Contents

1.0 MATERIAL DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................. 3

2.0 STRESS STRAIN CURVE ................................................................................................... 3
3.0 GENERAL OUTLINE OF PROJECT AND REPORT ........................................................... 4
4.0 FIRST ITERATION .............................................................................................................. 5
5.0 FINAL OPERATIONAL PLAN ............................................................................................. 6
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 6
5.1 Final part ......................................................................................................................... 6
5.2 Forward Extruded part ................................................................................................... 6
5.3 Ironing + cut-off .............................................................................................................. 7
5.4 Ironing ............................................................................................................................. 9
5.5 Backward extrusion +Cut-off. .......................................................................................11
5.6 Backward extrusion.......................................................................................................12
5.7 Billet ...............................................................................................................................14
5.8 Summary – final operation plan ...................................................................................17
6.0 PROCESS FORCE, STROKE CALCULATIONS ................................................................18
6.1 Theoretical background ................................................................................................18
6.2 Backward extrusion.......................................................................................................18
6.3 Ironing ............................................................................................................................20
6.3 Forward extrusion .........................................................................................................22
7.0 BACKWARD EXTRUSION PUNCH ...................................................................................24
7.1 Punch Drawing ..............................................................................................................24
7.2 Punch Drawing ..............................................................................................................26
Appendix 1 ..............................................................................................................................27
Appendix 2 ..............................................................................................................................31
1.0 MATERIAL DESCRIPTION
M63 is a grade of brass which is primarily used for cold formed applications. This is one of the
most used brass alloys despite having higher percentage of zinc which lowers the cold forming
properties. The primary reason being the higher cost of copper in comparison to zinc.
Some common applications of this alloy include Deep drawn parts, components for the electrical
industry heat exchanger shells etc.
The chemical composition of the alloy is given in the below table.

Element Cu (%) Pb (%) Fe (%) Ni (%) Zn (%)

Percentage 62-64 0.1 Max 0.1 max 0.3 max rest

2.0 STRESS STRAIN CURVE

From the Hollman equation it is possible to determine the Stress strain curve if the Strength
coefficient and the Strain hardening exponent is known. The below expression represents the
Hollman equation:

𝜎 = 𝐶𝜀 𝑛
For our material C= 710 MPa. and n = 0.48. from the equation we plot the below stress strain
curve.
In the above graph we can see the stress strain curve of M63 Material. In addition to the True
strain, we have marked the values of Engineering strains on the X axis to get an intuitive
understanding of the true strain values.

3.0 GENERAL OUTLINE OF PROJECT AND REPORT

In this project I have taken a two-step approach. Initially I assumed that the process can be
performed in 2 main forming steps i.e., Backward can extrusion followed by forward tube
extrusion to get final shape. However, during the evaluation of galling factor hg/ds it was found
out that it is not possible to achieve the outside dia. (larger value) in single step.
The process was then changed, and an additional Ironing step was added to achieve the final
outer Dia. (OD) while passing all the other criteria.
In the report I will cover the first iteration briefly (2 step process) briefly followed by a detailed
treatment of the final Process route.
One more point that is worth mentioning here, is that while preparing the process route and
determination of the volumes at each step we need to start from the last step e.g.
In my project I determine the volume of the Final intended shape first then to this we add some
volume based on the previous process. To obtain the shape and volume of the second to last
shape. This process of volume equation and addition of shapes obtained from previous process
is continued in the backward direction till we reach the Initial billet shape. This process can be
done by copying and modifying the shapes in solid works.
In parallel to this process of volume equation and solid modelling a excel sheet is used to
parallelly calculate the geometrical and equivalent plastic strain criteria for each metal forming
process.
In this report, specifically section 5 I follow the same reverse direction flow from Final part →
Billet.
For Simplicity of the report the Process Force, work and stroke calculation for each metal
forming step is dealt in a separately in section 6.
4.0 FIRST ITERATION
Brief description of first iteration
The operation plan of first iteration is shown below. In the first iteration I considered only 2 metal
forming steps i.e., Backward can extrusion and Forward extrusion.
Mineral oil
Recrystallisation

