Anatomy and Physiology 2 Lab Manual

Anatomy and Physiology 2 Lab Manual
Anatomy and Physiology 2

Lab Manual
SHERYL SHOOK
Anatomy and Physiology 2 Lab Manual by Sheryl Shook is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
Contents
Front Cover Image Credits vii

Sheryl Shook
Introduction viii
Sheryl Shook
Lab Orientation and Safety ix

Sheryl Shook
PHYL 142L Study Guide xiii

Sheryl Shook
Chapter 1. Endocrine Anatomy 1

Sheryl Shook
Chapter 2. Blood Lab 3
Sheryl Shook
Chapter 3. Cardiovascular Anatomy 23
Sheryl Shook
Chapter 4. Cardiovascular Experiments 27
Sheryl Shook
Chapter 5. Heart Dissection 41
Sheryl Shook
Chapter 6. Respiratory System Anatomy 56
Sheryl Shook
Chapter 7. Respiratory Physiology Experiment 59
Sheryl Shook
Chapter 8. Digestive System Anatomy 73
Sheryl Shook
Chapter 9. Urinary System Anatomy 76
Sheryl Shook
Chapter 10. Reproductive System Anatomy 79
Sheryl Shook
Chapter 11. Fetal Pig Dissection 83
Sheryl Shook
Appendix 115
Sheryl Shook
Front Cover Image Credits
SHERYL SHOOK
Clockwise from far left top row:

Throw ya hands in the air, like ya just don’t care by Steve Halama /
CC0
Untitled by Brooke Cagle / CC0
Untitled by Andreas Fidler / CC0
Man Looking Outside Window Carrying Black and Brown
Backpack While Holding His Hand on Window / CC0
Man Work Think Laptop Professional by Keshav Naidu / CC0
Womens wheelchair basketball by Audi Nissen / CC0
Untitled by Mimi Thian / CC0
Two Women Looking Up by Riya Kumari / CC0
Front Cover Image Credits | vii

Introduction
SHERYL SHOOK
Anatomy and Physiology 2 Laboratory Manual provides the

background and guidance necessary for conducting laboratories
that include studies in the following areas:
• Endocrine
• Blood
• Cardiovascular
• Respiratory
• Digestive
• Urinary
• Reproductive
• Fetal Pig Dissection
viii | Introduction
Lab Orientation and Safety
SHERYL SHOOK
Resources
KCC Anatomy and Physiology STEM Center

Annex
An on-campus place to study gross anatomy models. Located inside

the main KCC STEM Center (Koki‘o 203).
The main STEM Center also has resources such as computers,
printing, free coffee, peer mentoring and more. Bring your lunch,
get some free tutoring, study in a comfortable space, and succeed!
Please note, the main STEM Center space is separate from the A&P
annex. Food is not allowed in the A&P annex in an attempt to keep
the models clean.
Always sign in when using the STEM Center.
See the KCC STEM website for hours for the main room and A&P
annex.
KCC A&P Website
See the KCC A&P Online Resources website for computer and
mobile device access to images of gross anatomy models and
microanatomy:
http://stemap.kcc.hawaii.edu
Username and password provided by your instructor and at the
bottom of your class schedule.
Lab Orientation and Safety | ix

Rules
Laboratory Rooms
Your lab may be conducted in different rooms (Koki‘o 203 and 205)
during the semester. Check your schedule. Koki‘o 205 is a wet lab
so has different rules and safety requirements, such as shoes that
completely cover the feet. There are no exceptions to the safety
rules, so you will be turned away from class if you show up in sandals
to room 205.
1. Shoes that completely cover the feet are required in the wet
laboratory (Koki‘o 205).
2. Eating and drinking are not allowed in the lab. Report to
instructor any equipment malfunctions or breakages.
3. Never cut with a scalpel toward your body or hand or a
classmate’s hand who may be holding the specimen.
4. Ask instructor if you do not understand the proper use of lab
instruments.
5. Disinfect your lab table after every dissection and experiment.
6. The use of the laboratory is restricted to assigned lab exercises
only.
7. Know the location of the first aid kit and eye wash station.
8. Report to instructor any cuts, pokes, splashes, or chemical
reactions.
Anatomical Models
1. Wash your hands before handling the anatomical models.

2. Locate the models in storage cabinets. Please return models to
the appropriate cabinet when finished.
x | Lab Orientation and Safety

3. Certain models (reproductive and brain models) must be
checked out from the student monitor and require the
presentation of identification.
4. No student should write on, mark or re-label any of the
anatomical models.
Safety and Warnings
The animal specimens have been fixed in formalin, an aqueous fluid

that contains formaldehyde. Formalin is an irritant of the upper
respiratory tract, eyes, and skin. The U.S. EPA classifies
formaldehyde as Group B1, a probable human carcinogen; and the
World Health Organization classifies it as carcinogenic to humans.
For these reasons our animal specimens, once fixed in formalin,
are preserved and shipped in other formalin-free liquids, such as
ethylene glycol. Nevertheless, when specimens are cut open,
formaldehyde is released, and the following precautions should be
made.
1. Wear appropriate gloves and avoid any skin contact with the
specimen and fluids. Any skin contact with preservative fluids
should be washed off immediately. Report any skin reactions to
the instructor.
2. Wearing a lab coat or covering of a long sleeve shirt is
recommended to protect your arms and clothing that can be
damaged by the fluids.
3. Wear protective goggles at all times when specimens or
chemicals are out in the lab. Glasses are not sufficient; goggles
are required.
4. Never drink any fluid in the lab as it may be lethal.
5. Drain, rinse with water, and pat dry your specimen before use
to minimize fumes.
6. Keep dissection tray clear of fluid accumulation.
Lab Orientation and Safety | xi

7. All dissections in Koki‘o 205 must be done with all windows
and doors fully open and all fans running.
8. Students who are pregnant or have health concerns, chronic
health conditions, or sensitivities, including but not limited to
respiratory conditions, should consult with the instructor
about alternate learning activities for dissection days. Many
professors provide the online-course version of the dissection
assignment.
9. Do not remove any specimens or materials from the lab.
10. On biohazard days, dispose of all biohazard materials in boxes
clearly marked for biohazard waste.
11. Any broken glass or sharp waste needs to be disposed of in
sharps container.
Risk and Release Form
Your instructor will handout a department form stating assumption

of risk and release from claims. All students sign before
participation in this lab course.
xii | Lab Orientation and Safety

PHYL 142L Study Guide
SHERYL SHOOK
Exam 1
(30 multiple choice questions)
1. Microanatomy (5 questions)
1. Endocrine System
2. Circulatory System
3. Lymphatic System
2. Models
1. Endocrine Model Images (5 questions)

2. Heart Model (5 questions)
3. Circulatory System Model (5 questions)
3. Experiment Labs
1. Blood Experiment Lab (5 questions)

2. Cardiovascular Experiment Lab (5 questions)
3. Pig Heart Dissection Lab (not on exam)
Exam 2
1. Microanatomy
1. Respiratory System (5 questions)

2. Digestive System (5 questions)
2. Models
1. Respiratory System Model (5 questions)

2. Digestive System Model (5 questions)
3. Experiment Labs
PHYL 142L Study Guide | xiii

1. Respiratory Experiment Lab (5 questions)
2. Body Composition Experiment Lab (5 questions)
Exam 3
1. Microanatomy
1. Urinary System (5 questions)

2. Reproductive System (5 questions)
1. Models
1. Kidney Model (5 questions)

2. Urinary System Model (5 questions)
3. Male Reproductive System Model (5 questions)
4. Female Reproductive System Model (5 questions)
2. Experiment Labs
1. Urinalysis Experiment Lab (5 questions)

2. Fetal Pig Dissection Lab (not on exam)
Attribution:
Marissa Sumida / CC BY 4.0
xiv | PHYL 142L Study Guide

SHERYL SHOOK
Endocrine Anatomy
Learning Objectives
• Identify endocrine system gross anatomical

structures.
• Identify endocrine system microscopic structures.
Gross and Microscopic Anatomy
Use local resources to view structures of the endocrine system.

Teach students the technique of swift and rough sketches of
microscopic anatomy in preparation for playing a small-group game
with students using their notes to identify endocrine microanatomy
on projected slides.
Endocrine Structures List
• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Pineal gland
• Thyroid
Chapter 1. Endocrine Anatomy | 1

• Parathyroid gland
• Thymus
• Adrenal Glands
• Pancreas
• Ovaries
• Testes
2 | Chapter 1. Endocrine Anatomy

SHERYL SHOOK
Blood Lab
Learning Objectives
• Explain hematocrit, including the significance of

values outside of the normal range.
• Determine hematocrit from a blood sample image.
• Explain the ABO and Rh blood groups and their
clinical significance.
• Conduct blood typing on a synthetic-blood sample.
• Identify and describe all formed elements in a
human blood smear.
• State the relative proportions of formed elements
in human blood.
• Demonstrate proficient microscope use.
Blood Composition and Hematocrit
Composition of blood
Overview of Blood [link opens in new window]
1. 55% = Plasma
Chapter 2. Blood Lab | 3

1. Proteins (for blood pressure, clotting, and immune
functions)
2. Water (92% of plasma)
3. Electrolytes
4. Hormones
5. Nutrients
6. Blood gases
7. Waste
2. 45% = Formed Elements
1. Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

2. Platelets (thrombocytes)
3. White Blood Cells (leukocytes)
Hematocrit
• Definition: The volume—reported as a percentage—of packed

elements (mainly red blood cells) in a blood sample.
• Clinical relevance: Provides information about the oxygen-
carrying capacity of blood. Low hematocrit means less red
blood cells carrying O2.
• Healthy ranges:
◦ Male: ____________%
◦ Female:____________%
4 | Chapter 2. Blood Lab

Figure 2.1.
Composition
of Blood by
Open Stax /
CC BY 4.0.
Figure 2.2.
Measuring
hematocrit
by Ashley
Kajioka / CC
BY 4.0
What is the hematocrit for this sample?

