A Reading Course in Homeric Greek Book 1

A Reading Course in
Homeric Greek
Book 1
by Raymond V. Schoder, S.J. and Vincent C. Horrigan, S.J.

revised, with additional materials by Leslie Collins Edwards
A Reading Course
in
Homeric Greek
BOOK 1
Third Edition, Revised

A Reading Course
in
Homeric Greek
BOOK 1
Third Edition, Revised
Raymond V. Schoder, S.J., M.A., Ph.D.

Vincent C. Horrigan, S.J., M.A.
Revised, with additional material by

Leslie Collins Edwards
Focus Publishing
R. Pullins Company
Newburyport, MA 01950
A Reading Course in Homeric Greek Book 1
© 2004 Chicago Province of the Society of Jesus
Additional materials © 2005 Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Company
Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Company
PO Box 369
Newburyport, MA 01950
www.pullins.com
Cover: “Book 13” The Iliad Series 40" x 30" (mixed media on paper) © 2003 Merle Mainelli Poulton. For
My Parents.
ISBN: 978-1-58510-704-9
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Last updated March 2013
Table of Contents
On Using This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
Lesson 1
The Forms and Sounds of the Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Lesson 2
The Greek Dipthongs And Their Sounds
How To Divide Greek Words Into Syllables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Lesson 3
How to Stress Greek Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Lesson 4
Names of the Greek Letters
The Meaning of Breathings and Pitch Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Lesson 5
Greek Punctuation. Review of Lessons 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Lesson 6
A Preview of the Greek Declensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Lesson 7
The First Declension in -H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Lesson 8
The First Declension in -A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Lesson 9
Review of The First Declension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Lesson 10
The Present and Imperfect Indicative and
The Present Infinitive of E»M¸I AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Lesson 11
The Second Declension—Masculine.
Adjectives: Agreement With Nouns, Substantives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Lesson 12
The Second Declension—Neuter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Lesson 13
Review of the First and Second Declension;
Types of Nouns, Adjectives, and Participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Lesson 14
The Declension and Meaning of
Intensive and Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Lesson 15
The Declension and Meaning of ÒTÎ
and the Demonstrative ÔDEDETÎDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Lesson 16
A Map of the Greek Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Lesson 17
The Present and Imperfect Indicative Active.
Constructions in Statements of Fact, and of Past Contrary to Fact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Lesson 18
The Present Subjunctive Active; The Subjunctive of E»M¸.
Hortatory and Purpose Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Lesson 19
The Present Optative Active: Wishes and
Purpose Construction After Secondary Main Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
v
A Reading Course in Homeric Greek
Lesson 20
The Present Active Imperative, Infinitive and Participle.
Commands. Accusative With Infinitive in Indirect Statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Lesson 21
Review of the Present System Active
The ‘Alpha Privative’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Lesson 22
The Present and Imperfect Middle and
Passive Indicative. Deponent Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Lesson 23
The Present Subjunctive and Optative,
Middle and Passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Lesson 24
The Present Imperative, Infinitive, Participle Middle and Passive
The Use of Infinitive For Imperative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Lesson 25
Review of the Whole Present System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Lesson 26
The Future System
Relative Pronoun and Relative Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Lesson 27
The Third Declension—Masculine and Feminine.
Rules of Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Lesson 28
The Third Declension—Neuter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Lesson 29
How To Predict the Stems of Adjectives and Participles.
The Participle of E»M¸ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Lesson 30
Review of the Third Declension
Uses of the Participle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Lesson 31
The Interrogative And Indefinite Pronouns/Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Lesson 32
The Forms of the First Personal Pronoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Lesson 33
The Forms of the Second Personal Pronoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Lesson 34
The Forms of the Third Personal Pronoun. The Future of EMÒ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Lesson 35
The First Aorist System Indicative and Subjunctive Active.
Present General and Future More Vivid Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Lesson 36
The First Aorist Optative, Imperative, Infinitive, and Participle Active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Lesson 37
The First Aorist Indicative and Subjunctive Middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Lesson 38
The First Aorist Optative, Imperative, Infinitive, Participle Middle.
The Impersonal Verb XR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Lesson 39
Review of The First Aorist System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Lesson 40
The Second Aorist System Active.
Should-Would and Potential Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
vi
Table of Contents
Lesson 41
The Second Aorist System Middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Lesson 42
The Third Aorist Indicative And Subjunctive Active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Lesson 43
The Third Aorist Optative, Imperative,
Infinitive, Participle Active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Lesson 44
Review of All Aorists—Active and Middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Lesson 45
The Perfect And Pluperfect Indicative Active.
Reduplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Lesson 46
The Perfect Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative, Infinitive, Participle Active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Lesson 47
The Perfect And Pluperfect Indicative, Middle and Passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Lesson 48
The Perfect Imperative, Infinitive, Participle Middle and Passive.
Review of All Perfects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Lesson 49
The Comparison of Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Lesson 50
The Formation And Comparison of Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Lesson 51
The Aorist Indicative and Subjunctive Passive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Lesson 52
The Aorist Optative, Imperative, Infinitive, Participle Passive.
The Optative of E»M¸ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Lesson 53
Review of The Entire Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Lesson 54
Use of The Augment. Further Review of The Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Lesson 55
Rules of Vowel-Contraction.
Further Review of The Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Lesson 56
The Iterative Forms of the Verb.
The Position of Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Lesson 57
The Vocative Case of All Declensions. Review of Nouns and Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Lesson 58
Special Case-Endings. Elision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Lesson 59
General Review of First Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Lesson 60
General Review of Second Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Honor Work
Optional Supplemental Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Lesson 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Lesson 62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Lesson 63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Lesson 64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Lesson 65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Lesson 66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Lesson 67 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Lesson 68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
vii
Lesson 69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Lesson 70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Lesson 71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Lesson 72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Lesson 73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Lesson 74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Lesson 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Lesson 76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Lesson 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Lesson 78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Lesson 79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Lesson 80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Lesson 81 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Lesson 82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Lesson 83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Lesson 84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Lesson 85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Lesson 86 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Lesson 87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Lesson 88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Lesson 89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Lesson 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Lesson 91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Lesson 92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Lesson 93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Lesson 94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Lesson 95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Lesson 96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Lesson 97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Lesson 98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Lesson 99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Lesson 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Lesson 101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Lesson 102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Lesson 103 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Lesson 104 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Lesson 105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Lesson 106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Lesson 107 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Lesson 108 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Lesson 109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Lesson 110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Lesson 111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Lesson 112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Lesson 113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Lesson 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Lesson 115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Lesson 116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Lesson 117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Lesson 118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Lesson 119 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Lesson 120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Honor Work
Supplementary Text For Sight Reading
The Close of the Cyclops Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
viii
Table of Contents
Appendix A
Summary of Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Appendix B
Appendix B (Vocabulary by Lesson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Appendix C
Rules for Writing Pitch-Marks (Accents) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Appendix D
REVIEW EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Greek-English Vocabulary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
English-Greek Vocabulary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Index of Grammatical Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
ix
On Using This Book
Structure of the Course

The entire book is scientifically built up on the basis of a complete statistical tabulation of just
what forms, rules, and words actually occur in the text which will be read in this course. As a result,
emphasis is distributed according to the degree of frequency with which each particular item will
be met during the two years’ work. Grammar and vocabulary are thus streamlined, that the efforts
of the class may be directed efficiently to matters which are actively important for reading the
Homeric text.
Only those principal parts of verbs, and only those special forms of MI verbs are assigned which
actually occur at least three times in the readings from Homer in this course. Thus the memory
burden is greatly reduced, with no unneeded items included, yet is fully adequate for reading the
selections from Homer provided.
These items cover, at the same time, the essentials of Homeric and Greek grammar, thus
providing a solid foundation for further reading in Homer or in other Greek authors.
Nevertheless, the student who cannot go on in Greek beyond the present course will find
satisfaction in having repeatedly seen and used within the course itself every principle that he has
learned. The book, then, forms a unit in itself, offering material of intrinsic worth and interest; it
is not merely a preparation for something else.
Reading Real Greek