Billet Cutoff
Backward extrusion
ε = 0.645

Final shape
Forward extrusion (Cutoff)
ε = 0.919

For forward extrusion, all geometric and plastic strain parameters are within recommended
limits.
For Backward can extrusion the strain is within specified limit, but the galling parameter hg/ ds is
out of recommended limit as shown below.
Strain evaluation
Value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
ε 0.645546785 - -
εA 47.56% 20%<=εA <=65% Pass
Galling calculations
value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
ds/D 0.689655172 0.45D<=ds<=0.8D Pass
hg/ds 2.0371875 hg/ds<=1.7 Fail

As we see that the height hg is more relative to the diameter, so we need to increase the outer
diameter ds for backward extrusion step. However, we need to add another intermediate step to
later reduce the diameter to required final shape.
For this purpose, I added an ironing stage in the Final operation. This is described at length in
section 5.0.
5.0 FINAL OPERATIONAL PLAN
Introduction
In line to the general outline of the project given in Section 3.0 I will explain each step of the final
process in reverse order starting from 3D model of Final product shape and ending at the billet
shape and dimensions. In the process there are 3 main metal forming steps i.e., Backward can
extrusion, Ironing and Forward tube extrusion. The billet is taken to be in annealed condition.
And before each subsequent metal forming operation annealing is being performed. For
simplicity we assume that all material loss due to all annealing treatments is subtracted after the
first annealing i.e., after Backward can extrusion.
The final operation plan is shown in section includes the process forces, but the detailed
calculations of the force has been dealt separately in section 6 of the report.
Since the material to be formed is brass (a copper alloy) I am using Mineral oil for lubrication

5.1 Final part

The first step in the technical route determination is to prepare 3D and Drawing of the final part
and calculate the volume using solid works program.

The figure is asnapshot of the drawing of final part made in solid works.
Volume of this part = 46086.08 mm^3

5.2 Forward Extruded part

In our process plan, the final part shape can be obtained by performing a cut-off operation of the
forward extruded part. By reverse thought process we can see that if we add a end shape with
~20° to the final length we should be able to get the shape of the Forward extruded part. By
following this we get a part with total length of 97.16mm. The shape as shown in the snap of the
drawing below.

From solid works we were able to find the volume of this part to be = 46285.91 mm^3
For easier access and better organisation I added this value in the values of the first step and
this step in the table below.(same also availible in calculation sheet)

Volumes at each step

Stage Part condition Volume
7 Final part 46086.08
6 Forward extruded part 46285.91

In this stage we also need to perform the calculations for forward extrusion but to do that we
also need the shape before forward extrusion so I present this in the next section. Dealing with
shape before forward extrusion which I call Ironing + cut-off

5.3 Ironing + cut-off

Since we perform the forward extrusion after this step the volume should be same as the
Forward extruded part i.e. 46285.91 mm^3.
Ideally the outer and inner diameters of this part should be 46.4 and 36.0mm but we also need
some clearance with die and punch, so I have chosen these values as 46.3 and 32.2,
respectively. Using these values, I can calculate the height of the cylinder by using the formula
for volume of hollow cylinder shown below.
 𝜋(𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖 2 )ℎ
𝑉=
4
By substituting the values, we get h= 53.24mm
Based on this information we prepared the 3D model and drawing. The snapshot of the drawing
is shown below.

Again, we re-verify the volume in Solid works and populate the Excel sheet table. As shown
below.

Volumes at each step

Stage Part condition Volume
7 Final part 46086.08
6 Forward extruded part 46285.91
5 Ironing +cutoff 46285.91

Calculations for forward extrusion

Based on the drawing dimensions we can perform the different calculations to check if the
geometric shape and equivalent plastic strain values are within limit.
Here I have not put the detailed calculations but only a snapshot from the excel sheet. In my
excel sheet I have used the IF Function to automatically evaluate weather the result is within
limit or not. (This helps prevent mistakes due to human error) Additionally I used Conditional
formatting on the result cells so if it fails a criterion the cell will be highlighted in red.
 Forward extrusion
Initial OD 46.3
Initial ID 32.2
Final OD 38.4
Final ID(dw) 32
Initial Hieght(h0) 53.24
g0 7.05
h2 20.8
g 3.2
A0 869.32
A1 353.87
Strain evaluation
Value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
ε 0.899 ε <=1.2 Pass
εA 59.29% εA <=70% Pass
Recommended dimention check
Value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
h2 20.80 h2>=g Pass
h0/g0 7.55 h0/g0<=(10-15) Pass
h0/dw 1.66 h0/dw<=4 Pass
dw 32.00 dw>(6-10) Pass

