Discrete Math

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Discrete Mathematics in the Real

World
It's often said that mathematics is useful in solving a very wide variety of
practical problems. {MathILy, MathILy-Er} focus on discrete mathematics,
which, broadly conceived, underpins about half of pure mathematics and of
operations research as well as all of computer science. As time goes on, more
and more mathematics that is done, both in academia and in industry, is
discrete. But what are the actual applications people talk about when they say
discrete mathematics can be applied? What problems are being solved? This
webpage attempts to address those questions. There are short descriptions,
with links to longer explanations, of examples of discrete mathematics as
applied to our everyday lives and as used in important and interesting research
and corporate applications.
Everyday applications of discrete mathematics

Computers run software and store files. The software and files are both stored
as huge strings of 1s and 0s. Binary math is discrete mathematics.
Networks are, at base, discrete structures. The routers that run the
internet are connected by long cables. People are connected to each other by
social media ("following" on Twitter, "friending" on Facebook, etc.). The US
highway system connects cities with roads.
Doing web searches in multiple languages at once, and returning a summary,

uses linear algebra.
Google Maps uses discrete mathematics to determine fastest driving routes and

times. There is a simpler version that works with small maps and technicalities
involved in adapting to large maps.
Scheduling problems---like deciding which nurses should work which shifts, or

which airline pilots should be flying which routes, or scheduling rooms for an
event, or deciding timeslots for committee meetings, or which chemicals can
be stored in which parts of a warehouse---are solved either using graph
coloring or using combinatorial optimization, both parts of discrete
mathematics. One example is scheduling games for a professional sports
league.
An analog clock has gears inside, and the sizes/teeth needed for correct
timekeeping are determined using discrete math.
Wiring a computer network using the least amount of cable is a minimum-

weight spanning tree problem.
Encryption and decryption are part of cryptography, which is part of discrete

mathematics. For example, secure internet shopping uses public-key
cryptography.
Discrete mathematics is used in vaccine development.
Area codes: How do we know when we need more area codes to cover the
phone numbers in a region? This is a basic combinatorics problem.
Scaling COVID-19 testing by more efficiently using patient samples is assisted
by linear algebra.
Designing password criteria is a counting problem: Is the space of passwords

chosen large enough that a hacker can't break into accounts just by trying all
the possibilities? How long do passwords need to be in order to resist such
attacks? (find out here!)
Machine Job Scheduling: Scheduling tasks to be completed by a single

machine uses graph theory. Scheduling tasks to be completed by a set of
machines is a bin-packing problem, which is part of discrete optimization.
Google describes the issue for multiple types of jobs on multiple machines.
Railway planning uses discrete math: deciding how to expand train rail lines,

train timetable scheduling, and scheduling crews and equipment for train
trips use both graph theory and linear algebra.
Apportionment: In the U.S., the legislative branch of the government has a

House of Representatives with 435 members. The process of deciding how many
of these members should be allocated to each state is called apportionment,
and there is a lot of discrete mathematics involved---both in creating and
implementing various apportionment methods.
Computer graphics (such as in video games) use linear algebra in order to

transform (move, scale, change perspective) objects. That's true for both
applications like game development, and for operating systems.
Bankruptcy proceedings can involve lots of different reasonable ways to

resolve claims. Some involve discrete optimization.
Electronic health care records are kept as parts of databases, and there is

a lot of discrete mathematics involved in the efficient and effective design of
databases.
Compact discs store a lot of data, which is encoded using a modified Reed-
Solomon code (a binary code, and thus discrete math) to automatically correct
transmission errors.
Voting systems: There are different methods for voting---not just the common
cast-a-ballot-for-exactly-one-candidate method. The study of possible voting
methods and how well their outcomes reflect the intent of the voters uses
discrete mathematics.
Cell phone communications: Making efficient use of the broadcast spectrum

for mobile phones uses linear algebra and information theory. Assigning
frequencies so that there is no interference with nearby phones can use graph
theory or can use discrete optimization.
Digital image processing uses discrete mathematics to merge images or apply

filters.
Methods of encoding data and reducing the error in data transmission---such

as are used in bar codes, UPCs, data matrices, and QR codes---are discrete
mathematics.
Hidden Markov models, which are part of linear algebra, are used for large
vocabulary continuous speech recognition.
Food Webs: A food web describes the ways in which a set of species eat (and
don't eat) each other. They can be studied using graph theory.
Delivery Route Problems: If you need to leave home, visit a sequence of

locations each exactly once and then return home---such as might happen with
a newspaper delivery route or scheduling bread to be delivered from a bakery
to grocery stores---this is known as the traveling salesperson problem, or TSP.
There is a definitive source on the history of, and state-of-the-art work on TSP.
Managing Health Care Resources: Medical procedures require space and health
care workers and equipment. We want to not waste space and schedule staff
well and make sure equipment is both used and maintained, and we want these
resources to be allocated equitably. A type of discrete mathematics known
as integer programming is used in optimizing hospital resources.
Research and corporate applications that use discrete mathematics

Spatio-temporal optimization is a type of algorithm design that has been
applied to reducing poaching of endangered animals.
Graph theory, and in particular rooted tree diagrams of a genome, is used

in the evolution of SARS-CoV-2.
Logistics deals with managing inventory and supply chains, as well

as transporting goods and people to where and when they are needed. Many of
the problems involved use discrete optimization.
Detecting deepfakes (fake videos) uses linear algebra and related discrete

mathematics.
Graph theory is used in cybersecurity to identify hacked or criminal

servers and generally for network security.
Discrete math is used in choosing the most on-time route for a given train
trip in the UK. The software determines the probability of a given train trip
being completed on time in the UK uses Markov chains.
Linear algebra is discrete mathematics, and is used for compressive

sensing (efficient image/sound recording) and medical imaging.
Archaeology uses discrete math to construct 3D images from scans of

archaeological sites.
Determining voting districts, a process known as redistricting, is rife with

problems and influenced by politics. Many researchers in various fields work on
methods for fair redistricting, and some use lots of discrete math.
Network flows, a part of discrete math, can be used to help protect
endangered species from the threat of global warming (see the abstract for
this paper).
Power grids: Graph theory is used in finding the most vulnerable aspects of an
electric grid. Graph theory and linear algebra are used in power grid
simulations.
Robot arms are a type of linkage, the study of which is part of discrete

geometry.
Modeling possible fingertip movements and forces uses linear algebra.
Graph theory is involved in routing concrete trucks.
Voting theory (see earlier on this page) can be used to decide how to prioritize
among biodiversity conservation sites (see the abstract for this paper).
It's difficult to get good pictures of space junk because it moves and rotates.
Linear algebra is used in improving images of space debris.
Graph theory is used in kidney donor matching (bonus: the speaker on the

podcast has given Daily Gathers at MathILy).
Determining how best to add streets to congested areas of cities uses graph

theory (and in fact an area of graph theory taught in one of the MathILy branch
classes!).
Matching medical-school graduates to hospital residencies is solved using an

algorithm that is provably optimal. Here are two articles that describe the
discrete mathematics involved and what happens when this is extended to the
problem of matching middle-school students to high schools.
Measuring the evolutionary distance between genomes can be done using

permutations, as described here.
Graph theory is involved in searching for terrorist groups sending covert
messages on public fora.
Data compression, reduction of noise in data, and automated

recommendations of movies all use the same tool from linear algebra.
The spread of infectious disease is affected by personal contacts and by

behaviors influenced by information, as well as by how communities are
connected to each other. One model of epidemics uses graph theory by
encoding personal contacts and behaviors as layers in a large network. Another
uses graph theory and linear algebra to examine how the structure of networks
of communities changes disease spread.
We can model a crystal structure based on a set of electron microscope

images using discrete tomography. Linear programming can be used in discrete
tomography. Discrete tomography can also be used in medical imaging,
to reconstruct an image of an organ from just a few x-ray images.
Graph theory and linear algebra can be used in speeding up Facebook

performance.
Assessing risk in heart-attack patients, categorizing species using few

characteristics, and data mining analytics all use the same discrete math.
Chemistry: Balancing chemical equations uses linear algebra, and

understanding molecular structure uses graph theory.
We can straighten an image taken by a misaligned camera using linear

algebra.
Many ways of producing rankings use both linear algebra and graph theory.
Specific examples include ranking relevance of search
results using Google, ranking teams for tournaments or chicken pecking orders,
and ranking sports team performances or restaurant preferences that include
apparent paradoxen.
Changing patterns in lizard skin are described by discrete cellular automata.
Graph theory is used in DNA sequencing.
Modeling traffic: Determining the effect of regulation on network traffic

flow---whether that's cars on roads or packets across the internet---is a matter
of game theory and graph theory together. Optimizing traffic-light cycles uses
both discrete and continuous mathematics.
Design of radar and sonar systems uses graph theory via Golomb rulers.
Graph theory is used in neuroscience to study brain network organization

(see abstract here) and understand neuropathology for nervous system
disorders.
Understanding the spread of information through a social network---which

includes trying to make items go viral---uses graph theory.
Linear algebra and graph theory are used in clustering analysis on geosocial
data to locate gangs and insurgencies.
Researchers have used phylogenetic trees, which are part of graph theory,

to test hypotheses for why birds lay eggs of different shapes (also see the
research article).

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Introduction to Discrete Structures --- Whats and Whys

What is Discrete Mathematics ?
Discrete mathematics is mathematics that deals with discrete objects. Discrete

objects are those which are separated from (not connected to/distinct from) each
other. Integers (aka whole numbers), rational numbers (ones that can be expressed
as the quotient of two integers), automobiles, houses, people etc. are all discrete
objects. On the other hand real numbers which include irrational as well as rational
numbers are not discrete. As you know between any two different real numbers
there is another real number different from either of them. So they are packed
without any gaps and can not be separated from their immediate neighbors. In that
sense they are not discrete. In this course we will be concerned with objects such as
integers, propositions, sets, relations and functions, which are all discrete. We are
going to learn concepts associated with them, their properties, and relationships
among them among others.
Why Discrete Mathematics ?
Let us first see why we want to be interested in the formal/theoretical approaches in

computer science.
Some of the major reasons that we adopt formal approaches are 1) we can handle
infinity or large quantity and indefiniteness with them, and 2) results from formal
approaches are reusable.
As an example, let us consider a simple problem of investment. Suppose that we

invest $1,000 every year with expected return of 10% a year. How much are we
going to have after 3 years, 5 years, or 10 years ? The most naive way to find that out
would be the brute force calculation.
Let us see what happens to $1,000 invested at the beginning of each year for three
years.
First let us consider the $1,000 invested at the beginning of the first year. After one
year it produces a return of $100. Thus at the beginning of the second year, $1,100,
which is equal to $1,000 * ( 1 + 0.1 ), is invested. This $1,100 produces $110 at the
end of the second year. Thus at the beginning of the third year we have $1,210,
which is equal to $1,000 * ( 1 + 0.1 )( 1 + 0.1 ), or $1,000 * ( 1 + 0.1 )2. After the third
year this gives us $1,000 * ( 1 + 0.1 )3.
Similarly we can see that the $1,000 invested at the beginning of the second year
produces $1,000 * ( 1 + 0.1 )2 at the end of the third year, and the $1,000 invested at
the beginning of the third year becomes $1,000 * ( 1 + 0.1 ).
Thus the total principal and return after three years is $1,000 * ( 1 + 0.1 ) + $1,000 * (
1 + 0.1 )2 + $1,000 * ( 1 + 0.1 )3, which is equal to $3,641.
One can similarly calculate the principal and return for 5 years and for 10 years. It is,
however, a long tedious calculation even with calculators. Further, what if you want
to know the principal and return for some different returns than 10%, or different
periods of time such as 15 years ? You would have to do all these calculations all over
again.
We can avoid these tedious calculations considerably by noting the similarities in