In the first sixty lessons, the Readings are all actual quotations from various authors over the
whole range of Greek literature. The quotations have, where necessary, been simplified or adapted
to fit a limited vocabulary and syntax and the Homeric dialect, but they remain faithful to the
original thought. These selections thus provide a certain contact with writers other than Homer,
and with general Greek thinking. Already by Lesson 11 you will be reading real Greek!
The Homer readings are held off until the student has the key forms, rules, and words well in
hand. Reading Homer thus becomes easy—most of the language is already familiar, while any
new forms or words are explained as they come up, when needed.
The heavy work of the course, held to its statistically verified minimum of forms, rules, and words
needed to read the Homer selections provided, is concentrated in the first quarter of the program
(first sixty lessons); the remaining three quarters are then fun—“downhill,” “cashing in” on the
wealth of forms and vocabulary accumulated in the first sixty lessons. Meanwhile the short
Readings from other Greek authors are an early reward for the grammar and vocabulary being
progressively learned.
The text of Homer himself is over ninety-nine percent unaltered. Where an especially rare or
troublesome form has been reduced to simpler terms, the change is always strictly in accord with
Homeric usage. Care has been taken to include in the selections read those passages on which
Vergil draws in the Aeneid, Bk. 1, 2, 4, 6.
xi
Lesson Design
It should be noted that the exercises entitled TRANSLATE and PUT INTO GREEK all drill on
the matter just learned, and that the English sentences headed WRITE IN GREEK always draw
exclusively on review grammar, not on the forms or syntax first seen in that day’s lesson.
Everything learned is constantly reused and thus kept active as the course progresses.
In general, with classes of fifty minutes, the Lessons are designed to be taken one a day, with a
class free every eight or ten days for thorough and detailed vocabulary review. However, Lessons
16, 21, 29, 35, 45, and 83 are intended to take two class periods apiece, while Lessons 59 and 60,
general review of the first sixty lessons, will each supply matter for three days’ class, if desired.
Many of the easier lessons, especially from Lesson 61 on, can be covered two to a class. Where
class periods are longer than fifty minutes, more than one lesson can be taken, as the teacher
judges feasible.
— R.V. Schoder
V.C. Horrigan
REVISED EDITION
Why this revised edition

Approaching the learning of Ancient Greek through Homeric Greek makes particular sense for
the student of today, who often has only a year or two to spend on the study of Greek. Homeric
Greek is somewhat simpler syntactically than Attic Greek, so that reading with some proficiency
and even pleasure is attainable within that abbreviated time-span. Moreover, of all the ancient
texts still read today, certainly none is more widely read or enjoyed than Homer’s Odyssey;
students are often drawn to the study of the Greek language by their experience with Homer in
translation. Yet the extant Homeric Greek textbooks were not written for today’s student; they
assumed familiarity with grammatical terminology and syntactical concepts that are no longer
covered in the educational curriculum.
What has been changed

Schoder and Horrigan’s Reading Course in Homeric Greek had several virtues which kept me
returning to it year after year for my own Greek classes. First, it is organized around the verb
system, proceeding in the order of the six principal parts from the present system through the
aorist passive system. This logical arrangement seems to convey to the student the “big picture” of
the Greek grammatical system more effectively than any other I have tried. Second, the book is,
compared to other Greek texts available now, quite concise; it is possible to cover the material in
it in the allotted meeting times, without skipping over readings and longer explanations. Finally,
and most importantly, it is a gratifying course, because it relatively quickly prepares the student to
read something they will certainly enjoy—the Lotus Eaters and Cyclops episodes from Book 9 of
the Odyssey.
There were some weaknesses in the text that I have tried to address in this revised edition. Based
on my experience using Schoder and Horrigan’s text, I have added fuller explanations of
syntactical concepts where the original edition’s versions seemed too thin for today’s students.
Paradigms have been labeled clearly; participle and adjective paradigms have been declined in full.
xii
On Using This Book
I have also included, early in the text, explicit explanations of grammatical terminology. But I
have striven to keep the book from becoming a very long book, since I find that shorter texts work
better in today’s teaching schedules and with today’s students. Other changes and additions
include:
• Self-correcting review exercises for the non-review lessons from Lesson 10-54. These exercises
offer extra drilling of and basic practice with new morphology and syntax, on the model of
Wheelock’s excellent self-correcting exercises at the back of his Latin textbook.
• New and updated essays. Essays on topics related to the Homeric poems, including oral
composition, social and political organization, folktales, and the Geometric style, have been
added. Some of the essays from the original edition have been updated and expanded. In
addition, the essays are presented in a more logical order. Essays focused on Homer are placed
in earlier chapters of the third unit (on the Odyssey), followed in roughly historical sequence
by the essays on other authors, genres and topics.
• Expanded and updated Notes and Commentary on the Odyssey. Notes have been augmented
with more detail and cross-references to grammatical explanations elsewhere in the book. The
Commentary has been re-written and updated.
• The text of the Odyssey now follows the highly regarded text of P. von der Muehll (Basel
1962). I have adopted the readings currently most widely accepted by scholars, and have
included notes where necessary to explain unfamiliar forms.
• Sentences and Passages from the Septuagint have been added to the Readings. One strength
of Schoder and Horrigan’s book was its ample inclusion of New Testament and early
Christian Greek authors in the Readings. I have added to these some passages from the
Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Torah. One of the new essays also briefly
introduces the Jewish and Christian literature written in Koine.
• New information has been added to the Greek-English Vocabulary at the end of the book.
Students will now find in parentheses the lesson in which a word was first introduced. In
addition, here and in the MEMORIZE sections of the Lessons I have written out the full
genitive of third declension nouns, instead of just the genitive endings. Many of the entries
have been reorganized for greater clarity. Other information about peculiarities of usage has
been added where appropriate.
• Two new indices have been added. The grammatical index and a general index at the back of
the book should, if used in conjunction with the Table of Contents and the Vocabularies,
help students locate information within the book.
—L. Collins Edwards, 2004
xiii
Abbreviations
acc. accusative m.-p. middle-passive

act. active n. neuter
adj. adjective neg. negative
adv. adverb no. number
aor. aorist nom. nominative
comp. comparative obj. object
conj. conjunction opt. optative
conjg. conjugation pass. passive
cp. compare pers. person
dat. dative pf. perfect
decl. declension pl. plural
def. definite plpf. pluperfect
f. feminine prep. preposition
fut. future pres. present
gen. genitive pron. pronoun
gend. gender ptc. participle
impf. imperfect rel. relative
impt. imperative sg. singular
ind. indicative sub. subject
indecl. indeclinable subj. subjunctive
indef. indefinite supl. superlative
inf. infinitive syst. system
interr. interrogative trans. transitive
intr. intransitive vb. verb
irreg. irregular voc. vocative
m. masculine w. with
mid. middle + followed by, with
xiv
Lesson 1
The Forms and Sounds of the Greek Alphabet
1. THE GREEK ALPHABET
LETTER NAME PRONUNCIATION GREEK EXAMPLE

" A alpha drama DRAMA
# B beta biography BIOW
( G gamma ganglion GAGGLION
% D delta democracy DHMOW
& E epsilon epidemic EPI
; Z zeta adze TRAPEZA
) H eta they AYLHTHW
: Y theta theology YEOW
* I iota physique FUSIKOW
, K kappa cosmic KOSMOW
- L lambda logic LOGOW
. M mu meter METRON
/ N nu nectar NEKTAR
+ J xi climax KLIMAJ
0 O omicron osteopath OSTEON
1 P pi planet PLANHTHW
3 R rho crisis KRISIW
4 SW sigma sophist SOFISTHW
5 T tau technical TEXNIKOW
6 U upsilon rule, put CUXHUPNOW
' F phi graphite GRAFV
9 X chi chaos XAOW
$ C psi apse ACIW
: V omega ode VDH
2. NOTES
a. There are five vowels in Greek, and these five vowels represent five short vowel
sounds and five corresponding long vowel sounds. Two of the Greek vowels are
always long (HV), two are always short (EO), while the rest (AIU ) can be
either long or short. Long vowel sounds were held longer than short.
1
Long vowels: Short vowels:

A A
H E
I I
V O
U U
b. If the A is long, it sounds like the first a in ‘drama’; if short, like the second a.
c. If the I is long, it sounds like the i in ‘physique’; if short, like the y.
d. If the U is long, it sounds like the u in ‘rule’; if short, like the u in ‘put’. Or it
may be sounded more like an English vowel y—if long, like the y in
‘philosophy’, if short like
the i.
e. G is always hard, as in ‘go’, never soft as in ‘gem.’ Before KGXJ it has the
sound of English ng (as in ‘ganglion’).
f. W is used at the end of words; otherwise S (e.g. LUSIW).
g. Distinguish carefully the sounds of A and O. The A should be sounded like the
English word Ah!, the Olike awe.
h. YandFwere not originally pronounced as English th and ph, but were closer to
our t and p — they were “aspirated,” i.e., ‘stop’ consonants (like t and p)
followed by a puff of air.
3. PRONOUNCE AND COPY CAREFULLY IN GREEK

1. FILOSOFIH 12. POLITIKOW
2. DIALOGOW 13. ARVMA
3. MIKROFVNOW 14. AMFIBIOW
4. FVSFOROW 15. STRATHGIKOW
5. ANALUSIW 16. AGVNIH
6. PNEUMONIH 17. ARXITEKTVN
7. DRAMATIKOW 18. ORXHSTRA
8. SKELETON 19. MELAGXVLIH
9. YEATRON 20. POLUGVNON
10. BAPTISMA 21. GUMNASION
11. MAYHMATIKOW
2
Lesson 2
The Greek Dipthongs And Their Sounds
How To Divide Greek Words Into Syllables
4. DIPHTHONGS
The Greek vowels are:AEHIOVU. When two of these vowels combine to
produce one continuous sound, the combination is called a diphthong. (DI double,
FYÎGGOW sound)
DIPHTHONG SOUND EXAMPLE

AI ai in aisle BIAI
AU ow in cow AUTOW
EI ei in eight EIPON
EU E+U ;EUW
HU H+ U HU-RON
OI oi in oil OIKOW
OU oo in soon OUDEN
UI we in weak UIOW
5. IOTA SUBSCRIPT
When the vowelI follows HVand long A it is usually written and printed beneath
them instead of after them:
HI is written ×
VI is written ¡
AI is written
This iota is called iota subscript. In our modern standard pronunciation of Ancient
Greek, the iota subscript is not pronounced.
The practice of subscribing the iota is not earlier than the twelfth century A.D. In the
eighth century B.C. (the century in which “Homer” is usually placed) and in the
Classical period, iota after HVand long Awould have been pronounced as well as
written on the line (iota adscripte.g., B¸HIrather than B¸×). By the first century
B.C., when the iota after HVand long Awas no longer pronounced, it began to be
sometimes omitted in writing as well.
With capital letters, the iota after HVand long A is written on the line, e.g., #*)*
for B¸×
3
6. SYLLABLES
a. A word has as many syllables as it has vowels or diphthongs.
b. A single consonant between two vowels or diphthongs is pronounced with the
following vowel or diphthong. But a final letter of a preposition in compound
words stays with the preposition, never going with the following word.
c. Two consonants are usually split, except TR and GR. For practical purposes,
however, it is sufficient to follow the English method of syllable division. Thus: A
LHYEIHFILEOMENHPARODOWAIEIYALASSAPETRHUGROW
ERGON
7. EXERCISE
Write out, dividing properly into syllables:
1. TANTALIZV 12. MHXANIKOW
2. AIVN 13. MHTROPOLIW
3. ASTRONOMIH 14. SUMMETRIH
4. FALAGGOW 15. KATASTROFH
5. LABURINYOW 16. DIAGRAMMA
6. SULLABH 17. ELASTIKOW
7. METAFORH 18. YHSAUROW
8. GEVMETRIH 19. MONOTONOW
9. MEYODOW* 20. TROPAION
10. ARIYMHTIKOW 21. MONOPVLIH
11. EPITAFION
*MEY is from the preposition META
4
Lesson 3
How to Stress Greek Words
8. STRESS AND PITCH

a. In English, and most modern languages, stress is placed on one syllable of a
word (e.g., noth-ing, ma-tu-ri-ty). In Ancient Greek, instead of increased stress,
one syllable of most words was given a slightly different musical pitch. The
accent marks you see over printed Greek indicate the sort of variation in pitch
required for each word; the next lesson will give you a brief introduction to
pitch marks. However, it is standard practice for English speakers today simply
to stress the accented syllable of an ancient Greek word.
b. As was suggested in Section 2 above, the Greeks did observe the quantity of
syllables, always prolonging in pronunciation those syllables that are ‘long’ and
running over more rapidly those that are ‘short’. To the modern ear this
resembles a sort of emphasis on the prolonged syllable, and it is the basis for
metrical pronunciation of Greek poetry. Here is the basic rule for determining
the quantity of a syllable:
A syllable is long by nature if it contains a long vowel or diphthong (Section 2).

It is long by position if its vowel is followed by two consonants or by a double
consonant. There are three double consonants: Z (= dz), J (= ks), and C(= ps).
9. NOTE
Where a short syllable would take one beat of a musical metronome, a long syllable would
extend over two beats. To attempt to preserve the quantity of Greek syllables may be
impractical or merely beyond the limits of your patience at this point in the course. How-
ever, you may find it more pleasant to attempt once you have studied Homeric meter and
are reading the Homer selections later in this book, where the distinctive rhythmic pattern
is based on the sequence and interrelationship of long and short syllables.
10. DRILL
Pronounce any syllable with a pitch mark with a slight stress.
1. BjPTISMA 9. UYMÎW
2. DIjLOGOW 10. GUMNjSION
3. LVTÎW 11. YATRON
4. ,ÃKLVC 12. GEVMETR¸H
5. oRVMA 13. YHSAURÎW
6. POLÃGVNON 14. FjLAGJ
7. POLITIKÎW 15. METAFOR
8. OÁNOW
5
Lesson 4
Names of the Greek Letters
The Meaning of Breathings and Pitch Marks
11. ALPHABET NAMES

oLFA ZTA LjMBDA Pº Fº
BTA TA MÅ ¤ Xº
GjMMA YTA NÅ S¸GMA Cº
DLTA »¤TA Jº TAÅ «MGA
CILÎN KjPPA ÕMIKRÎN ÌCILÎN
12. BREATHINGS
Every Greek word beginning with a vowel or diphthong must have a breathing
mark. The rough breathing (c) shows that h is to be sounded with the initial vowel
or dipthong. The smooth breathing ( ’ ) means that h is not to be pronounced. The
breathing is written directly above the initial vowel, but if a diphthong begins the
word it is written above the second vowel of the diphthong (A»¢N).
Initial Ralways has the sound of rh; consequently, it is always written with a rough
breathing ().
13. PITCH MARKS