___________

Blood Typing
Blood Typing
Blood type refers to the presence or absence of specific
molecules, called antigens, on the red blood cell (RBC) RBC surface.
Antigens are molecules, such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates or
nucleic acids, that your body can use to differentiate self and non-
self. People with different blood types have different antigens on
their RBCs.
Antibodies are produced in response to some antigens (non-self),
and are generally used by the immune system to recognize and
facilitate removal of objects (viruses, bacteria, tumorous cells, etc.)
that do not belong in the body.
There are more than 50 blood types in the human population. The
most clinically significant are the ABO and Rh(+/-) blood groups.
The ABO Blood Group
A and B antigens are glycoproteins on the RCC surface. ABO typing

does not affect a person’s Rh (+ or -) designation. Figure 2.3 Blood
Type
Type A blood: A antigens on cell; anti-B antibodies in plasma
Type B blood: B antigens on cell; anti-A antibodies in plasma
Type AB blood: both A and B antigens on cell; neither anti-A nor
anti-B antibodies in plasma
Type O blood: neither A nor B antigens on cell; both anti-A and
anti-B antibodies in plasma
If a different type of blood is put into your bloodstream, the blood
will agglutinate (clump) and hemolysis (bursting) occurs within the
foreign blood cells. Agglutination due to antibodies and antigens is
a different process than blood clotting, which involves fibrin and
other cascades associated with hemostasis.

Figure 2.3.
Blood Type
by Open Stax
/ CC BY 4.0
Rh Blood Group
Rh antigens are named after the rhesus macaque, a primate with

many blood similarities to human. There are many Rh antigens in
humans, but the D type of Rh antigen is the most clinically
significant. Because of this, in blood typing, sometimes D and Rh
are used interchangeably. The Rh factor is grouped with ABO blood
group to identify a blood type (example A+, B-, O-).
Type Rh+ (positive) blood: Rh antigens on cell
Type Rh- (negative) blood: no Rh antigens on cell
Unlike ABO blood type, no anti-Rh antibodies are present in Rh-
individuals unless they have been exposed to Rh antigens. If Rh+
blood is introduced into an Rh- individual, anti-Rh antibodies will be
produced against the Rh(+) blood.
Importance of Rh during Pregnancy
This is a critical consideration in pregnancy for Rh- mothers if the

fetus is Rh+. If any of the Rh+ blood enters the mother’s circulation,
the mother’s immune system will produce anti-Rh antibodies that
will hemolyze her baby’s blood (and any future Rh+ fetuses). This is
called hemolytic disease of the newborn or erythroblastosis fetalis.
It is prevented with RhoGAM, a dosage of anti-Rh antibodies, given
to the mother at 27 weeks and within 72 hours of giving birth in
order to destroy any fetal blood cells in her blood so she will not
produce her own anti-Rh antibodies. RhoGam antibody dosage is
small enough not to hurt fetus, but strong enough to keep mom’s
immune system from attacking fetus. See Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4.
Erythroblast
osis_Fetalis
by Open Stax
/ CC BY 4.0

Determining Blood Type
To determine blood types, antiserum is used. The

serum contains antibodies that may react with antigens
on the RBC surface.
If using anti-A antiserum (contains anti-A antibodies)

and the blood sample agglutinates (clumps), this
indicates the presence of A antigens.
Which blood types have A antigens? Fill in the type.

Type _____ and Type _____
If using anti-B antiserum (contains anti-B antibodies)

and the blood sample agglutinates (clumps), this
indicates the presence of B antigens.
Which blood types have B antigens? Fill in the type.

Type _____ and Type _____
If using anti-Rh (anti-D) antiserum (contains anti-Rh

(anti-D) antibodies) and the blood sample agglutinates
(clumps), this indicates the presence of Rh antigens.
Which blood type has Rh antigens? Fill in the type.

Type _____
Blood Typing Data
Complete the blood typing on your samples and enter your data in
Table 2.1.
For each blood sample:

1. Place a drop of blood in each of the three depressions of one
testing tray. Each depression has a label of A, B, or Rh(D). One
tray is used for each blood sample.
2. Place a drop of the antiserum that is associated with each
depression. For example anti-A antiserum (containing anti-A
antibodies) goes into the depression marked A. In that
depression, you will be testing to see if the anti-A antibodies
agglutinate RBCs with A antigens. Do the same for anti-B and
anti-Rh sera into each of their depressions in the tray.
3. Stir the combination of the blood and antiserum in each
depression with the color coded toothpick. Do not mix
toothpicks across depressions.
4. Examine the samples for agglutination and fill out your data
table to determine the blood type for each sample.

Using Antiserum contains Antiserum contains Antiserum contains antibody
What is the
blood antibody Anti-A and tests antibody Anti-B and tests Anti-Rh (D) and tests for
blood type?
sample for antigen A for antigen B antigen Rh (D)
Blood Agglutinated? Agglutinated? Agglutinated?

Type:
sample 1 Yes or No Yes or No Yes or No

Type:

Type:

Type:
Table 2.1 Blood Typing Data
Human Blood Microscopy and General Microscope Use
In this part of the lab you will use a microscope to examine erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. These three
constituents are referred to as the formed elements of blood. Platelets are not considered a cell, as they are enclosed
cytoplasmic fragments. A complete blood count with differential is a clinical measure that states the percentages of each
blood cell type and is used for various diagnostics such as determining anemia or types of infections or allergic reactions.
Erythrocytes are the most numerous blood cell, and then the count of the different leukocytes goes from most to

least numerous in this order: neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes,
eosinophils, and basophils.
Formed Elements of Blood
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
Erythrocytes
See Figure 2.5 below and notice the numerous, round, pink cells in
the background each of the leukocyte images. These are red blood
cells (RBCs). Some look like they have a hole in the middle, but this is
due to the thin area of the biconcave shape that allows for flexibility
and to increase surface area.
Primary function: transport respiratory gases to and from tissues.
Lack a nucleus.
Most abundant of all blood cells.
Contains millions of Hemoglobin molecules: allow for binding of
O2 and CO2.
Platelets
Platelets
Also called thrombocytes but not technically a cell. They are
produced by the fragmentation megakaryocytes that are in bone
marrow tissue.
Involved in coagulation: the process of clot formation.
During coagulation, molecules (fibrin) join to form long threads
that form a net to trap platelets and plug the wound.

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
Leukocytes
See Figure 2.5 below.
Only formed elements with a nucleus.
Lacks hemoglobin.
Travel between endothelial cells of capillaries and tissues.
Two types of leukocytes: granular and agranular.
Figure 2.5.
Leucocyte
Key by Open
Stax / CC
BY 4.0
Granulocytes
See Figure 2.6 below.

All have granules in cytoplasm.
1. Neutrophils (40-60% of total white blood cell (WBC) count)
1. most common WBC

2. 1st to arrive at wound/infection site
3. release cytotoxins
4. capable of phagocytosis
2. Eosinophils (1-4% of total WBC count)
1. phagocytize microbes that immune system has coated

with antibodies
2. decrease inflammatory response at site of wound
3. Basophil (0.5-1% of WBC count)
1. release histamines (cause vasodilation) and heparin

(prevents clotting)
2. important in allergies

Figure 2.6.
Granular
Leucocytes
by Open Stax
/ CC BY 4.0
Agranulocytes
Refer back to Figure 2.5

Fewer and less obvious granules in cytoplasm.
1. Monocytes (2-8% of total WBC count)
1. wanderers, patrol body tissue for microbes and worn-out

tissue cells
2. 2nd to arrive at wound site
3. phagocytize dead cells/debris that has accumulated at site
of wound/infection
2. Lymphocytes (20-40% of WBCs)
1. smallest leukocyte, abundant in bloodstream, occur in

lymph nodes and glands
2. specialized lymphocytes:
1. T-cells: attach to and destroy infected or cancerous

cells by releasing cytotoxic molecules and secreting
antiviral/proinflammatory molecules
2. B-cells: manufacture antibodies that attach to foreign
pathogens/cells and help destroy them
3. Natural Killer cells: can detect sick, cancerous, and
infected cells and release cytotoxic molecules to
destroy them
Follow the instructions below for microscope use, and examine a

human blood smear. Sketch each of the formed elements of blood as
seen in your view.
Microscope Parts and How To Handle Them
There are many different types of microscopes. We shall learn about

the compound light microscope. It uses visible light to visualize
the specimen, and passes that light through two separate lenses to
magnify the image. Compound microscopes have a lot of moving
parts and can be damaged and broken through mishandling. A large
part of learning how to use the microscope properly involves
learning how to avoid damaging it. To do that, you first have to be
familiar with the parts.
In Figure 2.7, there are two compound microscopes shown with
key parts identified. The one on the left is monocular and the one
on the right is binocular. Many of the parts of the two microscopes
are in slightly different locations.
When you first sit in front of a microscope, take a moment to find
the key parts, especially the knobs for focus, condenser adjustment,
and stage control. When viewing a specimen, your eyes will be at
the eyepieces (oculars), and if you grab the wrong knob by accident,
you can lose your image or damage the microscope.
Figure 2.7
Key parts of
a compound
light
microscope.
Compound
light
microscope
by Ross
Whitwam /
CC BY SA

