressure,
the density of a pure substance is a constant:
mass m
density = → ρ = (1.2.1)
volume v

Pure water, for example, has a density of 0.998 g/cm3 at 25°C. The average densities of some common substances are in Table
1.2.1. Notice that corn oil has a lower mass to volume ratio than water. This means that when added to water, corn oil will

“float.”
Table 1.2.1: Densities of Common Substances
Substance Density at 25°C (g/cm3)

blood 1.035

body fat 0.918

whole milk 1.030
corn oil 0.922
mayonnaise 0.910
honey 1.420

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Physical Property and Change
Change in which the matter's physical appearance is altered, but composition remains unchanged, e.g., a change in state of
matter. The three main states of matter are: Solid, Liquid, Gas
Solid is distinguished by a fixed structure. Its shape and volume do not change. In a solid, atoms are tightly packed together
in a fixed arrangement.
Liquid is distinguished by its malleable shape (is able to form into the shape of its container), but constant volume. In a
liquid, atoms are close together but not in a fixed arrangement.
Gas is made up of atoms that are separate. However, unlike solid & liquid, a gas has no fixed shape and volume.

Example 1.2.1 : Physical Change

When liquid water (H O) freezes into a solid state (ice), it appears changed; However, this change is only physical as the
2

the composition of the constituent molecules is the same: 11.19% hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen by mass.

Figure 1.2.2 : Ice Melting is a physical change

Chemical Properties and Change

Chemical Property is Any characteristic that gives a sample of matter the ability/inability to undergo a change that alters
its composition. Examples: Alkali metals react with water; Paper's ability to burn.
Chemical Change is a Change in which one or more kinds of matter are transformed to new kinds of matter with altered
compositions (or Chemical Reaction).

Example 1.2.2 : Chemical Change

The combustion of magnetisum metal is a chemical change (Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide):
2M g + O2 → 2M gO (1.2.2)

The rusting of iron is a chemical change (Iron + Oxygen → Iron Oxide/ Rust):
4F e + 3 O2 → 2F e2 O3 (1.2.3)

Using the components of composition and properties, we have the ability to distinguish one sample of matter from the
others.

References
1. Petrucci, Bissonnette, Herring, Madura. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications. Tenth ed. Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458: Pearson Education Inc., 2011.
2. Cracolice, Peters. Basics of introductory Chemistry An active Learning Approach. Second ed. Belmont, CA
94001:Brooks/Cole, 2007.

Contributors and Attributions

Samantha Ma (UC Davis)

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1.3: Classification of Matter
Learning Objectives
To classify matter.

Chemists study the structures, physical properties, and chemical properties of material substances. These consist of matter,
which is anything that occupies space and has mass. Gold and iridium are matter, as are peanuts, people, and postage stamps.
Smoke, smog, and laughing gas are matter. Energy, light, and sound, however, are not matter; ideas and emotions are also not
matter.
The mass of an object is the quantity of matter it contains. Do not confuse an object’s mass with its weight, which is a force
caused by the gravitational attraction that operates on the object. Mass is a fundamental property of an object that does not
depend on its location.In physical terms, the mass of an object is directly proportional to the force required to change its speed
or direction. A more detailed discussion of the differences between weight and mass and the units used to measure them is
included in Essential Skills 1 (Section 1.9). Weight, on the other hand, depends on the location of an object. An astronaut
whose mass is 95 kg weighs about 210 lb on Earth but only about 35 lb on the moon because the gravitational force he or she
experiences on the moon is approximately one-sixth the force experienced on Earth. For practical purposes, weight and mass
are often used interchangeably in laboratories. Because the force of gravity is considered to be the same everywhere on Earth’s
surface, 2.2 lb (a weight) equals 1.0 kg (a mass), regardless of the location of the laboratory on Earth.
Under normal conditions, there are three distinct states of matter: solids, liquids, and gases. Solids are relatively rigid and have
fixed shapes and volumes. A rock, for example, is a solid. In contrast, liquids have fixed volumes but flow to assume the
shape of their containers, such as a beverage in a can. Gases, such as air in an automobile tire, have neither fixed shapes nor
fixed volumes and expand to completely fill their containers. Whereas the volume of gases strongly depends on their
temperature and pressure (the amount of force exerted on a given area), the volumes of liquids and solids are virtually
independent of temperature and pressure. Matter can often change from one physical state to another in a process called a
physical change. For example, liquid water can be heated to form a gas called steam, or steam can be cooled to form liquid
water. However, such changes of state do not affect the chemical composition of the substance.

Figure 1.3.1 : The Three States of Matter. Solids have a defined shape and volume. Liquids have a fixed volume but flow to
assume the shape of their containers. Gases completely fill their containers, regardless of volume. Figure used with permission
from Wikipedia

Pure Substances and Mixtures

A pure chemical substance is any matter that has a fixed chemical composition and characteristic properties. Oxygen, for
example, is a pure chemical substance that is a colorless, odorless gas at 25°C. Very few samples of matter consist of pure
substances; instead, most are mixtures, which are combinations of two or more pure substances in variable proportions in
which the individual substances retain their identity. Air, tap water, milk, blue cheese, bread, and dirt are all mixtures. If all
portions of a material are in the same state, have no visible boundaries, and are uniform throughout, then the material is
homogeneous. Examples of homogeneous mixtures are the air we breathe and the tap water we drink. Homogeneous mixtures
are also called solutions. Thus air is a solution of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and several other gases; tap
water is a solution of small amounts of several substances in water. The specific compositions of both of these solutions are
not fixed, however, but depend on both source and location; for example, the composition of tap water in Boise, Idaho, is not
the same as the composition of tap water in Buffalo, New York. Although most solutions we encounter are liquid, solutions
can also be solid. The gray substance still used by some dentists to fill tooth cavities is a complex solid solution that contains

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50% mercury and 50% of a powder that contains mostly silver, tin, and copper, with small amounts of zinc and mercury. Solid
solutions of two or more metals are commonly called alloys.
If the composition of a material is not completely uniform, then it is heterogeneous (e.g., chocolate chip cookie dough, blue
cheese, and dirt). Mixtures that appear to be homogeneous are often found to be heterogeneous after microscopic examination.
Milk, for example, appears to be homogeneous, but when examined under a microscope, it clearly consists of tiny globules of
fat and protein dispersed in water. The components of heterogeneous mixtures can usually be separated by simple means.
Solid-liquid mixtures such as sand in water or tea leaves in tea are readily separated by filtration, which consists of passing the
mixture through a barrier, such as a strainer, with holes or pores that are smaller than the solid particles. In principle, mixtures
of two or more solids, such as sugar and salt, can be separated by microscopic inspection and sorting. More complex
operations are usually necessary, though, such as when separating gold nuggets from river gravel by panning. First solid
material is filtered from river water; then the solids are separated by inspection. If gold is embedded in rock, it may have to be
isolated using chemical methods.

Figure 1.3.2 : A Heterogeneous Mixture. Under a microscope, whole milk is actually a heterogeneous mixture composed of
globules of fat and protein dispersed in water. Figure used with permission from Wikipedia
Homogeneous mixtures (solutions) can be separated into their component substances by physical processes that rely on
differences in some physical property, such as differences in their boiling points. Two of these separation methods are
distillation and crystallization. Distillation makes use of differences in volatility, a measure of how easily a substance is
converted to a gas at a given temperature. A simple distillation apparatus for separating a mixture of substances, at least one of
which is a liquid. The most volatile component boils first and is condensed back to a liquid in the water-cooled condenser,
from which it flows into the receiving flask. If a solution of salt and water is distilled, for example, the more volatile
component, pure water, collects in the receiving flask, while the salt remains in the distillation flask.

Figure 1.3.3 : The Distillation of a Solution of Table Salt in Water. The solution of salt in water is heated in the distilling flask
until it boils. The resulting vapor is enriched in the more volatile component (water), which condenses to a liquid in the cold
condenser and is then collected in the receiving flask.
Mixtures of two or more liquids with different boiling points can be separated with a more complex distillation apparatus. One
example is the refining of crude petroleum into a range of useful products: aviation fuel, gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, and
lubricating oil (in the approximate order of decreasing volatility). Another example is the distillation of alcoholic spirits such

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as brandy or whiskey. This relatively simple procedure caused more than a few headaches for federal authorities in the 1920s
during the era of Prohibition, when illegal stills proliferated in remote regions of the United States.
Crystallization separates mixtures based on differences in solubility, a measure of how much solid substance remains
dissolved in a given amount of a specified liquid. Most substances are more soluble at higher temperatures, so a mixture of
two or more substances can be dissolved at an elevated temperature and then allowed to cool slowly. Alternatively, the liquid,
called the solvent, may be allowed to evaporate. In either case, the least soluble of the dissolved substances, the one that is
least likely to remain in solution, usually forms crystals first, and these crystals can be removed from the remaining solution by
filtration.

Figure 1.3.4 : The Crystallization of Sodium Acetate from a Concentrated Solution of Sodium Acetate in Water. The addition
of a small “seed” crystal (a) causes the compound to form white crystals, which grow and eventually occupy most of the flask.
Video can be found here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLq5NibwV5g
Most mixtures can be separated into pure substances, which may be either elements or compounds. An element, such as gray,
metallic sodium, is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler ones by chemical changes; a compound, such as
white, crystalline sodium chloride, contains two or more elements and has chemical and physical properties that are usually
different from those of the elements of which it is composed. With only a few exceptions, a particular compound has the same
elemental composition (the same elements in the same proportions) regardless of its source or history. The chemical
composition of a substance is altered in a process called a chemical change. The conversion of two or more elements, such as
sodium and chlorine, to a chemical compound, sodium chloride, is an example of a chemical change, often called a chemical
reaction. Currently, about 115 elements are known, but millions of chemical compounds have been prepared from these 115
elements. The known elements are listed in the periodic table.