these problems and solving them in a more general way.
Since all these problems ask for the result of invesing a certain amount every year for
certain number of years with a certain expected annual return, we use variables,
say A, R and n, to represent the principal newly invested every year, the return ratio,
and the number of years invested, respectively. With these symbols, the principal
and return after n years, denoted by S, can be expressed as
S = A(1 + R) + A(1 + R)2 + ... + A(1 + R)n .
As well known, this S can be put into a more compact form by first computing S - (1
+ R)S as
S = A ( (1 + R)n + 1 - (1 + R) ) / R .
Once we have it in this compact form, it is fairly easy to compute S for different
values of A, R and n, though one still has to compute (1 + R)n + 1 . This simple formula
represents infinitely many cases involving all different values of A, R and n. The
derivation of this formula, however, involves another problem. When computing the
compact form for S, S - (1 + R)S was computed using S = A(1 + R) + A(1 + R)2 + ...
+ A(1 + R)n . While this argument seems rigorous enough, in fact practically it is a
good enough argument, when one wishes to be very rigorous, the ellipsis ... in the
sum for S is not considered precise. You are expected to interpret it in a certain
specific way. But it can be interpreted in a number of different ways. In fact it can
mean anything. Thus if one wants to be rigorous, and absolutely sure about the
correctness of the formula, one needs some other way of verifying it than using the
ellipsis. Since one needs to verify it for infinitely many cases (infinitely many values
of A, R and n), some kind of formal approach, abstracted away from actual numbers,
is required.
Suppose now that somehow we have formally verified the formula successfully and
we are absolutely sure that it is correct. It is a good idea to write a computer
program to compute that S, especially with (1 + R)n + 1 to be computed. Suppose
again that we have written a program to compute S. How can we know that the
program is correct ? As we know, there are infinitely many possible input values (that
is, values of A, R and n). Obviously we can not test it for infinitely many cases. Thus
we must take some formal approach.
Related to the problem of correctness of computer programs, there is the well

known "Halting Problem". This problem, if put into the context of program
correctness, asks whether or not a given computer program stops on a given input
after a finite amount of time. This problem is known to be unsolvable by computers.
That is, no one can write a computer program to answer that question. It is known to
be unsolvable. But, how can we tell it is unsolvable ?. How can we tell that such a
program can not be written ? You can not try all possible solution methods and see
they all fail. You can not think of all (candidate) methods to solve the Halting
Problem. Thus you need some kind of formal approaches here to avoid dealing with
a extremely large number (if not infinite) of possibilities.
Discrete mathematics is the foundation for the formal approaches. It discusses

languages used in mathematical reasoning, basic concepts, and their properties and
relationships among them. Though there is no time to cover them in this course,
discrete mathematics is also concerned with techniques to solve certain types of
problems such as how to count or enumerate quantities. The kind of counting
problems includes: How many routes exist from point A to point B in a computer
network ? How much execution time is required to sort a list of integers in increasing
order ? What is the probability of winning a lottery ? What is the shortest path from
point A to point B in a computer network ? etc.
The subjects covered in this course include propositional logic, predicate logic, sets,
relations, and functions, in particular growth of function.
The first subject is logic. It is covered in Chapter 1 of the textbook. It is a language

that captures the essence of our reasoning, and correct reasoning must follow the
rules of this language. We start with logic of sentences called propositional logic, and
study elements of logic, (logical) relationships between propositions, and reasoning.
Then we learn a little more powerful logic called predicate logic. It allows us to
reason with statements involving variables among others. In Chapter 1 we also study
sets, relations between sets, and operations on sets. Just about everything is
described based on sets, when rigor is required. It is the basis of every theory in
computer science and mathematics. In Chapter 3 we learn mathematical reasoning,
in particular recursive definitions and mathematical induction. There are sets,
operations and functions that can be defined precisely by recursive definitions.
Properties of those recursively defined objects can be established rigorously using
proof by induction. Then in Chapter 6 we study relations. They are an abstraction of
relations we are familiar with in everyday life such as husband-wife relation, parent-
child relation and ownership relation. They are also one of the key concepts in the
discussion of many subjects on computer and computation. For example, a database
is viewed as a set of relations and database query languages are constructed based
on operations on relations and sets. Graphs are also covered briefly here. They are
an example of discrete structures and they are one of the most useful models for
computer scientists and engineers in solving problems. More in-depth coverage of
graph can be found in Chapter 7. Finally back in Chapter 1 we study functions and
their asymptotic behaviors. Functions are a special type of relation and basically the
same kind of concept as the ones we see in calculus. However, function is one of the
most important concepts in the discussion of many subjects on computer and
computation such as data structures, database, formal languages and automata, and
analysis of algorithms which is briefly covered in Chapter 2.
Before we start the study of discrete structures, we briefly learn general framework
of problem solving. If you are a good problem solver, you may skip that and go to
logic.
Next -- Problem Solving Framework

Alternative -- Introduction to Logic
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 Discrete Mathematics Tutorial

 Discrete Mathematics - Home
 Discrete Mathematics - Introduction
 Sets, Relations, & Functions
 Discrete Mathematics - Sets
 Discrete Mathematics - Relations
 Discrete Mathematics - Functions
 Mathematical Logic
 Propositional Logic
 Predicate Logic
 Rules of Inference
 Group Theory
 Operators & Postulates
 Group Theory
 Counting & Probability
 Counting Theory
 Probability
 Mathematical & Recurrence
 Mathematical Induction
 Recurrence Relation
 Discrete Structures
 Graph & Graph Models
 More on Graphs
 Introduction to Trees
 Spanning Trees
 Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Expressions & Functions
 Simplification of Boolean Functions
 Discrete Mathematics Resources
 Discrete Mathematics - Quick Guide
 Discrete Mathematics - Resources
 Discrete Mathematics - Discussion
 Selected Reading
 UPSC IAS Exams Notes
 Developer's Best Practices
 Questions and Answers
 Effective Resume Writing
 HR Interview Questions
 Computer Glossary
 Who is Who
Discrete Mathematics - Quick Guide
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Discrete Math For Computer Science
20 Lectures 1.5 hours
Lukáš Vyhnálek
More Detail
Discrete Mathematics - Introduction

Mathematics can be broadly classified into two categories −
 Continuous Mathematics − It is based upon continuous number line or the real
numbers. It is characterized by the fact that between any two numbers, there are
almost always an infinite set of numbers. For example, a function in continuous
mathematics can be plotted in a smooth curve without breaks.
 Discrete Mathematics − It involves distinct values; i.e. between any two points,
there are a countable number of points. For example, if we have a finite set of
objects, the function can be defined as a list of ordered pairs having these objects,
and can be presented as a complete list of those pairs.
Topics in Discrete Mathematics

Though there cannot be a definite number of branches of Discrete Mathematics, the following
topics are almost always covered in any study regarding this matter −
 Sets, Relations and Functions

 Mathematical Logic
 Group theory
 Counting Theory
 Probability
 Mathematical Induction and Recurrence Relations
 Graph Theory
 Trees
 Boolean Algebra
We will discuss each of these concepts in the subsequent chapters of this tutorial.
Discrete Mathematics - Sets

German mathematician G. Cantor introduced the concept of sets. He had defined a set as a
collection of definite and distinguishable objects selected by the means of certain rules or
description.
Set theory forms the basis of several other fields of study like counting theory, relations, graph
theory and finite state machines. In this chapter, we will cover the different aspects of Set
Theory.
AD
Set - Definition
A set is an unordered collection of different elements. A set can be written explicitly by listing its
elements using set bracket. If the order of the elements is changed or any element of a set is
repeated, it does not make any changes in the set.
Some Example of Sets
 A set of all positive integers
 A set of all the planets in the solar system
 A set of all the states in India
 A set of all the lowercase letters of the alphabet
Representation of a Set
Sets can be represented in two ways −
 Roster or Tabular Form

 Set Builder Notation
Roster or Tabular Form
The set is represented by listing all the elements comprising it. The elements are enclosed within
braces and separated by commas.
Example 1 − Set of vowels in English alphabet, A={a,e,i,o,u}
Example 2 − Set of odd numbers less than 10, B={1,3,5,7,9}
Set Builder Notation
The set is defined by specifying a property that elements of the set have in common. The set is
described as A={x:p(x)}
Example 1 − The set {a,e,i,o,u} is written as −
A={x:x is a vowel in English alphabet}
Example 2 − The set {1,3,5,7,9} is written as −
B={x:1≤x<10 and (x%2)≠0}
If an element x is a member of any set S, it is denoted by x∈S and if an element y is not a
member of set S, it is denoted by y∉S.
Example − If S={1,1.2,1.7,2},1∈S but 1.5∉S
Some Important Sets
N − the set of all natural numbers = {1,2,3,4,.....}
Z − the set of all integers = {.....,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,.....}
Z − the set of all positive integers
+
Q − the set of all rational numbers

