ORAL COMMUNICATION Elements of Communication

Communication is a process of sharing and Communication is divided into elements which help
conveying messages or information from one us better understand its mechanics or process.
person to another within and across channels, These elements are the following:
contexts, media, and cultures (McCornack, 2014).
1. Speaker – the source of information or message
There is a wide variety of contexts and situations in
which communication can be manifested; it can be 2. Message – the information, ideas, or thoughts
a face-to-face interaction, a phone conversation, a conveyed by the speaker in words or in actions
group discussion, a meeting or interview, a letter
correspondence, a class recitation, and many 3. Encoding – the process of converting the
others. message into words, actions, or other forms that the
speaker understands
Communication is a process. It occurs between two
or more people (the speaker and the receiver).It can 4. Channel – the medium or the means, such as
be expressed through words (verbal), actions personal or non-personal, verbal or nonverbal, in
(nonverbal) or both at the same time. which the encoded message is conveyed

Communication is defined as a process by which 5. Decoding – the process of interpreting the

ideas, thoughts, feelings, emotions, and encoded message of the speaker by the receiver
information are conveyed through symbols, signs, 6. Receiver – the recipient of the message, or
or behavior (Merriam- Webster Dictionary). It someone who decodes the message
involves sending and receiving messages through
different channels. 7. Feedback – the reactions, responses, or
information provided by the receiver
Nature of Communication
a. Positive Feedback- confirms the source that the
1. Communication is a process. intended effect of the message was achieved and
2. Communication occurs between two or more tells the source that everything is going in the
people (the speaker and the receiver). desired way.

3. Communication can be expressed through b. Negative Feedback- informs the source that the
written or spoken words, actions intended effect of the message was not realized.

(nonverbal), or both spoken words and nonverbal 8. Context – the environment where
actions at the same time. communication takes place

4. Communication is systemic- communication 9. Barrier/Noise – the factors that affect the flow of
happens within various systems communication

5. Communication is irreversible- it is impossible Functions of Communication

for one to take back what was said. Basically, there are five functions of
6. Communication is proactive- when one receives communication. These are the following:
information they actively evaluate content and 1. Control – Communication functions to control
purpose of the message and credibility of the behavior.
speaker.
2. Social Interaction – Communication allows
7. Communication is symbolic- symbols are used as individuals to interact with others.
representations in communicating one’s thoughts
and feelings. 3. Motivation – Communication motivates or
encourages people to live better.
8. Meaning in communication is individually
construed- each individual actively create meaning 4. Emotional expression – Communication
through experiences or phenomena. facilitates people’s expression of their
feelings and emotions.
5. Information dissemination – Communication - Sender and receiver interchanges and both are
functions to convey information. equally active.
Concept Notes - Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is
interpreted by the receiver as intended or not.
 Models of Communication
1. Shannon-Weaver Model (1949)
Concept of interpretation makes the
- known as the mother of all communication communication effective.
models
- Field of experience (psychological effect) helps to
- depicts communication as a linear or one-way understand the communication process in many
process consisting of five other ways than the traditional ones.
elements: - Concept of context makes the environmental
a. a source (producer of message); factor be included in interpretation of message and
brings change in the message
b. a transmitter (encoder of message into signals);
- This model cannot deal with multiple levels of
c. a channel (signals adapted for transmission); communication and complex communication
d. a receiver (decoder of message from the signal); processes.
and - There can only be two sources communicating,
e. a destination many sources complicate the process and the model
cannot be implemented.
- been criticized for missing one essential element
in the communication - Message sent and received might be interpreted
differently than intended.
process: feedback
Features of an Effective Communication
- without feedback, the speaker will not know
whether the receiver In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations,
Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center (2012) list the
understands the message or not 7 Cs of Effective Communication. This list is widely
used today, especially in public relations and
advertising.
2. Transaction Model
1. Completeness- Complete communication is
- a two-way process with the inclusion of feedback essential to the quality of the communication
as one element process in general. Hence, communication should
include everything that the receiver needs to hear
- more interactive for him/ her to respond, react, or evaluate properly.
- has a collaborative exchange of messages between 2. Conciseness- Conciseness does not mean keeping
communicators with the aim of understanding each the message short but making it direct or straight to
other the point. Insignificant or redundant information
- has a barrier, such as noise, that may interfere should be eliminated from the communication that
with the flow of Communication will be sent to the recipient.