Figure 1.3.5 : The Decomposition of Water to Hydrogen and Oxygen by Electrolysis. Water is a chemical compound; hydrogen
and oxygen are elements.
In general, a reverse chemical process breaks down compounds into their elements. For example, water (a compound) can be
decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen (both elements) by a process calledelectrolysis. In electrolysis, electricity provides the
energy needed to separate a compound into its constituent elements (Figure 1.3.5). A similar technique is used on a vast scale
to obtain pure aluminum, an element, from its ores, which are mixtures of compounds. Because a great deal of energy is
required for electrolysis, the cost of electricity is by far the greatest expense incurred in manufacturing pure aluminum. Thus
recycling aluminum is both cost-effective and ecologically sound. The overall organization of matter and the methods used to
separate mixtures are summarized in Figure 1.3.6.

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 Figure 1.3.6 : Relationships between the Types of Matter and the Methods Used to Separate Mixtures

Example 1.3.1
Identify each substance as a compound, an element, a heterogeneous mixture, or a homogeneous mixture (solution).
a. filtered tea
b. freshly squeezed orange juice
c. a compact disc
d. aluminum oxide, a white powder that contains a 2:3 ratio of aluminum and oxygen atoms
e. selenium
Given: a chemical substance
Asked for: its classification
Strategy:
A. Decide whether a substance is chemically pure. If it is pure, the substance is either an element or a compound. If a
substance can be separated into its elements, it is a compound.
B. If a substance is not chemically pure, it is either a heterogeneous mixture or a homogeneous mixture. If its
composition is uniform throughout, it is a homogeneous mixture.
Solution
a. A Tea is a solution of compounds in water, so it is not chemically pure. It is usually separated from tea leaves by
filtration. B Because the composition of the solution is uniform throughout, it is a homogeneous mixture.
b. A Orange juice contains particles of solid (pulp) as well as liquid; it is not chemically pure. B Because its composition
is not uniform throughout, orange juice is a heterogeneous mixture.
c. A A compact disc is a solid material that contains more than one element, with regions of different compositions
visible along its edge. Hence a compact disc is not chemically pure. B The regions of different composition indicate
that a compact disc is a heterogeneous mixture.
d. A Aluminum oxide is a single, chemically pure compound.
e. A Selenium is one of the known elements.

Exercise 1.3.1
Identify each substance as a compound, an element, a heterogeneous mixture, or a homogeneous mixture (solution).
a. white wine
b. mercury

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 c. ranch-style salad dressing
d. table sugar (sucrose)
Answer
a. solution
b. element
c. heterogeneous mixture
d. compound

Summary
Matter can be classified according to physical and chemical properties. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
The three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. A physical change involves the conversion of a substance from one state of
matter to another, without changing its chemical composition. Most matter consists of mixtures of pure substances, which can
be homogeneous (uniform in composition) or heterogeneous (different regions possess different compositions and properties).
Pure substances can be either chemical compounds or elements. Compounds can be broken down into elements by chemical
reactions, but elements cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. The properties of substances can be
classified as either physical or chemical. Scientists can observe physical properties without changing the composition of the
substance, whereas chemical properties describe the tendency of a substance to undergo chemical changes (chemical reactions)
that change its chemical composition. Physical properties can be intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are the same for
all samples; do not depend on sample size; and include, for example, color, physical state, and melting and boiling points.
Extensive properties depend on the amount of material and include mass and volume. The ratio of two extensive properties,
mass and volume, is an important intensive property called density.

Contributors and Attributions

Modified by Joshua Halpern (Howard University)

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1.4: Measurement of Matter - SI (Metric) Units
Learning Objectives
To identify the basic units of measurement of the seven fundamental properties
Describe the names and abbreviations of the SI base units and the SI decimal prefixes.
Define the liter and the metric ton in these units.
Explain the meaning and use of unit dimensions; state the dimensions of volume.
State the quantities that are needed to define a temperature scale, and show how these apply to the Celsius, Kelvin, and
Fahrenheit temperature scales.
Explain how a Torricellian barometer works.

Have you ever estimated a distance by “stepping it off”— that is, by counting the number of steps required to take you a
certain distance? Or perhaps you have used the width of your hand, or the distance from your elbow to a fingertip to compare
two dimensions. If so, you have engaged in what is probably the first kind of measurement ever undertaken by primitive
mankind. The results of a measurement are always expressed on some kind of a scale that is defined in terms of a particular
kind of unit. The first scales of distance were likely related to the human body, either directly (the length of a limb) or
indirectly (the distance a man could walk in a day).

Figure 1.4.1 : Current and past units of distance

As civilization developed, a wide variety of measuring scales came into existence, many for the same quantity (such as
length), but adapted to particular activities or trades. Eventually, it became apparent that in order for trade and commerce to be
possible, these scales had to be defined in terms of standards that would allow measures to be verified, and, when expressed in
different units (bushels and pecks, for example), to be correlated or converted.

History of Units
Over the centuries, hundreds of measurement units and scales have developed in the many civilizations that achieved
some literate means of recording them. Some, such as those used by the Aztecs, fell out of use and were largely forgotten
as these civilizations died out. Other units, such as the various systems of measurement that developed in England,
achieved prominence through extension of the Empire and widespread trade; many of these were confined to specific
trades or industries. The examples shown here are only some of those that have been used to measure length or distance.
The history of measuring units provides a fascinating reflection on the history of industrial development.

The most influential event in the history of measurement was undoubtedly the French Revolution and the Age of Rationality
that followed. This led directly to the metric system that attempted to do away with the confusing multiplicity of measurement
scales by reducing them to a few fundamental ones that could be combined in order to express any kind of quantity. The metric
system spread rapidly over much of the world, and eventually even to England and the rest of the U.K. when that country
established closer economic ties with Europe in the latter part of the 20th Century. The United States is presently the only

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major country in which “metrication” has made little progress within its own society, probably because of its relative
geographical isolation and its vibrant internal economy.
Science, being a truly international endeavor, adopted metric measurement very early on; engineering and related technologies
have been slower to make this change, but are gradually doing so. Even the within the metric system, however, a variety of
units were employed to measure the same fundamental quantity; for example, energy could be expressed within the metric
system in units of ergs, electron-volts, joules, and two kinds of calories. This led, in the mid-1960s, to the adoption of a more
basic set of units, the Systeme Internationale (SI) units that are now recognized as the standard for science and, increasingly,
for technology of all kinds.

The Seven SI Base Units and Decimal Prefixes

In principle, any physical quantity can be expressed in terms of only seven base units (Table 1.4.1), with each base unit
defined by a standard described in the NIST Web site.
Table 1.4.1 : The Seven Base Units
Property Unit Symbol

length meter m

mass kilogram kg
time second s
temperature (absolute) kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
electric current ampere A
luminous intensity candela cd

A few special points about some of these units are worth noting:
The base unit of mass is unique in that a decimal prefix (Table 1.4.2) is built into it; i.e., the base SI unit is not the gram.
The base unit of time is the only one that is not metric. Numerous attempts to make it so have never garnered any success;
we are still stuck with the 24:60:60 system that we inherited from ancient times. The ancient Egyptians of around 1500 BC
invented the 12-hour day, and the 60:60 part is a remnant of the base-60 system that the Sumerians used for their
astronomical calculations around 100 BC.
Of special interest to Chemistry is the mole, the base unit for expressing the quantity of matter. Although the number is
not explicitly mentioned in the official definition, chemists define the mole as Avogadro’s number (approximately
6.02x1023) of anything.
Owing to the wide range of values that quantities can have, it has long been the practice to employ prefixes such as milli and
mega to indicate decimal fractions and multiples of metric units. As part of the SI standard, this system has been extended and
formalized (Table 1.4.2).
Table 1.4.2 : Prefixes used to scale up or down base units
Prefix Abbreviation Multiplier Prefix Abbreviation Multiplier

peta P 1018 deci s 10–1

tera T 1012 centi c 10–2

giga G 109 milli m 10–3
mega M 106 micro μ 10–6
kilo k 103 nano n 10–9
hecto h 102 pico p 10–12
deca da 10 femto f 10–15

Pseudo-Si Units

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 There is a category of units that are “honorary” members of the SI in the sense that it is acceptable to use them along with
the base units defined above. These include such mundane units as the hour, minute, and degree (of angle), etc., but the
three shown here are of particular interest to chemistry, and you will need to know them.

liter (litre) L 1 L = 1 dm3 = 10–3 m3

metric ton t 1 t = 103 kg

united atomic mass unit (amu) u 1 u = 1.66054×10–27 kg

Derived Units and Dimensions

Most of the physical quantities we actually deal with in science and also in our daily lives, have units of their own: volume,
pressure, energy and electrical resistance are only a few of hundreds of possible examples. It is important to understand,
however, that all of these can be expressed in terms of the SI base units; they are consequently known as derived units. In fact,
most physical quantities can be expressed in terms of one or more of the following five fundamental units:
mass (M)
length (L)
time (T)
electric charge (Q)
temperature (Θ theta)
Consider, for example, the unit of volume, which we denote as V. To measure the volume of a rectangular box, we need to
multiply the lengths as measured along the three coordinates:
V =x⋅y⋅z (1.4.1)

We say, therefore, that volume has the dimensions of length-cubed:

3
dim{V } = L (1.4.2)

Thus the units of volume will be m3 (in the SI) or cm3, ft3 (English), etc. Moreover, any formula that calculates a volume must
contain within it the L3 dimension; thus the volume of a sphere is 4/3πr . The dimensions of a unit are the powers which M,
3

L, t, Q and Q must be given in order to express the unit. Thus,

0 3 0 0 0
dim{V } = M L T Q Θ (1.4.3)

as given above.
There are several reasons why it is worthwhile to consider the dimensions of a unit.
1. Perhaps the most important use of dimensions is to help us understand the relations between various units of measure and
thereby get a better understanding of their physical meaning. For example, a look at the dimensions of the frequently
confused electrical terms resistance and resistivity should enable you to explain, in plain words, the difference between
them.
2. By the same token, the dimensions essentially tell you how to calculate any of these quantities, using whatever specific
units you wish. (Note here the distinction between dimensions and units.)
3. Just as you cannot add apples to oranges, an expression such as a = b + cx is meaningless unless the dimensions of each
2

side are identical. (Of course, the two sides should work out to the same units as well.)
4. Many quantities must be dimensionless— for example, the variable x in expressions such as log x, e , and sin x. Checking
x

through the dimensions of such a quantity can help avoid errors.