Ancient Greek was a musical language. Besides the effect of long and short syllables
on the sound pattern of words and sentences, there was also, as we have noted, a
musical variation in tone or pitch of voice—a rising and falling of tune level. It is
impractical, and unnecessary, for us today to try to recapture this subtle quality of
spoken Greek.
The marking of pitch by special signs was introduced only very late, around 200 B.C.
apparently by the great scholar and librarian Aristophanes of Byzantium, as an aid to
Romans and other foreigners learning Greek. Only much later yet, around the second
century A.D., did it become common to write these pitch marks on all manuscripts.
The symbols used are:
_ Acute accent indicating a rising tone.
` Grave accent indicating a falling tone.
a Circumflex accent a combination of Acute and Grave, a rising and then
falling of pitch in the same syllable.
These symbols had nothing to do with stress; they did not mean that the syllable over
which they were written was given more emphasis of voice than other syllables in the
word. Their very design clearly represented rising, falling, or rising then falling of the
6
Lesson 4
voice: its level of pitch or tone, not of strength or stress. This is further evident from
the name of these marks: PROS¡D¸A (musical accompaniment) and the Latin
equivalent: accentus (‘singing along with’)—from which our word ‘accent’ is
descended. Only long after the Classical period of Greek literature, around the first
century A.D., did the syllable bearing the pitch-mark also come to be stressed more
than the others: what we mean by ‘accent’ today. Medieval and modern Greek stresses
syllables bearing the pitch-mark, and, as we have noted, it is standard for modern
readers of Ancient Greek to do so as well. Yet, as we shall see in our reading of Homer,
the written pitchmarks or ‘accents’ have no effect on the metrical pattern of poetry
and are universally ignored in connection with the poetic rhythm even by those who
treat them in prose as indicating stress.
You and your teacher may prefer to postpone learning the complicated rules
governing the kind and position of the pitch-marks until later in the year. (The rules
are given, for reference, in Appendix C at the back of the book.) But the pitch-marks
will be written on all Greek words in this course, as is common practice. Besides, in a
very few cases, the pitch-mark differentiates between words which are otherwise
identical in spelling, e.g.,oLLA(‘other things’), mLLj (‘but’); EÁMI(‘I will go’), E»M¸
(‘I am’); T¸W (‘who?’), TIW (‘someone’). And since the circumflex may stand only over a
long vowel (or diphthong), it helps us recognize that the vowel is long when this is not
otherwise clear.
14. EXERCISE
Write out in Greek the names of all the letters of the alphabet, including pitch marks.
Memorize them, in sequence.
Write in full the Greek alphabet (letters, not names!) ten times, spacing in fives.
Thus: ABGDEZHYIK etc. Memorize the sequence.
7
Lesson 5
Greek Punctuation. Review of Lessons 1-4
15. PUNCTUATION MARKS

Greek has four marks of punctuation:
a. comma, as in English.
b. period, as in English.
c. a point above the line, equivalent to both the colon and semicolon in
English.
d. question mark, which is the same in form as the English semicolon.
16. DRILL
Copy in Greek, dividing into syllables and encircling the syllable to be stressed
according to Section 8.
1. ¼PPOPÎTAMOW 10. ÒMOºOW
2. INOKRVW 11. nRMON¸H
3. CUX 12. ÑFYALMÎW
4. mRX 13. ÇPERBOL
5. oNYRVPOW 14. XRÎNOW
6. UYMÎW 15. FVN
7. EUMATISMÎW 16. ¼STOR¸H
8. JEºNOW 17. EÇDSV
9. SÃMPTVMA 18. ÇCHLÎW
17. EXERCISE
Copy these English sentences, punctuating them with the proper Greek punctuation
marks:
1. How are you George
2. He came however it was too late
3. Who did this Did you Or did Jim
4. Review the following pronunciation syllabification stress breathings
and punctuation
8
Lesson 6
A Preview of the Greek Declensions
18. THE CASES AND THEIR USE AND MEANING

Greek, like Latin, is an inflected language—its words have different endings added to
their basic stem as a way of indicating their grammatical function and relationship to
other words in a clause. The inflection of nouns (words for names of persons, places.
things, etc.), and adjectives (words describing nouns), is called declension and nouns
and adjectives are said to be declined as they change their endings. The inflection of
verbs (words for actions, or states of being) is conjugation, and verbs are said to be
conjugated as they change their endings. Participles, which are verbal adjectives, are
declined like nouns and adjectives. Adverbs (words which describe verbs, adjectives,
other adverbs, etc.) are not declined or conjugated.
The different endings which are attached to the stem of nouns and adjectives as they
are declined are called case endings and the noun or adjective is said to be in a
particular case according to the ending it shows. Thus, for example, the noun
meaning “force” is spelled B¸×in one case, but B¸HWin another. B¸×is in the dative
case, and means “by force” whereas B¸HW is in the genitive case and means “of force.”
Pronouns provide the closest parallel in English to the Greek case system. For
example, “they” must be the subject of a clause, while “them” must function as some
sort of object, either of a verb or of a preposition; “their” shows possession. In general,
however, word order and prepositions rather than inflection show the syntactical role
of a noun or adjective in English:
Murray gave Tucker a big carrot.
In this sentence, the subject (Murray), direct object (carrot), and indirect object
(Tucker) of the verb are identifiable only thanks to word order. Even the adjective
(big) modifying “carrot” is identifiable as such because of its placement. The sentence
could also be written Murray gave a big carrot to Tucker, where the preposition “to”
helps to identify the indirect object. But in Greek, the order of words in a sentence
such as this one would not indicate their syntactical roles, which would instead be
marked by their endings.
Omitting the vocative (for direct address; treated Lesson 57), there are in Greek four
cases (that is, classes of endings):
a. Nominative: indicating the subject of a verb (e.g., ‘the water flows’, ‘the water is
heated by the fire’).
b. Genitive: indicating source, possession, separation, with basic meanings ‘of ’,
‘from’, but many other special relations and functions:‘water of the Nile’(Gen.
of source)
‘a temple of stone’ (Gen. of material)
‘a temple of Apollo’ (Gen. of possession)
9
‘a jar of wine’ (Gen. of contents)

‘six of the men’ (Partitive Gen.)
‘We ceased from work.’ (Gen. of separation)
‘They came from Troy.’ (Gen. of place from which)
‘during the time of winter’ (Gen. of time during which)
‘nowhere in all of the land’ (Gen. of place within which)
‘my love of my mother’ (Objective Gen.)
‘my mother’s love for me’ (Subjective Gen.)
‘He is younger than his brother.’ (Gen. of comparison)
‘a march of seven days’ (Gen. of extent)
‘He is worthy of a large gift.’ (Gen. of price)
c. Dative: indicating reference, place, means, with basic meanings ‘to’, ‘for’; ‘in’,
‘on’; ‘by’, ‘with’ and other special relations and functions:
‘He gave the shield to me.’ (Dat. of indirect object)
‘They built this house for me.’ (Dat. of reference)
‘He grieved in his heart.’ (Dat. of place where)
‘They came on the fifth day.’ (Dat. of time when)
‘He was struck by a rock.’ (Dat. of means)
‘They came with a loud shout.’ (Dat. of manner/accompaniment)
‘dangerous because of its speed.’ (Dat. of cause)
‘Let us fight along with him.’ (Dat. of association)
‘This was done by us.’ (Dat. of agent)
‘There is no cover to the box.’ (Dat. of possession)
‘She was younger by six years.’ (Dat. of degree of difference)
‘The story was for me very sad.’ (Ethical Dat.)
‘Aeolus gave gifts to him in friendship.’ (Dat. of interest/benefit)
d. Accusative: used as the direct object of verbs, indicating the object or receiver of
an action. Also indicates that in regard to which something is true, and expresses
the concept of motion toward, extent of space, or time:
‘He killed the lion.’ (Acc. of direct object)
‘They fought a hard fight.’ (Cognate acc.) (the noun has a meaning
closely related to that of the verb)
‘He was swift of foot (= in regard to feet).’ (Acc. of respect)
‘They came the quickest way.’ (Adverbial acc.)
‘They came to the cave.’ (Acc. of place to which)
‘We marched ten days/ten miles.’ (Acc. of extent of time or space)
‘The messenger spoke to the king.’ (Acc. with. verbs. of speaking)
‘They considered him to be a fool.’ (Acc. in indirect statement)
‘They asked him (for) food.’ (Double acc.)
Note: Some of the meanings given above for genitive, dative, and accusative are
conveyed by the case ending itself; but some are conveyed by a preposition,
which in turn “takes” a particular case. Sometimes one preposition will have
different meanings, depending on the case of the noun that follows it. Examples
are seen in Section 19 below and in later lessons.
10
Lesson 6
19. MEMORIZE
mPÎ [prep. + gen.] away from, from
GkR [conj.; never first word] for
K [J before vowels] [prep. + gen.] out of
KA¸ [conj.] and; even, also
SÃN [prep. + dat.] with
N [prep. + dat.] in, on, among
P¸ [prep. + gen.] upon
[prep. +dat.] on, at, beside
[prep. + acc.] to, towards; after [in search or attack]
ÇPÎ [prep. + gen.] from under; under the influence of, = by [personal or impersonal agent]
[prep. + dat. ] under [at rest]
[prep. + acc.] under [motion to]
20. DRILL
Which construction of the dative is exemplified by the italicized words in the
following?
1. He was wounded by a spear.
2. They built him a house.
3. He died last month.
4. I fought with great bravery.
5. They offered me a reward.
6. The gods dwell in heaven.
7. Apollo gave him strength.
8. Will Odysseus give some wine to Polyphemus?
9. Accomplish for me this wish.
10. Grant me this prayer.
11. May he atone with tears.
12. You are hateful to me.
13. Stand on the highest peak.
14. Do me this favor.
15. There is no depth to him.
16. I helped with words and hands.
17. They took him away with a cry.
18. He lived in Ithaca.
19. I will not fight with you.
20. He angered me by his pride.
11
21. EXERCISE
Write original sentences illustrating six different uses of the genitive and accusative.
Underline and identify by name each construction.
22. PREPOSITION USE