R − the set of all real numbers
W − the set of all whole numbers
AD
Cardinality of a Set
Cardinality of a set S, denoted by |S|, is the number of elements of the set. The number is also
referred as the cardinal number. If a set has an infinite number of elements, its cardinality is ∞.
Example − |{1,4,3,5}|=4,|{1,2,3,4,5,…}|=∞
If there are two sets X and Y,
 |X|=|Y| denotes two sets X and Y having same cardinality. It occurs when the
number of elements in X is exactly equal to the number of elements in Y. In this
case, there exists a bijective function ‘f’ from X to Y.
 |X|≤|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than or equal to set Y’s cardinality. It
occurs when number of elements in X is less than or equal to that of Y. Here, there
exists an injective function ‘f’ from X to Y.
 |X|<|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than set Y’s cardinality. It occurs
when number of elements in X is less than that of Y. Here, the function ‘f’ from X
to Y is injective function but not bijective.
 If |X|≤|Y| and |X|≥|Y| then |X|=|Y|. The sets X and Y are commonly referred as
equivalent sets.
Types of Sets
Sets can be classified into many types. Some of which are finite, infinite, subset, universal,
proper, singleton set, etc.
Finite Set
A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set.
Example − S={x|x∈N and 70>x>50}
Infinite Set
A set which contains infinite number of elements is called an infinite set.
Example − S={x|x∈N and x>10}
Subset
A set X is a subset of set Y (Written as X⊆Y) if every element of X is an element of set Y.
Example 1 − Let, X={1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y={1,2}. Here set Y is a subset of set X as all the
elements of set Y is in set X. Hence, we can write Y⊆X.
Example 2 − Let, X={1,2,3} and Y={1,2,3}. Here set Y is a subset (Not a proper subset) of
set X as all the elements of set Y is in set X. Hence, we can write Y⊆X.
Proper Subset
The term “proper subset” can be defined as “subset of but not equal to”. A Set X is a proper
subset of set Y (Written as X⊂Y) if every element of X is an element of set Y and |X|<|Y|.
Example − Let, X={1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y={1,2}. Here set Y⊂X since all elements in Y are
contained in X too and X has at least one element is more than set Y.
Universal Set
It is a collection of all elements in a particular context or application. All the sets in that context
or application are essentially subsets of this universal set. Universal sets are represented as U.
Example − We may define U as the set of all animals on earth. In this case, set of all
mammals is a subset of U, set of all fishes is a subset of U, set of all insects is a subset of U,
and so on.
Empty Set or Null Set
An empty set contains no elements. It is denoted by ∅. As the number of elements in an empty
set is finite, empty set is a finite set. The cardinality of empty set or null set is zero.
Example − S={x|x∈N and 7<x<8}=∅
Singleton Set or Unit Set
Singleton set or unit set contains only one element. A singleton set is denoted by {s}.
Example − S={x|x∈N, 7<x<9} = {8}
Equal Set
If two sets contain the same elements they are said to be equal.
Example − If A={1,2,6} and B={6,1,2}, they are equal as every element of set A is an
element of set B and every element of set B is an element of set A.
Equivalent Set
If the cardinalities of two sets are same, they are called equivalent sets.
Example − If A={1,2,6} and B={16,17,22}, they are equivalent as cardinality of A is equal
to the cardinality of B. i.e. |A|=|B|=3
Overlapping Set
Two sets that have at least one common element are called overlapping sets.
In case of overlapping sets −
 n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)−n(A∩B)
 n(A∪B)=n(A−B)+n(B−A)+n(A∩B)
 n(A)=n(A−B)+n(A∩B)
 n(B)=n(B−A)+n(A∩B)
Example − Let, A={1,2,6} and B={6,12,42}. There is a common element ‘6’, hence these sets
are overlapping sets.
Disjoint Set
Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if they do not have even one element in common.
Therefore, disjoint sets have the following properties −
 n(A∩B)=∅
 n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)
Example − Let, A={1,2,6} and B={7,9,14}, there is not a single common element, hence these
sets are overlapping sets.
Venn Diagrams
Venn diagram, invented in 1880 by John Venn, is a schematic diagram that shows all possible
logical relations between different mathematical sets.
Examples
Set Operations
Set Operations include Set Union, Set Intersection, Set Difference, Complement of Set, and
Cartesian Product.
Set Union
The union of sets A and B (denoted by A∪B) is the set of elements which are in A, in B, or in
both A and B. Hence, A∪B={x|x∈A OR x∈B}.
Example − If A={10,11,12,13} and B = {13,14,15}, then A∪B={10,11,12,13,14,15}. (The
common element occurs only once)
Set Intersection
The intersection of sets A and B (denoted by A∩B) is the set of elements which are in both A and
B. Hence, A∩B={x|x∈A AND x∈B}.
Example − If A={11,12,13} and B={13,14,15}, then A∩B={13}.
Set Difference/ Relative Complement
The set difference of sets A and B (denoted by A–B) is the set of elements which are only in A
but not in B. Hence, A−B={x|x∈A AND x∉B}.
Example − If A={10,11,12,13} and B={13,14,15}, then (A−B)={10,11,12} and (B−A)={14,15}.
Here, we can see (A−B)≠(B−A)
Complement of a Set
The complement of a set A (denoted by A′) is the set of elements which are not in set A.
Hence, A′={x|x∉A}.
More specifically, A′=(U−A) where U is a universal set which contains all objects.
Example − If A={x|x belongstosetofoddintegers} then A′={y|y doesnotbelongtosetofoddintegers}
Cartesian Product / Cross Product

The Cartesian product of n number of sets A1,A2,…An denoted as A1×A2⋯×An can be defined as
all possible ordered pairs (x1,x2,…xn) where x1∈A1,x2∈A2,…xn∈An
Example − If we take two sets A={a,b} and B={1,2},
The Cartesian product of A and B is written as − A×B={(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}
The Cartesian product of B and A is written as − B×A={(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),(2,b)}
Power Set
Power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S including the empty set. The cardinality of a
power set of a set S of cardinality n is 2n. Power set is denoted as P(S).
Example −
For a set S={a,b,c,d} let us calculate the subsets −
 Subsets with 0 elements − {∅} (the empty set)
 Subsets with 1 element − {a},{b},{c},{d}
 Subsets with 2 elements − {a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d}
 Subsets with 3 elements − {a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d}
 Subsets with 4 elements − {a,b,c,d}
Hence, P(S)=
{{∅},{a},{b},{c},{d},{a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d},{a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d},
{a,b,c,d}}
|P(S)|=24=16
Note − The power set of an empty set is also an empty set.
|P({∅})|=20=1
Partitioning of a Set
Partition of a set, say S, is a collection of n disjoint subsets, say P1,P2,…Pn that satisfies the
following three conditions −
 Pi does not contain the empty set.
[Pi≠{∅} for all 0<i≤n]
 The union of the subsets must equal the entire original set.
[P1∪P2∪⋯∪Pn=S]
 The intersection of any two distinct sets is empty.
[Pa∩Pb={∅}, for a≠b where n≥a,b≥0]
Example
Let S={a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h}
One probable partitioning is {a},{b,c,d},{e,f,g,h}
Another probable partitioning is {a,b},{c,d},{e,f,g,h}
Bell Numbers
Bell numbers give the count of the number of ways to partition a set. They are denoted
by Bn where n is the cardinality of the set.
Example −
Let S={1,2,3}, n=|S|=3
The alternate partitions are −
1. ∅,{1,2,3}
2. {1},{2,3}
3. {1,2},{3}
4. {1,3},{2}
5. {1},{2},{3}
Hence B3=5
Discrete Mathematics - Relations
Whenever sets are being discussed, the relationship between the elements of the sets is the next
thing that comes up. Relations may exist between objects of the same set or between objects of
two or more sets.
Definition and Properties
A binary relation R from set x to y (written as xRy or R(x,y)) is a subset of the Cartesian
product x×y. If the ordered pair of G is reversed, the relation also changes.
Generally an n-ary relation R between sets A1,…, and An is a subset of the n-ary product A1×⋯
×An. The minimum cardinality of a relation R is Zero and maximum is n2 in this case.
A binary relation R on a single set A is a subset of A×A.
For two distinct sets, A and B, having cardinalities m and n respectively, the maximum
cardinality of a relation R from A to B is mn.
Domain and Range

If there are two sets A and B, and relation R have order pair (x, y), then −
 The domain of R, Dom(R), is the set {x|(x,y)∈RforsomeyinB}
 The range of R, Ran(R), is the set {y|(x,y)∈RforsomexinA}
Examples
Let, A={1,2,9} and B={1,3,7}
 Case 1 − If relation R is 'equal to' then R={(1,1),(3,3)}
Dom(R) = {1,3},Ran(R)={1,3}
 Case 2 − If relation R is 'less than' then R={(1,3),(1,7),(2,3),(2,7)}
Dom(R) = {1,2},Ran(R)={3,7}
 Case 3 − If relation R is 'greater than' then R={(2,1),(9,1),(9,3),(9,7)}
Dom(R) = {2,9},Ran(R)={1,3,7}
Representation of Relations using Graph

A relation can be represented using a directed graph.
The number of vertices in the graph is equal to the number of elements in the set from which the
relation has been defined. For each ordered pair (x, y) in the relation R, there will be a directed
edge from the vertex ‘x’ to vertex ‘y’. If there is an ordered pair (x, x), there will be self- loop on
vertex ‘x’.
Suppose, there is a relation R={(1,1),(1,2),(3,2)} on set S={1,2,3}, it can be represented by the
following graph −
Types of Relations
 The Empty Relation between sets X and Y, or on E, is the empty set ∅
 The Full Relation between sets X and Y is the set X×Y
 The Identity Relation on set X is the set {(x,x)|x∈X}
 The Inverse Relation R' of a relation R is defined as − R′={(b,a)|(a,b)∈R}
Example − If R={(1,2),(2,3)} then R′ will be {(2,1),(3,2)}
 A relation R on set A is called Reflexive if ∀a∈A is related to a (aRa holds)
Example − The relation R={(a,a),(b,b)} on set X={a,b} is reflexive.
 A relation R on set A is called Irreflexive if no a∈A is related to a (aRa does not
hold).
Example − The relation R={(a,b),(b,a)} on set X={a,b} is irreflexive.
 A relation R on set A is called Symmetric if xRy implies yRx, ∀x∈A and ∀y∈A.
Example − The relation R={(1,2),(2,1),(3,2),(2,3)} on set A={1,2,3} is symmetric.
 A relation R on set A is called Anti-
Symmetric if xRy and yRx implies x=y∀x∈A and ∀y∈A.
Example − The relation R={(x,y)→N|x≤y} is anti-symmetric
since x≤y and y≤x implies x=y.
 A relation R on set A is called Transitive if xRy and yRz implies xRz,∀x,y,z∈A.
Example − The relation R={(1,2),(2,3),(1,3)} on set A={1,2,3} is transitive.
 A relation is an Equivalence Relation if it is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Example − The relation R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,2),(2,1),(2,3),(3,2),(1,3),(3,1)} on
set A={1,2,3} is an equivalence relation since it is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive.
Discrete Mathematics - Functions
A Function assigns to each element of a set, exactly one element of a related set. Functions find
their application in various fields like representation of the computational complexity of
algorithms, counting objects, study of sequences and strings, to name a few. The third and final
chapter of this part highlights the important aspects of functions.
Function - Definition
A function or mapping (Defined as f:X→Y) is a relationship from elements of one set X to
elements of another set Y (X and Y are non-empty sets). X is called Domain and Y is called
Codomain of function ‘f’.
Function ‘f’ is a relation on X and Y such that for each x∈X, there exists a unique y∈Y such
that (x,y)∈R. ‘x’ is called pre-image and ‘y’ is called image of function f.
A function can be one to one or many to one but not one to many.
Injective / One-to-one function

A function f:A→B is injective or one-to-one function if for every b∈B, there exists at most
one a∈A such that f(s)=t.
This means a function f is injective if a1≠a2 implies f(a1)≠f(a2).
Example
 f:N→N,f(x)=5x is injective.
 f:N→N,f(x)=x2 is injective.
 f:R→R,f(x)=x2 is not injective as (−x)2=x2
Surjective / Onto function

A function f:A→B is surjective (onto) if the image of f equals its range. Equivalently, for
every b∈B, there exists some a∈A such that f(a)=b. This means that for any y in B, there exists
some x in A such that y=f(x).
Example
 f:N→N,f(x)=x+2 is surjective.
 f:R→R,f(x)=x2 is not surjective since we cannot find a real number whose square
is negative.
Bijective / One-to-one Correspondent