The formal, detailed study of dimensions is known as dimensional analysis and is a topic in any basic physics course.

Example 1.4.1

Find the dimensions of energy.

Solution

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 When mechanical work is performed on a body, its energy increases by the amount of work done, so the two quantities
are equivalent and we can concentrate on work. The latter is the product of the force applied to the object and the distance
it is displaced. From Newton’s law, force is the product of mass and acceleration, and the latter is the rate of change of
velocity, typically expressed in meters per second per second. Combining these quantities and their dimensions yields the
result shown in Table 1.4.1.

Table 1.4.3 : Dimensions of units commonly used in Chemistry

SI unit, other typical
Q M L t quantity
units

1 electric charge coulomb

kilogram, gram,
1 mass
metric ton, pound
1 length meter, foot, mile
1 time second, day, year
liter, cm3, quart,
3 volume
fluidounce
1 –3 density kg m–3, g cm–3
1 1 –2 force newton, dyne
pascal, atmosphere,
1 –1 –2 pressure
torr
joule, erg, calorie,
1 2 –2 energy
electron-volt
1 2 –3 power watt
1 1 2 –2 electric potential volt
1 –1 electric current ampere
1 1 1 –2 electric field intensity volt m–1
–2 1 2 –1 electric resistance ohm
2 1 3 –1 electric resistivity
2 –1 –2 1 electric conductance siemens, mho

Dimensional analysis is widely employed when it is necessary to convert one kind of unit into another, and chemistry students
often use it in "chemical arithmetic" calculations, in which context it is also known as the "Factor-Label" method. In this
section, we will look at some of the quantities that are widely encountered in Chemistry, and at the units in which they are
commonly expressed. In doing so, we will also consider the actual range of values these quantities can assume, both in nature
in general, and also within the subset of nature that chemistry normally addresses. In looking over the various units of
measure, it is interesting to note that their unit values are set close to those encountered in everyday human experience

Mass is not weight

These two quantities are widely confused. Although they are often used synonymously in informal speech and writing, they
have different dimensions: weight is the force exerted on a mass by the local gravational field:
f = ma = mg (1.4.4)

–2
where g is the acceleration of gravity. While the nominal value of the latter quantity is 9.80 m s at the Earth’s surface, its
exact value varies locally. Because it is a force, the SI unit of weight is properly the newton, but it is common practice (except
in physics classes!) to use the terms "weight" and "mass" interchangeably, so the units kilograms and grams are acceptable in
almost all ordinary laboratory contexts.

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Please note that in this diagram and in those that follow, the numeric scale represents the logarithm of the number shown. For
example, the mass of the electron is 10–30 kg.
The range of masses spans 90 orders of magnitude, more than any other unit. The range that chemistry ordinarily deals with
has greatly expanded since the days when a microgram was an almost inconceivably small amount of material to handle in the
laboratory; this lower limit has now fallen to the atomic level with the development of tools for directly manipulating these
particles. The upper level reflects the largest masses that are handled in industrial operations, but in the recently developed
fields of geochemistry and enivonmental chemistry, the range can be extended indefinitely. Flows of elements between the
various regions of the environment (atmosphere to oceans, for example) are often quoted in teragrams.

Length
Chemists tend to work mostly in the moderately-small part of the distance range. Those who live in the lilliputian world of
crystal- and molecular structures and atomic radii find the picometer a convenient currency, but one still sees the older non-SI
unit called the Ångstrom used in this context; 1Å = 10–10 m = 100pm. Nanotechnology, the rage of the present era, also resides
in this realm. The largest polymeric molecules and colloids define the top end of the particulate range; beyond that, in the
normal world of doing things in the lab, the centimeter and occasionally the millimeter commonly rule.

Time
For humans, time moves by the heartbeat; beyond that, it is the motions of our planet that count out the hours, days, and years
that eventually define our lifetimes. Beyond the few thousands of years of history behind us, those years-to-the-powers-of-tens
that are the fare for such fields as evolutionary biology, geology, and cosmology, cease to convey any real meaning for us.
Perhaps this is why so many people are not very inclined to accept their validity.

Most of what actually takes place in the chemist’s test tube operates on a far shorter time scale, although there is no limit to
how slow a reaction can be; the upper limits of those we can directly study in the lab are in part determined by how long a
graduate student can wait around before moving on to gainful employment. Looking at the microscopic world of atoms and
molecules themselves, the time scale again shifts us into an unreal world where numbers tend to lose their meaning. You can
gain some appreciation of the duration of a nanosecond by noting that this is about how long it takes a beam of light to travel
between your two outstretched hands. In a sense, the material foundations of chemistry itself are defined by time: neither a
new element nor a molecule can be recognized as such unless it lasts long enough to have its “picture” taken through
measurement of its distinguishing properties.

Temperature

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Temperature, the measure of thermal intensity, spans the narrowest range of any of the base units of the chemist’s
measurement toolbox. The reason for this is tied into temperature’s meaning as a measure of the intensity of thermal kinetic
energy. Chemical change occurs when atoms are jostled into new arrangements, and the weakness of these motions brings
most chemistry to a halt as absolute zero is approached. At the upper end of the scale, thermal motions become sufficiently
vigorous to shake molecules into atoms, and eventually, as in stars, strip off the electrons, leaving an essentially reaction-less
gaseous fluid, or plasma, of bare nuclei (ions) and electrons.

The degree is really an increment of temperature, a fixed fraction of the distance between two defined reference points on a
temperature scale.

Although rough means of estimating and comparing temperatures have been around since AD 170, the first mercury
thermometer and temperature scale were introduced in Holland in 1714 by Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit. Fahrenheit
established three fixed points on his thermometer. Zero degrees was the temperature of an ice, water, and salt mixture,
which was about the coldest temperature that could be reproduced in a laboratory of the time. When he omitted salt from
the slurry, he reached his second fixed point when the water-ice combination stabilized at "the thirty-second degree." His
third fixed point was "found at the ninety-sixth degree, and the spirit expands to this degree when the thermometer is held
in the mouth or under the armpit of a living man in good health."
After Fahrenheit died in 1736, his thermometer was recalibrated using 212 degrees, the temperature at which water boils,
as the upper fixed point. Normal human body temperature registered 98.6 rather than 96. In 1743, the Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius devised the aptly-named centigrade scale that places exactly 100 degrees between the two reference
points defined by the freezing and boiling points of water.

When we say that the temperature is so many degrees, we must specify the particular scale on which we are expressing that
temperature. A temperature scale has two defining characteristics, both of which can be chosen arbitrarily:
The temperature that corresponds to 0° on the scale;
The magnitude of the unit increment of temperature– that is, the size of the degree.
To express a temperature given on one scale in terms of another, it is necessary to take both of these factors into account. The
key to temperature conversions is easy if you bear in mind that between the so-called ice- and steam-points of water there are
180 Fahrenheit degrees, but only 100 Celsius degrees, making the F° 100/180 = 5/9 the magnitude of the C°. Note the
distinction between “°C” (a temperature) and “C°” (a temperature increment). Because the ice point is at 32°F, the two scales
are offset by this amount. If you remember this, there is no need to memorize a conversion formula; you can work it out
whenever you need it.

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Near the end of the 19th Century when the physical significance of temperature began to be understood, the need was felt for a
temperature scale whose zero really means zero— that is, the complete absence of thermal motion. This gave rise to the
absolute temperature scale whose zero point is –273.15 °C, but which retains the same degree magnitude as the Celsius scale.
This eventually got renamed after Lord Kelvin (William Thompson); thus the Celsius degree became the kelvin. Thus we can
now express an increment such as five C° as “five kelvins”

The "other" Absolute Scale

In 1859 the Scottish engineer and physicist William J. M. Rankine proposed an absolute temperature scale based on the
Fahrenheit degree. Absolute zero (0° Ra) corresponds to –459.67°F. The Rankine scale has been used extensively by
those same American and English engineers who delight in expressing heat capacities in units of BTUs per pound per F°.

The importance of absolute temperature scales is that absolute temperatures can be entered directly in all the fundamental
formulas of physics and chemistry in which temperature is a variable.

Pressure
Pressure is the measure of the force exerted on a unit area of surface. Its SI units are therefore newtons per square meter, but
we make such frequent use of pressure that a derived SI unit, the pascal, is commonly used:
–2
1 Pa = 1 N m (1.4.5)

The concept of pressure first developed in connection with studies relating to the atmosphere and vacuum that were carried out
in the 17th century.

Figure 1.4.1 : The atmosphere above us exerts a large pressure on objects at the surface of the earth, roughly equal to the
weight of a bowling ball pressing on an area the size of a human thumbnail.
Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the column of air molecules in the atmosphere above an object, such as the
tanker car below. At sea level, this pressure is roughly the same as that exerted by a full-grown African elephant standing on a
doormat, or a typical bowling ball resting on your thumbnail. These may seem like huge amounts, and they are, but life on
earth has evolved under such atmospheric pressure. If you actually perch a bowling ball on your thumbnail, the pressure
experienced is twice the usual pressure, and the sensation is unpleasant.