These criteria of evaluation has been directly taken from the reference text provided for the
material specific to my report i.e. M63. The relevant sections used have been pasted as
snapshots in the calculation sheet.
Results
We can see that all criteria of equivalent plastic strain and recommended dimensions are being
met. So, we can proceed to next sections.
Note: Here the results and dimensions shown are the final values only and were obtained after
multiple iterations of all the steps described in the previous sections as well as the upcoming
sections.

5.4 Ironing
For establishing the dimensions of this stage, we must consider adding of two shapes:
The 30° angular shape at the top and the Bottom shape (roughly corresponds to shape of
Backward extrusion Punch) which is later cut-off before proceeding to the.
After making these additions in the part shape I will end up with a height 70.20 mm. Resulting
shape is presented in the below snap of the drawing.
Again, I check the volume of the part in Solid works which = 67460.08mm^3
I populate the Volume table again shown below:

Volumes at each step

Stage Part condition Volume
7 Final part 46086.08
6 Forward extruded part 46285.91
5 Ironing +cutoff 46285.91
4 Ironing 67460.08

The strain calculations for this process will be dealt in next section where we will have a clearer
picture of the before ironing part dimensions.
Note: Some of the dimensions here especially g=9.8mm and bottom shape comes from the
Backward extrusion step. Although the determination of this value is iterative but the easiest
way to determine this value is to set the value of the diameter in backward extrusion part to the
highest possible value which satisfies the strain condition for Ironing step. 1The logic behind this
is that at this stage we have no idea about the relative depth of hole in backward extrusion step.
By selecting the maximum strain, we ensure that the relative depth criterion of backward
extrusion is passed. At a later stage we can optimise this value by further iterations.

1 In saying that we do not know the relative depth I do not mean it is impossible to determine it at this
stage itself. Theoretically it is possible to make a mathematical model which can make this calculation
automatic. However, I feel that it is out of scope of this project. I say this not because I did not try. I did
derive some equations but each of these equations are in the form of complex volume integrals take a
long time to solve. To be truthful I did not solve the integrals. I derived the final volume integrals and left it
there because I did not see a point of solving them.
5.5 Backward extrusion +Cut-off.
This stage represents the backward extruded part after annealing and cutting off the top
rounded part has been cut-off. The volume of this should be equal to the part we obtained after
Ironing plus additional 5% to account for losses due to annealing.
So, volume = 1.05 X 67460.08 =70833.08 mm^3
Here the outer diameter I have taken is 52 mm. The main reason for this was that during the
calculation for backward can extrusion I was not able to satisfy the galling criteria hg/ds<=1.7 if
a lower diameter was taken. And again, just to state the obvious again this value came from
multiple iterations.
For the internal Diameter I took 32.4mm instead of 32.2mm to provide entry clearance for the
Ironing Punch.
For getting the exact height to match volume I initially took some random height and checked
the volume in Solidworks. The difference in the volume of this part with respect to the required
volume I called it as ΔV and using below formula I was able to obtain the error in the height Δh.

𝜋(𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖 2 )∆ℎ
∆𝑉 =
4
Based on these considerations I was able to get the 3D shape and drawing which is
represented in snapshot below.

