Learning

Learning is the key process in human behavior. It is involved not only in

mastering a new skill or academic subject but also in social and
emotional development, acquisition of linguistic and social skills,
customs, attitudes, and belief system, and even personality development.
Psychologists have defined learning:
“A relatively permanent change in behavior that results practice or past
experience”.
This definition suggests that the term learning neither applies to
behavior changes resulting from growth and maturation nor to short term
changes in behavior, such as those caused by fatigue or illness.
In other words, learning can be defined as a long-lasting changes, as a
result of observation or experience. However, changes produced by
learning are not always positive in nature. We are as likely to acquire
bad habits as good ones.
Learning and maturation:
Maturation is best defined as. “Any physical changes that occur from
conception to maturity”.
Learning and maturation are two intertwined processes. The main difference
between learning and maturation is that learning is the process of acquiring
knowledge, skills, and behaviors, whereas maturation is the process of becoming
mature or developed.
Methods of learning:
Learning is a key process in human behavior. It appears to play an
important role in virtually every activity we perform. To accomplish this
process, several methods of learning are used. A brief description of
these methods is presented below.
1. Learning by trial and error
2. Classical conditioning
3. Operant / instrumental conditioning

1. Learning by trial and error:

The simplest method used for solving problems is trial and error, which
involves trying one possible solution after another until one works.
As an example of trial and error in human problem solving, imagine that
you have six keys in your key chain that appear alike. You have to open
a lock. If you cannot identify the right key, you will probably decide to
use the trial and error method in order to solve the problem. You will try
one key after another until you find the one that opens the door.
“An approach to problem solving in which the individual tries one
possible solution after another”.
2. Classical conditioning
(Learning by Association)
Classical conditioning derives its name from the fact that it is the kind of
learning that existed in the early ‘classical’ experiments of Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936). This famous Russian physiologist won the noble prize in
1904 for his work on digestion. Yet Pavlov is remembered not for his
physiological research, but for his experiments on the basic learning
processes__ work that he began quite incidentally.

Pavlovian conditioning
Pavlov (1902) started from the idea that there are some things that a dog
does not need to learn. For example, dogs don’t learn to salivate
whenever they see food.
In behaviorist terms, food is an unconditioned stimulus and salivation is
an unconditioned response. (i.e., a stimulus-response connection that
required no learning).
Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) > Unconditioned Response (Salivate)
In his experiment, Pavlov used a metronome as his neutral stimulus. By
itself the metronome did not elecit a response from the dogs.
Neutral Stimulus (Metronome) > No Conditioned Response
Next, Pavlov began the conditioning procedure, whereby the clicking
metronome was introduced just before he gave food to his dogs. After a
number of repeats (trials) of this procedure he presented the metronome
on its own.
As you might expect, the sound of the clicking metronome on its own
now caused an increase in salivation.
Conditioned Stimulus (Metronome) > Conditioned
Response (Salivate)
So the dog had learned an association between the metronome and the
food and a new behavior had been learned. Because this response was
learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response (and also
known as a Pavlovian response). The neutral stimulus has become a
conditioned stimulus.
Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be
presented close together in time (such as a bell). He called this the law of
temporal contiguity. If the time between the conditioned stimulus (bell)
and unconditioned stimulus (food) is too great, then learning will not
occur.
Pavlov and his studies of classical conditioning have become famous
since his early work between 1890-1930. Classical conditioning is
"classical" in that it is the first systematic study of basic laws of
learning / conditioning.
Definition of classical conditioning:
“The learning in which an originally neutral stimulus comes to elicit a
new response after having been paired with a stimulus that reflexively
elicits that same response”.
Unconditioned stimulus
In classical conditioning, a stimulus (for example, food powder) the
reflexively and reliably evokes a response the (UCR).
Unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, a response (for example, salivation) reliably
and reflexively evoked by a stimulus (the UCS).
Conditioned stimulus
In classical conditioning, the response evoked by an unconditioned
stimulus.
Conditioned response
In classical conditioning, the response to the conditioned stimulus.
 3. Operant / instrumental conditioning
Operant conditioning describes learning in which people make responses
as a result of positive or negative consequences that are contingent on
their responses.
“A process through which organisms learn to repeat behaviors that
provide positive outcomes or escape from negative outcomes”.

The process of gradually reinforcing behaviors leading up to a target

behavior is called shaping.
Shaping
“A technique in which closer and closer approximations to desired
behavior are required for the delivery of positive reinforcement”.
For instance, teaching new tricks to a dog, teaching a kid how to walk and the
likes. The step by step procedure of reinforcing different behaviors until the
ultimate behavior is achieved is called Successive Approximations.
 For example, a child learns to pull itself up, to stand, to walk and to finally move
about through reinforcement of slightly exceptional instances of behaviors.
Walking doesn't necessarily come naturally to a child, but through subtle
reinforcements of being able to reach a toy or move more independently, the
child's behavior is shaped.