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Video 1.4.1 : A dramatic illustration of atmospheric pressure is provided in this brief video, which shows a railway tanker car
imploding when its internal pressure is decreased. A smaller scale demonstration of this phenomenon is briefly explained.
The molecules of a gas are in a state of constant thermal motion, moving in straight lines until experiencing a collision that
exchanges momentum between pairs of molecules and sends them bouncing off in other directions. This leads to a completely
random distribution of the molecular velocities both in speed and direction— or it would in the absence of the Earth’s
gravitational field which exerts a tiny downward force on each molecule, giving motions in that direction a very slight
advantage. In an ordinary container this effect is too small to be noticeable, but in a very tall column of air the effect adds up:
the molecules in each vertical layer experience more downward-directed hits from those above it. The resulting force is
quickly randomized, resulting in an increased pressure in that layer which is then propagated downward into the layers below.
At sea level, the total mass of the sea of air pressing down on each 1-cm2 of surface is about 1034 g, or 10340 kg m–2. The
force (weight) that the Earth’s gravitional acceleration g exerts on this mass is
–2 5 –2 5
f = ma = mg = (10340 kg)(9.81 m s ) = 1.013 × 10 kg m s = 1.013 × 10 N (1.4.6)

resulting in a pressure of 1.013 × 105 n m–2 = 1.013 × 105 Pa. The actual pressure at sea level varies with atmospheric
conditions, so it is customary to define standard atmospheric pressure as 1 atm = 1.01325 x 105 Pa or 101.325 kPa. Although
the standard atmosphere is not an SI unit, it is still widely employed. In meteorology, the bar, exactly 1.000 × 105 = 0.967 atm,
is often used.

The Barometer
In the early 17th century, the Italian physicist and mathematician Evangalisto Torricelli invented a device to measure
atmospheric pressure. The Torricellian barometer consists of a vertical glass tube closed at the top and open at the bottom.
It is filled with a liquid, traditionally mercury, and is then inverted, with its open end immersed in the container of the
same liquid. The liquid level in the tube will fall under its own weight until the downward force is balanced by the vertical
force transmitted hydrostatically to the column by the downward force of the atmosphere acting on the liquid surface in
the open container. Torricelli was also the first to recognize that the space above the mercury constituted a vacuum, and is
credited with being the first to create a vacuum.

One standard atmosphere will support a column of mercury that is 760 mm high, so the “millimeter of mercury”, now
more commonly known as the torr, has long been a common pressure unit in the sciences: 1 atm = 760 torr.

Summary
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The natural sciences begin with observation, and this usually involves numerical measurements of quantities such as length,
volume, density, and temperature. Most of these quantities have units of some kind associated with them, and these units must
be retained when you use them in calculations. Measuring units can be defined in terms of a very small number of fundamental
ones that, through "dimensional analysis", provide insight into their derivation and meaning, and must be understood when
converting between different unit systems.

Contributions
Stephen Lower, Professor Emeritus (Simon Fraser U.) Chem1 Virtual Textbook
Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley
(Stephen F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is
licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at
http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]).

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1.5: Density and Percent Composition: Their Use in Problem Solving
Learning Objectives
To be introduced to the concepts of Density and Percent Composition as important properties of matter.

Density and percent composition are important properties in chemistry. Each have basic components as well as broad
applications. Components of density are: mass and volume, both of which can be more confusing than at first glance. An
application of the concept of density is determining the volume of an irregular shape using a known mass and density.
Determining Percent Composition requires knowing the mass of entire object or molecule and the mass of its components.

Introduction
Which one weighs more, a kilogram of feathers or a kilogram of bricks? Though many people will say that a kilogram of
bricks is heavier, they actually weigh the same! However, many people are caught up by the concept of density ρ, which
causes them to answer the question incorrectly. A kilogram of feathers clearly takes up more space, but this is because it is less
"dense." But what is density, and how can we determine it?
In the laboratory, density can be used to identify an element, while percent composition is used to determine the amount, by
mass, of each element present in a chemical compound. In daily life, density explains everything from why boats float to why
air bubbles will try to escape from soda. It even affects your health because bone density is very important. Similarly, percent
composition is commonly used to make animal feed and compounds such as the baking soda found in your kitchen.
Density, a famous concept that was discovered by Archimedes, can be expressed by a simple equation:
M ass
Density = (1.5.1)
V olume

or just
m
ρ =
v

Percent composition is found through an equally easy equation:

Total mass of element present
Percent Composition = × 100 (1.5.2)
Molecular mass

Keeping these equations in mind, let's move on to a more in-depth discussion of what mass and density mean in the real world.
We will start with density before moving on to percent composition.

Density: What is It?

Density is a physical property found by dividing the mass of an object by its volume. Regardless of the sample size, density is
always constant. For example, the density of a pure sample of tungsten is always 19.25 grams per cubic centimeter. This
means that whether you have one gram or one kilogram of the sample, the density will never vary. The equation, as we already
know, is as follows:
M ass
Density = (1.5.3)
V olume

or just
m
ρ = (1.5.4)
v

Based on this equation, it's clear that density can, and does, vary from element to element and substance to substance due to
differences in the relation of mass and volume. But let us break it down one step further. What are mass and volume? We
cannot understand density until we know its parts: mass and volume. The following two sections will teach you all the
information you need to know about volume and mass to properly solve and manipulate the density equation.

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Mass
Mass concerns the quantity of matter in an object. The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg), although grams (g) are commonly
used in the laboratory to measure smaller quantities. Often, people mistake weight for mass. Weight concerns the force exerted
on an object as a function of mass and gravity. This can be written as
Weight = mass × gravity (1.5.5)

W eight = mg

Since on the earth, the g in the equation is equal to one, weight and mass are considered equal on earth. It is important to note
that although g is equal to one in basic equations, it actually differs throughout earth by a small fraction depending on location;
gravity at the equator is less than at the poles. On other astronomical objects, gravity and hence weight, highly differs. This is
because weight changes due to variations in gravity and acceleration. The mass, however, of a 1 kg cube will continue to be 1
kg whether it is on the top of a mountain, the bottom of the sea, or on the moon.
Another important difference between mass and weight is how they are measured. Weight is measured with a scale, while
mass must be measured with a balance. Just as people confuse mass and weight, they also confuse scales and balances. A
balance counteracts the effects of gravity while a scale incorporates it. There are two types of balances found in the laboratory:
electronic and manual. With a manual balance, you find the unknown mass of an object by adjusting or comparing known
masses until equilibrium is reached. With an electronic balance, which is what you will work with in the UC Davis laboratory,
the mass is found by electronic counterbalancing with little effort from the user. An electronic balance can be far more
accurate than any other balance and is easier to use, but they are expensive. Also, keep in mind that all instruments used in the
laboratory have systematic errors.

Volume
Volume describes the quantity of three dimensional space than an object occupies. The SI unit for volume is meters cubed
(m3), but milliliters (mL), centimeters cubed (cm3), and liters (L) are more common in the laboratory. There are many
equations to find volume. Here are just a few of the easy ones:
Volume = (length)3
or
Volume = (length)(width)(height)
or
Volume = (base area)(height)

Density: A Further Investigation

Units
We know all of density's components, so let's take a closer look at density itself. The unit most widely used to express density
is g/cm3 or g/mL, though the SI unit for density is technically kg/m3. Grams per centimeter cubed is equivalent to grams per
milliliter (g/cm3 = g/mL). To solve for density, simply follow the equation 1.5.1. For example, if you had a metal cube with
mass 7.0 g and volume 5.0 cm3, the density would be ρ =
7 g
= 1.4 g/c m . Sometimes, you have to convert units to get
3

5 cm3
3 3
the correct units for density, such as mg to g or in to cm .

Density in the Periodic Table

Density can be used to help identify an unknown element. Of course, you have to know the density of an element with respect
to other elements. Below is a table listing the density of a few elements from the Periodic Table at standard conditions for
temperature and pressure, or STP. STP corresponds to a temperature of 273 K (0° Celsius) and 1 atmosphere of pressure.
Table 1.5.1 : Density of Elements at standard temperature and pressure
Element Name and Symbol Density (g/cm3) Atomic Number

Hydrogen (H) 0.09 1

Helium (He) 0.18 2

Aluminum (Al) 2.7 13

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 Zinc (Zn) 7.13 30

Tin (Sn) 7.31 50

Iron (Fe) 7.87 26

Nickel (Ni) 8.9 28

Cobalt (Co) 8.9 27

Copper (Cu) 8.96 29

Silver (Ag) 10.5 47

Lead (Pb) 11.35 82

Mercury (Hg) 11.55 80

Gold (Au) 19.32 79

Platinum (Pt) 21.45 78

Osmium (Os) 22.6 76

As can be seen from the table, the most dense element is Osmium (Os) with a density of 22.6 g/cm3. The least dense element is
Hydrogen (H) with a density of 0.09 g/cm3.

Density and Temperature

Density generally decreases with increasing temperature and likewise increases with decreasing temperatures. This is because
volume differs according to temperature. Volume increases with increasing temperature. Below is a table showing the density
of pure water with differing temperatures.
Table 1.5.2 : Density fo water as a function of Temperature
Temperature (C) Density (g/cm3)

100 0.9584

80 0.9718

60 0.9832

40 0.9922

30 0.9957

25 0.997

22 0.9978

20 0.9982

15 0.9991

10 0.9997

4 1.000

0 (liquid) 0.9998

0 (solid) 0.9150

As can be seen from Table 1.5.2, the density of water decreases with increasing temperature. Liquid water also shows an
exception to this rule from 0 degrees Celsius to 4 degrees Celsius, where it increases in density instead of decreasing as
expected. Looking at the table, you can also see that ice is less dense than water. This is unusual as solids are generally denser
than their liquid counterparts. Ice is less dense than water due to hydrogen bonding. In the water molecule, the hydrogen bonds
are strong and compact. As the water freezes into the hexagonal crystals of ice, these hydrogen bonds are forced farther apart
and the volume increases. With this volume increase comes a decrease in density. This explains why ice floats to the top of a
cup of water: the ice is less dense.
Even though the rule of density and temperature has its exceptions, it is still useful. For example, it explains how hot air
balloons work.