Eyepiece (Ocular)
The eyepiece contains the eyepiece lens, one of the two lenses
doing the magnifying in a compound microscope. If the microscope
is binocular, use both eyepieces, adjusting them to ensure they fit
the spacing of your eyes. For successful binocular viewing, bring
your image into focus with the lowest power objective, while looking
through only the non-adjustable ocular. Then while looking only
through the adjustable ocular, rotate its focus ring to bring that
ocular into clear focus. Now the image should be clear as you look
through both oculars.
Carrying arm
When moving a microscope, even if it is just a few inches, always

pick it up by the carrying arm. Do not drag the microscope: pick
it up. The microscope will have rubber feet that prevent it from
sliding, so if you try to drag it, it will shake and vibrate and possibly
damage parts. Never pick up the microscope by any part other than
the carrying arm. The other parts are generally much more fragile
and prone to breaking.
Objective lenses
Most compound light microscopes will contain three to four

objective lenses that can be rotated over the slide. Sometimes these
lenses are just called objectives. When a particular objective has
been fully rotated into position, you will feel a click as that objective
locks into place. The objective lens is the second of the two lenses
doing the magnifying in a compound microscope, so if it is not
snapped into proper position, you will not see the proper image.
Each objective lens can usually be unscrewed from its position in

the rotating turret that houses it, so be careful you are rotating the
turret, not unscrewing an objective. Do not unscrew the objectives
from the turret. Each objective lens has a different magnifying
power, so the image on your slide will be magnified to lesser or
greater extents, depending on which objective lens you have
chosen. Each objective’s magnification power will be written
somewhere on the side of the objective.
Stage and stage clips
The slide will be held in place on the stage with stage clips that press
against the sides of the slide. The clips do not sit above or below the
slide. They are spring-loaded to hold the slide edges and lock the
slide in place so that the stage controls can move the position of the
slide smoothly.
Stage controls
These allow you to move your slide while you are viewing it, but
only if the slide is properly clipped in with the stage clips. Find the
stage control dials on your microscope before you start viewing
your slide. There are two dials—one moves the slide left and right,
the other moves the slide up and down. Notice in Figure 2.7, the
dials are on top of each other and below the stage on the binocular
microscope, however, they are two separate dials and above the
stage on the monocular microscope.
Coarse focus
This is the larger of the two focus knobs. Use it with the lowest
power objective to get the specimen approximately in focus. After

that, only use the fine focus knob, even after you change to a
higher-power objective. Notice in Figure 2.7, the binocular
microscope fine focus knob is surrounded by the coarse focus knob,
however, the monocular microscope coarse focus and fine focus
knobs are separated.
Fine focus
This is the smaller of the two focus knobs. This is the focus you
will use repeatedly in viewing slides once they are focused with the
coarse focus.
Condenser position adjustment
You typically will not need to adjust this knob. It controls how far
the light condenser is from the slide, which should be properly
adjusted before you use the microscope.
Condenser opening adjustment (not shown in figure)
This opening can be adjusted, usually by rotating a ring around the

condenser. Be sure this has not been left closed by a previous user.
Experiment with different opening sizes to determine what is best
for your specimen.
Iris diaphragm lever
Find the lever under the stage where light passes through to the
slide. It opens and closes an iris to let more or less light through the
slide. In some specimens there is not much contrast between the

colours and shades of the different components being magnified.
Changing the view by adjusting the iris can allow you to better see
some of the details you are trying to magnify.
Rheostat: Light intensity (not shown in figure)
Rotate this dial to adjust the brightness of the light source. Turn
this to its a low setting before looking through the eyepieces. You
may need to increase the intensity as you increase the power of
your objective. Turn the rheostat all the way down before turning
off your microscope.
Lab exercises
Carry out the activities listed below and answer the

questions.
1. Pick up your microscope and bring it close

enough that you can look into it comfortably from
where you are sitting with healthy posture.
Arrange it so that the stage is facing you and the
eyepieces are rotated toward you. What part of
the microscope did you grab in order to pick it up
and move it?
2. Where are the locations of the two stage
adjustment knobs on your microscope?
3. Where is the location of the coarse focus knob?
4. Where is the location of the fine focus knob?

5. Is there a condenser opening adjustment ring?
6. Find the diaphragm lever. Looking in the hole in
the center of the stage, what happens when you
move the diaphragm lever in each direction?
7. After cleaning a slide as instructed by your
professor, place the slide on the stage.
8. Take the steps described in the ocular section
to obtain clear view through both of your oculars.
If you wear glasses, try with and without to
determine which is best for you.
9. Adjust the condenser opening and iris lever.
How does this change your view?
Checking out and storing the microscope
When you finish your microscope work with the blood slide, be
prepared to have your instructor check off each of these items
before putting away your microscope.
1. Turn the rheostat to its dimmest setting.

2. Turn off the power, unplug, and wrap the cord around the
base.
3. Wipe the objective lenses with methanol and lens paper.
Notice this is lens paper, not kimwipes. Using any paper other
than lens paper can scratch the lens.
4. Rotate the objective lens turret so the lowest power objective
faces down.
5. Wipe the stage clean with a kimwipe and move it to the lowest
position.

“Blood Lab” is MODIFIED from:
• Anatomy and Physiology by Open Stax / CC BY 4.0. Download

for free at http://cnx.org/contents/14f b4ad7-39a1-4eee-
[email protected].
• An Overview of Blood, Anatomy and Physiology by Open Stax /
CC BY 4.0. https://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected]:IUrEdFyf@10/An-Overview-of-Blood
• UGA Anatomy and Physiology 2 Lab Manual by University
System of Georgia / CC BY 4.0
• Human Anatomy and Physiology Lab (BSB 141) by Lumen
Learning / CC BY-SA
• A&P Labs. Authored by: Ross Whitwam. Provided by:
Mississippi University for Women. Located at:
http://www.muw.edu/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-
ShareAlike
• Labeled compound light microscope. Authored by: Ross
Whitwam. Provided by: Mississippi University for Women.
Located at: http://www.muw.edu/. License: CC BY-SA:
Attribution-ShareAlike
Citation notes:
• Hesse, DeLoris; Cozart, Deanna; Szymik, Brett; and Nichols,

Rob, “UGA Anatomy and Physiology 2 Lab Manual” (2017).
Biological Sciences Open Textbooks. 14.
https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/biology-textbooks/14
“Microscope Parts and How to Handle Them” is MODIFIED from:
• Lumen Learning. CC BY-SA

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ap1x9x1/chapter/the-
parts-of-a-compound-microscope-and-how-to-handle-them-
correctly/

• A&P Labs. Authored by: Ross Whitwam. Provided by:
Mississippi University for Women. Located at:
http://www.muw.edu/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-
ShareAlike
• Labelled compound light microscope. Authored by: Ross
Whitwam. Provided by: Mississippi University for Women.
Located at: http://www.muw.edu/. License: CC BY-SA:
Attribution-ShareAlike

SHERYL SHOOK
Cardiovascular Anatomy
Learning Objectives
• Identify cardiovascular system gross anatomical

structures.
• Identify cardiovascular system microscopic
structures.
Use local resources to view structures of the cardiovascular system.
Circulatory System Structures List
1. Circulatory System- Arteries- Head and shoulders
1. Aortic arch
2. Brachiocephalic (brachiocephalic trunk)
3. Common carotid arteries
1. External carotid artery
1. Facial artery
Chapter 3. Cardiovascular
Anatomy | 23
4. Subclavian arteries
2. Circulatory System- Arteries- Trunk
1. Descending aorta
2. Celiac trunk
1. Left gastric artery

2. Splenic artery
3. Common hepatic artery
3. Superior mesenteric artery
4. Renal artery
5. Gonadal artery
6. Inferior mesenteric artery
7. Common iliac artery
1. Internal iliac artery

2. External iliac artery
8. Median (medial) sacral artery
3. Circulatory System- Arteries- Arms
1. Axillary artery
2. Subscapular artery
3. Humeral circumflex artery
4. Brachial artery
5. Radial artery
6. Ulnar artery
7. Interosseous artery
4. Circulatory System- Arteries- Hands and upper legs
1. Superficial palmar arch

2. Femoral artery
3. Lateral circumflex artery
4. Medial circumflex artery
5. Deep femoral artery
6. Descending genicular artery
7. Popliteal artery
8. Lateral superior genicular artery
9. Medial superior genicular artery
10. Lateral inferior genicular artery
24 | Chapter 3. Cardiovascular Anatomy

11. Medial inferior genicular artery
5. Circulatory System- Arteries- Lower legs and feet
1. Anterior tibial artery

2. Dorsalis pedis artery
3. Peroneal artery
4. Posterior tibial artery
Heart Structures List
1. Heart- Exterior- Anterior view
1. Right atrium
2. Right ventricle
3. Left atrium
4. Left ventricle
5. Apex
6. Base
7. Superior vena cava
8. Pulmonary trunk
9. Pulmonary arteries
10. Pulmonary veins
11. Aorta
12. Brachiocephalic trunk
13. Anterior interventricular artery
14. Great cardiac vein
2. Heart- Exterior- Left lateral view
1. Inferior vena cava

2. Circumflex branch of left coronary artery
3. Left marginal artery
4. Left marginal vein
5. Coronary sinus
3. Heart- Exterior- Right lateral view
1. Right coronary artery
Chapter 3. Cardiovascular Anatomy | 25