A function f:A→B is bijective or one-to-one correspondent if and only if f is both injective and
surjective.
Problem
Prove that a function f:R→R defined by f(x)=2x–3 is a bijective function.
Explanation − We have to prove this function is both injective and surjective.
If f(x1)=f(x2), then 2x1–3=2x2–3 and it implies that x1=x2.
Hence, f is injective.
Here, 2x–3=y
So, x=(y+5)/3 which belongs to R and f(x)=y.
Hence, f is surjective.
Since f is both surjective and injective, we can say f is bijective.
Inverse of a Function
The inverse of a one-to-one corresponding function f:A→B, is the function g:B→A, holding the
following property −
f(x)=y⇔g(y)=x
The function f is called invertible, if its inverse function g exists.
Example
 A Function f:Z→Z,f(x)=x+5, is invertible since it has the inverse
function g:Z→Z,g(x)=x−5.
 A Function f:Z→Z,f(x)=x2 is not invertiable since this is not one-to-one
as (−x)2=x2.
Composition of Functions
Two functions f:A→B and g:B→C can be composed to give a composition gof. This is a function
from A to C defined by (gof)(x)=g(f(x))
Example
Let f(x)=x+2 and g(x)=2x+1, find (fog)(x) and (gof)(x).
Solution
(fog)(x)=f(g(x))=f(2x+1)=2x+1+2=2x+3
(gof)(x)=g(f(x))=g(x+2)=2(x+2)+1=2x+5
Hence, (fog)(x)≠(gof)(x)
Some Facts about Composition
 If f and g are one-to-one then the function (gof) is also one-to-one.
 If f and g are onto then the function (gof) is also onto.
 Composition always holds associative property but does not hold commutative
property.
Discrete Mathematics - Propositional Logic
The rules of mathematical logic specify methods of reasoning mathematical statements. Greek
philosopher, Aristotle, was the pioneer of logical reasoning. Logical reasoning provides the
theoretical base for many areas of mathematics and consequently computer science. It has many
practical applications in computer science like design of computing machines, artificial
intelligence, definition of data structures for programming languages etc.
Propositional Logic is concerned with statements to which the truth values, “true” and “false”,
can be assigned. The purpose is to analyze these statements either individually or in a composite
manner.
Prepositional Logic – Definition

A proposition is a collection of declarative statements that has either a truth value "true” or a
truth value "false". A propositional consists of propositional variables and connectives. We
denote the propositional variables by capital letters (A, B, etc). The connectives connect the
propositional variables.
Some examples of Propositions are given below −
 "Man is Mortal", it returns truth value “TRUE”

 "12 + 9 = 3 – 2", it returns truth value “FALSE”
The following is not a Proposition −
 "A is less than 2". It is because unless we give a specific value of A, we cannot
say whether the statement is true or false.
Connectives
In propositional logic generally we use five connectives which are −
 OR (∨)
 AND (∧)
 Negation/ NOT (¬)
 Implication / if-then (→)
 If and only if (⇔).
OR (∨) − The OR operation of two propositions A and B (written as A∨B) is true if at least any
of the propositional variable A or B is true.
The truth table is as follows −
A B A∨B
True True True
True False True
False True True
False False False
AND (∧) − The AND operation of two propositions A and B (written as A∧B) is true if both the
propositional variable A and B is true.
A B A∧B
True True True
True False False
False True False
False False False
Negation (¬) − The negation of a proposition A (written as ¬A) is false when A is true and is
true when A is false.
A ¬A
True False
False True
Implication / if-then (→) − An implication A→B is the proposition “if A, then B”. It is false if
A is true and B is false. The rest cases are true.
A B A→B
True True True
True False False
False True True
False False True
If and only if (⇔) − A⇔B is bi-conditional logical connective which is true when p and q are
same, i.e. both are false or both are true.
A B A⇔B
True True True
True False False
False True False
False False True
Tautologies
A Tautology is a formula which is always true for every value of its propositional variables.
Example − Prove [(A→B)∧A]→B is a tautology
A B A→B (A → B) ∧ A [( A → B ) ∧ A] → B
True True True True True
True False False False True
False True True False True
False False True False True
As we can see every value of [(A→B)∧A]→B is "True", it is a tautology.
Contradictions
A Contradiction is a formula which is always false for every value of its propositional variables.
Example − Prove (A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)] is a contradiction
A B A∨B ¬A ¬B (¬ A) ∧ ( ¬ B) (A ∨ B) ∧ [( ¬ A) ∧ (¬ B)]
True True True False False False False

True False True False True False False
False True True True False False False
False False False True True True False
As we can see every value of (A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)] is “False”, it is a contradiction.
Contingency
A Contingency is a formula which has both some true and some false values for every value of
its propositional variables.
Example − Prove (A∨B)∧(¬A) a contingency
A B A∨B ¬A (A ∨ B) ∧ (¬ A)
True True True False False
True False True False False
False True True True True
False False False True False
As we can see every value of (A∨B)∧(¬A) has both “True” and “False”, it is a contingency.
Propositional Equivalences
Two statements X and Y are logically equivalent if any of the following two conditions hold −
The truth tables of each statement have the same truth values.

The bi-conditional statement X⇔Y is a tautology.

Example − Prove ¬(A∨B)and[(¬A)∧(¬B)] are equivalent
Testing by 1st method (Matching truth table)
A B A∨B ¬ (A ∨ B) ¬A ¬B [(¬ A) ∧ (¬ B)]
True True True False False False False

True False True False False True False
False True True False True False False
False False False True True True True
Here, we can see the truth values of ¬(A∨B)and[(¬A)∧(¬B)] are same, hence the statements are
equivalent.
Testing by 2nd method (Bi-conditionality)
A B ¬ (A ∨ B ) [(¬ A) ∧ (¬ B)] [¬ (A ∨ B)] ⇔ [(¬ A ) ∧ (¬ B)]
True True False False True
True False False False True
False True False False True
False False True True True
As [¬(A∨B)]⇔[(¬A)∧(¬B)] is a tautology, the statements are equivalent.
Inverse, Converse, and Contra-positive

Implication / if-then (→) is also called a conditional statement. It has two parts −
 Hypothesis, p
 Conclusion, q
As mentioned earlier, it is denoted as p→q.
Example of Conditional Statement − “If you do your homework, you will not be punished.”
Here, "you do your homework" is the hypothesis, p, and "you will not be punished" is the
conclusion, q.
Inverse − An inverse of the conditional statement is the negation of both the hypothesis and the
conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the inverse will be “If not p, then not q”. Thus the
inverse of p→q is ¬p→¬q.
Example − The inverse of “If you do your homework, you will not be punished” is “If you do
not do your homework, you will be punished.”
Converse − The converse of the conditional statement is computed by interchanging the
hypothesis and the conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the converse will be “If q, then
p”. The converse of p→q is q→p.
Example − The converse of "If you do your homework, you will not be punished" is "If you will
not be punished, you do your homework”.
Contra-positive − The contra-positive of the conditional is computed by interchanging the
hypothesis and the conclusion of the inverse statement. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the
contra-positive will be “If not q, then not p”. The contra-positive of p→q is ¬q→¬p.
Example − The Contra-positive of " If you do your homework, you will not be punished” is "If
you are punished, you did not do your homework”.
Duality Principle
Duality principle states that for any true statement, the dual statement obtained by interchanging
unions into intersections (and vice versa) and interchanging Universal set into Null set (and vice
versa) is also true. If dual of any statement is the statement itself, it is said self-dual statement.
Example − The dual of (A∩B)∪C is (A∪B)∩C
Normal Forms
We can convert any proposition in two normal forms −
 Conjunctive normal form

 Disjunctive normal form
Conjunctive Normal Form
A compound statement is in conjunctive normal form if it is obtained by operating AND among
variables (negation of variables included) connected with ORs. In terms of set operations, it is a
compound statement obtained by Intersection among variables connected with Unions.
Examples
 (A∨B)∧(A∨C)∧(B∨C∨D)
 (P∪Q)∩(Q∪R)
Disjunctive Normal Form
A compound statement is in disjunctive normal form if it is obtained by operating OR among
variables (negation of variables included) connected with ANDs. In terms of set operations, it is
a compound statement obtained by Union among variables connected with Intersections.
Examples
 (A∧B)∨(A∧C)∨(B∧C∧D)
 (P∩Q)∪(Q∩R)
Discrete Mathematics - Predicate Logic
Predicate Logic deals with predicates, which are propositions containing variables.
Predicate Logic – Definition
A predicate is an expression of one or more variables defined on some specific domain. A
predicate with variables can be made a proposition by either assigning a value to the variable or
by quantifying the variable.
The following are some examples of predicates −
 Let E(x, y) denote "x = y"

 Let X(a, b, c) denote "a + b + c = 0"
 Let M(x, y) denote "x is married to y"
Well Formed Formula

Well Formed Formula (wff) is a predicate holding any of the following −
 All propositional constants and propositional variables are wffs
 If x is a variable and Y is a wff, ∀xY and ∃xY are also wff
 Truth value and false values are wffs
 Each atomic formula is a wff
 All connectives connecting wffs are wffs
Quantifiers
The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers. There are two types of quantifier in
predicate logic − Universal Quantifier and Existential Quantifier.
Universal Quantifier
Universal quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for every value of the
specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∀.
∀xP(x) is read as for every value of x, P(x) is true.
Example − "Man is mortal" can be transformed into the propositional form ∀xP(x) where P(x) is
the predicate which denotes x is mortal and the universe of discourse is all men.
Existential Quantifier
Existential quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for some values of the
specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∃.
∃xP(x) is read as for some values of x, P(x) is true.
Example − "Some people are dishonest" can be transformed into the propositional
form ∃xP(x) where P(x) is the predicate which denotes x is dishonest and the universe of
discourse is some people.
Nested Quantifiers
If we use a quantifier that appears within the scope of another quantifier, it is called nested
quantifier.
Example
 ∀ a∃bP(x,y) where P(a,b) denotes a+b=0
 ∀ a∀b∀cP(a,b,c) where P(a,b) denotes a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c
Note − ∀a∃bP(x,y)≠∃a∀bP(x,y)
Discrete Mathematics - Rules of Inference
To deduce new statements from the statements whose truth that we already know, Rules of
Inference are used.
What are Rules of Inference for?