3. Schramm Model (1954) 3. Consideration- To be effective, the speaker

should always consider relevant information about
- modified the Shannon-Weaver Model his/her receiver such as mood, background, race,
preference, education, status, and needs, among
- Circular communication gives opportunity to both
others. By doing so, he/she can easily build rapport
parties to give their opinion.
with the audience.
- dynamic and ever-changing model,
4. Concreteness- Effective communication happens
when the message is concrete and supported by
facts, figures, and real-life examples and situations. SPEECH CONTEXT – refers to the situation or
In this case, the receiver is more connected to the environment and the circumstances in which
message conveyed. communication occurs.
5. Courtesy -The speaker shows courtesy in Types of Speech Context
communication by respecting the culture, values,
1. INTRAPERSONAL- this refers to communication
and beliefs of his/her receivers. Being courteous
that centers on one person where the speaker acts
always creates a positive impact on the audience.
both as the sender and the receiver of message.
6. Clearness -Clearness in communication implies “The message is made up of your thoughts and
the use of simple and specific words to express feelings. The channel is your brain, which processes
ideas. It is also achieved when the speaker focuses what you are thinking and feeling. There is
only on a single objective in his/her speech so as feedback in the sense that as you talk to yourself,
not to confuse the audience. you discard certain ideas and replace them with
others.” (Hybels&Weaver, 2012, p 16)
7. Correctness- Correctness in grammar eliminates
negative impact on the audience and increases the It takes place when the “self” is engaging in inner
credibility and effectiveness of the message. talk or internal discourse such as mumbling,
thinking aloud, reflecting, remembering, analysing,
and evaluating. Doodling, reading aloud,
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION brainstorming, and daydreaming.

 Communication in which we use words to Examples:

communicate is called verbal communication. E.g.  You spent the night thinking and analysing why
Writing e-mail, letters, post cards and talking with a student from the other class talked to you on the
friends. way home and you decided it probably meant
 Communication in which words are not included nothing.
is called Non-Verbal communication. E.g. watching  You felt happy while thinking about how your
a photo, watching a silent movie, understanding the teacher appreciated you for submitting your project
meaning of signs on roads and meaning of traffic before the due date and you reflected on why this
signal lights. was so.
2. INTERPERSONAL- this refers to communication
Verbal Communication between and among people and establishes
personal relationship between and among them.
Verbal Communication has two parts: Solomon and Theiss (2013) state that “the inter
 Written Communication- when we communicate part of the word highlights how interpersonal
through written words, this is called written communication connects people when you engage
communication. This includes writing letters, e- in interpersonal
mails, and reports, assignments, editing in
newspaper and answering examination papers. It is communication, you and other person become
the most effective in organization and government linked together. The personal
works. part means that your unique qualities as a person
 Oral Communication- the second type of verbal matter during interpersonal
communication is oral communication. When we communication.” (p 5)
talk with our friends, teachers, boss, professors, and
relatives we use oral communication. In this type of Types of Interpersonal Context
communication, words are spoken and not written,
a. Dyad Communication- communication that
we use this in our daily life works. E.g. talking in
occurs between two people.
everyday life, hearing music, conferences and etc.
Example:
 You offered feedback on the speech performance Types of Speech Style
of your classmate.
The context dictates and affects the way people
 You provided comfort to a friend who was feeling communicate, which results in various speech
down. styles. According to Joos (1968), there are five
speech styles. These are
b. Small Group- this refers to communication that
involves at least three but (1) intimate, (2) casual, (3) consultative, (4) formal,
and (5) frozen. Each style dictates what appropriate
not more than twelve people engaging in a face-to- language or vocabulary should be used or observed.
face interaction to achieve
1. Intimate – This style is private, which occurs
a desired goal. In this type of communication, all between or among close family members or
participants can freely individuals. The language used in this style may not
share ideas in a loose and open discussion. be shared in public.