After making this shape I again reverified the volume in of 3D and updated in table shown
below.
 Volumes at each step
Stage Part condition Volume
7 Final part 46086.08
6 Forward extruded part 46285.91
5 Ironing +cutoff 46285.91
4 Ironing 67460.08
3` Backward extrusion +cutoff+ anneal 67460.08
3 Backward extrusion +Cutoff 70833.08

Please note that 3` in the above table represents the volume of the part obtained after annealing
3. Due to the difficulty in exactly predicting the dimensions after annealing we have not made
the 3D model but just to stress that this stage does exist, we have made a separate row for this.
From this step I now have all the dimensions to check if the equivalent plastic strain is within
limit.
The results of the calculation and criteria of evaluation are given below table (The calculations
were performed standard formulas in excel sheet I have not presented here in detail)

Ironing
Initial OD 52
Initial ID 32.4
Final OD 46.3
Final ID(ds) 32.2
A0 1299.237058
A1 869.3179572
Strain evaluation
Value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
ε 0.401823546 ε <=0.43 Pass
εA 33.09% εA <=35% Pass

Again as in case of forward extrusion the result is automated and will be hilighted in red if the
criteria fails.

5.6 Backward extrusion

For making this part we need to add material due to rounding of the upper edge during
backward can extrusion. The radius of this round shape is same as the wall thickness=9.8mm
This gives me the part shape as shown in the below snap of the drawing.
Now I calculate determine the volume in Solidworks and update the Table as below.

Volumes at each step

Stage Part condition Volume
7 Final part 46086.08
6 Forward extruded part 46285.91
5 Ironing +cutoff 46285.91
4 Ironing 67460.08
3` Backward extrusion +cutoff+ anneal 67460.08
3 Backward extrusion +Cutoff 70833.08
2 Backward extrusion part 81184.17

So at this stage the Volume is 81184.17 mm^3 which should be the same as billet volume.
Dimensions of can bottom shape.
The bottom shape that I have used is based on the recommended dimensions given in the
below figure.
The table below represents the recommended range, average value, and the actual value I
selected in my case.

As we can see most all these values are within recommended limits and generally closer to
mean recommended value.

5.7 Billet
For this stage, the volume should be same as the backward extruded part = 81184.17 mm^3
The billet outer diameter I have taken as 51.8mm to provide radial clearance of 0.1mm with
Backward extrusion Die.
Additionally, 2.5mm chamfer is also added at the bottom edge.
For getting the correct height I used same approach as I used in section 5.5 with a minor
modification in formula shown below. This is done to account of the fact that this time we have a
solid cylinder and not a hollow section.

𝜋𝑑𝑜 2 ∆ℎ
∆𝑉 =
4

2 For parameter d in the table I have used taken 19.2 from the Punch nose design Guideline where d= ds-
(2R+ (0.2~0.3)*d) that is the reason this is not close to the mean value.
Also gd = g has been used instead of gd =0.8g.
Base on this I get the final shape represented in the drawing snapshot below.

Again to be sure I performed a volume verification in Solidworks. And update the final entry in
my volume table shown below.

Volumes at each step

Stage Part condition Volume
7 Final part 46086.08
6 Forward extruded part 46285.91
5 Ironing +cutoff 46285.91
4 Ironing 67460.08
3` Backward extrusion +cutoff+ anneal 67460.08
3 Backward extrusion +Cutoff 70833.08
2 Backward extrusion part 81184.17
1 Billet 81184.17

From the drawing above I have all the necessary dimensions needed to perform the calculations
for the Backward extrusion. The specific evaluation criterias and results are presented in the
table below.
 Backward can extrusion
Initial OD(d0) 51.8
Initial ID 0
Final OD 52
Final ID(ds) 32.4
A0 2107.411768
A1 1299.237058
hg 48.2
h0 38.76
Strain evaluation
Value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
ε 0.483683331 - -
εA 38.35% 20%<=εA <=65% Pass
Galling calculations
value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
ds/D 0.623076923 0.45D<=ds<=0.8D Pass
hg/ds 1.487654321 hg/ds<=1.7 Pass

Again, we can see that all evaluation criteria are met.