Mathematical logic is often used for logical proofs. Proofs are valid arguments that determine the
truth values of mathematical statements.
An argument is a sequence of statements. The last statement is the conclusion and all its
preceding statements are called premises (or hypothesis). The symbol “∴”, (read therefore) is
placed before the conclusion. A valid argument is one where the conclusion follows from the
truth values of the premises.
Rules of Inference provide the templates or guidelines for constructing valid arguments from the
statements that we already have.
Table of Rules of Inference
Rule of Inference Name Rule of Inference Name
\begin{matrix} P \\ \hline \ \begin{matrix} P \lor Q \\ \lnot

Disjunctive
therefore P \lor Q \ Addition P \\ \hline \therefore Q \
Syllogism
end{matrix} end{matrix}
\begin{matrix} P \\ Q \\ \ \begin{matrix} P \rightarrow Q \\ Q

Hypothetical
hline \therefore P \land Q \ Conjunction \rightarrow R \\ \hline \therefore P \
Syllogism
end{matrix} rightarrow R \end{matrix}
\begin{matrix} P \land Q\\ Simplification \begin{matrix} ( P \rightarrow Q ) \ Constructive

\hline \therefore P \ land (R \rightarrow S) \\ P \lor R \\ \ Dilemma
end{matrix} hline \therefore Q \lor S \
end{matrix}
\begin{matrix} P \ \begin{matrix} (P \rightarrow Q) \

rightarrow Q \\ P \\ \hline \ Modus land (R \rightarrow S) \\ \lnot Q \lor Destructive
therefore Q \end{matrix} Ponens \lnot S \\ \hline \therefore \lnot P \ Dilemma
lor \lnot R \end{matrix}
\begin{matrix} P \
rightarrow Q \\ \lnot Q \\ \ Modus
hline \therefore \lnot P \ Tollens
end{matrix}
Addition
If P is a premise, we can use Addition rule to derive P \lor Q .
\begin{matrix} P \\ \hline \therefore P \lor Q \end{matrix}
Example
Let P be the proposition, “He studies very hard” is true
Therefore − "Either he studies very hard Or he is a very bad student." Here Q is the proposition
“he is a very bad student”.
Conjunction
If P and Q are two premises, we can use Conjunction rule to derive P \land Q .
\begin{matrix} P \\ Q \\ \hline \therefore P \land Q \end{matrix}
Example
Let P − “He studies very hard”
Let Q − “He is the best boy in the class”
Therefore − "He studies very hard and he is the best boy in the class"
Simplification
If P \land Q is a premise, we can use Simplification rule to derive P.
\begin{matrix} P \land Q\\ \hline \therefore P \end{matrix}
Example
"He studies very hard and he is the best boy in the class", P \land Q
Therefore − "He studies very hard"
Modus Ponens
If P and P \rightarrow Q are two premises, we can use Modus Ponens to derive Q.
\begin{matrix} P \rightarrow Q \\ P \\ \hline \therefore Q \end{matrix}
Example
"If you have a password, then you can log on to facebook", P \rightarrow Q
"You have a password", P
Therefore − "You can log on to facebook"
Modus Tollens
If P \rightarrow Q and \lnot Q are two premises, we can use Modus Tollens to derive \lnot P.
\begin{matrix} P \rightarrow Q \\ \lnot Q \\ \hline \therefore \lnot P \end{matrix}
Example
"If you have a password, then you can log on to facebook", P \rightarrow Q
"You cannot log on to facebook", \lnot Q
Therefore − "You do not have a password "
Disjunctive Syllogism
If \lnot P and P \lor Q are two premises, we can use Disjunctive Syllogism to derive Q.
\begin{matrix} \lnot P \\ P \lor Q \\ \hline \therefore Q \end{matrix}
Example
"The ice cream is not vanilla flavored", \lnot P
"The ice cream is either vanilla flavored or chocolate flavored", P \lor Q
Therefore − "The ice cream is chocolate flavored”
Hypothetical Syllogism
If P \rightarrow Q and Q \rightarrow R are two premises, we can use Hypothetical Syllogism to
derive P \rightarrow R
\begin{matrix} P \rightarrow Q \\ Q \rightarrow R \\ \hline \therefore P \rightarrow R \
end{matrix}
Example
"If it rains, I shall not go to school”, P \rightarrow Q
"If I don't go to school, I won't need to do homework", Q \rightarrow R
Therefore − "If it rains, I won't need to do homework"
Constructive Dilemma
If ( P \rightarrow Q ) \land (R \rightarrow S) and P \lor R are two premises, we can use
constructive dilemma to derive Q \lor S.
\begin{matrix} ( P \rightarrow Q ) \land (R \rightarrow S) \\ P \lor R \\ \hline \therefore Q \lor S \
end{matrix}
Example
“If it rains, I will take a leave”, ( P \rightarrow Q )
“If it is hot outside, I will go for a shower”, (R \rightarrow S)
“Either it will rain or it is hot outside”, P \lor R
Therefore − "I will take a leave or I will go for a shower"
Destructive Dilemma
If (P \rightarrow Q) \land (R \rightarrow S) and \lnot Q \lor \lnot S are two premises, we can use
destructive dilemma to derive \lnot P \lor \lnot R.
\begin{matrix} (P \rightarrow Q) \land (R \rightarrow S) \\ \lnot Q \lor \lnot S \\ \hline \
therefore \lnot P \lor \lnot R \end{matrix}
Example
“If it rains, I will take a leave”, (P \rightarrow Q )
“If it is hot outside, I will go for a shower”, (R \rightarrow S)
“Either I will not take a leave or I will not go for a shower”, \lnot Q \lor \lnot S
Therefore − "Either it does not rain or it is not hot outside"
Operators & Postulates

Group Theory is a branch of mathematics and abstract algebra that defines an algebraic structure
named as group. Generally, a group comprises of a set of elements and an operation over any
two elements on that set to form a third element also in that set.
In 1854, Arthur Cayley, the British Mathematician, gave the modern definition of group for the
first time −
“A set of symbols all of them different, and such that the product of any two of them (no matter
in what order), or the product of any one of them into itself, belongs to the set, is said to be a
group. These symbols are not in general convertible [commutative], but are associative.”
In this chapter, we will know about operators and postulates that form the basics of set theory,
group theory and Boolean algebra.
Any set of elements in a mathematical system may be defined with a set of operators and a
number of postulates.
A binary operator defined on a set of elements is a rule that assigns to each pair of elements a
unique element from that set. For example, given the set A = \lbrace 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 \rbrace , we can
say \otimes is a binary operator for the operation c = a \otimes b, if it specifies a rule for finding c
for the pair of (a,b), such that a,b,c \in A.
The postulates of a mathematical system form the basic assumptions from which rules can be
deduced. The postulates are −
Closure
A set is closed with respect to a binary operator if for every pair of elements in the set, the
operator finds a unique element from that set.
Example
Let A = \lbrace 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, \dots \rbrace
This set is closed under binary operator into (\ast), because for the operation c = a \ast b, for
any a, b \in A, the product c \in A.
The set is not closed under binary operator divide (\div), because, for the operation c = a \div b,
for any a, b \in A, the product c may not be in the set A. If a = 7, b = 2, then c = 3.5. Here a,b \in
A but c \notin A.
Associative Laws
A binary operator \otimes on a set A is associative when it holds the following property −
(x \otimes y) \otimes z = x \otimes (y \otimes z), where x, y, z \in A
Example
Let A = \lbrace 1, 2, 3, 4 \rbrace
The operator plus ( + ) is associative because for any three elements, x,y,z \in A, the property (x
+ y) + z = x + ( y + z ) holds.
The operator minus ( - ) is not associative since
( x - y ) - z \ne x - ( y - z )
Commutative Laws
A binary operator \otimes on a set A is commutative when it holds the following property −
x \otimes y = y \otimes x, where x, y \in A
Example
The operator plus ( + ) is commutative because for any two elements, x,y \in A, the property x +
y = y + x holds.
The operator minus ( - ) is not associative since
x - y \ne y - x
Distributive Laws
Two binary operators \otimes and \circledast on a set A, are distributive over operator \
circledast when the following property holds −
x \otimes (y \circledast z) = (x \otimes y) \circledast (x \otimes z), where x, y, z \in A
Example
The operators into ( * ) and plus ( + ) are distributive over operator + because for any three
elements, x,y,z \in A, the property x * ( y + z ) = ( x * y ) + ( x * z ) holds.
However, these operators are not distributive over * since
x + ( y * z ) \ne ( x + y ) * ( x + z )
Identity Element
A set A has an identity element with respect to a binary operation \otimes on A, if there exists an
element e \in A, such that the following property holds −
e \otimes x = x \otimes e, where x \in A
Example
Let Z = \lbrace 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, \dots \rbrace
The element 1 is an identity element with respect to operation * since for any element x \in Z,
1*x=x*1
On the other hand, there is no identity element for the operation minus ( - )
Inverse
If a set A has an identity element e with respect to a binary operator \otimes , it is said to have an
inverse whenever for every element x \in A, there exists another element y \in A, such that the
following property holds −
x \otimes y = e
Example
Let A = \lbrace \dots -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, \dots \rbrace
Given the operation plus ( + ) and e = 0, the inverse of any element x is (-x) since x + (x) = 0
De Morgan's Law
De Morgan’s Laws gives a pair of transformations between union and intersection of two (or
more) sets in terms of their complements. The laws are −
(A \cup B)' = A' \cap B'
(A \cap B)' = A' \cup B'
Example
Let A = \lbrace 1, 2, 3, 4 \rbrace ,B = \lbrace 1, 3, 5, 7 \rbrace, and
Universal set U = \lbrace 1, 2, 3, \dots, 9, 10 \rbrace
A' = \lbrace 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 \rbrace
B' = \lbrace 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 \rbrace
A \cup B = \lbrace 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 \rbrace
A \cap B = \lbrace 1, 3 \rbrace
(A \cup B)' = \lbrace 6, 8, 9, 10 \rbrace
A' \cap B' = \lbrace 6, 8, 9, 10 \rbrace
Thus, we see that (A \cup B)' = A' \cap B'
(A \cap B)' = \lbrace 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 \rbrace
A' \cup B' = \lbrace 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 \rbrace
Thus, we see that (A \cap B)' = A' \cup B'
Discrete Mathematics - Group Theory

Semigroup
A finite or infinite set ‘S’ with a binary operation ‘\omicron’ (Composition) is called semigroup
if it holds following two conditions simultaneously −
 Closure − For every pair (a, b) \in S, \:(a \omicron b) has to be present in the set S.
 Associative − For every element a, b, c \in S, (a \omicron b) \omicron c = a \
omicron (b \omicron c) must hold.
Example
The set of positive integers (excluding zero) with addition operation is a semigroup. For
example, S = \lbrace 1, 2, 3, \dots \rbrace
Here closure property holds as for every pair (a, b) \in S, (a + b) is present in the set S. For
example, 1 + 2 = 3 \in S]
Associative property also holds for every element a, b, c \in S, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). For
example, (1 + 2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3) = 5
Monoid
A monoid is a semigroup with an identity element. The identity element (denoted by e or E) of a
set S is an element such that (a \omicron e) = a, for every element a \in S. An identity element is
also called a unit element. So, a monoid holds three properties simultaneously − Closure,
Associative, Identity element.
Example
The set of positive integers (excluding zero) with multiplication operation is a monoid. S = \
lbrace 1, 2, 3, \dots \rbrace
Here closure property holds as for every pair (a, b) \in S, (a \times b) is present in the set S. [For
example, 1 \times 2 = 2 \in S and so on]
Associative property also holds for every element a, b, c \in S, (a \times b) \times c = a \times (b \
times c) [For example, (1 \times 2) \times 3 = 1 \times (2 \times 3) = 6 and so on]
Identity property also holds for every element a \in S, (a \times e) = a [For example, (2 \times 1)
= 2, (3 \times 1) = 3 and so on]. Here identity element is 1.
Group
A group is a monoid with an inverse element. The inverse element (denoted by I) of a set S is an
element such that (a \omicron I) = (I \omicron a) = a, for each element a \in S. So, a group holds
four properties simultaneously - i) Closure, ii) Associative, iii) Identity element, iv) Inverse
element. The order of a group G is the number of elements in G and the order of an element in a
group is the least positive integer n such that an is the identity element of that group G.
Examples
The set of N \times N non-singular matrices form a group under matrix multiplication operation.
The product of two N \times N non-singular matrices is also an N \times N non-singular matrix
which holds closure property.
Matrix multiplication itself is associative. Hence, associative property holds.
The set of N \times N non-singular matrices contains the identity matrix holding the identity
element property.
As all the matrices are non-singular they all have inverse elements which are also nonsingular
matrices. Hence, inverse property also holds.
Abelian Group
An abelian group G is a group for which the element pair (a,b) \in G always holds commutative
law. So, a group holds five properties simultaneously - i) Closure, ii) Associative, iii) Identity
element, iv) Inverse element, v) Commutative.
Example
The set of positive integers (including zero) with addition operation is an abelian group. G = \
lbrace 0, 1, 2, 3, \dots \rbrace
Here closure property holds as for every pair (a, b) \in S, (a + b) is present in the set S. [For
example, 1 + 2 = 2 \in S and so on]
Associative property also holds for every element a, b, c \in S, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) [For
example, (1 +2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3) = 6 and so on]
Identity property also holds for every element a \in S, (a \times e) = a [For example, (2 \times 1)
= 2, (3 \times 1) = 3 and so on]. Here, identity element is 1.
Commutative property also holds for every element a \in S, (a \times b) = (b \times a) [For
example, (2 \times 3) = (3 \times 2) = 3 and so on]
Cyclic Group and Subgroup

A cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element. Every element of a cyclic
group is a power of some specific element which is called a generator. A cyclic group can be
generated by a generator ‘g’, such that every other element of the group can be written as a
power of the generator ‘g’.
Example
The set of complex numbers \lbrace 1,-1, i, -i \rbrace under multiplication operation is a cyclic
group.
There are two generators − i and –i as i^1 = i, i^2 = -1, i^3 = -i, i^4 = 1 and also (–i)^1 = -i, (–
i)^2 = -1, (–i)^3 = i, (–i)^4 = 1 which covers all the elements of the group. Hence, it is a cyclic
group.
Note − A cyclic group is always an abelian group but not every abelian group is a cyclic group.
The rational numbers under addition is not cyclic but is abelian.
A subgroup H is a subset of a group G (denoted by H ≤ G) if it satisfies the four properties
simultaneously − Closure, Associative, Identity element, and Inverse.
A subgroup H of a group G that does not include the whole group G is called a proper subgroup
(Denoted by H < G). A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic and a abelian subgroup is also
abelian.
Example
Let a group G = \lbrace 1, i, -1, -i \rbrace
Then some subgroups are H_1 = \lbrace 1 \rbrace, H_2 = \lbrace 1,-1 \rbrace,
This is not a subgroup − H_3 = \lbrace 1, i \rbrace because that (i)^{-1} = -i is not in H_3
Partially Ordered Set (POSET)

A partially ordered set consists of a set with a binary relation which is reflexive, antisymmetric
and transitive. "Partially ordered set" is abbreviated as POSET.
Examples
 The set of real numbers under binary operation less than or equal to (\le) is a poset.
Let the set S = \lbrace 1, 2, 3 \rbrace and the operation is \le
The relations will be \lbrace(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)\rbrace
This relation R is reflexive as \lbrace (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)\rbrace \in R
This relation R is anti-symmetric, as
\lbrace (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3) \rbrace \in R\ and\ \lbrace (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3) \rbrace ∉
R
This relation R is also transitive as \lbrace (1,2), (2,3), (1,3)\rbrace \in R.
Hence, it is a poset.
 The vertex set of a directed acyclic graph under the operation ‘reachability’ is a
poset.
Hasse Diagram
The Hasse diagram of a poset is the directed graph whose vertices are the element of that poset
and the arcs covers the pairs (x, y) in the poset. If in the poset x < y, then the point x appears
lower than the point y in the Hasse diagram. If x<y<z in the poset, then the arrow is not shown
between x and z as it is implicit.
Example
The poset of subsets of \lbrace 1, 2, 3 \rbrace = \lbrace \emptyset, \lbrace 1 \rbrace, \lbrace 2 \
rbrace, \lbrace 3 \rbrace, \lbrace 1, 2 \rbrace, \lbrace 1, 3 \rbrace, \lbrace 2, 3 \rbrace, \lbrace 1, 2,
3 \rbrace \rbrace is shown by the following Hasse diagram −
Linearly Ordered Set
A Linearly ordered set or Total ordered set is a partial order set in which every pair of element is
comparable. The elements a, b \in S are said to be comparable if either a \le b or b \le a holds.
Trichotomy law defines this total ordered set. A totally ordered set can be defined as a
distributive lattice having the property \lbrace a \lor b, a \land b \rbrace = \lbrace a, b \rbrace for
all values of a and b in set S.
Example
The powerset of \lbrace a, b \rbrace ordered by \subseteq is a totally ordered set as all the
elements of the power set P = \lbrace \emptyset, \lbrace a \rbrace, \lbrace b \rbrace, \lbrace a, b\
rbrace \rbrace are comparable.
Example of non-total order set
A set S = \lbrace 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 \rbrace under operation x divides y is not a total ordered set.
Here, for all (x, y) \in S, x | y have to hold but it is not true that 2 | 3, as 2 does not divide 3 or 3
does not divide 2. Hence, it is not a total ordered set.
Lattice
A lattice is a poset (L, \le) for which every pair \lbrace a, b \rbrace \in L has a least upper bound
(denoted by a \lor b) and a greatest lower bound (denoted by a \land b). LUB (\lbrace a,b \
rbrace) is called the join of a and b. GLB (\lbrace a,b \rbrace ) is called the meet of a and b.
Example
This above figure is a lattice because for every pair \lbrace a, b \rbrace \in L, a GLB and a LUB
exists.
This above figure is a not a lattice because GLB (a, b) and LUB (e, f) does not exist.
Some other lattices are discussed below −
Bounded Lattice
A lattice L becomes a bounded lattice if it has a greatest element 1 and a least element 0.
Complemented Lattice
A lattice L becomes a complemented lattice if it is a bounded lattice and if every element in the
lattice has a complement. An element x has a complement x’ if \exists x(x \land x’=0 and x \lor
x’ = 1)
Distributive Lattice
If a lattice satisfies the following two distribute properties, it is called a distributive lattice.
 a \lor (b \land c) = (a \lor b) \land (a \lor c)
 a \land (b \lor c) = (a \land b) \lor (a \land c)
Modular Lattice
If a lattice satisfies the following property, it is called modular lattice.
a \land( b \lor (a \land d)) = (a \land b) \lor (a \land d)
Properties of Lattices
Idempotent Properties
 a \lor a = a
 a \land a = a
Absorption Properties
 a \lor (a \land b) = a
 a \land (a \lor b) = a
Commutative Properties
 a \lor b = b \lor a
 a \land b = b \land a
Associative Properties
 a \lor (b \lor c) = (a \lor b) \lor c
 a \land (b \land c) = (a \land b) \land c
Dual of a Lattice
The dual of a lattice is obtained by interchanging the '\lor' and '\land' operations.
Example
The dual of \lbrack a \lor (b \land c) \rbrack\ is\ \lbrack a \land (b \lor c) \rbrack
Discrete Mathematics - Counting Theory

In daily lives, many a times one needs to find out the number of all possible outcomes for a
series of events. For instance, in how many ways can a panel of judges comprising of 6 men and
4 women be chosen from among 50 men and 38 women? How many different 10 lettered PAN
numbers can be generated such that the first five letters are capital alphabets, the next four are
digits and the last is again a capital letter. For solving these problems, mathematical theory of
counting are used. Counting mainly encompasses fundamental counting rule, the permutation
rule, and the combination rule.
The Rules of Sum and Product