For the sake of clarity, or to express relationships not indicated by the cases alone,
prepositions are used. In the following sentences, indicate what preposition with which
case you would use to express the italicized words in Greek. Refer to Section 19.
1. They came towards the city.
2. Release them from under the yoke.
3. She came out of the palace.
4. Drive the cattle upon the ship.
5. My father is in the city.
6. He was killed by Odysseus.
7. He sank under the sea.
8. Odysseus swam from the ship.
9. He lay on the raft.
10. The king came with many followers.
11. He slept under the trees.
12. The ship was lifted by the waves.
12
Lesson 7
The First Declension in -H
23. ENDINGS
In Section 18 we saw that the change in endings of nouns and adjectives is called
declension. But there are three different patterns according to which Greek noun-
and adjective-endings change, and each of these patterns is called a declension. Each
noun follows only one of these patterns, and is said to “belong to” either the first,
second or third declension. Adjectives, as we shall see a little later, generally belong
to more than one declension.
Within a declension, there are sub-classes. There are two are classes of nouns,
adjectives and participles in the first declension: Those ending inHand those ending
inA
Nouns, adjectives, participles inH add these endings:
Sg. Pl.
N. H AI
G. HW AVN
D. × ×SI
A. HN AW
ThusB¸H force is declined:

Sg. Pl.
N. B¸H B¸AI
G. B¸HW BIjVN
D. B¸× B¸×SIB¸×W
A. B¸HN B¸AW
24. GENDER
All first declension nouns ending inHandAare feminine in gender. It is
important to understand that gender as used here is a purely grammatical category
which does not coincide with sex, even though, in general, words that refer to living
things will be of the same grammatical gender as the sex of the living thing. Yet,
nouns that refer to inanimate things without sex still possess grammatical gender in
Greek. For example, our first declension paradigm noun, B¸H, is grammatically
feminine, even though the referent of “force” has no gender.
13
25. MEMORIZE
mLHYE¸HHW [f.] truth
mRETW [f.] manliness, virtue
B¸HHW [f.] force
D¸KHHW [f.] justice; custom
E»RNHHW [f.] peace
KALW [f. adj.] beautiful, noble
PTRHHW [f.] rock
CUXW [f.] soul; life
26. TRANSLATE
1. KALjVNmRETjVN
2. NmLHYE¸×
3. ÇPÏPTR×SI
4. mPÏCUXWKALW
5. JE»RNHW
6. P¹PTRAW
7. E»RNHCUX
8. mRETA¹NKALSICUXSI
9. P¹GkRPETRjVN
10. D¸KHKA¹E»RNH
27. PUT INTO GREEK

1. in peace 6. in the soul
2. for the noble soul 7. by force
3. upon the beautiful rocks 8. of souls
4. with justice 9. by virtues
5. the truths (as object) 10. of truth
28. WORD STUDY

There are over 500,000 English words that have been taken over by our language
from Greek! Most of these are technical terms in the sciences, but very many are
common words of daily life which an educated person is expected to know and be
able to use correctly. In this book, the most useful common words derived from the
Greek vocabulary of each lesson will be listed in a special section of the lesson called
Word Study. Use these word studies to a double advantage: to help you remember the
meaning of the Greek words themselves, and to build up your personal English vocab-
ulary for reading and expression. Careful attention to this part of the lesson day by
day will bring the substantial reward of a steadily expanding knowledge of important
English words; and you will know why they mean what they do, since you will have
14
Lesson 7
traced them back to their origin. See if you recognize the following from the
vocabulary above:
IRENIC, IRENE — SALTPETER — PSYCHIC, PSYCHOLOGY (from CUX
soul, + LÎGOW account, study, word).
15
Lesson 8
The First Declension in A
29. ENDINGS
Some nouns, adjectives and participles in the first declension have A in the
nominative and accusative singular, instead ofH. Feminine nouns, adjectives, and
participles in A add these endings:
Sg. Pl..
N. A AI
G. HW AVN
D. × ×SI
A. AN AW
Thus GAºAearth is declined:
Sg. Pl.
N. GAºA GAºAI
G. GA¸HW GAIjVN
D. GA¸× GA¸×SIGA¸×W
A. GAºAN GA¸AW
30. OMISSION OF VERB

Sometimes no verb is expressed in a Greek sentence. In such cases, is or are must be
understood.
E.g. PTRAIKALA¸ The rocks (are) beautiful.
D¸KHmRET Justice (is) a virtue.
(Notice the period! It indicates a complete sentence.)
31. MEMORIZE
mLLj [conj.] but
GAºAHW [f.] earth, land
DÎJAHW [f.] opinion; glory
DEºAHW [f. adj.; m. and n. to be introduced later] sweet, pleasant
YjLASSAHW [f.] sea
MND [correlative particles marking contrast] indeed ... but; on the
one hand....on the other;D[without MEN] but, however; and
OÆ [OÆK before smooth breathing, OÆX before rough breathing] not, no
16
Lesson 8
OÈTE and not, nor [following a negative clause]

OÈTEOÈTE neither .... nor
32. TRANSLATE
1. ÇPÏYjLASSAN
2. DEºAmLLkOÆKAL
3. P¹GA¸×
4. CUXA¹KALA¸
5. mLHYE¸HmRETCUXW
6. GA¸×MNOÆDYALjSS×
7. E»RNHDEºACUX
8. DÎJAMNOÆDE»RNH
9. E»RNHSÄND¸K×
10. ÇPÏGA¸HW
33. PUT INTO GREEK

1. on land and on sea
2. noble glory
3. Glory is sweet.
4. not beautiful and not pleasant
5. from the sea to the land
6. Truth and justice are virtues of the soul.
7. force indeed, but not justice
8. by noble souls
9. of truth
10. Justice is the rock of peace.
34. WORD STUDY

DOXOLOGY (a hymn in praise of God, as the Gloria in the Mass); —
GEOGRAPHY (GRjFV I draw; a drawing or description of the earth); — UTOPIA
(TÎPOW place; ‘no-place’, an imaginary idealized land or world, from St. Thomas
More’s famous book Utopia).
17
Lesson 9
Review of The First Declension
35. NOTE
All feminine nouns of the first declension, and the feminine of all adjectives and
participles, are declined asB¸Hor GAºA. If their nominative singular ends in H, they
follow the declension of B¸H. If in A, they follow GAºA.
N. B¸H B¸AI GAºA GAºAI
G. B¸HW BIjVN GA¸HW GAIjVN
D. B¸× B¸×SI GA¸× GA¸×SII
A. B¸HN B¸AW GAºAN GA¸AW
36. MEMORIZE
mGAYW [f. adj.] good, brave
A»E¸ [adv.] ever, always, forever
mNjGKHHW [f.] necessity, need
mRXW [f.] beginning
D [adv.] clearly, indeed
NÅN [adv.] now, at the present time
OÉTVW [adv.] thus, in this way, so
FVNW [f.] voice, sound
37. TRANSLATE
1. JmGAYWmRXW
2. FVNKAL
3. mRETA¹DmNjGKHCUXjVN
4. GAºAmGAY
5. mRETA¹DmNjGK×
6. JmLHYE¸HWmRXDÎJHW
7. NmRX
8. NÅNDmNjGKHE»RNHW
9. D¸KHA»E¹mGAY
10. OÉTVWmGAYSICUXSIA»E¹E»RNH
18
Lesson 9
38. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Peace with justice is always a necessity.
2. by necessity
3. Sweet is the voice of the sea.
4. The beginnings of virtue are not always sweet.
5. Necessity is sweet.
6. Virtue is the beginning of glory.
7. upon the rocks in the sea
8. Souls are not always noble.
9. with a pleasant voice
10. Justice is the soul of peace.
39. WORD STUDY