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Density and Pressure
Density increases with increasing pressure because volume decreases as pressure increases. And since density=mass/volume ,
the lower the volume, the higher the density. This is why all density values in the Periodic Table are recorded at STP, as
mentioned in the section "Density and the Periodic Table." The decrease in volume as related to pressure is explained in
Boyle's Law: P V = P V where P = pressure and V = volume. This idea is explained in the figure below.
1 1 2 2

Archimedes' Principle
The Greek scientist Archimedes made a significant discovery in 212 B.C. The story goes that Archimedes was asked to find
out for the King if his goldsmith was cheating him by replacing his gold for the crown with silver, a cheaper metal.
Archimedes did not know how to find the volume of an irregularly shaped object such as the crown, even though he knew he
could distinguish between elements by their density. While meditating on this puzzle in a bath, Archimedes recognized that
when he entered the bath, the water rose. He then realized that he could use a similar process to determine the density of the
crown! He then supposedly ran through the streets naked shouting "Eureka," which means "I found it!" in Latin.
Archimedes then tested the king's crown by taking a genuine gold crown of equal mass and comparing the densities of the two.
The king's crown displaced more water than the gold crown of the same mass, meaning that the king's crown had a greater
volume and thus had a smaller density than the real gold crown. The king's "gold" crown, therefore, was not made of pure
gold. Of course, this tale is disputed today because Archimedes was not precise in all his measurements, which would make it
hard to determine accurately the differences between the two crowns.

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 Figure 1.5.2 : The forces at work in buoyancy. Note that the object is floating because the upward force of buoyancy is equal to
the downward force of gravity. from Wikipedia.
Archimedes' Principle states that if an object has a greater density than the liquid that it is placed into, it will sink and displace
a volume of liquid equal to its own. If it has a smaller density, it will float and displace a mass of liquid equal to its own. If the
density is equal, it will not sink or float (Figure 1.5.2). The principle explains why balloons filled with helium float. Balloons,
as we learned in the section concerning density and temperature, float because they are less dense than the surrounding air.
Helium is less dense than the atmospheric air, so it rises. Archimedes' Principle can also be used to explain why boats float.
Boats, including all the air space, within their hulls, are far less dense than water. Boats made of steel can float because they
displace their mass in water without submerging all the way. The table below gives the densities of a few liquids to put things
into perspective.
Table 1.5.3 : Density of Common Liquids
Liquid Density in kg/m3 Density in g/cm3

2-Methoxyethanol 964.60 0.9646

Acetic Acid 1049.10 1.049

Acetone 789.86 0.7898
Alcohol, ethyl 785.06 0.7851
Alcohol, methyl 786.51 0.7865
Ammonia 823.35 0.8234
Benzene 873.81 0.8738
Water, pure 1000.00 1.000

Percent Composition
Percent composition is very simple. Percent composition tells you by mass what percent of each element is present in a
compound. A chemical compound is the combination of two or more elements. If you are studying a chemical compound, you
may want to find the percent composition of a certain element within that chemical compound. The equation for percent
composition is (mass of element/molecular mass) x 100. If you want to know the percent composition of the elements in an
compound, follow these steps:
Steps to Solve:
1. Find the molar mass of all the elements in the compound in grams per mole.
2. Find the molecular mass of the entire compound.
3. Divide the component's molar mass by the entire molecular mass.
4. You will now have a number between 0 and 1. Multiply it by 100 to get percent composition!
Tips for solving:
1. The compounds will always add up to 100%, so in a binary compound, you can find the % of the first element, then do
100%-(% first element) to get (% second element)

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 2. If using a calculator, you can store the overall molar mass to a variable such as "A". This will speed up calculations, and
reduce typographical errors.
These steps are outlined in the figure below.

For another example, if you wanted to know the percent composition of hydrochloric acid (HCl), first find the molar mass of
Hydrogen. H = 1.00794g. Now find the molecular mass of HCl: 1.00794g + 35.4527g = 36.46064g. Follow steps 3 and 4:
(1.00794g/36.46064g) x 100 = 2.76% Now just subtract to find the percent by mass of Chlorine in the compound:
100%-2.76% = 97.24% Therefore, HCl is 2.76% Hydrogen and 97.24% Chlorine by mass.

Percent Composition in Everyday Life

Percent composition plays an important role in everyday life. It is more than just the amount of chlorine in your swimming
pool because it concerns everything from the money in your pocket to your health and how you live. The next two sections
describe percent composition as it relates to you.

Example 1.5.1 : Nutritional Labels

The nutrition label found on the container of every bit of processed food sold by the local grocery store employs the idea
of percent composition. On all nutrition labels, a known serving size is broken down in five categories: Total Fat,
Cholesterol, Sodium, Total Carbohydrate, and Protein. These categories are broken down into further subcategories,
including Saturated Fat and Dietary Fiber. The mass for each category, except Protein, is then converted to percent of
Daily Value. Only two subcategories, Saturated Fat and Dietary Fiber are converted to percent of Daily Value. The Daily
Value is based on a the mass of each category recommended per day per person for a 2000 calorie diet. The mass of
protein is not converted to percent because their is no recommended daily value for protein. Following is a picture
outlining these ideas.

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 For example, if you wanted to know the percent by mass of the daily value for sodium you are eating when you eat one
serving of the food with this nutrition label, then go to the category marked sodium. Look across the same row and read
the percent written. If you eat one serving of this food, then you will have consumed about 9% of your daily
recommended value for sodium. To find the percent mass of fat in the whole food, you could divide 3.5 grams by 15
grams, and see that this snack is 23.33% fat.

Example 1.5.2 : The Lucky Penny

The penny should be called "the lucky copper coated coin." The penny has not been made of solid copper since part of
1857. After 1857, the US government started adding other cheaper metals to the mix. The penny, being only one cent, is
literally not worth its weight in copper. People could melt copper pennies and sell the copper for more than the pennies
were worth. After 1857, nickel was mixed with the more expensive copper. After 1864, the penny was made of bronze.
Bronze is 95% copper and 5% zinc and tin. For one year, 1943, the penny had no copper in it due to the expense of the
World War II. It was just zinc coated steel. After 1943 until 1982, the penny went through periods where it was brass or
bronze.

Figure 1.5.3 : Today, the penny in America is 2.5% copper with 97.5% zinc. The copper coats the outside of the penny
while the inner portion is zinc. For comparison's sake, the penny in Canada is 94% steel, 1.5% nickel, and 4.5% copper.
The percent composition of a penny may actually affect health, particularly the health of small children and pets. Since
the newer pennies are made mainly of zinc instead of copper, they are a danger to a child's health if ingested. Zinc is very
susceptible to acid. If the thin copper coating is scratched and the hydrochloric acid present in the stomach comes into
contact with the zinc core it could cause ulcers, anemia, kidney and liver damage, or even death in severe cases. Three
important factors in penny ingestion are time, pH of the stomach, and amount of pennies ingested. Of course, the more
pennies swallowed, the more danger of an overdose of zinc. The more acidic the environment, the more zinc will be
released in less time. This zinc is then absorbed and sent to the liver where it begins to cause damage. In this kind of
situation, time is of the essence. The faster the penny is removed, the less zinc is absorbed. If the penny or pennies are not
removed, organ failure and death can occur.
Below is a picture of a scratched penny before and after it had been submerged in lemon juice. Lemon juice has a similar
pH of 1.5-2.5 when compared to the normal human stomach after food has been consumed. Time elapsed: 36 hours.

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 As you can see, the copper is vastly unharmed by the lemon juice. That's why pennies made before 1982 with mainly
copper (except the 1943 penny) are relatively safe to swallow. Chances are they would pass through the digestive system
naturally before any damage could be done. Yet, it is clear that the zinc was partially dissolved even though it was in the
lemon juice for only a limited amount of time. Therefore, the percent composition of post 1982 pennies is hazardous to
your health and the health of your pets if ingested.

Problems
Following are examples of different types of percent composition and density problems.
Density Problems: These problems are meant to be easy in the beginning and then gradually become more challenging.
Unless otherwise stated, answers should be in g/mL or the equivalent g/cm3.
1. If you have a 2.130 mL sample of acetic acid with mass 0.002234 kg, what is the density?
2. Calculate the density of a .03020 L sample of ethyl alcohol with a mass of 23.71002 g.
3. Find the density of a sample that has a volume of 36.5 L and a mass of 10.0 kg.
4. Find the volume in mL of an object that has a density of 10.2 g/L and a mass of 30.0 kg.
5. Calculate the mass in grams of an object with a volume of 23.5 mL and density of 10.0 g/L.
6. Calculate the density of a rectangular prism made of metal. The dimensions of the prism are: 5 cm by 4 cm by 5 cm. The
metal has a mass of 50 grams.
7. Find the density of an unknown liquid in a beaker. The beaker's mass is 165 g when there is no liquid present. With the
unknown liquid, the total mass is 309 g. The volume of the unknown is 125 mL.
8. Determine the density in g/L of an unknown with the following information. A 55 gallon tub weighs 137.5lb when empty
and 500.0 lb when filled with the unknown.
9. A ring has a mass of 5.00g and a volume of 0.476 mL. Is it pure silver?
10. What is the density of the solid in the image if the mass is 40 g? Make your answer have 3 significant figures.

11. Below is a model of a pyramid found at an archeological dig made of an unknown substance. It is too large to find the
volume by submerging it in water. Also, the scientists refuse to remove a piece to test because this pyramid is a part of
history. Its height is 150.0m. The length of its base is 75.0m and the width is 50.0m. The mass of this pyramid is
5.50x105kg. What is the density?

Percent Composition Problems: These problems will follow the same pattern of difficulty as those of density.
12. Calculate the percent by mass of each element in Cesium Fluoride (CsF).
13. Calculate the percent by mass of each element present in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)

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14. A solution of salt and water is 33.0% salt by mass and has a density of 1.50 g/mL. What mass of the salt in grams is in
5.00L of this solution?
15. A solution of water and HCl contains 25% HCl by mass. The density of the solution is 1.05 g/mL. If you need 1.7g of HCl
for a reaction, what volume of this solution will you use?
16. A solution containing 42% NaOH by mass has a density of 1.30 g/mL. What mass, in kilograms, of NaOH is in 6.00 L of
this solution?