The Rule of Sum and Rule of Product are used to decompose difficult counting problems into
simple problems.
 The Rule of Sum − If a sequence of tasks T_1, T_2, \dots, T_m can be done
in w_1, w_2, \dots w_m ways respectively (the condition is that no tasks can be
performed simultaneously), then the number of ways to do one of these tasks
is w_1 + w_2 + \dots +w_m. If we consider two tasks A and B which are disjoint
(i.e. A \cap B = \emptyset), then mathematically |A \cup B| = |A| + |B|
 The Rule of Product − If a sequence of tasks T_1, T_2, \dots, T_m can be done
in w_1, w_2, \dots w_m ways respectively and every task arrives after the
occurrence of the previous task, then there are w_1 \times w_2 \times \dots \times
w_m ways to perform the tasks. Mathematically, if a task B arrives after a task A,
then |A \times B| = |A|\times|B|
Example
Question − A boy lives at X and wants to go to School at Z. From his home X he has to first
reach Y and then Y to Z. He may go X to Y by either 3 bus routes or 2 train routes. From there,
he can either choose 4 bus routes or 5 train routes to reach Z. How many ways are there to go
from X to Z?
Solution − From X to Y, he can go in 3 + 2 = 5 ways (Rule of Sum). Thereafter, he can go Y to
Z in 4 + 5 = 9 ways (Rule of Sum). Hence from X to Z he can go in 5 \times 9 = 45 ways (Rule
of Product).
Permutations
A permutation is an arrangement of some elements in which order matters. In other words a
Permutation is an ordered Combination of elements.
Examples
 From a set S ={x, y, z} by taking two at a time, all permutations are −
xy, yx, xz, zx, yz, zy .
 We have to form a permutation of three digit numbers from a set of numbers S = \
lbrace 1, 2, 3 \rbrace. Different three digit numbers will be formed when we
arrange the digits. The permutation will be = 123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321
Number of Permutations
The number of permutations of ‘n’ different things taken ‘r’ at a time is denoted by n_{P_{r}}
n_{P_{r}} = \frac{n!}{(n - r)!}
where n! = 1.2.3. \dots (n - 1).n
Proof − Let there be ‘n’ different elements.
There are n number of ways to fill up the first place. After filling the first place (n-1) number of
elements is left. Hence, there are (n-1) ways to fill up the second place. After filling the first and
second place, (n-2) number of elements is left. Hence, there are (n-2) ways to fill up the third
place. We can now generalize the number of ways to fill up r-th place as [n – (r–1)] = n–r+1
So, the total no. of ways to fill up from first place up to r-th-place −
n_{ P_{ r } } = n (n-1) (n-2)..... (n-r + 1)
= [n(n-1)(n-2) ... (n-r + 1)] [(n-r)(n-r-1) \dots 3.2.1] / [(n-r)(n-r-1) \dots 3.2.1]
Hence,
n_{ P_{ r } } = n! / (n-r)!
Some important formulas of permutation
 If there are n elements of which a_1 are alike of some kind, a_2 are alike of
another kind; a_3 are alike of third kind and so on and a_r are of r^{th} kind,
where (a_1 + a_2 + ... a_r) = n.
Then, number of permutations of these n objects is = n! / [(a_1!(a_2!) \dots (a_r!)].
 Number of permutations of n distinct elements taking n elements at a time
= n_{P_n} = n!
 The number of permutations of n dissimilar elements taking r elements at a time,
when x particular things always occupy definite places = n-x_{p_{r-x}}
 The number of permutations of n dissimilar elements when r specified things
always come together is − r! (n−r+1)!
 The number of permutations of n dissimilar elements when r specified things
never come together is − n!–[r! (n−r+1)!]
 The number of circular permutations of n different elements taken x elements at
time = ^np_{x}/x
 The number of circular permutations of n different things = ^np_{n}/n
Some Problems
Problem 1 − From a bunch of 6 different cards, how many ways we can permute it?
Solution − As we are taking 6 cards at a time from a deck of 6 cards, the permutation will
be ^6P_{6} = 6! = 720
Problem 2 − In how many ways can the letters of the word 'READER' be arranged?
Solution − There are 6 letters word (2 E, 1 A, 1D and 2R.) in the word 'READER'.
The permutation will be = 6! /\: [(2!) (1!)(1!)(2!)] = 180.
Problem 3 − In how ways can the letters of the word 'ORANGE' be arranged so that the
consonants occupy only the even positions?
Solution − There are 3 vowels and 3 consonants in the word 'ORANGE'. Number of ways of
arranging the consonants among themselves = ^3P_{3} = 3! = 6. The remaining 3 vacant places
will be filled up by 3 vowels in ^3P_{3} = 3! = 6 ways. Hence, the total number of permutation
is 6 \times 6 = 36
Combinations
A combination is selection of some given elements in which order does not matter.
The number of all combinations of n things, taken r at a time is −
^nC_{ { r } } = \frac { n! } { r!(n-r)! }
Problem 1
Find the number of subsets of the set \lbrace1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\rbrace having 3 elements.
Solution
The cardinality of the set is 6 and we have to choose 3 elements from the set. Here, the ordering
does not matter. Hence, the number of subsets will be ^6C_{3} = 20.
Problem 2
There are 6 men and 5 women in a room. In how many ways we can choose 3 men and 2 women
from the room?
Solution
The number of ways to choose 3 men from 6 men is ^6C_{3} and the number of ways to choose
2 women from 5 women is ^5C_{2}
Hence, the total number of ways is − ^6C_{3} \times ^5C_{2} = 20 \times 10 = 200
Problem 3
How many ways can you choose 3 distinct groups of 3 students from total 9 students?
Solution
Let us number the groups as 1, 2 and 3
For choosing 3 students for 1st group, the number of ways − ^9C_{3}
The number of ways for choosing 3 students for 2nd group after choosing 1st group − ^6C_{3}
The number of ways for choosing 3 students for 3rd group after choosing 1st and 2nd group
− ^3C_{3}
Hence, the total number of ways = ^9C_{3} \times ^6C_{3} \times ^3C_{3} = 84 \times 20 \
times 1 = 1680
Pascal's Identity
Pascal's identity, first derived by Blaise Pascal in 17 th century, states that the number of ways to
choose k elements from n elements is equal to the summation of number of ways to choose (k-1)
elements from (n-1) elements and the number of ways to choose elements from n-1 elements.
Mathematically, for any positive integers k and n: ^nC_{k} = ^n{^-}^1C_{k-1} +
^n{^-}^1{C_k}
Proof −
^n{^-}^1C_{k-1} + ^n{^-}^1{C_k}
= \frac{ (n-1)! } { (k-1)!(n-k)! } + \frac{ (n-1)! } { k!(n-k-1)! }
= (n-1)!(\frac{ k } { k!(n-k)! } + \frac{ n-k } { k!(n-k)! } )
= (n-1)! \frac{ n } { k!(n-k)! }
= \frac{ n! } { k!(n-k)! }
= n_{ C_{ k } }
Pigeonhole Principle
In 1834, German mathematician, Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, stated a principle which he
called the drawer principle. Now, it is known as the pigeonhole principle.
Pigeonhole Principle states that if there are fewer pigeon holes than total number of pigeons and
each pigeon is put in a pigeon hole, then there must be at least one pigeon hole with more than
one pigeon. If n pigeons are put into m pigeonholes where n > m, there's a hole with more than
one pigeon.
Examples
 Ten men are in a room and they are taking part in handshakes. If each person
shakes hands at least once and no man shakes the same man’s hand more than
once then two men took part in the same number of handshakes.
 There must be at least two people in a class of 30 whose names start with the same
alphabet.
The Inclusion-Exclusion principle

The Inclusion-exclusion principle computes the cardinal number of the union of multiple non-
disjoint sets. For two sets A and B, the principle states −
|A \cup B| = |A| + |B| - |A \cap B|
For three sets A, B and C, the principle states −
|A \cup B \cup C | = |A| + |B| + |C| - |A \cap B| - |A \cap C| - |B \cap C| + |A \cap B \cap C |
The generalized formula -
|\bigcup_{i=1}^{n}A_i|=\sum\limits_{1\leq i<j<k\leq n}|A_i \cap A_j|+\sum\limits_{1\leq
i<j<k\leq n}|A_i \cap A_j \cap A_k|- \dots +(-1)^{\n-1}|A_1 \cap \dots \cap A_2|
Problem 1
How many integers from 1 to 50 are multiples of 2 or 3 but not both?
Solution
From 1 to 100, there are 50/2 = 25 numbers which are multiples of 2.
There are 50/3 = 16 numbers which are multiples of 3.
There are 50/6 = 8 numbers which are multiples of both 2 and 3.
So, |A|=25, |B|=16 and |A \cap B|= 8.
|A \cup B| = |A| + |B| - |A \cap B| = 25 + 16 - 8 = 33
Problem 2
In a group of 50 students 24 like cold drinks and 36 like hot drinks and each student likes at least
one of the two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea?
Solution
Let X be the set of students who like cold drinks and Y be the set of people who like hot drinks.
So, | X \cup Y | = 50, |X| = 24, |Y| = 36
|X \cap Y| = |X| + |Y| - |X \cup Y| = 24 + 36 - 50 = 60 - 50 = 10
Hence, there are 10 students who like both tea and coffee.
Discrete Mathematics - Probability