AGATHA — ARCHAIC (from the beginning, ancient), ARCHAEOLOGY (science
of ancient civilizations), ARCHETYPE (first pattern or model); — PHONETIC
(representing the sound, as a ‘phonetic alphabet’), PHONETICS (science of
determining the sounds of languages), PHONOGRAPH (GRjFV I write),
EARPHONE, DICTAPHONE (Latin dicta, sayings), SAXOPHONE (invented by
Sax), XYLOPHONE (JÅLON wood), SYMPHONY (SUN, a harmony of sounds with
one another).
19
Lesson 10
The Present and Imperfect Indicative and
The Present Infinitive of E»M¸I AM
40. TERMINOLOGY
In the classification of verb forms, indicative identifies the mood, which indicates the
type of statement that the verb is making. Indicative means that mood which
expresses or indicates situations of fact, in distinction to hypothesis, wish, command,
which are expressed by other verbal moods.
The infinitive is the most general expression of the verb’s action, unrestricted by
factors of who or how many. In other words, the infinitive has no person or number,
and so it is not conjugated. It is identified in English by the pre-form ‘to’—for
example, ‘to see’ is the infinitive of that verb, while ‘he sees, they saw,’ etc. are
indicative forms.
The present tense (time-frame) indicates an action going on, continuous, or
progressing. The imperfect specifies that the action was continuous in the past. Thus
‘She laughs/is laughing’ is in present tense, ‘She was laughing’ is imperfect. Note that,
in Greek, the same verb form is used for ‘She laughs’ as for ‘She is laughing.’ (More on
this in Lesson 16.)
The verbE»M¸is conjugated for you in Section 41. That is, it is shown in the first
person, second person and third person, both singular and plural. If a verb is in the
first person, its subject is I or we; if second person, you or you all; if third person, he,
she, it or they. If the subject is a single person or thing, then the verb is said to be
singular; the verb is plural if the subject is more than one person or thing.
41. FORMS
The verb to be, as in English, Latin, and other languages, is quite irregular. But it is a
very high frequency word (you will meet it hundreds of times in the present course).
Hence you must simply memorize it until you master it. Note: before a vowel, ST¸N
and E»S¸Nare used.
Verb paradigms will be presented throughout this text in the form you see here.
PRES. IND.
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. E»M¸ I am E»MN we are
2nd pers. SS¸E»W you are ST you (pl.) are
3rd pers. ST¸N he/she/it is E»S¸N they are
20
Lesson 10
IMPF. IND.
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. A I was MEN we were
2nd pers. SYA you were TE you all were
3rd pers. ENNHN he/she/it was SANSAN they were
PRES. INF.
EÁNAIMMENMMENAI to be
Notes:
1. The third person singular or plural may also be translated there is, there are,
there was, there were, in impersonal statements.
2. The subject of a verb in Greek is not always expressed. For example,E»M¸by
itself means “I am,” even without the pronoun G¢(“I”). In such a case,
the subject is said to be “in the verb” or “not expressed.”
42. MEMORIZE
AÁCA [adv.] quickly, suddenly
E» [conj.] if
E»W [prep. + acc.] into, to
KATj [prep. + gen.] down from; [prep. + acc.] down (along); throughout;
according to
POT [enclitic adv.] ever, (at) some time, once
PRÎW [prep. + gen.] from; [prep. + dat ] on, at; [prep. + acc.] to, towards
F¸LHHW [f. adj.] dear (to), friendly (to) [+ dat.]
43. TRANSLATE
1. SANPTRAINYALjSS×
2. KATkmLHYE¸HN
3. OÈPOTEENPRÏWPTR×
4. AÁCAE»WKALNGAºAN
5. NmNjGKHmLHYE¸HW
6. D¸KHSTINmNjGKHmGAYWE»RNHW
7. P¹GkRGA¸×NÅNE»MEN
8. E»RNHMNHNOÆDD¸KH
9. PRÏWYjLASSAN
10. mLHYE¸HST¹NA»E¹KAL
21
44. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Manliness is dear to good souls.
2. We were under the rocks.
3. There was a voice from the sea.
4. throughout the land
5. according to justice, not force
6. You (sg.) were on the land.
7. Truth was in the beginning.
8. down from the rocks
9. There is always glory in manliness.
10. Truth is a virtue.
45. WORD STUDY

CATACLYSM (KLUSMÎW deluge; hence, any overwhelming change ‘flooding down’
upon men’s lives), CATACOMB (KÃMBH a hollow place; therefore, a cave dug down
under the earth, as those in Rome), CATAPULT (PjLTHW hurler), CATALOG
(LGV—hence, an index of items going ‘down the list’ in order), CATASTROPHE
(STROFa turning; therefore, a sudden ‘downward shift’ in human affairs).
22
Lesson 11
The Second Declension—Masculine.
Adjectives: Agreement With Nouns, Substantives
46. FORMS
The second declension has two divisions: those whose nominative ends in OW are
masculine; those in ON are always neuter. Three exceptions (words in OW which are
feminine, not masculine) will be noted in the vocabularies when they first occur.
All masculine nouns, adjectives, and participles in OWhave the following endings:
Sg. Pl.
N. OW OI
G. OUOIO VN
D. ¡ OISIOIW
A. ON OUW
Thus YEÎWgod is declined:

Sg. Pl.
N. YEÎW YEO¸
G. YEOÅYEOºO YE¤N
D. YE¯ YEOºSIYEOºW
A. YEÎN YEOÃW
Notes:
1. Except for DEºAthe feminine forms of the adjectives introduced so far
have their masculine and neuter forms in the second declension:
masculine nominative neuter nominative
mGAY: mGAYÎW mGAYÎN
KAL : KALÎW KALÎN
F¸LH : F¸LOW F¸LON
2. Adjectives and participles (which are adjectival forms of verbs) agree with
the noun or pronoun that they go with in thought. They take the same type
of ending as the noun or pronoun they modify (nominative, genitive,
dative, or accusative case, singular or plural number, and masculine,
feminine, or neuter gender). Thus, ‘beautiful gods’ in the nominative plural
would be KALO¹YEO¸Because YEÎW is a masculine noun, the masculine
form of the adjective is used to modify it. Likewise,‘of a pleasant peace’
would be DE¸HWE»RNHWfeminine singular and genitive.
23
3. Sometimes the adjective is used alone, with the noun it modifies

unexpressed or “understood.” This substantive use of the adjective is also
possible in English, as in the sentence, “The rich get richer, and the poor get
poorer.” (= “The rich people get richer, and the poor people get poorer.”)
Here are some examples in Greek of substantives:
KALÎW (the) noble man
mGAYA¸ the) good women
mGAYÎN (the) good (thing)
4. Henceforth, adjectives will be listed only in the nominative form, with
masculine, feminine and neuter endings indicated (for example, KALÎW
ÎN nouns, on the other hand, will be listed in the nominative with their
genitive ending indicated (for example, LÎGOWOU [m.] word).
47. MEMORIZE
mGAYÎWÎN good, brave
oNYRVPOWOU [m.] man, human being
YEÎWOÅ [m., f.] god, goddess
»HTRÎWOÅ [m.] physician
KALÎWÎN beautiful, noble
LÎGOWOU [m.] word; account
MOÅNOWHON alone, only
NPIOWHON simple; foolish
SOFÎWÎN wise
ÇCHLÎWÎN high
F¸LOWHON dear (to), friendly (to) [+ dat.]
F¸LOWOU [m. adj. as noun] friend
48. TRANSLATE
1. LÎGOWSOFOÅSOFÎWSTIN
2. ÇCHLSIPTR×SI
3. mNYR¢PVNCUXjW
4. NHP¸OULÎGOIOÈPOTESOFO¸
5. F¸L¡MOÃN¡
6. D¸K×MOÃN×
7. LÎGOISI»HTR¤N
8. F¸LOWmNYR¢POISISOFOºSI
9. »HTRO¹SANmGAYO¸
10. YEÏWSOFÎWSTIN
24
Lesson 11
49. PUT INTO GREEK