1. Muscular artery
2. Right marginal artery
2. Anterior cardiac vein
3. Right marginal vein
4. Heart- Open atrium- Lateral view
1. Pectinate muscle
2. Fossa ovalis
5. Heart- Open ventricles- Right anterior view
1. Tricuspid valve
2. Chordae tendineae
3. Papillary muscle
4. Trabeculae carneae
5. Pulmonary semilunar valve
6. Heart- Open ventricles- Left anterior view
1. Interventricular septum
2. Bicuspid valve
3. Aortic semilunar valve
Attributions for “Cardiovascular Anatomy”:

Circulatory System Structures List by Marissa Sumida / CC BY 4.0
Heart Structures List by Marissa Sumida / CC BY 4.0
26 | Chapter 3. Cardiovascular Anatomy

SHERYL SHOOK
Cardiovascular Experiments
Learning Objectives
• Explain the physiological basis for each wave of the

electrocardiogram (ECG).
• Demonstrate the procedure for conducting an ECG.
• Identify cardiac cycle components from ECG data.
• Demonstrate the sites and techniques for taking
pulse to measure heart rate.
• Compare heart rate values calculated from ECG to
those from taking a pulse.
• Demonstrate sphygmomanometry (blood pressure
measurement).
Electrocardiogram
By placement of surface electrodes on the body, it is possible to

record the complex electrical signal of the heart. This tracing of
the electrical signal is the electrocardiogram (ECG), also abbreviated
EKG (K for kardiologie in German). Analysis of the ECG reveals
a detailed picture of both normal and abnormal heart function.
The standard electrocardiograph (the instrument that generates an
ECG) uses 3, 5, or 12 leads. The term “lead” may be used to refer to
Chapter 4. Cardiovascular
Experiments | 27
the cable from the electrode on the body to the electrical recorder,
but “lead” typically describes the voltage difference between two of
the electrodes, as if a “lead” is a view of electrical movement from a
specific perspective. A given lead shows how the electrical activity
travels through the heart in terms of a particular spatial orientation.
For example, a “Lead II” ECG shows how the voltage travels through
the heart along the frontal plane. The 12-lead electrocardiograph
uses 10 electrodes placed in standard locations on the patient’s skin
(see Figure 4.1 below). In this lab we will use only the 4 electrodes,
placed on the limbs, with the one on the right leg being the ground.
This will allow viewing of Leads I, II, and III (Figure 4.2). The greater
the number of leads an electrocardiograph uses, the more
information the ECG provides.
28 | Chapter 4. Cardiovascular Experiments

Figure 4.1.
Standard
Placement of
ECG Leads
by Open Stax
/ CC BY 4.0.
Download
for free at
Open Stax.
Chapter 4. Cardiovascular Experiments | 29

Figure 4.2.
Leads I, II,
and III.
Image derived from “Angina pectoris” by Ian Furst / CC BY-SA 3.0

and “Bipolar electrodes for leads I, II, and III” by Paul Sakuma / CC
BY-SA 4.0
We will place our electrodes on the wrists for RA & LA and ankles
for RL & LL.
A normal ECG tracing is presented in Figure 4.3. Each tiny square,
1mm, is the passing of 0.04 seconds. Notice there are 25mm every
1 second. You will use this when determining the values on your
own ECG today. Segments are defined as the regions between two
waves. Intervals include one segment plus one or more waves. Each
wave, segment, and interval is related to electrical events associated
with various stages of contraction and relaxation of the heart.
• P wave: Depolarization of the atria.

• PR interval: Time for voltage to travel from the SA node,
through the atria, and into the ventricles.

• P-R segment: Time for voltage to travel from AV node to
ventricles.
• QRS complex: Depolarization of the ventricles. The
repolarization of the atria occurs during the QRS complex,
which masks it on an ECG.
• S-T segment: Measures the delay between ventricular
depolarization and repolarization.
• QT interval: The total time of the ventricular depolarization
and repolarization cycle.
• T wave: repolarization of the ventricles.
Figure 4.3.
Electrocardio
gram
Electrocardiogram by Open Stax / CC BY 4.0. Download for free at

Open Stax.
Instructions for ECG
1. Gently clean the skin, using alcohol and tissue, on the wrists
and medial surface of the ankles in the four limb locations
shown in Figure 4.1.
2. Apply the electrode pads and clip the appropriate ECG cable to

the pad.
3. Have your participant sit still with hands relaxed on lap. Place a
fabric or paper folder in lap, between thighs and hands, if
participant’s hands are touching the skin of the thighs (e.g.
wearing shorts).
4. Press <9> button to start recording. The machine will print the
ECG and stop automatically.
5. Label (waves, intervals, etc.) on your ECG and record values for
all the items shown in Figure 4.3.
The time between R wave peaks is the time for a

cardiac cycle, which is also the time between heart
beats. In addition to labeling your ECG, calculate the
heart rate (beats per minute) using the number of
squares between two consecutive R wave peaks. Write
this out on your ECG printout. For example, using
Figure 4.3 data, there are 20 tiny boxes (mm squares)
between each peak of the R wave and each tiny box
represents 0.04 seconds:
20 tiny boxes x 0.04 seconds/1 tiny box = 0.8

seconds between R wave peaks.
Confirm 0.8 seconds looks correct based on the

figure. Then:
1 heart beat/0.8 seconds x 60 seconds/minute

= 75 beats/minute
Which units canceled out in the above equation?

Heart Sounds, Pulse, and Blood Pressure
Heart Sounds
Heart Sounds
A stethoscope is often used during auscultation, listening to
sounds from body organs such as the lungs or heart. The healthy
heart has two sounds, S1 (lub) and S2 (dup).
S1: blood turbulence from closing of atrioventricular valves.
S2: blood turbulence from closing of semilunar valves.
The locations for best auscultation are not directly

over the valves (Figure 4.4).
What is directly over the valves (in between the heart
and your stethoscope on the chest)? How might this be
related to the auscultation sites?
Instructions for Heart Sounds
1. Using alcohol and wipes, clean the earpieces and stethoscope

diaphragm and allow to dry.
2. Rotate the stethoscope earpieces so they will face slightly
anterior before placing in your ears.
3. Facing your seated and relaxed partner, place the diaphragm of
the stethoscope in each of the locations shown in Figure 4.4.
Consider allowing your partner to place the stethoscope
diaphragm over their own chest if that provides more comfort
with the procedure.

Figure 4.4.
Stethoscope
Placement
for
Auscultation.
Stethoscope Placement for Auscultation by Open Stax / CC BY 4.0.

Download for free at Open Stax.
Pulse
Pulse
When the left ventricle contracts, creating the systolic pressure,
a pressure wave travels through the arteries. This causes expansion
and recoil of arteries that can be felt as a pulse at several body
points (Figure 4.5).
Instructions for Pulse
1. On yourself and a partner, palpate at least three of the pulse

sites below to feel confident you can find a pulse.
2. Select one site and take your partner’s pulse for 60 seconds.

This is the heart rate in beats per minute. When you take the
pulse in this manner, is it more or less accurate than using the
ECG calculation based on R-R interval? Why?
3. Palpate the brachial pulse in preparation for the blood
pressure lab that follows.
Figure 4.5.
Pulse Sites

Pulse Sites by Open Stax / CC BY 4.0. Download for free at Open
Stax.
Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure
As the heart contracts and relaxes, it creates a range of pressures
against the blood vessel walls. Blood pressure is reported after
taking two measurements:
Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP) is the high arterial pressure
caused by contraction of the left ventricle. The ideal range is
90-120 mm Hg.
Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP) is the low arterial pressure
resulting from left ventricle relaxation. The ideal range is
60-80 mm Hg
The reading is recorded in this format SBP/DBP, for example 110/
70.
What is happening in the left ventricle when it is

relaxing (diastole)?
To measure blood pressure, a sphygmomanometer is used. It is a

cuff that blocks blood flow, an attached bulb and valve to control
pressure, and a pressure dial for reading values (Figure 4.6). When
the cuff is wrapped around upper arm and inflated enough to block
the blood flow to the lower arm, the pressure is slowly released
allowing readings to be taken for SBP and DBP (Figure 4.7).
Traditionally this required use of a stethoscope to listen to noise
from blood turbulence (Korotkoff sounds) at the brachial artery.
Clinically, it is commonly automated and the stethoscope is not
necessary.

Figure 4.6.
Sphygmoma
nometer and
Cuff / CC0
Sphygmomanometer and Cuff / CC0

Figure 4.7
Blood
Pressure
Measuremen
t.
Blood Pressure Measurement by Open Stax / CC BY 4.0. Download

for free at Open Stax.
Instructions for Blood Pressure
Before beginning, view this video on blood pressure deflation rate.

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the
text. You can view it online here:
http://pressbooks.oer.hawaii.edu/
anatomyandphysiology2lab/?p=51
Video 4.1. Blood Pressure – Deflation Rate, Ryerson University / CC

BY
1. Get comfortable opening and closing the pressure valve so you

can hold the bulb and operate the valve easily with one hand.
Turning valve to the right closes (right-tight) and turning to
the left opens (left-loose). With the valve opened, squeeze all
the air out of the cuff.
2. With your participant comfortably seated and arm resting on
lab table, wrap cuff around the upper arm (brachium), about
two fingers above the cubital fossa. The cuff arrow should be
positioned over the brachial artery pulse point that you
identified in the pulse-taking activity. Verify this positioning by
palpating the brachial pulse. Secure the cuff loosely enough

that you can just slip two fingers inside between the cuff and
the arm. Clip the pressure dial to the loop of the cuff so you
can easily read it.
3. Place stethoscope earpieces in ears, and with one hand, hold
the stethoscope diaphragm in place over the brachial artery
(Figure 4.8).
4. In the next step you will inflate the cuff. Once the cuff is
inflated, do not keep it inflated for more than 1 minute. Also, if
you inflate the cuff and have difficulty taking the reading,
change arms and start over so the original arm blood flow can
reestablish.
5. Inflate the cuff to 160 mm Hg, notice you hear no sounds.
While watching the pressure dial, slowly release the pressure
while listening for the first sound of blood turbulence
(Korotkoff sound). Notice and remember the pressure when
you first hear the sound. This is the systolic blood pressure
(SBP). There is turbulence because the vessel is constricted too
much for a quiet smooth flow.
6. Continue slowly releasing the pressure as you listen for the
instant the sounds go away. Note this mentally as the diastolic
blood pressure (DBP). Silence means the blood is flowing
smoothly and quietly. Release the rest of the pressure in the
cuff and record your values as SBP/DBP.
Figure 4.8.
Blood
pressure
measuremen
t of 120/70.