Other Methods of Learning

1. Cognitive and Spatial Learning
2. Latent Learning
 3. Insight Learning
4. Observational Learning
5. Learning by Imitation
Cognitive and Spatial Learning
Although psychologists using this approach do not deny the importance of classical
and operant conditioning, they have developed approaches that focus on the unseen
mental processes that occur during the learning process, rather than concentrating
solely on external stimuli, responses, and reinforcements.
Another rather different form of learning also plays an important role in the
survival of our species, namely, spatial learning. It refers to learning about the
location of objects, events and situations in one’s environment.
For example, if a bird hides food during warm weather, the landmark features that
might have been used to identify where the food is buried will be covered in snow
when the food is retrieved in the winter. In contrast, snow will have little impact on
the shape of the environment.
Latent learning
The term latent learning refers to the process in which learning takes place, but
there is no demonstration of that knowledge until a reward or incentive is present.
In latent learning, a new behavior is learned but not demonstrated until
reinforcement is provided for displaying it.
“The hidden learning that is not demonstrated in performance is reinforced”.
Examples of latent learning
 A student is taught how to perform a special type of addition, but does not
demonstrate the knowledge until an important test is administered.
 An employee is taught how to do specific higher level tasks but does not
demonstrate the ability to do them until he is given a promotion.
 A child observes how to make peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, but does
not do so until given the opportunity to make one himself.
Insight learning
Insight learning is a type of learning or problem solving that happens all-of-a-
sudden through understanding the relationships of various parts of a problem rather
than through trial and error.
Insight learning is sudden and does not need practice.
Insight learning refers to the sudden realization of the solution of any problem
without repeated trials or continuous practices. To further elaborate on its
definition, insight learning is the type of learning, in which one draws on previous
experience and also seems to involve a new way of perceiving logical and cause-
and-effect relationship.
Observational Learning
According to Albert Bandura and his colleagues, a major part of human learning
consists of observational learning which they dine as learning through observing
the behavior of another person, a model. Such models include parents, teachers,
peers, television performers, cartoon characters and so on.
According to bandura, observational learning takes place in four steps:
1. Paying attention and perceiving the most critical features of another person’s
behavior.
2. Remembering the behavior
3. Reproducing the action
4. And being motivated to learn and carry out the behavior.
Instead of learning occurring through trail and error , with successful responses
being rewarded and failures punished many important skills are learned through
observational process.
“Learning a behavior by observing the consequences that others receive for
performing it”.
Learning by Imitation
Imitative learning is a type of social learning whereby new behaviors are acquired
via imitation. ... The ability to match one's actions to those observed in others
occurs in humans and animals; imitative learning plays an important role in
humans in cultural development.
It is the most effective form of learning during development years and remains an
important aspect of social interaction and adaptation throughout life.
Babies learn through imitation; it gives them the opportunity to practice and master
new skills. They observe others doing things and then copy their actions in an
attempt to do them themselves. For example, it’s how your baby knows, without
you having to give him specific instructions, how to hold a toy phone up to his ear!
He has learned from watching you talk on the phone!
Difference between observational learning and learning by imitation

Observational learning Learning by imitation

Model Imitation

Observational learning is much more

complex. Because Paying attention, In imitation, a person simply copies
Remembering the behavior, what the model does.
Reproducing the action, and being
motivated to learn

Factors influence learning

We have discussed various methods of learning in the preceding section. You must
have noticed that each approach emphasized the role of different factors in animal
and human learning. Some of the factors that seem to play an important role in
learning are described below:
Factors associated with learner:
Learner is the focal point in any learning. Without learner there cannot be learning.

The following are some of the factors associated with learner:

1. Motivation:
It is the most important factor influencing the learner. If the learner has no
motivation to learn, any amount of force will be futile. More the motivation better
will be the learning. In addition to motivation, the learner should have a definite
goal. It will direct the individual appropriately and help him to achieve the goal.

2. Readiness and will power:

This is just like motivation. If the learner is ready to learn, he will develop
motivation to learn. Along with readiness a strong willpower is also essential to
overcome hurdles and problems. Readiness will help to develop a positive attitude
in learner.

3. Ability of the learner:

This refers to the level of intelligence, creativity, aptitude and such other abilities
necessary for learning.

Intelligence enables the learner to learn better and understand things and
relationship between them. It includes both general and specific intelligence related
to specific area of learning.
4. Attention:
Learner must learn to concentrate his attention on learning. Attentiveness helps to
grasp learning material. Distraction of attention affects learning.

5. General health condition of the learner:

The general health includes the physical and mental health of the learner. The
learner should have good physical health. Organic defects like blindness, deafness,
paralysis, mutism, severe handicappedness, etc., will affect learning. Problem in
sense organs will lead to improper perception. Chronic illnesses may lead to
fatigue and lack of interest.

In addition to physical health, the mental health of learner is also important.

Adjustmental problems, minor mental problems like worry, anxiety, stress, and
inferiority complexes will affect learning.

6) Maturation of the learner:

Maturation and learning go hand in hand. We learn things only according to
maturity of our body. For example, a child of 6 months cannot learn to ride a
bicycle even after vigorous training, because it requires muscular or physical
maturity.