1. of the wise physicians
2. He was not a friend of truth.
3. of the foolish man
4. by the force of truth
5. Physicians are noble.
6. down from the high rocks
7. Truth is a wise man’s glory.
8. Justice and peace are noble.
9. Gods are friendly to men.
10. by the words of wise men
50. READINGS
Note: In these READINGS sections from now on, actual quotations are given from
ancient Greek authors, and from the New Testament (originally written in Greek),
adapted where necessary to the special Homeric forms. You are therefore already
reading authentic Greek literature selections!
1. MOÅNOWSOFÎWSTINLEÃYEROW (Stoic motto)
2. LÃPHW»HTRÎWSTINmNYR¢POISILÎGOW (Menander)
3. NmRXNLÎGOWKA¹LÎGOWNSÄNYE¯KA¹LÎGOWNYEÎW (St. John)
4. DÎJANÇCHLOºSIYE¯KA¹P¹GA¸HWE»RNHNmNYR¢POIWEÆDOK¸HW (St.
Luke)
5. NPIÎWE»MISKjFHNSKjFHNLGV (Fragment of a Greek comedy)
6. KATkmLHYE¸HNMOÅNOWmGAYÎWSTITIMHTÎW (Aristotle)
LEÃYEROWHON free
EÆDOK¸HHW [f.] good will
LGV I call, I say (that something is something)
LÃPHHW [f.] grief
SKjFHHW [f.]tub
TIMHTÎWÎN deserving of honor
Note: In all Readings, including the Homer passages from Lesson 61 on, words
not assigned for memory are explained below the text. All memory words
can be found in the Vocabulary at the end of the book.
51. WORD STUDY

PHILANTHROPIST (one who is friendly to other men and helps them),
ANTHROPOLOGY (science of man in his physical history); — THEISM,
THEOLOGY (study of God), THEOCENTRIC, THEOPHILUS;—
PSYCHIATRIST (healer of souls or minds); — GEOLOGY (GAºA or Gstudy of
the earth’s formation), the suffix -(O)LOGY ending a word means ‘scientific study of ’
that thing; DECALOG (DKA 10; the Ten Commandments); LOGIC, LOGICAL
(correct thinking, thought and word being but two sides of the same process),
25
LOGARITHM (mRIYMÎW number [Cp. ARITHMETIC]; list of numbers) —

MONOLOGUE (a speech by only one person), MONARCH, MONARCHY
(oRXV I rule; government by one supreme head), MONK (MÎNAXOW, from XV I
hold; hence, ‘one holding alone’, living away from other men), MONOPLANE (with
Latin planus, therefore, one-surfaced, one-winged), MONOGRAM (GRjMMA letter;
two or more letters intertwined into one), MONOGRAPH (GRjFV I write; a
complete or scholarly essay on one subject), MONOMANIAC (MAN¸Hmadness; a
person made crazy by concentrating on one idea), MONOSYLLABLE,
MONOTHEISM (belief in one God), MONOTONE, MONOTONOUS (TON
pitch; in one unvaried tone or pitch); — PHILOSOPHY, PHILOSOPHER (lover of
wisdom), PHILOLOGY (love of learning; science of languages), FRANCOPHILE,
etc. (lover of France, etc.); — SOPHIST (wise man; now = a pretender at wisdom),
SOPHISM (falsely wise argument); — TIMOTHY (‘honored by God’).
26
Lesson 12
The Second Declension—Neuter
52. FORMS
All neuter nouns, adjectives, and participles of second declension add these endings.
Notice that the accusative is always the same as the nominative:
Sg. Pl.
N. ON A
G. OUOIO VN
D. ¡ OISI
A. ON A
Thus RGON work is declined:
Sg. Pl.
N. RGON RGA
G. RGOURGOIO RGVN
D. RG¡ RGOISIRGOIW
A. RGON RGA
53. NOTE
A neuter plural subject generally takes a singular verb.
E.g.,DNDREjSTINÇCHLj The trees are high.
54. MEMORIZE
B¸OWOU [m.] life
DNDREONOU [n.] tree
D¸KAIOWHON just, honorable
E¾NEKA [prep. + gen.] on account of, for the sake of
YjNATOWOU [m.] death
KAKÎWÎN cowardly, bad, evil
ÒMOºOWHON like to, similar to [+ dat.]
PTÎLEMOWOU [m.] war
XRUSÎWOÅ [m.] gold
27
55. TRANSLATE
1. NB¸¡DIKA¸¡ 6. NDIKA¸×E»RN×
2. DNDREAÇCHLj 7. YjNATOWOÆKA»E¹KAKÎW
3. E¾NEKAPTOLMOIO 8. E¾NEKAmNYR¢PVNDIKA¸VN
4. ÒMOºÎNSTIXRUS¯ 9. E¾NEKAmRETjVN
5. DNDREÎNSTIKALÎN 10. DNDREAENKALj
56. PUT INTO GREEK
1. under the high tree 6. down from the tree
2. Life is a war. 7. death in war
3. by a cowardly death 8. We were always just.
4. The trees were good. 9. by means of gold
5. wars for the sake of peace 10. from under the trees
57. READINGS
1. ÒMOºÎNSTINÒMO¸¡F¸LON (Greek Proverb)
2. OÆGkRXRUSÎWOÈTEP¹GA¸HWOÈTEÇPÏGA¸HWmRETSTIN
ÁSOW (Plato)
3. E»RNHOÈKSTINE¾NEKAPOLMOIOmLLkPÎLEMÎWSTINE¾NEKAE»RNHW
(Aristotle)
4. OÆKSTINKAKÏNmNYR¢P¡mGAY¯OÈTENB¸¡OÈTEN
YANjT¡ (Plato)
5. D¸KHKA¹D¸KAIÎNSTIKALÎN (Plato)
ÁSOWHON equal to
58. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Only the good man’s life is truly life. [For “truly” use KATkmLHYE¸HN.]
2. Truth is the soul’s life.
3. There is a lofty tree beside the sea.
59. WORD STUDY

BIO-CHEMISTRY (chemistry of living things), BIOLOGY, BIOGRAPHY,
BIOGRAPHER (GRjFV I write); — RHODODENDRON (a flowery shrub
somewhat like the rose,ÎDOW); — “Thanatopsis” (Bryant’s poem, the title
meaning “a vision of Death”); — CACOPHONY (clashing uproar of unpleasant
sounds); — HOMEOTHERAPY (YERAPE¸Acuring; hence, medical curing by
treating with small doses of a germ like that to be conquered); — POLEMIC
(controversial, disputing) — CHRYSANTHEMUM (oNYEMON flower; ‘goldflower’)
28
Lesson 13
Review of the First and Second Declension;
Types of Nouns, Adjectives, and Participles
60. ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES

There are two types of adjectives and participles:
a. Masculine and neuter are declined according to the second declension; feminine
is declined according to the first declension in H. See Section 61.
b. Masculine and neuter are declined according to the third declension; feminine is
declined according to the first declension in A. (Third declension forms will be
seen in Lessons 27 and 29).
61. DECLENSION
Therefore adjectives and participles that have OW in the masculine will have Hin the
feminine and ON in the neuter. Here is the complete declension of KALÎWÎN
beautiful, noble.
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER
Sg.
N. KALÎW KAL KALÎN
G. KALOÅ KALW KALOÅ
D. KAL¯ KAL KAL¯
A. KALÎN KALN KALÎN
Pl.
N. KALO¸ KALA¸ KALj
G. KAL¤N KALjVN KAL¤N
D. KALOºSIKALOºW KALSIKALW KALOºSIKALOºW
A. KALOÃW KALjW KALj
Note: Adjectives have gender, number and case, just as nouns do. Some, like
KALÎWÎN resemble nouns of the first and second declension, while
others in their masculine and neuter forms resemble nouns of a declension
we have yet to meet.
62. MEMORIZE
D¤RONOU [n.] gift
RGONOU [n.] work, deed
SYLÎWÎN noble, excellent
29
YUMÎWOÅ [m.] heart, spirit