Image by Ashley Kajioka / CC BY 4.0
“Cardiovascular Experiments” is MODIFIED from:

Content on Electrocardiogram is modified from OpenStax
College, Anatomy and Physiology.
Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/
14f [email protected].

SHERYL SHOOK
Heart Dissection
Learning Objectives
• Demonstrate proficient dissection skills.

• Identify external anatomical structures of the heart.
• Identify internal anatomical structures of the heart.
Chapter 5. Heart Dissection | 41

1. Instruments
Figure 5.1.
Surgical
instruments.
Image by
Karolinska
Institutet /
CC BY 4.0
42 | Chapter 5. Heart Dissection

Figure 5.2.
Forceps and
scissors
(including
vascular
scissors) are
best held as
shown here,
as these
grips give
good control.

Images by Karolinska Institutet / CC BY 4.0
2. Surface anatomy of the heart
Begin by orienting the heart (Figure 5.3). Take note of its size and
shape. Specimens may or may not have been perfused with a
preservative that will cause a different heart color than shown.
Identify the following landmarks:
• Apex
• Auricles
• Demarcation between the right and the left ventricle
(interventricular septum)
• Entrances of superior vena cava and inferior vena cava
• Coronary blood vessels
Figure 5.3.
Left: Frontal
view of the
heart. Right:
Posterior
view.
Image by Karolinska Institutet / CC BY 4.0

The heart commonly has some adipose tissue on the outer
surface. You also may find cuts that have been made when the heart
was removed from the chest cavity.
The auricles are appendages to the atria. Their function is not

entirely known. It has been speculated that they function as
reservoirs for blood, which may be mobilized in times of increased
physiological need.
3. Aorta and the pulmonary arteries
Several vessels extend from the superior (topmost) side of the heart.
It may be necessary to remove excessive tissue to visualize
structures and for ease of dissection. Identify the aorta and the
pulmonary artery and then cut them to make the valves visible
(Figure 5.4). The aortic and pulmonary valves are each made up of
three leaflets. Inspect the valves and palpate them (feel them with a
finger).
Figure 5.4.
The aortic
valve and
base of the
pulmonary
artery.

Try pouring a little water on the valve and see if the valve closes.

Thought question:
Why do the arteries leading blood from the heart have

thicker walls than the veins leading blood back to the
heart?
4. Coronary arteries
The two main coronary arteries branch off from the aorta just above
the aortic valve. Start by probing the coronary artery entrance
(Figure 5.5). By gripping the heart with the forceps next to the
entrance of the artery, you may straighten out the closest part of
the artery, which makes it easier to cut. Cut the coronary arteries
starting from the aorta and proceeding along one or more branches
as far as their size permit (Figure 5.6). Use the forceps to visualize
the opened the artery (Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.5.
Probing of
the entrance
to the left
coronary
artery.
Figure 5.6.
Cutting open
the coronary
artery.

Figure 5.7.
Opened
coronary
artery.
Images by Karolinska Institutet / CC BY 4.0
Thought question:
In angina or myocardial infarction, the myocardium

(heart muscle) receives insufficient blood flow. The
effect of diminished flow in one coronary artery
depends on, among other things, whether other arteries
can compensate for the decreased flow. The anatomy of
the coronary vessels may vary greatly between
individuals. How much of the heart appears to receive
its blood supply from only one single artery?

5. The right atrium
Identify the openings for the superior and inferior vena cavae
(Figure 5.8). Cut open the right atrium along the path between
the vena cavae openings and continue into the auricle (Figure 5.9).
Remove any coagulated blood that may be found here. Take note of
the smoothness of the endocardium, the tissue lining the inside of
the heart. Also notice the pectinate muscles.
During fetal life, when lungs are not used for gas exchange, there
is an opening—foramen ovale. This opening normally closes at birth,
leaving a shallow pit—fossa ovalis—in the myocardium. Sometimes,
a small opening may persist, and is then termed a patent foramen
ovale. Find the fossa ovalis and examine with a probe whether any
opening remains (Figure 5.10).
Figure 5.8.
The two
entrances of
the vena
cavae.

Figure 5.9.
The right
atrium, cut
open.

Figure 5.10.
Probing of
the fossa
ovalis.

Thought question.
Deep venous thromboses are not uncommon. They

may give rise to a thromboembolism, when part of a
blood clot comes off, and is transported by the blood to
some other part of the body thus blocking the blood
flow. How would a patent (open) foramen ovale affect
the range of possible outcomes?
6. The right ventricle
Cut open the right ventricle through the opening from the right
atrium, along the right side of the heart (Figure 5.11). You will then
cut through the tricuspid valve. Open the right ventricle and take
note of the valve (Figure 5.12). This valve has three cusps, which
are attached to papillary muscles extending from the inner wall of
the ventricle. Observe and palpate the valve (Figure 5.13). Proceed
to examine the muscular wall of the ventricle and take note of
the trabeculae carneae (beam-like structures). Finally, identify the
pulmonary valve and probe it from the inside of the ventricle.

Figure 5.11.
Cutting open
the right
ventricle.

Figure 5.12.
Inside of the
right
ventricle.

Figure 5.13.
One of the
cusps of the
tricuspid
valve, held
up by a
finger. Note
the papillary
muscle and
chordae
tendineae.
Thought question:
Can you trace the blood flow out of the right

ventricle? What organ is the first to receive this blood?
7. Left atrium and ventricle
Cut open the left atrium and ventricle through the entrance for the
pulmonary vein into the left atrium (Figure 5.14). Cut along the left
side of the heart. The valve between the left atrium and ventricle has

two cusps and is termed the bicuspid or mitral valve (miter = type of
hat that tapers to a point). Examine the endocardium and the mitral
valve (Figure 5.15). Identify the entrance to the aorta and probe it
from the inside of the left ventricle.
Compare the right and left ventricles with regard to their
respective sizes and the thickness of the myocardium. Finally,
palpate the muscle wall between the right and left ventricles
(interventricular septum). Here run the right and left bundle
branches, part of the electrical conduction system of the heart.
Figure 5.14.
Left atrium.

Figure 5.15.
Left
ventricle.
Thought question:
Why is the myocardium of the left ventricle thicker

than that of the right ventricle?
“Heart Dissection” is MODIFIED from:
• Dissection manual for porcine heart by Karolinska Institutet /

CC BY 4.0
• Text: Gustav Nilsonne
• Photos: Lotta Arborelius

SHERYL SHOOK
Respiratory System Anatomy
Learning Objectives
• Identify respiratory system gross anatomical

structures.
• Identify respiratory system microscopic structures.
Use local resources to view structures of the respiratory system.
Respiratory System Structures List
Respiratory System- Complete- Anterior view
• Trachea
• Upper right lobe of lungs
• Middle right lobe of lungs
• Lower right lobe of lungs
• Upper left lobe of lungs
• Lower left lobe of lungs
56 | Chapter 6. Respiratory System

Anatomy
Respiratory System- Circulatory vessels and heart
• Right subclavian vein

• Right internal jugular vein
• Right brachiocephalic vein
• Superior vena cava
• Right atrium
• Right ventricle
• Pulmonary trunk
• Pulmonary veins
• Left atrium
• Left ventricle
• Aorta
Respiratory System- Tracheobronchial tree and lungs
• Right primary bronchus

• Left primary bronchus
• Diaphragm
Respiratory System- Larynx- Anterior view
• Hyoid
• Thyroid membrane
• Thyroid cartilage
• Cricoid cartilage
Respiratory System- Larynx- Posterior view
• Arytenoid cartilage
Respiratory System- Larynx- Left lateral view
• Esophagus
Supplemental Structures
Chapter 6. Respiratory System Anatomy | 57

• Horizontal fissure
• Oblique fissure
Attributions for “Respiratory System Anatomy”: Respiratory System

Structures List by Marissa Sumida / CC BY 4.0
58 | Chapter 6. Respiratory System Anatomy

SHERYL SHOOK
Respiratory Physiology Experiment
Learning Objectives
1. Define the following and label on a graph of

spirometry data:
a. Inspiration
b. Expiration
c. Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
d. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
e. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
f. Tidal Volume (TV)
g. Vital Capacity (VC)
h. Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)
i. Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV1)
j. Residual Volume (RV)
2. Compare FVC to VC
3. Describe, and demonstrate skills to listen to,
bronchial and vesicular breathing sounds.
4. Demonstrate proper lung function testing using a
spirometer.
5. Explain the clinical significance of reduced lung
volume vs. reduced FEV1 in the context of restrictive
and obstructive respiratory disorders.
Chapter 7. Respiratory Physiology