Example: 2. Casual – This style is common among peers and

friends. Jargon, slang, or the vernacular languages
 You are participating in an organizational are used.
meeting which aims to
3. Consultative – This style is the standard one.
address the concerns of your fellow students Professional or mutually acceptable language is a
 You are having a discussion with your group must in this style. Examples of situations are
mates on how to finish communication between teachers and students,
employers and employees, doctor and patient,
the assigned tasks. judge and lawyer, or President and his/her
constituents.
4. Formal – This style is used in formal settings.
3. PUBLIC- this type refers to communication that
Unlike the consultative style, this is one-way.
requires you to deliver or send the message before
Examples are sermons by priests and ministers,
or in front of a group. The message can be driven by
State of the Nation Address of the President, formal
informational or persuasive purposes. “In public
speeches, or pronouncements by judges.
communication, unlike in interpersonal and small
group, the channels are more exaggerated. The 5. Frozen – This style is “frozen” in time and
voice is louder and the gestures are more expansive remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in
because the audience is bigger. The speaker might ceremonies. Common examples are the Preamble to
use additional visual channels such as slides or a the Constitution, Lord’s Prayer, and Allegiance to
Power Point presentation.” (Hybel & Weaver, 2012, country or flag.
p 19)
Definition of Speech Acts
Example:
A speech act is an utterance that a speaker makes to
 You deliver a graduation speech to your batch. achieve an intended effect. Some of the functions
which are carried out using speech acts are offering
 You participate in a declamation, oratorical, or
an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation,
debate contest watched by a number of people.
compliment, or refusal.
4. MASS COMMUNICATION- this refers to
Three Types of Speech Act
communication that takes place through television,
radio, newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, According to J. L. Austin (1962), a philosopher of
internet, and other types of media. language and the developer of the Speech Act
Theory, there are three types of acts in every
Example:
utterance, given the right circumstances or context.
 You are a student journalist articulating your
stand on current issues through the school’s
newspaper.
These are:
1. Locutionary act is the actual act of uttering.
2. Illocutionary act is the social function of what is
said.
3. Perlocutionary act is the resulting act of what is
said. This effect is based on the particular context in
which the speech act was mentioned.
There are also indirect speech acts which occur
when there is no direct connection between the
form of the utterance and the intended meaning.
They are different in force (i.e., intention) from the
inferred speech act. For example, read the following
utterance.
Intercultural communication happens when
individuals interact, negotiate and create meanings
while bringing in their varied cultural backgrounds.
(Ting-Toomey 1999)
ORAL COMMUNICATION Elements of Communication
Communication is a process of sharing and Communication is divided into elements which help
conveying messages or information from one us better understand its mechanics or process.
person to another within and across channels, These elements are the following:
contexts, media, and cultures (McCornack, 2014).
1. Speaker – the source of information or message
There is a wide variety of contexts and situations in
which communication can be manifested; it can be 2. Message – the information, ideas, or thoughts
a face-to-face interaction, a phone conversation, a conveyed by the speaker in words or in actions
group discussion, a meeting or interview, a letter
correspondence, a class recitation, and many 3. Encoding – the process of converting the
others. message into words, actions, or other forms that the
speaker understands
Communication is a process. It occurs between two
or more people (the speaker and the receiver).It can 4. Channel – the medium or the means, such as
be expressed through words (verbal), actions personal or non-personal, verbal or nonverbal, in
(nonverbal) or both at the same time. which the encoded message is conveyed

Communication is defined as a process by which 5. Decoding – the process of interpreting the

ideas, thoughts, feelings, emotions, and encoded message of the speaker by the receiver
information are conveyed through symbols, signs, 6. Receiver – the recipient of the message, or
or behavior (Merriam- Webster Dictionary). It someone who decodes the message
involves sending and receiving messages through
different channels. 7. Feedback – the reactions, responses, or
information provided by the receiver
Nature of Communication
a. Positive Feedback- confirms the source that the
1. Communication is a process. intended effect of the message was achieved and
2. Communication occurs between two or more tells the source that everything is going in the
people (the speaker and the receiver). desired way.

3. Communication can be expressed through b. Negative Feedback- informs the source that the
written or spoken words, actions intended effect of the message was not realized.