Answers
Here are the solutions to the listed practice problems.
Density Problem Solutions
1. 1.049 g/mL
2. 0.7851 g/mL
3. 0.274 g/mL
4. 2.94 x 106 mL
5. 0.3.27 kg
6. 0.5 g/cm3
7. 1.15 g/mL
8. 790 g/L
9. Yes
10. 0.195 g/cm3
11. 29.3 g/cm3
Percent Composition Problem Solutions
12. CsF is 87.5% Cs and 12.5% F by mass
13. CCl4 is 92.2% Cl and 7.8% C by mass
14. 2480 g
15. 6.5 mL
16. 2.38 kg

References
1. AUTOR , ARQUIMEDES , and Thomas Little . The Works of Archimedes . Courier Dover Publications, 2002.
2. Chande, D. and T. Fisher (2003). "Have a Penny? Need a Penny? Eliminating the One-Cent Coin from Circulation."
Canadian Public Policy/Analyse de Politiques 29(4): 511-517.
3. Jefferson, T. (1999). "A Thought for Your Pennies." JAMA 281(2): 122.
4. Petrucci , Ralph , William Harwood , and Geoffrey Herring . Principles and Modern Application. ninth . New Jersey :
Peason Eduation , 2007.
5. Rauch, F., H. Plotkin, et al. (2003). "Bone Mass, Size, and Density in Children and Adolescents with Osteogenesis
Imperfecta: Effect of Intravenous Pamidronate Therapy." Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 18: 610-614.
6. Richardson, J., S. Gwaltney-Brant, et al. (2002). "Zinc Toxicosis from Penny Ingestion in Dogs." Vet Med 97(2): 96-99.
7. Tate, J. "Archimedes’ Discoveries: A Closer Look."

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1.6: Uncertainties in Scientific Measurements
Learning Objectives
To introduce the fundamental mathematical skills you will need to complete basic chemistry questions and problems

All measurements have a degree of uncertainty regardless of precision and accuracy. This is caused by two factors, the
limitation of the measuring instrument (systematic error) and the skill of the experimenter making the measurements (random
error).

Introduction
The graduated buret in Figure 1.6.1 contains a certain amount of water (with yellow dye) to be measured. The amount of
water is somewhere between 19 ml and 20 ml according to the marked lines. By checking to see where the bottom of the
meniscus lies, referencing the ten smaller lines, the amount of water lies between 19.8 ml and 20 ml. The next step is to
estimate the uncertainty between 19.8 ml and 20 ml. Making an approximate guess, the level is less than 20 ml, but greater
than 19.8 ml. We then report that the measured amount is approximately 19.9 ml. The graduated cylinder itself may be
distorted such that the graduation marks contain inaccuracies providing readings slightly different from the actual volume of
liquid present.

Figure 1.6.1 : A meniscus as seen in a burette of colored water. '20.00 mL' is the correct depth measurement.

Systematic vs. Random Error

Systematic errors: When we use tools meant for measurement, we assume that they are correct and accurate, however
measuring tools are not always right. In fact, they have errors that naturally occur called systematic errors. Systematic errors
tend to be consistent in magnitude and/or direction. If the magnitude and direction of the error is known, accuracy can be
improved by additive or proportional corrections. Additive correction involves adding or subtracting a constant adjustment
factor to each measurement; proportional correction involves multiplying the measurement(s) by a constant.
Random errors: Sometimes called human error, random error is determined by the experimenter's skill or ability to perform
the experiment and read scientific measurements. These errors are random since the results yielded may be too high or low.
Often random error determines the precision of the experiment or limits the precision. For example, if we were to time a
revolution of a steadily rotating turnable, the random error would be the reaction time. Our reaction time would vary due to a
delay in starting (an underestimate of the actual result) or a delay in stopping (an overestimate of the actual result). Unlike
systematic errors, random errors vary in magnitude and direction. It is possible to calculate the average of a set of measured
positions, however, and that average is likely to be more accurate than most of the measurements.

Accuracy and Precision

Measurements may be accurate, meaning that the measured value is the same as the true value; they may be precise, meaning
that multiple measurements give nearly identical values (i.e., reproducible results); they may be both accurate and precise; or
they may be neither accurate nor precise. The goal of scientists is to obtain measured values that are both accurate and precise.
Figure 1.6.1 help to understand the difference between precision (small expected difference between multiple measurements)
and accuracy (difference between the result and a known value).

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 Figure 1.6.1 : (left) Random error are characterized by high accuracy and low Precision (right) Systematic errors are
characterized by high precision but low accuracy. (Public Domain; DarkEvil)
Suppose, for example, that the mass of a sample of gold was measured on one balance and found to be 1.896 g. On a different
balance, the same sample was found to have a mass of 1.125 g. Which was correct? Careful and repeated measurements,
including measurements on a calibrated third balance, showed the sample to have a mass of 1.895 g. The masses obtained
from the three balances are in the following table:
Balance 1 Balance 2 Balance 3

1.896 g 1.125 g 1.893 g

1.895 g 1.158 g 1.895 g

1.894 g 1.067 g 1.895 g

Whereas the measurements obtained from balances 1 and 3 are reproducible (precise) and are close to the accepted value
(accurate), those obtained from balance 2 are neither. Even if the measurements obtained from balance 2 had been precise (if,
for example, they had been 1.125, 1.124, and 1.125), they still would not have been accurate. We can assess the precision of a
set of measurements by calculating the average deviation of the measurements as follows:
1. Calculate the average value of all the measurements:
sum of measurements
average = (1.6.1)
number of measurements

2. Calculate the deviation of each measurement, which is the absolute value of the difference between each measurement and
the average value:
deviation = |measurement − average| (1.6.2)

where | | means absolute value (i.e., convert any negative number to a positive number).
3. Add all the deviations and divide by the number of measurements to obtain the average deviation:
sum of measurements
average = (1.6.3)
number of measurements

Then we can express the precision as a percentage by dividing the average deviation by the average value of the measurements
and multiplying the result by 100. In the case of balance 2, the average value is
1.125 g + 1.158 g + 1.067 g
= 1.117 g (1.6.4)
3

The deviations are

|1.125 g − 1.117 g| = 0.008 g

|1.158 g − 1.117 g| = 0.041 g , and

|1.067 g − 1.117 g| = 0.050 g .
So the average deviation is
0.008 g + 0.041 g + 0.050 g
= 0.033 g (1.6.5)
3

The precision of this set of measurements is therefore

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 0.033 g
× 100 = 3.0% (1.6.6)
1.117 g

When a series of measurements is precise but not accurate, the error is usually systematic. Systematic errors can be caused by
faulty instrumentation or faulty technique.

When a series of measurements is precise but not accurate, the error is usually systematic. Systematic errors can be caused by
faulty instrumentation or faulty technique.

Example 1.6.1
The following archery targets show marks that represent the results of four sets of measurements. Which target shows
a. a precise but inaccurate set of measurements?
b. an accurate but imprecise set of measurements?
c. a set of measurements that is both precise and accurate?
d. a set of measurements that is neither precise nor accurate?

Solution
a. (B)
b. (a)
c. (c)
d. (d)

Example 1.6.2
a. A 1-carat diamond has a mass of 200.0 mg. When a jeweler repeatedly weighed a 2-carat diamond, he obtained
measurements of 450.0 mg, 459.0 mg, and 463.0 mg. Were the jeweler’s measurements accurate? Were they precise?
b. A single copper penny was tested three times to determine its composition. The first analysis gave a composition of
93.2% zinc and 2.8% copper, the second gave 92.9% zinc and 3.1% copper, and the third gave 93.5% zinc and 2.5%
copper. The actual composition of the penny was 97.6% zinc and 2.4% copper. Were the results accurate? Were they
precise?
Solution
a. The expected mass of a 2-carat diamond is 2 × 200.0 mg = 400.0 mg. The average of the three measurements is 457.3
mg, about 13% greater than the true mass. These measurements are not particularly accurate.
The deviations of the measurements are 7.3 mg, 1.7 mg, and 5.7 mg, respectively, which give an average deviation of 4.9
mg and a precision of
4.9mg
× 100 = 1.1%
457.3mg

These measurements are rather precise.

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 b. The average values of the measurements are 93.2% zinc and 2.8% copper versus the true values of 97.6% zinc and
2.4% copper. Thus these measurements are not very accurate, with errors of −4.5% and + 17% for zinc and copper,
respectively. (The sum of the measured zinc and copper contents is only 96.0% rather than 100%, which tells us that
either there is a significant error in one or both measurements or some other element is present.)
The deviations of the measurements are 0.0%, 0.3%, and 0.3% for both zinc and copper, which give an average deviation
of 0.2% for both metals. We might therefore conclude that the measurements are equally precise, but that is not the case.
Recall that precision is the average deviation divided by the average value times 100. Because the average value of the
zinc measurements is much greater than the average value of the copper measurements (93.2% versus 2.8%), the copper
measurements are much less precise.
0.2%
precision (Zn) = × 100 = 0.2%
93.2%

0.2%
precision (Cu) = × 100 = 7%
2.8%

Significant Figures
No measurement is free from error. Error is introduced by (1) the limitations of instruments and measuring devices (such as
the size of the divisions on a graduated cylinder) and (2) the imperfection of human senses. Although errors in calculations can
be enormous, they do not contribute to uncertainty in measurements. Chemists describe the estimated degree of error in a
measurement as the uncertainty of the measurement, and they are careful to report all measured values using only significant
figures, numbers that describe the value without exaggerating the degree to which it is known to be accurate. Chemists report
as significant all numbers known with absolute certainty, plus one more digit that is understood to contain some uncertainty.
The uncertainty in the final digit is usually assumed to be ±1, unless otherwise stated.
The following rules have been developed for counting the number of significant figures in a measurement or calculation:
1. Any nonzero digit is significant.
2. Any zeros between nonzero digits are significant. The number 2005, for example, has four significant figures.
3. Any zeros used as a placeholder preceding the first nonzero digit are not significant. So 0.05 has one significant figure
because the zeros are used to indicate the placement of the digit 5. In contrast, 0.050 has two significant figures because the
last two digits correspond to the number 50; the last zero is not a placeholder. As an additional example, 5.0 has two
significant figures because the zero is used not to place the 5 but to indicate 5.0.
4. When a number does not contain a decimal point, zeros added after a nonzero number may or may not be significant. An
example is the number 100, which may be interpreted as having one, two, or three significant figures. (Note: treat all
trailing zeros in exercises and problems in this text as significant unless you are specifically told otherwise.)
5. Integers obtained either by counting objects or from definitions are exact numbers, which are considered to have infinitely
many significant figures. If we have counted four objects, for example, then the number 4 has an infinite number of
significant figures (i.e., it represents 4.000…). Similarly, 1 foot (ft) is defined to contain 12 inches (in), so the number 12 in
the following equation has infinitely many significant figures:

1f t = 12in

An effective method for determining the number of significant figures is to convert the measured or calculated value to
scientific notation because any zero used as a placeholder is eliminated in the conversion. When 0.0800 is expressed in
scientific notation as 8.00 × 10−2, it is more readily apparent that the number has three significant figures rather than five; in
scientific notation, the number preceding the exponential (i.e., N) determines the number of significant figures.