Experiment | 59
Sounds of the Respiratory System
Listening to respiratory sounds, auscultation with a stethoscope,

provides an indication of the health of respiratory tissue and
ventilation function.
Bronchial sounds – Measured over the tracheobronchial tree.
High pitch, louder sound of air moving through trachea and bronchi.
Vesicular sounds – Measured over the lung tissue. Low pitch, soft
rustling sound of the air moving the alveolar sacs.
View and listen to Video 7.1 for descriptions and samples of
respiratory sounds.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the

text. You can view it online here:
http://pressbooks.oer.hawaii.edu/
anatomyandphysiology2lab/?p=83
Video 7.1. Bronchial and Vesicular Breath Sounds, Stanford Medicine

25
60 | Chapter 7. Respiratory Physiology Experiment

Instructions for Respiratory Sounds
1. Using alcohol and wipes, clean the earpieces and stethoscope

diaphragm and allow to dry.
2. Rotate the stethoscope earpieces so they will face slightly
anterior before placing in your ears.
3. With the stethoscope diaphragm on the trachea above the
suprasternal notch, listen to the bronchial sounds during
normal breathing.
4. Find the soft area immediately medial to the inferior section of
the medial margin of the scapula. This is the triangle of
auscultation, a location optimized for listening to lung sounds
because there are fewer muscles over the ribs. Convince
yourself of this by looking at the muscle anatomy of the back;
observe the small space between the trapezius and latissimus
dorsi at this site. Listen to the vesicular sounds, heard
primarily upon inspiration.
Lung Volume and Function Tests with

Spirometry
Lung volumes can be measured to determine the level of respiratory

system health as well as the presence of various respiratory
disorders. For example, if someone has pneumonia or tuberculosis,
they will have reduced lung volume, and thus a restrictive lung
disorder. In lung volume testing, the values differ between healthy
individuals based on levels of physical fitness as well as age, sex,
and size, so keep in mind the numbers you see in the figure are
averages. Table 7.1 shows pulmonary (lung) function test measures.
The spirometer—a device that measures movement of air—will
provide us with a recording of a range of lung volumes. Residual
Volume (RV) is the air that is left in the lungs after a maximal
Chapter 7. Respiratory Physiology Experiment | 61

exhalation, so RV will be estimated today as 1.2 Liters. Capacities,
such as Total Lung Capacity (TLC), refer to two or more volumes
combined (Figure 7.1). One area that can cause some confusion for
students is the reference to Vital Capacity (VC), Slow Vital Capacity
(SVC), and Forced Vital Capacity (FVC). In healthy adult participants,
VC, SVC, and FVC are practically the same. While VC and SVC are a
full exhalation without a time requirement, FVC is forced as quickly
as the patient can manage. For our data collection, we will call it FVC
because your participant is going to exhale as quickly and forcefully
as possible in order to measure the Forced Expiratory Volume in one
second (FEV1) as a measure of asthma. To test for obstructive lung
disorders such as asthma, the rate of air movement out of the lungs
is measured to determine the level of resistance in the airways. If an
air passage has increased resistance, the amount of air a person can
exhale in one second (FEV1) will be less than for someone without a
respiratory disorder.
Pulmonary function
Definition
measure
Forced vital capacity Volume of air forcefully exhaled after maximum

(FVC) inhalation
Forced expiratory Volume of air forcefully exhaled, in the first

volume 1 (FEV1) second, after maximum inhalation.
Total lung capacity Volume of air contained in lungs after maximum

(TLC) inhalation.
Peak expiratory flow Maximum speed of forceful exhalation after a

(PEF) maximum inhalation
Residual volume
Volume of air in lungs after maximum exhalation
(RV)
Volume of air moved in or out of the lungs during

Tidal volume (TV)
relaxed, subconscious breathing
Inspiratory reserve Volume of air that can be inhaled beyond tidal

volume (IRV) inhalation
Expiratory reserve Volume of air that can be exhaled beyond tidal

volume (ERV) exhalation
Residual volume Volume of air remaining lungs after maximum

(RV) exhalation

Table 7.1 Pulmonary Function Testing
Figure 7.1
Respiratory
Volumes and
Capacities.
Image by Open Stax / CC BY 4.0. Download for free at Open Stax.

[email protected]″>
Instructions for Spirometry
You have the opportunity to use two different types of spirometers

today and then compare the data. It does not matter which device
you use first.
Micro I Portable Spirometer
1. If not charged, connect power supply cord to spirometer and

then plug into electrical outlet and wait 5 minutes. Spirometer
will not work while plugged in. After 5 minutes, unplug from
outlet and disconnect power supply cord from device.
2. Attach mouthpiece adaptor (2-inch white plastic tube) to
spirometer. This piece is not disposable. Please note the
storage location before removing from the case.
3. Attach small end of disposable filter (has disc-like piece in
middle) to mouthpiece adaptor.
4. Press on/off button at top of device.

5. Select Quick Exam (“Enter” is the bottom right, of the four
buttons on front).
6. Display will show person blowing into unit. This means device
is ready.
7. Inhale as deeply as possible, seal lips around mouthpiece,
exhale as hard and fast and long as possible until no more air
can be exhaled.
8. If test needs to be repeated (e.g. display reads “Poor Effort”),
use up and down arrows to select “Blow Again” and press
Enter.
9. Record your data.
10. Separate filter from mouthpiece holder to be sure you do not
throw the mouthpiece holder away.
11. Return mouthpiece holder to storage case.
12. Place disposable filter in biohazard waste. Only the filter is
disposable.
13. To check out, show your professor the pieces in your unit’s
storage case to confirm all parts, including mouthpiece holder,
are stowed properly.
Vernier Spirometer and Logger Pro Software
Materials:
• Laptop or desktop computer with Logger Pro software

• LabQuest Unit
• Vernier Handheld Spirometer
• Plastic disposable filter
• Nose clip
• Masking tape

Equipment and Computer Setup
Caution: If you have a respiratory illness, such as the flu or a cold,

do not be the participant in this experiment.
1. Do not turn on anything yet.

2. Plug in the LabQuest unit into an electrical outlet. Note: If
you’re using the iMac computers in the STEM A&P lab, skip to
step 4 below. The LabQuest unit is on the back of the iMac
computer.
3. Attach the USB cable to the Lab Quest unit and to an available
USB port on the laptop or desktop computer.
4. Plug the spirometer into “Ch 1” of the LabQuest unit.
5. Turn on the computer (If you’re using a laptop, make sure it’s
plugged in to an outlet).
6. Open the Logger Pro application.
7. Click on “File” in the upper toolbar, “Open Recent,” then select
“19 Lung Volume.”
8. Click on “Page” in the upper toolbar and select “Next Page.”
You should now see a new page on the screen titled “Pg 2:
Lung Volume Measurements” with two graphs (“Lung Volume
and Capacity” & “Flow Rate”).
9. Turn on the LabQuest Unit by pressing the power button on
the upper left hand corner. This step is not necessary if using
iMac in STEM A&P lab.
Participant Instructions
1. Connect the white plastic bacterial filter to the side of the

handheld spirometer marked “Inlet.”
2. While holding the spirometer straight and still, not yet in the
mouth, click on “Experiment” in the upper toolbar and select
“Zero.” This sets a baseline where there is no air movement
through the spirometer and the participant does not have the

spirometer in their mouth.
3. Prepare your participant for the beginning of the test by
having them stand, put on the nosepiece or plug nose with
fingers, seal lips around the filter mouthpiece and begin
breathing normally into the spirometer. Notice there is no data
recording happening at this point; it is preparing the device for
collection. Remind the participant that they need to try to
breathe normally…a challenge with this setup!
4. After a few normal breaths, the participant signals the
computer computer operator when they are at the end of a
normal expiration. Decide on the signal (e.g. a wiggle of the
tiny finger on the hand holding the spirometer) before
beginning recording. At the signal from the participant, the
computer operator clicks on the green record button (upper
right hand corner of the screen).
5. The data collection portion of the experiment has your
participant beginning the experiment by taking:
1. Three normal breaths, followed by

2. A maximal inspiration, followed by
3. A maximal, forceful, fast expiration, followed by
4. Three normal breaths
6. The participant completes steps “a” through “d” (#5 above)
after which the computer operator clicks on the red stop
button. You should now see results that look something like
this:
Figure 7.2.
Sample data.

If your results don’t look like the example in Figure 7.2, click on
“Data” in the top toolbar and select “Clear All Data,” then start over
at step #3.
Measuring Tidal Volume (TV)
1. Place the cursor over the graph and you will see a set of
crosshairs appear. Place the crosshairs at one of the valleys in
the participant’s tidal volume traces and drag it up to the next
peak. You will see a blue highlighted box that appears (Figure
7.3).
Figure 7.3.
Selected data
shown in
blue shaded
area.
2. Your lab group needs to record the Δ y value (0.95 Liters in

this example) found in the bottom left corner of the top graph.
This is your participant’s TV.
3. Now repeat the process of creating a highlighted box from
valley to peak and recording the Δ y value for:
4. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
5. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
See Figures 7.4 and 7.5 for sample graphs of these two
measurements

Figure 7.4.
IRV: Peak of
tidal volume
to peak of
inspiration.
The Δ y
value in this
example is
2.92 Liters.
Figure 7.5.
ERV: Valley
of tidal
volume to
valley of
expiration.
The Δ y
value in this
example is
0.74 Liters.
Performing the Lung Function Tests
1. Click on “File” in the upper toolbar, “Open Recent,” then select

“21 Analyze Lung
Function.” The following screen (Figure 7.6) will open on your

computer:

Figure 7.6.
Opening
screen for
lung
function
analysis.
2. The only difference in running this test compared to the

previous one is that the person at the computer will click the
green record button when the participant signals that they are
at the bottom of a normal expiration. Immediately after this
signal, the participant will:
3. Complete a maximal inspiration, followed by
4. A maximal expiration, followed by
5. A maximal inspiration.
6. As soon as the participant completes their maximal
inspiration, the computer operator clicks on the red button to
stop the recording.
The resulting graph should be similar to the example in Figure 7.7:

Figure 7.7.
FEV1 data.