(nonverbal), or both spoken words and nonverbal 8. Context – the environment where
actions at the same time. communication takes place

4. Communication is systemic- communication 9. Barrier/Noise – the factors that affect the flow of
happens within various systems communication

5. Communication is irreversible- it is impossible Functions of Communication

for one to take back what was said. Basically, there are five functions of
6. Communication is proactive- when one receives communication. These are the following:
information they actively evaluate content and 1. Control – Communication functions to control
purpose of the message and credibility of the behavior.
speaker.
2. Social Interaction – Communication allows
7. Communication is symbolic- symbols are used as individuals to interact with others.
representations in communicating one’s thoughts
and feelings. 3. Motivation – Communication motivates or
encourages people to live better.
8. Meaning in communication is individually
construed- each individual actively create meaning 4. Emotional expression – Communication
through experiences or phenomena. facilitates people’s expression of their
feelings and emotions.
5. Information dissemination – Communication - Sender and receiver interchanges and both are
functions to convey information. equally active.
Concept Notes - Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is
interpreted by the receiver as intended or not.
 Models of Communication
1. Shannon-Weaver Model (1949)
Concept of interpretation makes the
- known as the mother of all communication communication effective.
models
- Field of experience (psychological effect) helps to
- depicts communication as a linear or one-way understand the communication process in many
process consisting of five other ways than the traditional ones.
elements: - Concept of context makes the environmental
a. a source (producer of message); factor be included in interpretation of message and
brings change in the message
b. a transmitter (encoder of message into signals);
- This model cannot deal with multiple levels of
c. a channel (signals adapted for transmission); communication and complex communication
d. a receiver (decoder of message from the signal); processes.
and - There can only be two sources communicating,
e. a destination many sources complicate the process and the model
cannot be implemented.
- been criticized for missing one essential element
in the communication - Message sent and received might be interpreted
differently than intended.
process: feedback
Features of an Effective Communication
- without feedback, the speaker will not know
whether the receiver In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations,
Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center (2012) list the
understands the message or not 7 Cs of Effective Communication. This list is widely
used today, especially in public relations and
advertising.
2. Transaction Model
1. Completeness- Complete communication is
- a two-way process with the inclusion of feedback essential to the quality of the communication
as one element process in general. Hence, communication should
include everything that the receiver needs to hear
- more interactive for him/ her to respond, react, or evaluate properly.
- has a collaborative exchange of messages between 2. Conciseness- Conciseness does not mean keeping
communicators with the aim of understanding each the message short but making it direct or straight to
other the point. Insignificant or redundant information
- has a barrier, such as noise, that may interfere should be eliminated from the communication that
with the flow of Communication will be sent to the recipient.

3. Schramm Model (1954) 3. Consideration- To be effective, the speaker

should always consider relevant information about
- modified the Shannon-Weaver Model his/her receiver such as mood, background, race,
preference, education, status, and needs, among
- Circular communication gives opportunity to both
others. By doing so, he/she can easily build rapport
parties to give their opinion.
with the audience.
- dynamic and ever-changing model,
4. Concreteness- Effective communication happens
when the message is concrete and supported by
facts, figures, and real-life examples and situations. SPEECH CONTEXT – refers to the situation or
In this case, the receiver is more connected to the environment and the circumstances in which
message conveyed. communication occurs.
5. Courtesy -The speaker shows courtesy in Types of Speech Context
communication by respecting the culture, values,
1. INTRAPERSONAL- this refers to communication
and beliefs of his/her receivers. Being courteous
that centers on one person where the speaker acts
always creates a positive impact on the audience.
both as the sender and the receiver of message.
6. Clearness -Clearness in communication implies “The message is made up of your thoughts and
the use of simple and specific words to express feelings. The channel is your brain, which processes
ideas. It is also achieved when the speaker focuses what you are thinking and feeling. There is
only on a single objective in his/her speech so as feedback in the sense that as you talk to yourself,
not to confuse the audience. you discard certain ideas and replace them with
others.” (Hybels&Weaver, 2012, p 16)
7. Correctness- Correctness in grammar eliminates
negative impact on the audience and increases the It takes place when the “self” is engaging in inner
credibility and effectiveness of the message. talk or internal discourse such as mumbling,
thinking aloud, reflecting, remembering, analysing,
and evaluating. Doodling, reading aloud,
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION brainstorming, and daydreaming.