Closely related to the concepts of counting is Probability. We often try to guess the results of
games of chance, like card games, slot machines, and lotteries; i.e. we try to find the likelihood
or probability that a particular result with be obtained.
Probability can be conceptualized as finding the chance of occurrence of an event.
Mathematically, it is the study of random processes and their outcomes. The laws of probability
have a wide applicability in a variety of fields like genetics, weather forecasting, opinion polls,
stock markets etc.
Basic Concepts
Probability theory was invented in the 17th century by two French mathematicians, Blaise Pascal
and Pierre de Fermat, who were dealing with mathematical problems regarding of chance.
Before proceeding to details of probability, let us get the concept of some definitions.
Random Experiment − An experiment in which all possible outcomes are known and the exact
output cannot be predicted in advance is called a random experiment. Tossing a fair coin is an
example of random experiment.
Sample Space − When we perform an experiment, then the set S of all possible outcomes is
called the sample space. If we toss a coin, the sample space S = \left \{ H, T \right \}
Event − Any subset of a sample space is called an event. After tossing a coin, getting Head on
the top is an event.
The word "probability" means the chance of occurrence of a particular event. The best we can
say is how likely they are to happen, using the idea of probability.
Probability\:of\:occurence\:of\:an\:event = \frac{Total\:number\:of\:favourable \: outcome}
{Total\:number\:of\:Outcomes}
As the occurrence of any event varies between 0% and 100%, the probability varies between 0
and 1.
Steps to find the probability
Step 1 − Calculate all possible outcomes of the experiment.
Step 2 − Calculate the number of favorable outcomes of the experiment.
Step 3 − Apply the corresponding probability formula.
Tossing a Coin
If a coin is tossed, there are two possible outcomes − Heads (H) or Tails (T)
So, Total number of outcomes = 2
Hence, the probability of getting a Head (H) on top is 1/2 and the probability of getting a
Tails (T) on top is 1/2
Throwing a Dice
When a dice is thrown, six possible outcomes can be on the top − 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
The probability of any one of the numbers is 1/6
The probability of getting even numbers is 3/6 = 1/2
The probability of getting odd numbers is 3/6 = 1/2
Taking Cards From a Deck
From a deck of 52 cards, if one card is picked find the probability of an ace being drawn and also
find the probability of a diamond being drawn.
Total number of possible outcomes − 52
Outcomes of being an ace − 4
Probability of being an ace = 4/52 = 1/13
Probability of being a diamond = 13/52 = 1/4
Probability Axioms
 The probability of an event always varies from 0 to 1. [0 \leq P(x) \leq 1]
 For an impossible event the probability is 0 and for a certain event the probability
is 1.
 If the occurrence of one event is not influenced by another event, they are called
mutually exclusive or disjoint.
If A_1, A_2....A_n are mutually exclusive/disjoint events, then P(A_i \cap A_j) = \
emptyset for i \ne j and P(A_1 \cup A_2 \cup.... A_n) = P(A_1) + P(A_2)+.....
P(A_n)
Properties of Probability
 If there are two events x and \overline{x}which are complementary, then the
probability of the complementary event is −
p(\overline{x}) = 1-p(x)
 For two non-disjoint events A and B, the probability of the union of two events −
P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B)
 If an event A is a subset of another event B (i.e. A \subset B), then the probability
of A is less than or equal to the probability of B. Hence, A \subset
B implies P(A) \leq p(B)
Conditional Probability
The conditional probability of an event B is the probability that the event will occur given an
event A has already occurred. This is written as P(B|A).
Mathematically − P(B|A) = P(A \cap B)/ P(A)
If event A and B are mutually exclusive, then the conditional probability of event B after the
event A will be the probability of event B that is P(B).
Problem 1
In a country 50% of all teenagers own a cycle and 30% of all teenagers own a bike and cycle.
What is the probability that a teenager owns bike given that the teenager owns a cycle?
Solution
Let us assume A is the event of teenagers owning only a cycle and B is the event of teenagers
owning only a bike.
So, P(A) = 50/100 = 0.5 and P(A \cap B) = 30/100 = 0.3 from the given problem.
P(B|A) = P(A \cap B)/ P(A) = 0.3/ 0.5 = 0.6
Hence, the probability that a teenager owns bike given that the teenager owns a cycle is 60%.
Problem 2
In a class, 50% of all students play cricket and 25% of all students play cricket and volleyball.
What is the probability that a student plays volleyball given that the student plays cricket?
Solution
Let us assume A is the event of students playing only cricket and B is the event of students
playing only volleyball.
So, P(A) = 50/100 =0.5 and P(A \cap B) = 25/ 100 =0.25 from the given problem.
P\lgroup B\rvert A \rgroup= P\lgroup A\cap B\rgroup/P\lgroup A \rgroup =0.25/0.5=0.5
Hence, the probability that a student plays volleyball given that the student plays cricket is 50%.
Problem 3
Six good laptops and three defective laptops are mixed up. To find the defective laptops all of
them are tested one-by-one at random. What is the probability to find both of the defective
laptops in the first two pick?
Solution
Let A be the event that we find a defective laptop in the first test and B be the event that we find
a defective laptop in the second test.
Hence, P(A \cap B) = P(A)P(B|A) =3/9 \times 2/8 = 1/12
Bayes' Theorem
Theorem − If A and B are two mutually exclusive events, where P(A) is the probability of A
and P(B) is the probability of B, P(A | B) is the probability of A given that B is true. P(B | A) is
the probability of B given that A is true, then Bayes’ Theorem states −
P(A|B) = \frac{P(B|A) P(A)}{\sum_{i = 1}^{n}P(B|Ai)P(Ai)}
Application of Bayes' Theorem
 In situations where all the events of sample space are mutually exclusive events.
 In situations where either P( A_i \cap B ) for each A_i or P( A_i ) and P(B|
A_i) for each A_i is known.
Problem
Consider three pen-stands. The first pen-stand contains 2 red pens and 3 blue pens; the second
one has 3 red pens and 2 blue pens; and the third one has 4 red pens and 1 blue pen. There is
equal probability of each pen-stand to be selected. If one pen is drawn at random, what is the
probability that it is a red pen?
Solution
Let A_i be the event that ith pen-stand is selected.
Here, i = 1,2,3.
Since probability for choosing a pen-stand is equal, P(A_i) = 1/3
Let B be the event that a red pen is drawn.
The probability that a red pen is chosen among the five pens of the first pen-stand,
P(B|A_1) = 2/5
The probability that a red pen is chosen among the five pens of the second pen-stand,
P(B|A_2) = 3/5
The probability that a red pen is chosen among the five pens of the third pen-stand,
P(B|A_3) = 4/5
According to Bayes' Theorem,
P(B) = P(A_1).P(B|A_1) + P(A_2).P(B|A_2) + P(A_3).P(B|A_3)
= 1/3 . 2/5\: +\: 1/3 . 3/5\: +\: 1/3 . 4/5
= 3/5
Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction, is a technique for proving results or establishing statements for natural
numbers. This part illustrates the method through a variety of examples.
Definition
Mathematical Induction is a mathematical technique which is used to prove a statement, a
formula or a theorem is true for every natural number.
The technique involves two steps to prove a statement, as stated below −
Step 1(Base step) − It proves that a statement is true for the initial value.
Step 2(Inductive step) − It proves that if the statement is true for the n th iteration (or number n),
then it is also true for (n+1)th iteration ( or number n+1).
How to Do It
Step 1 − Consider an initial value for which the statement is true. It is to be shown that the
statement is true for n = initial value.
Step 2 − Assume the statement is true for any value of n = k. Then prove the statement is true
for n = k+1. We actually break n = k+1 into two parts, one part is n = k (which is already
proved) and try to prove the other part.
Problem 1
3^n-1 is a multiple of 2 for n = 1, 2, ...
Solution
Step 1 − For n = 1, 3^1-1 = 3-1 = 2 which is a multiple of 2
Step 2 − Let us assume 3^n-1 is true for n=k, Hence, 3^k -1 is true (It is an assumption)
We have to prove that 3^{k+1}-1 is also a multiple of 2
3^{k+1} - 1 = 3 \times 3^k - 1 = (2 \times 3^k) + (3^k - 1)
The first part (2 \times 3k) is certain to be a multiple of 2 and the second part (3k -1) is also true
as our previous assumption.
Hence, 3^{k+1} – 1 is a multiple of 2.
So, it is proved that 3^n – 1 is a multiple of 2.
Problem 2
1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n-1) = n^2 for n = 1, 2, \dots
Solution
Step 1 − For n=1, 1 = 1^2, Hence, step 1 is satisfied.
Step 2 − Let us assume the statement is true for n=k.
Hence, 1 + 3 + 5 + \dots + (2k-1) = k^2 is true (It is an assumption)
We have to prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2(k+1)-1) = (k+1)^2 also holds
1 + 3 + 5 + \dots + (2(k+1) - 1)
= 1 + 3 + 5 + \dots + (2k+2 - 1)
= 1 + 3 + 5 + \dots + (2k + 1)
= 1 + 3 + 5 + \dots + (2k - 1) + (2k + 1)
= k^2 + (2k + 1)
= (k + 1)^2
So, 1 + 3 + 5 + \dots + (2(k+1) - 1) = (k+1)^2 hold which satisfies the step 2.
Hence, 1 + 3 + 5 + \dots + (2n - 1) = n^2 is proved.
Problem 3
Prove that (ab)^n = a^nb^n is true for every natural number n
Solution
Step 1 − For n=1, (ab)^1 = a^1b^1 = ab, Hence, step 1 is satisfied.
Step 2 − Let us assume the statement is true for n=k, Hence, (ab)^k = a^kb^k is true (It is an
assumption).
We have to prove that (ab)^{k+1} = a^{k+1}b^{k+1} also hold
Given, (ab)^k = a^k b^k
Or, (ab)^k (ab) = (a^k b^k ) (ab) [Multiplying both side by 'ab']
Or, (ab)^{k+1} = (aa^k) ( bb^k)
Or, (ab)^{k+1} = (a^{k+1}b^{k+1})
Hence, step 2 is proved.
So, (ab)^n = a^nb^n is true for every natural number n.
Strong Induction
Strong Induction is another form of mathematical induction. Through this induction technique,
we can prove that a propositional function, P(n) is true for all positive integers, n, using the
following steps −
 Step 1(Base step) − It proves that the initial proposition P(1) true.
 Step 2(Inductive step) − It proves that the conditional statement [P(1) \land P(2) \
land P(3) \land \dots \land P(k)] → P(k + 1) is true for positive integers k.
Discrete Mathematics - Recurrence Relation
In this chapter, we will discuss how recursive techniques can derive sequences and be used for
solving counting problems. The procedure for finding the terms of a sequence in a recursive
manner is called recurrence relation. We study the theory of linear recurrence relations and
their solutions. Finally, we introduce generating functions for solving recurrence relations.
Definition
A recurrence relation is an equation that recursively defines a sequence where the next term is a
function of the previous terms (Expressing F_n as some combination of F_i with i < n).
Example − Fibonacci series − F_n = F_{n-1} + F_{n-2}, Tower of Hanoi − F_n = 2F_{n-1} + 1
Linear Recurrence Relations

A linear recurrence equation of degree k or order k is a recurrence equation which is in the
format x_n= A_1 x_{n-1}+ A_2 x_{n-1}+ A_3 x_{n-1}+ \dots A_k x_{n-k} (A_n is a constant
and A_k \neq 0) on a sequence of numbers as a first-degree polynomial.
These are some examples of linear recurrence equations −
Recurrence relations Initial values Solutions
Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 a1 = a2 = 1 Fibonacci number
Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 a1 = 1, a2 = 3 Lucas Number
Fn = Fn-2 + Fn-3 a1 = a2 = a3 = 1 Padovan sequence
Fn = 2Fn-1 + Fn-2 a1 = 0, a2 = 1 Pell number
How to solve linear recurrence relation

Suppose, a two ordered linear recurrence relation is − F_n = AF_{n-1} +BF_{n-2} where A and
B are real numbers.
The characteristic equation for the above recurrence relation is −
x^2 - Ax - B = 0
Three cases may occur while finding the roots −
Case 1 − If this equation factors as (x- x_1)(x- x_1) = 0 and it produces two distinct real
roots x_1 and x_2, then F_n = ax_1^n+ bx_2^n is the solution. [Here, a and b are constants]
Case 2 − If this equation factors as (x- x_1)^2 = 0 and it produces single real root x_1, then F_n
= a x_1^n+ bn x_1^n is the solution.
Case 3 − If the equation produces two distinct complex roots, x_1 and x_2 in polar form x_1 =
r \angle \theta and x_2 = r \angle(- \theta), then F_n = r^n (a cos(n\theta)+ b sin(n\theta)) is the
solution.
Problem 1
Solve the recurrence relation F_n = 5F_{n-1} - 6F_{n-2} where F_0 = 1 and F_1 = 4
Solution
The characteristic equation of the recurrence relation is −
x^2 - 5x + 6 = 0,
So, (x - 3) (x - 2) = 0
Hence, the roots are −
x_1 = 3 and x_2 = 2
The roots are real and distinct. So, this is in the form of case 1
Hence, the solution is −
F_n = ax_1^n + bx_2^n
Here, F_n = a3^n + b2^n\ (As\ x_1 = 3\ and\ x_2 = 2)
Therefore,
1 = F_0 = a3^0 + b2^0 = a+b
4 = F_1 = a3^1 + b2^1 = 3a+2b
Solving these two equations, we get a = 2 and b = -1
Hence, the final solution is −
F_n = 2.3^n + (-1) . 2^n = 2.3^n - 2^n
Problem 2
Solve the recurrence relation − F_n = 10F_{n-1} - 25F_{n-2} where F_0 = 3 and F_1 = 17
Solution
x^2 - 10x -25 = 0
So (x - 5)^2 = 0
Hence, there is single real root x_1 = 5
As there is single real valued root, this is in the form of case 2
F_n = ax_1^n + bnx_1^n
3 = F_0 = a.5^0 +(b)(0.5)^0 = a
17 = F_1 = a.5^1 + b.1.5^1 = 5a+5b
Solving these two equations, we get a = 3 and b = 2/5
Hence, the final solution is − F_n = 3.5^n +( 2/5) .n.2^n
Problem 3
Solve the recurrence relation F_n = 2F_{n-1} - 2F_{n-2} where F_0 = 1 and F_1 = 3
Solution
x^2 -2x -2 = 0
Hence, the roots are −
x_1 = 1 + i and x_2 = 1 - i
In polar form,
x_1 = r \angle \theta and x_2 = r \angle(- \theta), where r = \sqrt 2 and \theta = \frac{\pi}{4}
The roots are imaginary. So, this is in the form of case 3.
F_n = (\sqrt 2 )^n (a cos(n .\sqcap /4) + b sin(n .\sqcap /4))
1 = F_0 = (\sqrt 2 )^0 (a cos(0 .\sqcap /4) + b sin(0 .\sqcap /4) ) = a
3 = F_1 = (\sqrt 2 )^1 (a cos(1 .\sqcap /4) + b sin(1 . \sqcap /4) ) = \sqrt 2 ( a/ \sqrt 2 + b/ \sqrt 2)
Solving these two equations we get a = 1 and b = 2
Hence, the final solution is −
F_n = (\sqrt 2 )^n (cos(n .\pi /4 ) + 2 sin(n .\pi /4 ))
Non-Homogeneous Recurrence Relation and Particular

Solutions
A recurrence relation is called non-homogeneous if it is in the form
F_n = AF_{n-1} + BF_{n-2} + f(n) where f(n) \ne 0
Its associated homogeneous recurrence relation is F_n = AF_{n–1} + BF_{n-2}
The solution (a_n) of a non-homogeneous recurrence relation has two parts.
First part is the solution (a_h) of the associated homogeneous recurrence relation and the second
part is the particular solution (a_t).
a_n=a_h+a_t
Solution to the first part is done using the procedures discussed in the previous section.
To find the particular solution, we find an appropriate trial solution.
Let f(n) = cx^n ; let x^2 = Ax + B be the characteristic equation of the associated homogeneous
recurrence relation and let x_1 and x_2 be its roots.
 If x \ne x_1 and x \ne x_2, then a_t = Ax^n
 If x = x_1, x \ne x_2, then a_t = Anx^n
 If x = x_1 = x_2, then a_t = An^2x^n
Example
Let a non-homogeneous recurrence relation be F_n = AF_{n–1} + BF_{n-2} + f(n) with
characteristic roots x_1 = 2 and x_2 = 5. Trial solutions for different possible values of f(n) are
as follows −
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