Measuring Forced Expiratory Volume in One Second (FEV1)
1. Scroll down the left column (Time) until you get to the 1.00
(one second), then record the value in the third column (Volume in
Liters). This is your participant’s FEV1. In the example below (Figure
7.8), the participant’s FEV1 is 3.972 Liters.
Figure 7.8.
Participantʻs
FEV1 is
shaded in
blue.
Measuring Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)
1. Click on “Analyze” in the top toolbar and then click on the

“Examine” function.
2. This will make a vertical line appear when you move your
cursor over the graph.
Move that vertical line to the farthest point to the right of the FVC
trace and record the value in the small box at the top of the graph.
In the sample below (Figure 7.9), the participant’s FVC is 4.250 Liters.

Figure 7.9.
FVC data.
IMPORTANT: Please place disposable filters in biohazard bag

provided by professor.
Label the graph (Figure 7.10), beginning with the axes, including
units and values. Add in the names of the volumes and capacities.
Figure 7.10.
Lung
Volumes and
Capacities.
Image by Laird Sheldahl / CC BY 4.0

Attributions for chapter 7:
The instructions for Vernier Spirometer and Logger Pro Software
are MODIFIED from Zoology 142L Lab Packet by Will Jonen / CC BY

SHERYL SHOOK
Digestive System Anatomy
Learning Objectives
• Identify digestive system gross anatomical

structures.
• Identify digestive system microscopic structures.
Use local resources to view structures of the digestive system.
Digestive System Structures List
1. Digestive System- Head and neck
1. Nasal cavity
1. Nasal conchae
2. Hard palate
1. Soft palate
3. Nasopharynx
4. Oral cavity
Chapter 8. Digestive System

Anatomy | 73
1. Tongue
5. Oropharynx
6. Laryngopharynx
7. Epiglottis
2. Digestive System- Upper abdomen
1. Esophagus
2. Stomach
3. Duodenum of small intestine
4. Pancreas
5. Sphincter of oddi
6. Liver
1. Falciform ligament
2. Left lobe
3. Right lobe
4. Common hepatic duct
7. Gallbladder
8. Common bile duct
9. Spleen
3. Digestive System- Opened stomach
1. Cardia
2. Fundus
3. Body
4. Pyloris
5. Greater curvature
6. Lesser curvature
7. Cardiac sphincter
8. Pyloric sphincter
9. Rugae
4. Digestive System- Lower abdomen
1. Jejunum
2. Ileum
3. Ileocecal valve
4. Cecum
5. Appendix
74 | Chapter 8. Digestive System Anatomy

6. Ascending colon
7. Transverse colon
8. Descending colon
9. Sigmoid colon
10. Rectum
5. Supplemental Structures
1. Caudate lobe of liver

2. Quadrate lobe of liver
3. Hepatic portal vein
4. Hepatic artery
Attributions for “Digestive System Anatomy”:

Digestive System Structures List by Marissa Sumida / CC BY 4.0
Chapter 8. Digestive System Anatomy | 75

SHERYL SHOOK
Urinary System Anatomy
Learning Objectives
• Identify urinary system gross anatomical

structures.
• Identify urinary system microscopic structures.
Use local resources to view structures of the urinary system.
Kidney Structures List
1. Kidney- Frontal view
1. Renal capsule
2. Renal cortex
3. Renal medulla
4. Renal pelvis
5. Renal artery
76 | Chapter 9. Urinary System

Anatomy
6. Renal vein
7. Renal column
8. Renal pyramid
9. Renal papilla
10. Renal calyces
1. Minor calyx
2. Major calyx
2. Kidney- Frontal view- Enlarged
1. Segmental artery
2. Interlobar artery
3. Arcuate artery
4. Interlobular artery
5. Interlobular veins
6. Arcuate veins
7. Interlobar veins
8. Segmental vein
Urinary System Structures List
1. Urinary System- Full view
1. Adrenal gland
2. Kidney
3. Ureter
4. Urinary bladder
2. Urinary System- Kidney
1. Renal cortex
2. Renal medulla
3. Major calyx
4. Renal pelvis
5. Renal artery
6. Renal vein
3. Urinary System- Bladder
Chapter 9. Urinary System Anatomy | 77

1. Detrusor muscle
2. Trigone
3. Ureteral openings
4. Urethral opening
5. Prostate gland
4. Supplemental Structures
1. Urethra
1. Prostatic urethra
Attributions for “Urinary System Anatomy”:

Kidney Structures List by Marissa Sumida / CC BY 4.0
Urinary System Structures List by Marissa Sumida / CC BY 4.0
78 | Chapter 9. Urinary System Anatomy

SHERYL SHOOK
Reproductive System Anatomy
Learning Objectives
• Identify male and female reproductive system gross

anatomical structures.
• Identify male and female reproductive system
microscopic structures.
Use local resources to view structures of the reproductive system.
Female Reproductive Structures List
1. Complete Female Reproductive System- Anterior view
1. Ovary
2. Ovarian ligament
3. Oviduct (Fallopian tube)
2. Complete Female Reproductive System- Lateral view
1. Ilium
Chapter 10. Reproductive System

Anatomy | 79
2. Piriformis muscle
3. Internal obturator muscle
3. Female Pelvis- Organs removed- Anterior view
1. Sacrum
4. Female Pelvis- Organs removed- Inferior view
1. Labia minora
2. Labia majora
3. Sacrotuberous ligament
4. Sacrospinal/sacrospinous ligament
5. Levator ani muscle
5. Excised Female Pelvis Organs- Superior view
1. Broad ligament
2. Round ligament of the uterus
3. Ureters
4. Recto-uterine fold
6. Female Pelvic Organs- Sagittal view
1. Vagina
2. Uterus
3. Cervix
7. Female Pelvis- Sagittal view
1. Urogenital diaphragm
2. External anal sphincter
3. Internal anal sphincter
Male Reproductive Structures List
1. Complete Male Reproductive System- Anterior view
1. Penis
1. Glans penis
2. Corona
1. Prepuce
80 | Chapter 10. Reproductive System Anatomy

3. Scrotum
4. Spermatic cord
5. Ureters
2. Complete Male Reproductive System- Sagittal view
1. Corpus cavernosum
2. Corpus spongiosum
3. Bulb of penis
4. Fundiform ligament
5. Spongy urethra
6. Membranous urethra
7. Bulbourethral gland
8. Prostate gland
9. Urogenital diaphragm
10. Internal anal sphincter
11. External anal sphincter
12. Levator ani muscle
13. Obturator internus muscle
3. Male Reproductive System- Accessory Organs- Sagittal view
1. Prostatic urethra
2. Ejaculatory duct
4. Male Reproductive System- Penis and testicle
1. Scrotum
1. External membrane
2. Tunica dartos
3. Fascia spermatica externa
4. Cremaster muscle
5. Fascia spermatica interna
6. Testis
7. Epididymis
8. Ductus deferens
Attributions for “Reproductive System Anatomy”:
Chapter 10. Reproductive System Anatomy | 81

Female Reproductive Structures List by Marissa Sumida / CC BY
4.0
Male Reproductive Structures List by Marissa Sumida / CC BY 4.0
82 | Chapter 10. Reproductive System Anatomy

SHERYL SHOOK
Fetal Pig Dissection
Learning Objectives
• Identify external urogenital structures of the male

and female fetal pig.
• Successfully complete dissection of the fetal pig.
• Identify, on your fetal pig, each structure from the
labeled photographs.
Introduction
Several different pig dissections were used to obtain the

photographs below. As a result, a structure shown in one
photograph may look different than the same structure shown in
another photograph. Some of the images have a pig that has been
injected with a substance to show arterial flow in red and venous
flow in blue. Your pig may or may not have that injection.
Chapter 11. Fetal Pig Dissection | 83

Orientation
The following words will be used to help identify the location of

structures.
• Anterior refers to the head end. If a structure is anterior to

another then it is closer to the head.
• Posterior refers to the tail end.
• Dorsal refers to the back side. The pig in the first photograph
below is laying on its dorsal side.
• Ventral is the belly side. It is opposite the dorsal side. The pig
in the first photograph below has its ventral side up.
External Structures
Obtain a fetal pig and identify the structures listed in the first
photograph.
Use the photographs below to identify its sex.
Use your pig and also a pig of the opposite sex to identify the
structures in the photographs below. The word “urogenital” refers
to an opening that serves both the urinary (excretory) and the
reproductive systems.
Figure 1. Female: injection site, nipples,

umbilical cord.
84 | Chapter 11. Fetal Pig Dissection

Figure 2.
Female
genital
papilla,
urogenital
opening,
anus
Figure 3.
Male:
scrotum.

Figure 4.
Male:
urogenital
opening,
penis, anus.
Preparation and Initial Cuts
Tie one front leg of the animal with a string that passes underneath
the dissecting pan to the other leg. Repeat this with the back leg.
Figure 5.
Securing the
pig for the
dissection.

Insert one blade of scissors through the body wall on one side of the
umbilical cord and cut posteriorly to the base of the leg as shown in
the first photograph below. Continue cutting from the anterior end
of this cut so that it resembles an upside-down U. Your finished cut
will be anterior to the navel and along each side of the navel. The
flap of body wall that contains the navel can be folded posteriorly to
reveal the internal organs of the abdomen.
Figure 6.
Making the
first cut.
Figure 7.
Completing
the first cut.