 Communication in which we use words to Examples:

communicate is called verbal communication. E.g.  You spent the night thinking and analysing why
Writing e-mail, letters, post cards and talking with a student from the other class talked to you on the
friends. way home and you decided it probably meant
 Communication in which words are not included nothing.
is called Non-Verbal communication. E.g. watching  You felt happy while thinking about how your
a photo, watching a silent movie, understanding the teacher appreciated you for submitting your project
meaning of signs on roads and meaning of traffic before the due date and you reflected on why this
signal lights. was so.
2. INTERPERSONAL- this refers to communication
Verbal Communication between and among people and establishes
personal relationship between and among them.
Verbal Communication has two parts: Solomon and Theiss (2013) state that “the inter
 Written Communication- when we communicate part of the word highlights how interpersonal
through written words, this is called written communication connects people when you engage
communication. This includes writing letters, e- in interpersonal
mails, and reports, assignments, editing in
newspaper and answering examination papers. It is communication, you and other person become
the most effective in organization and government linked together. The personal
works. part means that your unique qualities as a person
 Oral Communication- the second type of verbal matter during interpersonal
communication is oral communication. When we communication.” (p 5)
talk with our friends, teachers, boss, professors, and
relatives we use oral communication. In this type of Types of Interpersonal Context
communication, words are spoken and not written,
a. Dyad Communication- communication that
we use this in our daily life works. E.g. talking in
occurs between two people.
everyday life, hearing music, conferences and etc.
Example:
 You offered feedback on the speech performance Types of Speech Style
of your classmate.
The context dictates and affects the way people
 You provided comfort to a friend who was feeling communicate, which results in various speech
down. styles. According to Joos (1968), there are five
speech styles. These are
b. Small Group- this refers to communication that
involves at least three but (1) intimate, (2) casual, (3) consultative, (4) formal,
and (5) frozen. Each style dictates what appropriate
not more than twelve people engaging in a face-to- language or vocabulary should be used or observed.
face interaction to achieve
1. Intimate – This style is private, which occurs
a desired goal. In this type of communication, all between or among close family members or
participants can freely individuals. The language used in this style may not
share ideas in a loose and open discussion. be shared in public.

Example: 2. Casual – This style is common among peers and

friends. Jargon, slang, or the vernacular languages
 You are participating in an organizational are used.
meeting which aims to
3. Consultative – This style is the standard one.
address the concerns of your fellow students Professional or mutually acceptable language is a
 You are having a discussion with your group must in this style. Examples of situations are
mates on how to finish communication between teachers and students,
employers and employees, doctor and patient,
the assigned tasks. judge and lawyer, or President and his/her
constituents.
4. Formal – This style is used in formal settings.
3. PUBLIC- this type refers to communication that
Unlike the consultative style, this is one-way.
requires you to deliver or send the message before
Examples are sermons by priests and ministers,
or in front of a group. The message can be driven by
State of the Nation Address of the President, formal
informational or persuasive purposes. “In public
speeches, or pronouncements by judges.
communication, unlike in interpersonal and small
group, the channels are more exaggerated. The 5. Frozen – This style is “frozen” in time and
voice is louder and the gestures are more expansive remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in
because the audience is bigger. The speaker might ceremonies. Common examples are the Preamble to
use additional visual channels such as slides or a the Constitution, Lord’s Prayer, and Allegiance to
Power Point presentation.” (Hybel & Weaver, 2012, country or flag.
p 19)
Definition of Speech Acts
Example:
A speech act is an utterance that a speaker makes to
 You deliver a graduation speech to your batch. achieve an intended effect. Some of the functions
which are carried out using speech acts are offering
 You participate in a declamation, oratorical, or
an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation,
debate contest watched by a number of people.
compliment, or refusal.
4. MASS COMMUNICATION- this refers to
Three Types of Speech Act
communication that takes place through television,
radio, newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, According to J. L. Austin (1962), a philosopher of
internet, and other types of media. language and the developer of the Speech Act
Theory, there are three types of acts in every
Example:
utterance, given the right circumstances or context.
 You are a student journalist articulating your
stand on current issues through the school’s
newspaper.
These are:
1. Locutionary act is the actual act of uttering.
2. Illocutionary act is the social function of what is
said.
3. Perlocutionary act is the resulting act of what is
said. This effect is based on the particular context in
which the speech act was mentioned.
There are also indirect speech acts which occur
when there is no direct connection between the
form of the utterance and the intended meaning.
They are different in force (i.e., intention) from the
inferred speech act. For example, read the following
utterance.
Intercultural communication happens when
individuals interact, negotiate and create meanings
while bringing in their varied cultural backgrounds.
(Ting-Toomey 1999)