Example 1.6.3
Give the number of significant figures in each. Identify the rule for each.
a. 5.87
b. 0.031
c. 52.90

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 d. 00.2001
e. 500
f. 6 atoms
Solution
a. three (rule 1)
b. two (rule 3); in scientific notation, this number is represented as 3.1 × 10−2, showing that it has two significant figures.
c. four (rule 3)
d. four (rule 2); this number is 2.001 × 10−1 in scientific notation, showing that it has four significant figures.
e. one, two, or three (rule 4)
f. infinite (rule 5)

Example 1.6.4
Which measuring apparatus would you use to deliver 9.7 mL of water as accurately as possible? To how many significant
figures can you measure that volume of water with the apparatus you selected?

Solution
Use the 10 mL graduated cylinder, which will be accurate to two significant figures.

Mathematical operations are carried out using all the digits given and then rounding the final result to the correct number of
significant figures to obtain a reasonable answer. This method avoids compounding inaccuracies by successively rounding
intermediate calculations. After you complete a calculation, you may have to round the last significant figure up or down
depending on the value of the digit that follows it. If the digit is 5 or greater, then the number is rounded up. For example,
when rounded to three significant figures, 5.215 is 5.22, whereas 5.213 is 5.21. Similarly, to three significant figures, 5.005 kg
becomes 5.01 kg, whereas 5.004 kg becomes 5.00 kg. The procedures for dealing with significant figures are different for
addition and subtraction versus multiplication and division.
When we add or subtract measured values, the value with the fewest significant figures to the right of the decimal point
determines the number of significant figures to the right of the decimal point in the answer. Drawing a vertical line to the right

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of the column corresponding to the smallest number of significant figures is a simple method of determining the proper
number of significant figures for the answer:

3240.7 + 21.2 36

3261.9 36

The line indicates that the digits 3 and 6 are not significant in the answer. These digits are not significant because the values
for the corresponding places in the other measurement are unknown (3240.7??). Consequently, the answer is expressed as
3261.9, with five significant figures. Again, numbers greater than or equal to 5 are rounded up. If our second number in the
calculation had been 21.256, then we would have rounded 3261.956 to 3262.0 to complete our calculation.
When we multiply or divide measured values, the answer is limited to the smallest number of significant figures in the
calculation; thus, 42.9 × 8.323 = 357.057 = 357. Although the second number in the calculation has four significant figures,
we are justified in reporting the answer to only three significant figures because the first number in the calculation has only
three significant figures. An exception to this rule occurs when multiplying a number by an integer, as in 12.793 × 12. In this
case, the number of significant figures in the answer is determined by the number 12.973, because we are in essence adding
12.973 to itself 12 times. The correct answer is therefore 155.516, an increase of one significant figure, not 155.52.
When you use a calculator, it is important to remember that the number shown in the calculator display often shows more
digits than can be reported as significant in your answer. When a measurement reported as 5.0 kg is divided by 3.0 L, for
example, the display may show 1.666666667 as the answer. We are justified in reporting the answer to only two significant
figures, giving 1.7 kg/L as the answer, with the last digit understood to have some uncertainty.
In calculations involving several steps, slightly different answers can be obtained depending on how rounding is handled,
specifically whether rounding is performed on intermediate results or postponed until the last step. Rounding to the correct
number of significant figures should always be performed at the end of a series of calculations because rounding of
intermediate results can sometimes cause the final answer to be significantly in error.
In practice, chemists generally work with a calculator and carry all digits forward through subsequent calculations. When
working on paper, however, we often want to minimize the number of digits we have to write out. Because successive
rounding can compound inaccuracies, intermediate roundings need to be handled correctly. When working on paper, always
round an intermediate result so as to retain at least one more digit than can be justified and carry this number into the next step
in the calculation. The final answer is then rounded to the correct number of significant figures at the very end.
In the worked examples in this text, we will often show the results of intermediate steps in a calculation. In doing so, we will
show the results to only the correct number of significant figures allowed for that step, in effect treating each step as a separate
calculation. This procedure is intended to reinforce the rules for determining the number of significant figures, but in some
cases it may give a final answer that differs in the last digit from that obtained using a calculator, where all digits are carried
through to the last step.

Problems
Complete the calculations and report your answers using the correct number of significant figures.
a. 87.25 mL + 3.0201 mL
b. 26.843 g + 12.23 g
c. 6 × 12.011
d. 2(1.008) g + 15.99 g
e. 137.3 + 2(35.45)
f. 118.7

2
g − 35.5g

g. 47.23g − 207.2
g
5.92

h. 77.604

6.467
− 4.8

i. 24.86

2.0
− 3.26(0.98)

j. (15.9994 × 9) + 2.0158

Solution

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 a. 90.27 mL
b. 39.07 g
c. 72.066 (See rule 5 under “Significant Figures.”)
d. 2(1.008) g + 15.99 g = 2.016 g + 15.99 g = 18.01 g
e. 137.3 + 2(35.45) = 137.3 + 70.90 = 208.2
f. 59.35 g − 35.5 g = 23.9 g
g. 47.23 g − 35.0 g = 12.2 g
h. 12.00 − 4.8 = 7.2
i. 12 − 3.2 = 9
j. 143.9946 + 2.0158 = 146.0104

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1.7: Significant Figures
Learning Objectives
Give an example of a measurement whose number of significant digits is clearly too great, and explain why.
State the purpose of rounding off, and describe the information that must be known to do it properly.
Round off a number to a specified number of significant digits.
Explain how to round off a number whose second-most-significant digit is 9.
Carry out a simple calculation that involves two or more observed quantities, and express the result in the appropriate number of significant figures.

The numerical values we deal with in science (and in many other aspects of life) represent measurements whose values are never known exactly. Our pocket-calculators or computers don't
know this; they treat the numbers we punch into them as "pure" mathematical entities, with the result that the operations of arithmetic frequently yield answers that are physically ridiculous
even though mathematically correct. The purpose of this unit is to help you understand why this happens, and to show you what to do about it.

Digits: Significant and otherwise

Consider the two statements shown below:
"The population of our city is 157,872."
"The number of registered voters as of Jan 1 was 27,833.
Which of these would you be justified in dismissing immediately? Certainly not the second one, because it probably comes from a database which contains one record for each voter, so the
number is found simply by counting the number of records. The first statement cannot possibly be correct. Even if a city’s population could be defined in a precise way (Permanent residents?
Warm bodies?), how can we account for the minute-by minute changes that occur as people are born and die, or move in and move away?
What is the difference between the two population numbers stated above? The first one expresses a quantity that cannot be known exactly — that is, it carries with it a degree of uncertainty. It
is quite possible that the last census yielded precisely 157,872 records, and that this might be the “population of the city” for legal purposes, but it is surely not the “true” population. To better
reflect this fact, one might list the population (in an atlas, for example) as 157,900 or even 158,000. These two quantities have been rounded off to four and three significant figures,
respectively, and the have the following meanings:
157900 (the significant digits are underlined here) implies that the population is believed to be within the range of about 157850 to about 157950. In other words, the population is
157900±50. The “plus-or-minus 50” appended to this number means that we consider the absolute uncertainty of the population measurement to be 50 – (–50) = 100. We can also say that
the relative uncertainty is 100/157900, which we can also express as 1 part in 1579, or 1/1579 = 0.000633, or about 0.06 percent.
The value 158000 implies that the population is likely between about 157500 and 158500, or 158000±500. The absolute uncertainty of 1000 translates into a relative uncertainty of
1000/158000 or 1 part in 158, or about 0.6 percent.
Which of these two values we would report as “the population” will depend on the degree of confidence we have in the original census figure; if the census was completed last week, we might
round to four significant digits, but if it was a year or so ago, rounding to three places might be a more prudent choice. In a case such as this, there is no really objective way of choosing
between the two alternatives.
This illustrates an important point: the concept of significant digits has less to do with mathematics than with our confidence in a measurement. This confidence can often be expressed
numerically (for example, the height of a liquid in a measuring tube can be read to ±0.05 cm), but when it cannot, as in our population example, we must depend on our personal experience and
judgment.
So, what is a significant digit? According to the usual definition, it is all the numerals in a measured quantity (counting from the left) whose values are considered as known exactly, plus one
more whose value could be one more or one less:
In “157900” (four significant digits), the left most three digits are known exactly, but the fourth digit, “9” could well be “8” if the “true value” is within the implied range of 157850 to
157950.
In “158000” (three significant digits), the left most two digits are known exactly, while the third digit could be either “7” or “8” if the true value is within the implied range of 157500 to
158500.

Although rounding off always leads to the loss of numeric information, what we are getting rid of can be considered to be “numeric noise” that does not contribute to the quality of the
measurement. The purpose in rounding off is to avoid expressing a value to a greater degree of precision than is consistent with the uncertainty in the measurement.
Implied Uncertainty
If you know that a balance is accurate to within 0.1 mg, say, then the uncertainty in any measurement of mass carried out on this balance will be ±0.1 mg. Suppose, however, that you are
simply told that an object has a length of 0.42 cm, with no indication of its precision. In this case, all you have to go on is the number of digits contained in the data. Thus the quantity “0.42
cm” is specified to 0.01 unit in 0 42, or one part in 42 . The implied relative uncertainty in this figure is 1/42, or about 2%. The precision of any numeric answer calculated from this value is
therefore limited to about the same amount.