Figure 8.
Pulling back
the
abdominal
flap.
Extend a single cut along the midline of the ventral surface of the
animal to about 2 cm from the chin. Cut completely through the
body wall in the abdominal area but keep the cut shallow in the neck
region.
Figure 9.
Mid-line
thoracic cut.
A cut is made on the side of the animal from the point just posterior

to the diaphragm dorsally. A similar cut is made on the other side.
These two cuts will enable you to spread open the abdominal cavity.
Figure 10.
Opening the
abdominal
cavity.
Mouth and Neck Region
Use a scalpel to cut the sides of the mouth so that the bottom jaw
can be opened for easier viewing (see the photograph below). You
will need to cut through the musculature and the joint that holds
the lower jaw to the skull.

Figure 11.
Opening the
oral cavity.
Open the jaw wide enough so that the glottis and epiglottis are
exposed. The epiglottis projects up into a region called the pharynx.
The hard palate and soft palate separate the nasal and oral cavities.
When breathing, air passes through the nasal passages to the
nasopharynx. Air and food pass through the oropharynx, a space
in the posterior portion of the mouth. Below the oropharynx, the
laryngopharynx leads to the opening of the larynx and esophagus.
From the laryngopharynx, air passes through the glottis to the
trachea.
Below: hard palate, soft palate, glottis, epiglottis, tongue

Figure 12.
Oral cavity
and pharynx.
Carefully, peel the skin away from the incision in the neck region
using a blunt probe (a needle or the point of scissors will do if a blunt
probe is not available). Use the probe to peel away muscle tissue
until the thymus gland on each side of the trachea is exposed.
Use a probe to separate the two lobes of the thymus gland and
to further separate the musculature over the trachea. The thyroid
gland is darker and lies between the posterior ends of the two lobes
of the thymus gland.
Figure 13.
Thymus.

Figure 14.
The
surrounding
tissues have
been
separated to
reveal the
thymus and
thyroid
gland.
Continue separating the tissue with a probe until the trachea and
esophagus are exposed. The esophagus is dorsal to the trachea.
The large hard structure attached to the trachea is the larynx. It
contains the vocal cords.
In the photograph below, the heart and blood vessels of the neck
region have been removed so that the trachea can be seen more
clearly. You should not remove these structures yet because you will
need to identify the blood vessels later in the dissection.
Below: esophagus, larynx, trachea, bronchus, lungs.

Figure 15.
Respiratory
system.
Respiratory System
Observe how the diaphragm attaches to the body wall and separates
the abdominal cavity from the lung (pleural) and heart (pericardial)
cavities (Photographs below). Contraction of the diaphragm forces
air into the lungs.
You have already seen the pharynx, hard palate, soft palate,
epiglottis, glottis, trachea, and larynx. Follow the trachea to where it
branches into two bronchi and observe that each bronchus leads to
a lung. The left lung contains three lobes and the right lung contains
four. Each lung is located in a body cavity called a pleural cavity.

Figure 16.
Diaphragm.
Figure 17.
Diaphragm
and lungs.

Figure 18.
Esophagus,
larynx,
trachea,
bronchus,
lung.
Digestive System
You have already seen how the esophagus leads from the pharynx
through the neck region. Using a probe, trace follow the esophagus
to the stomach. Identify the small intestine and large intestine.
Find the posterior part of the large intestine called the rectum and
observe that it leads to the anus. Locate the cecum, a blind pouch
where the small intestine joins the large intestine.
Identify the liver. Lift the right lobe and find the gallbladder. This
structure stores bile produced by the liver. Find the bile duct that
leads to the small intestine. The pancreas is located dorsal and
posterior to the stomach. It extends along the length of the stomach
from the left side of the body (your right) to the point where the
stomach joins the small intestine. Lift the stomach and identify this
light-colored organ.
The spleen is an elongate, flattened, brownish organ that extends
along the posterior part of the stomach ventral to (above) the
pancreas.
The cecum is a blind pouch where the small intestine joins the

large intestine. It houses bacteria used to digest plant materials
such as cellulose. The cecum is large in herbivores but much of it
has been lost during evolution in humans. The appendix in humans
is the evolutionary remains of a larger cecum in human ancestors.
Figure 19.
Digestive
system.
Figure 20.
Digestive
system with
liver lifted to
reveal gall
bladder.

Figure 21.
Digestive
system with
liver in
place.
Figure 22.
Abdominal
cavity.

Figure 23.
Stomach and
liver lifted to
show the
pancreas.
Figure 24.
Lifting the
spleen.

Figure 25.
Digestive
system with
cecum lifted.
Figure 26.
Digestive
system.
Circulatory System
The diagrams below summarize the circulatory system of a

mammal.

Figure 27.
Systemic and
pulmonary
circulation.
The drawing below shows some of the major arteries that carry
blood to the body. Blood vessels that branch from the aorta carry
blood to most of the body.
The pulmonary artery is capable of delivering a large amount of
blood to the lungs but the lungs are not needed to oxygenate the
blood of a fetus, so most of the blood is diverted to the aorta. This
diagram shows that the ductus arteriosus connects the pulmonary
artery to the aorta and diverts blood that would otherwise go to the
lungs.
Shortly after birth, the ductus arteriosus closes and blood in the
pulmonary artery goes to the lungs instead of the body.
Blood passes from the left ventricle through the aortic arch and
aorta to the body. The first branch of the aorta is the
brachiocephalic artery. The second branch is the left subclavian
artery which goes to the left front leg. The right subclavian carries
blood to the right front leg and the carotids carry blood to the head.

Figure 28.
Systemic and
pulmonary
blood flow.

Figure 29.
Major
arteries.
The pericardium is a membrane that surrounds the heart and lines

the pericardial cavity. It contains a lubricating fluid and isolates the
heart from body movements such as the expansion and contraction
of the nearby pleural (lung) cavity.
To view details of the aortic arch, ductus arteriosus, and
pulmonary artery, it will be helpful to remove the left lung. With the
left lung removed, the heart can be pushed to the right side to reveal
the aorta and other blood vessels shown in the diagram below.

Figure 30.
Thoracic
cavity.
Figure 31.
Thoracic
cavity.

Figure 32.
Major
vessels.
Figure 33. Thoracic cavity.

Figure 34.
Thoracic
cavity and
open neck.
Figure 35.
Thoracic
cavity and
open neck.

Figure 36.
Thoracic
cavity and
open neck.
Figure 37. Vena cavae.

Figure 38.
Open neck
and thoracic
and
abdominal
cavities.
Figure 39.
Urinary and
male
reproductive
system.

Figure 40.
Lower
thoracic and
abdominal
cavities.
Figure 41.
Digestive
and urinary
systems.

Figure 42.
Open ventral
surface.
Figure 43.
Urinary
system.

Figure 44.
Pelvic cavity.
Figure 45.
Female,
posterior
view.

Figure 46.
Female
reproductive
system.
Figure 47.
Female
reproductive.

Figure 48.
Male
reproductive.
Figure 49.
Male
abdominal
and pelvic
cavities.

Figure 50.
Male
reproductive
system.
Figure 51.
Path of urine
flow.

Figure 52.
Surface of
cerebral
cortex. Take
extra
caution
using bone
cutters to
open the
skull.
Attributions for “Fetal Pig Dissection” MODIFIED from:

Original work by Michael J. Gregory, Clinton Community College
/ CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SHERYL SHOOK
Appendix | 115

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Anatomy and Physiology 2 Lab Manual

Anatomy and Physiology 2

Front Cover Image Credits vii

Lab Orientation and Safety ix

PHYL 142L Study Guide xiii

Chapter 1. Endocrine Anatomy 1

Clockwise from far left top row:

Front Cover Image Credits | vii

Anatomy and Physiology 2 Laboratory Manual provides the

KCC Anatomy and Physiology STEM Center

An on-campus place to study gross anatomy models. Located inside

KCC A&P Website

Lab Orientation and Safety | ix

1. Wash your hands before handling the anatomical models.

x | Lab Orientation and Safety

Safety and Warnings

The animal specimens have been fixed in formalin, an aqueous fluid

Lab Orientation and Safety | xi

Risk and Release Form

Your instructor will handout a department form stating assumption

xii | Lab Orientation and Safety

1. Endocrine Model Images (5 questions)

1. Blood Experiment Lab (5 questions)

1. Respiratory System (5 questions)

1. Respiratory System Model (5 questions)

PHYL 142L Study Guide | xiii

1. Urinary System (5 questions)

1. Kidney Model (5 questions)

1. Urinalysis Experiment Lab (5 questions)

xiv | PHYL 142L Study Guide

• Identify endocrine system gross anatomical

Gross and Microscopic Anatomy

Use local resources to view structures of the endocrine system.

Endocrine Structures List

Chapter 1. Endocrine Anatomy | 1

2 | Chapter 1. Endocrine Anatomy

• Explain hematocrit, including the significance of

Blood Composition and Hematocrit

Overview of Blood [link opens in new window]

Chapter 2. Blood Lab | 3

1. Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

• Definition: The volume—reported as a percentage—of packed

4 | Chapter 2. Blood Lab

What is the hematocrit for this sample?

Chapter 2. Blood Lab | 5

The ABO Blood Group

A and B antigens are glycoproteins on the RCC surface. ABO typing

6 | Chapter 2. Blood Lab

Rh antigens are named after the rhesus macaque, a primate with

Importance of Rh during Pregnancy

This is a critical consideration in pregnancy for Rh- mothers if the

Chapter 2. Blood Lab | 7

8 | Chapter 2. Blood Lab

To determine blood types, antiserum is used. The

If using anti-A antiserum (contains anti-A antibodies)

Which blood types have A antigens? Fill in the type.