Based on the results described in this section we can arrive at the results we arrive at the
Operation plan shown in the section 5.8. Force calculation is separately dealt in detail in section
6 here we present the summary.
5.8 Summary – final operation plan
6.0 PROCESS FORCE, STROKE CALCULATIONS
6.1 Theoretical background

For calculating the process force we can use the following formula
∈
𝐴0 ∫0 𝜎(𝑝)𝑑 ∈
𝐹=
𝜂
In the above formula Ao is the initial cross section area,
ε is the equivalent plastic strain.
η is the process efficiency which considers losses due to friction etc.
By substituting the value of σ(p) = Cεn
We get.
∈
𝐴0 ∫0 𝐶 ∈𝑛 𝑑 ∈
𝐹=
𝜂
After evaluating the integral we get

𝐴0 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ (∈𝑛+1 )
𝐹=
𝜂(𝑛 + 1)
The values of n, C are dependent on material only and have been given as
C= 710 Mpa
n = 0.48
The values of A0 and η and ε change from one stage from process to another. We will now
calculate the process force for each step.

6.2 Backward extrusion

Here,
A0= Pi* d0^2 / 4 = 3.14* 51.8^2 / 4= 2107.41mm^2
ε = 0.4837
η can be found from the graph and depends on the values of h0/d0 and ε
here h0/d0= 38.76/ 51.8 = 0.7483
Based on this we can refer the figure below for the value of process efficiency.
 0.368

0.281
gd
0.48

We can calculate the process efficiency from the use of above graph.
Then using linear interpolation, we can calculate the value corresponding to h0/d0=0.7483
Note: for precisely determining the upper and lower limits of the efficiency corresponding to
h0/d0 = 0.35 and 1.5 at ε ~ 0.48 I used the image processing software “ImageJ”. Below snap
shows the measurement of the lower limit 0.281 done in this software. (I add 0.2 to the
measured value of 0.081 because graph scale starts from 0.2)
Now I can use the linear interpolation as per below formula.
0.368 − 0.281 ℎ0
𝜂 − 0.281 = ( ) ∗ ( − 1.5)
0.35 − 1.5 𝑑0
After substituting the value of h0/d0 =0.7483 we can arrive calculate efficiency:
η = 0.3378
So, we can now calculate the process force by Substituting these values in the force equation.
From calculation F= 1021.28 kN (refer excel sheet for calculation)
To calculate work done we need the stroke.
From the above Figure the stroke(l) = h0- gd= 38.76-9.8 = 28.96 mm
Based on this work done W= F*l = 1045.64* 28.96= 29576.36 Joules
All the above calculations were implemented in excel sheet and the snap is as below.

Process Force , work and stroke

h0/d0 0.748262548
C 710
n 0.48
η 0.337870572
Force (N) 1021283.05
Force (KN) 1021.28
Stroke (mm) 28.96 Stroke= h0-gd
Work done(J) 29576.36 Work done= Stroke * force

6.3 Ironing
Here,
A0 = 1299.237mm^3
ε = 0.4018
Based on the below recommended values of process efficiency. Since our strain value is not
0.15 or 0.5 we need to interpolate. Again I used the excel sheet to perform this interpolation.
Resulting efficiency η = 0.654
So, we can now calculate the process force by Substituting these values in the force equation.
From calculation F= 246.89 kN (refer excel sheet for calculation)
To calculate work done we need the stroke calculation I used 3D modelling.
I used the Die angle(2α) as = 30°
This is based on below recommended values of optimum die angle:

From the above Figure the stroke(h1) = 78.72 mm

Based on this work done W is given by formula

W = F*h1*x = 17492.11 Joules

Like section 6.2 the calculations were done in excel sheet and snap is below.

3 Source: Metal forming Practice By Heinz Tschaetsch

6.3 Forward extrusion
Here,
A0= 869.32mm^2
ε = 0.899
η can be found from the graph and depends on the values of h0/d0 and ε
here h0/d0= 1.15
Based on this we can refer the figure below for the value of process efficiency.

Again, I used linear interpolation but this time we must use it twice due to 2 parameters in the
above table. A snapshot of this interpolation table is presented in the Appendix 2.
Resulting efficiency η = 0.687
So, we can now calculate the process force by Substituting these values in the force equation.
From calculation F= 517.72 kN (refer excel sheet for calculation)
To calculate work done we need the stroke.
Here stroke(l) = h0-h2=53.24-20.8= 32.44 mm
h0 and h2 are shown in the below figure.