Rounding Error
It is important to understand that the number of significant digits in a value provides only a rough indication of its precision, and that information is lost when rounding off occurs. Suppose, for
example, that we measure the weight of an object as 3.28 g on a balance believed to be accurate to within ±0.05 gram. The resulting value of 3.28±.05 gram tells us that the true weight of the
object could be anywhere between 3.23 g and 3.33 g. The absolute uncertainty here is 0.1 g (±0.05 g), and the relative uncertainty is 1 part in 32.8, or about 3 percent.
How many significant digits should there be in the reported measurement? Since only the left most “3” in “3.28” is certain, you would probably elect to round the value to 3.3 g. So far, so
good. But what is someone else supposed to make of this figure when they see it in your report? The value “3.3 g” suggests an implied uncertainty of 3.3±0.05 g, meaning that the true value is
likely between 3.25 g and 3.35 g. This range is 0.02 g below that associated with the original measurement, and so rounding off has introduced a bias of this amount into the result. Since this is
less than half of the ±0.05 g uncertainty in the weighing, it is not a very serious matter in itself. However, if several values that were rounded in this way are combined in a calculation, the
rounding-off errors could become significant.

Rules for Rounding

The standard rules for rounding off are well known. Before we set them out, let us agree on what to call the various components of a numeric value.
The most significant digit is the left most digit (not counting any leading zeros which function only as placeholders and are never significant digits.)
If you are rounding off to n significant digits, then the least significant digit is the nth digit from the most significant digit. The least significant digit can be a zero.

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 The first non-significant digit is the n+1th digit.
Rounding-off rules
If the first non-significant digit is less than 5, then the least significant digit remains unchanged.
If the first non-significant digit is greater than 5, the least significant digit is incremented by 1.
If the first non-significant digit is 5, the least significant digit can either be incremented or left unchanged (see below!)
All non-significant digits are removed.

Fantasies about fives

Students are sometimes told to increment the least significant digit by 1 if it is odd, and to leave it unchanged if it is even. One wonders if this reflects some idea that even numbers are
somehow “better” than odd ones! (The ancient superstition is just the opposite, that only the odd numbers are "lucky".)
In fact, you could do it equally the other way around, incrementing only the even numbers. If you are only rounding a single number, it doesn't really matter what you do. However, when you
are rounding a series of numbers that will be used in a calculation, if you treated each first nonsignificant 5 in the same way, you would be over- or understating the value of the rounded
number, thus accumulating round-off error. Since there are equal numbers of even and odd digits, incrementing only the one kind will keep this kind of error from building up. You could do
just as well, of course, by flipping a coin!
Table 1.7.1 : Examples of rounding-off
number to round number of significant digits result comm

34.216 3 34.2 First non-significant digit (1) is less t

2.252 2 6.2 or 6.3 First non-significant digit is 5, so least sig. digit

39.99 3 40.0 Crossing "decimal boundar
85,381 3 85,400 The two zeros are
0.04597 3 0.0460 The two leading zeros a

Rounding up the Nines

Suppose that an object is found to have a weight of 3.98 ± 0.05 g. This would place its true weight somewhere in the range of 3.93 g to 4.03 g. In judging how to round this number, you count
the number of digits in “3.98” that are known exactly, and you find none! Since the “4” is the left most digit whose value is uncertain, this would imply that the result should be rounded to one
significant figure and reported simply as 4 g. An alternative would be to bend the rule and round off to two significant digits, yielding 4.0 g. How can you decide what to do? In a case such as
this, you should look at the implied uncertainties in the two values, and compare them with the uncertainty associated with the original measurement.
Table 1.7.2
rounded value implied max implied min absolute uncertainty relative uncertainty

3.98 g 3.985 g 3.975 g ±.005 g or 0.01 g 1 in 400, or 0.25%

4g 4.5 g 3.5 g ±.5 g or 1 g 1 in 4, 25%

4.0 g 4.05 g 3.95 g ±.05 g or 0.1 g 1 in 40, 2.5%

Clearly, rounding off to two digits is the only reasonable course in this example. Observed values should be rounded off to the number of digits that most accurately conveys the uncertainty in
the measurement.
Usually, this means rounding off to the number of significant digits in in the quantity; that is, the number of digits (counting from the left) that are known exactly, plus one more.
When this cannot be applied (as in the example above when addition of subtraction of the absolute uncertainty bridges a power of ten), then we round in such a way that the relative implied
uncertainty in the result is as close as possible to that of the observed value.

Rounding the Results of Calculations

When carrying out calculations that involve multiple steps, you should avoid doing any rounding until you obtain the final result. Suppose you use your calculator to work out the area of a
rectangle:

rounded value relative implied uncertainty

1.58 1 part in 158, or 0.6%

1.6 1 part in 16, or 6 %

Comment: Your calculator is of course correct as far as the pure numbers go, but you would be wrong to write down "1.57676 cm2" as the answer. Two possible options for rounding off the
calculator answer are shown at the right.
It is clear that neither option is entirely satisfactory; rounding to 3 significant digits overstates the precision of the answer, whereas following the rule and rounding to the two digits in ".42" has
the effect of throwing away some precision. In this case, it could be argued that rounding to three digits is justified because the implied relative uncertainty in the answer, 0.6%, is more
consistent with those of the two factors.

The "rules" for rounding off are generally useful, convenient guidelines, but they do not always yield the most desirable result. When in
doubt, it is better to rely on relative implied uncertainties.
Addition and Subtraction
In operations involving significant figures, the answer is reported in such a way that it reflects the reliability of the least precise operation. An answer is no more precise that the least precise
number used to get the answer. When adding or subtracting, we go by the number of decimal places (i.e., the number of digits on the right side of the decimal point) rather than by the number
of significant digits. Identify the quantity having the smallest number of decimal places, and use this number to set the number of decimal places in the answer.

Multiplication and Division

The result must contain the same number of significant figures as in the value having the least number of significant figures.

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Logarithms and antilogarithms
If a number is expressed in the form a × 10b ("scientific notation") with the additional restriction that the coefficient a is no less than 1 and less than 10, the number is in its normalized form.
Express the base-10 logarithm of a value using the same number of significant figures as is present in the normalized form of that value. Similarly, for antilogarithms (numbers expressed as
powers of 10), use the same number of significant figures as are in that power.

Examples 1.7.1
The following examples will illustrate the most common problems you are likely to encounter in rounding off the results of calculations. They deserve your careful study!
calculator result

rounded
remarks

1.6
Rounding to two significant figures yields an implied uncertainty of 1/16 or 6%, three times greater than that in the least-precisely known factor. This is a good illustration of how rounding can

lead to the loss of information.

1.9E6
The "3.1" factor is specified to 1 part in 31, or 3%. In the answer 1.9, the value is expressed to 1 part in 19, or 5%. These precisions are comparable, so the rounding-off rule has given us a
reasonable result.
A certain book has a thickness of 117 mm; find the height of a stack of 24 identical books:

2810 mm
The “24” and the “1” are exact, so the only uncertain value is the thickness of each book, given to 3 significant digits. The trailing zero in the answer is only a placeholder.

10.4
In addition or subtraction, look for the term having the smallest number of decimal places, and round off the answer to the same number of places.

23 cm
[see below]
The last of the examples shown above represents the very common operation of converting one unit into another. There is a certain amount of ambiguity here; if we take "9 in" to mean a
distance in the range 8.5 to 9.5 inches, then the implied uncertainty is ±0.5 in, which is 1 part in 18, or about ± 6%. The relative uncertainty in the answer must be the same, since all the values
are multiplied by the same factor, 2.54 cm/in. In this case we are justified in writing the answer to two significant digits, yielding an uncertainty of about ±1 cm; if we had used the answer "20
cm" (one significant digit), its implied uncertainty would be ±5 cm, or ±25%.

When the appropriate number of significant digits is in question, calculating the relative uncertainty can help you decide.

Contributors and Attributions

Stephen Lower, Professor Emeritus (Simon Fraser U.) Chem1 Virtual Textbook

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1.E: Exercises
1.1: The Scientific Method
Problems
1. What are the three components of the scientific method? Is it necessary for an individual to conduct experiments to follow
the scientific method?
2. Identify each statement as a theory or a law and explain your reasoning.
a. The ratio of elements in a pure substance is constant.
b. An object appears black because it absorbs all the visible light that strikes it.
c. Energy is neither created nor destroyed.
d. Metals conduct electricity because their electrons are not tightly bound to a particular nucleus and are therefore free
to migrate.
3. Identify each statement as a theory or a law and explain your reasoning.
a. A pure chemical substance contains the same proportion of elements by mass.
b. The universe is expanding.
c. Oppositely charged particles attract each other.
d. Life exists on other planets.
4. Classify each statement as a qualitative observation or a quantitative observation.
a. Mercury and bromine are the only elements that are liquids at room temperature.
b. An element is both malleable and ductile.
c. The density of iron is 7.87 g/cm3.
d. Lead absorbs sound very effectively.
e. A meteorite contains 20% nickel by mass.
5. Classify each statement as a quantitative observation or a qualitative observation.
a. Nickel deficiency in rats is associated with retarded growth.
b. Boron is a good conductor of electricity at high temperatures.
c. There are 1.4–2.3 g of zinc in an average 70 kg adult.
d. Certain osmium compounds found in air in concentrations as low as 10.7 µg/m3 can cause lung cancer.

Answers
3.
a. law
b. theory
c. law
d. theory
5.
a. qualitative
b. qualitative
c. quantitative

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 d. quantitative

1.2: Properties of Matter

1.3: Classification of Matter
1.4: Measurement of Matter: SI (Metric) Units
1.5: Density and Percent Composition: Their Use in Problem Solving
1.6: Uncertainties in Scientific Measurements
1.7: Significant Figures

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