Based on this work done W= F*l = 16794.84 Joules

Again, the relevant snap of excel sheet used for these calculations is shown below:

Process Force , work and stroke

h0/d0 1.15
C 710
n 0.48
η 0.68784216
Force (N) 517720.16
Force (KN) 517.72
Stroke 32.44 Stroke= h0-h2
Work done(J) 16794.84 Work done= Stroke * force
7.0 BACKWARD EXTRUSION PUNCH

7.1 Punch Drawing

The punch design is based on the design guideline stated in the below figure.

Based on these guidelines I prepared the excel sheet for the punch design to determine the all
thepunch dimensions the snap below shows the this sheet
So based on this we can make the Punch drawing below
7.2 Punch Drawing
Here we need the check the permissible stress of the punch.
Here the l/ds = 58/32.2 = 1.80
Stress = F/A = 1021283.4/(3.14 * 16.1^2) = 1254.1Mpa
We mark this point on the below graph to confirm weather the punch is within design limit.

From the above graph the placement of we can see that the punch is within the design
guidelines. So there is no possibility of Buckling
Appendix 1

Figure 1: Overall view of the Forming Calculation sheet

 Backward can extrusion
Initial OD(d0) 51.8
Initial ID 0
Final OD 52 The result is automatically
0.368
Final ID(ds) 32.4 displayed -IF function is
used here. 0.281
gd
A0 2107.411768 0.48
Also, Conditional
A1 1299.237058 formatting automatically
highlights green, or red
hg 48.2 based on result.
h0 38.76
Strain evaluation
Value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
ε 0.483683331 - -
εA 38.35% 20%<=εA <=65% Pass
Galling calculations
value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
ds/D 0.623076923 0.45D<=ds<=0.8D Pass
hg/ds 1.487654321 hg/ds<=1.7 Pass
Process Force , work and stroke
h0/d0 0.748262548
C 710
n 0.48
η 0.337870572
Force (N) 1021283.05
Force (KN) 1021.28
Stroke (mm) 28.96 Stroke= h0-gd
Work done(J) 29576.36 Work done= Stroke * force

Figure 1: Snapshots from the Excel sheet calculator showing the Backward extrusion calculations and the tables standards and
formulas used to make forming calculator.
Figure 2: Snapshots from the Excel sheet calculator showing the Ironing calculations and the tables standards and formulas used to
make forming calculator.
 Forward extrusion
Initial OD 46.3
Initial ID 32.2
Final OD 38.4
Final ID(dw) 32
Initial Hieght(h0) 53.24
g0 7.05
h2 20.8
g 3.2
A0 869.32
A1 353.87
Strain evaluation
Value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
ε 0.899 ε <=1.2 Pass
εA 59.29% εA <=70% Pass
Recommended dimention check
Value Criteria Result(Pass/Fail)
h2 20.80 h2>=g Pass
h0/g0 7.55 h0/g0<=(10-15) Pass
h0/dw 1.66 h0/dw<=4 Pass
dw 32.00 dw>(6-10) Pass
Process Force , work and stroke
h0/d0 1.15
C 710
n 0.48
η 0.68784216
Force (N) 517720.16
Force (KN) 517.72
Stroke 32.44 Stroke= h0-h2
Work done(J) 16794.84 Work done= Stroke * force

Figure 3: Snapshots from the Excel sheet calculator showing the Forward extrusion calculations and the tables standards and
formulas used to make forming calculator.
Appendix 2
Interpolation of efficiency - forward extrusion
efficiency
strain
from table my project
h0/d0--> 1 10 1.15
From 0.8 0.67 0.56 0.668167987
table 1 0.71 0.59 0.70800144
My value 0.899 0.689756434 0.574817 0.687842161

Figure 4: Interpolation sheet calculating process efficiency of Forward extrusion.

Figure 5: Snapshot showing how to calculate parameters bottom shape of extruded part.
Figure 6: Snapshot showing the use of ImageJ software used for accurate length measurement
in graphs- used in this project for precise interpolation in section 6,2.
Figure 7: Snapshot of showing table for collecting the Volume at each stage of the process.