JEºNOWOU [m.] guest, stranger
ÑL¸GOWHON small, few
SXTLIOWHON cruel, pitiless; reckless
T [postpositive conj.] and
T…T both…and
T…KA¸ both…and
63. TRANSLATE
1. D¤RjSTINÑL¸GA 6. JEºNO¸E»SIF¸LOIYEOºSI
2. F¸LOWJE¸NOIWEN 7. P¹ÑL¸G×PTR×
3. NSYL¯YUM¯ 8. mRETA¹SYLjVNCUXjVN
4. RGOIWSXETL¸OIW 9. mRXSTINmGAY
5. SÃNTEKALOºSIKA¹KAKOºSI 10. D¤RAENKALjTEF¸LATE
64. PUT INTO GREEK

1. gifts for the noble stranger 6. towards the high rocks
2. death on the pitiless sea 7. The men are cruel.
3. gifts small indeed but dear 8. The bad are always foolish.
4. by just works 9. Gold was the beginning of the evil deeds.
5. of the excellent physician 10. The deeds were not noble.
65. READINGS
1. PRÏWGkRYEOÅE»SIJEºNO¸TEPTVXO¸TE (Homer)
2. YEO¸TE»SIKA¸E»SID¸KAIOI (Plato)
3. OÆMNSXTLIARGAST¹F¸LAYEOºSImLLkD¸KHKA¹mGAYkRGA
(Homer)
4. oNYRVPOWKPE¸RHWST¹NmGAYÏWKA¹SOFÎW (Plato)
5. mGAY¤NmNYR¢PVNSYLÏWMNSTILÎGOWSYLkD
RGA (Theognis)
6. ÑL¸GOND¤RONmLLkmPÏYUMOÅ (Greek Anthology)
PTVXÎWOÅ [m.] beggar

PE¸RHHW [f.] experience
66. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Death for the sake of justice and virtue is always noble.
2. Gold is an evil for foolish men, but a good for the just in heart.
3. A coward’s life is, indeed, like to death.
30
Lesson 13
67. WORD STUDY

THEODORE, DOROTHY (‘gift of God’), ISIDORE (Isis, Egyptian goddess); —
ERG (measure of work done, a unit of energy in physics), ENERGY (inner force for
work); — OLIGARCH, OLIGARCHY (oRXVI rule; government by the few); —
EMPIRIC, EMPIRICAL (based on experience or experiment; drawn from
observation, not theory, ‘empirical psychology’).
31
Lesson 14
The Declension and Meaning of
Intensive and Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives
68. MEANINGS
Pronouns are used instead of specific nouns, to designate persons and things more
generically. (e.g., he, they instead of Hector, Trojans) There are several types, two of
which are introduced here. Each of these pronouns can be used as adjectives as well
(e.g., those Trojans).
a. The intensive pronoun/adjective (self, same, very; himself, herself, itself ) AÆTÎW
AÆTAÆTÎgives force or emphasis to the noun it modifies or represents. For
example, CUXAÆTthe soul itself (intensive adjective) or AÆTO¸they
themselves (intensive pronoun).
b. Demonstrative pronouns/adjectives “point out” nouns. The demonstrative
KEºNOWKE¸NHKEºNO that, that one (plural those) describes
something that is relatively distant in space or time: KE¸NOUDENDROU of that
tree (cf. the somewhat archaic yonder tree). The demonstrative equivalent to
English this, these will be presented in the next lesson.
69. FORMS
These pronouns/adjectives are declined according to the first and second declensions,
except that -ON of the neuter is shortened to -O. Thus:
M. F. N.
Sg.
N. AÆTÎW AÆT AÆTÎ
G. AÆTOÅAÆTOºO AÆTW AÆTOÅAÆTOºO
D. AÆT¯ AÆT AÆT¯
A. AÆTÎN AÆTN AÆTÎ
Pl.
N. AÆTO¸ AÆTA¸ AÆTj
G. AÆT¤N AÆTjVNAÆT¤N AÆT¤N
D. AÆTOºSI AÆTSI AÆTOºSI
A. AÆTOÃW AÆTjW AÆTj
Sg.
N. KEºNOW KE¸NH KEºNO
G. KE¸NOU KE¸NHW KE¸NOU
32
Lesson 14
M. F. N.
D. KE¸N¡ KE¸N× KE¸N¡
A. KEºNON KE¸NHN KEºNO
Pl.
N. KEºNOI KEºNAI KEºNA
G. KE¸NVN KEINjVNKEºNVN KE¸NVN
D. KE¸NOISI KE¸N×SI KE¸NOISI
A. KE¸NOUW KE¸NAW KEºNA
70. NOTE
a. When standing alone, AÆTÎWÎ and KEºNOWHO are pronouns; when
modifying a noun they have adjectival force. Cp. Latin ipse and ille.
b. Occasionally AÆTÎW, when not in the nominative or beginning a clause, lacks
the intensive sense and is merely an unemphatic him, her, it. E.g., D¤RAmPÏ
AÆTOÅ gifts from him.
71. MEMORIZE
GGÃW [adv.; prep. + gen.] near
TEROWHON (the) other
MTEROWHON our
KARPÎWOÅ [m.] fruit
ÑFYALMÎWOÅ [m.] eye
POLLÎWÎN much; many
PÎNOWOU [m.] toil, trouble
POTAMÎWOÅ [m.] river
72. TRANSLATE
1. GGÄWYALjSSHW 6. mRETA¹AÆTA¸E»SINNCUX
2. POLLjVNmRETjVN 7. NB¸¡METR¡
3. AÆTO¸E»SISOFO¸ 8. E¾NEKAAÆTOºOPOLMOIO
4. ÇPÏAÆTkWPTRAW 9. JKE¸NVNPÎNVNDÎJA
5. KKE¸NHWmRXW 10. KARPÏWPOLLÏWP¹KE¸NOISIDENDROISI
33
73. PUT INTO GREEK

1. in our noble hearts 6. That peace was not just.
2. among those rocks 7. near that small river
3. for the wise man himself 8. The other tree is high.
4. of the same men 9. Those are the words of a wise man.
5. under those high trees 10. There were many rivers in the same land.
74. READINGS
1. F¸LOWGjRSTINTEROWAÆTÎW (Aristotle)
2. POLLkOÈKSTINAÆTkA»E¸ (Plato)
75. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Manliness of soul is an excellent gift.
2. The words of a noble friend are life to the soul.
3. Even a small gift from a good man is dear, if from the heart.
76. WORD STUDY

HETERODOX (holding a different opinion than the commonly accepted one,
especially in religion), HETEROGENEOUS (GNOW kind, race; of different kinds or
elements); — OPHTHALMIA (inflammation of the eyes); — HIPPOPOTAMUS
(¾PPOW horse; ‘riverhorse’); — AUTOBIOGRAPHY (a life written by the person
himself ), AUTOMOBILE (Latin mobile; ‘self-moving). AUTOGRAPH (one’s own
signature), AUTOCRACY, AUTOCRAT (KRjTOW power; ‘self-governing’),
AUTONOMY, AUTONOMOUS (NÎMOW law; ‘self-ruling’, independent),
AUTOSUGGESTION (convincing oneself of undergoing some experience, as
suffering from a supposed headache until it becomes real), AUTOGYRO
(‘selfrotator’, since the revolving wing rotor is not power-driven as in the helicopter),
AUTHENTIC (NTHW author; ‘by the author himself ’, genuine, original),
AUTHENTICITY, AUTHENTICATE (make authoritative).
34
Lesson 15
The Declension and Meaning of ÒTÎ
and the Demonstrative ÔDEDETÎDE
77. FORMS
M. F. N.
Sg.
N. Ò TÎ
G. TOÅTOºO TW TOÅTOºO
D. T¯ T T¯
A. TÎN TN TÎ
Pl.
N. O¼TO¸ A¼TA¸ Tj
G. T¤N TjVN T¤N
D. TOºSITOºW TSITW TOºSITOºW
A. TOÃW TjW Tj
Sg.
N. ÔDE DE TÎDE
G. TOÅDETOºODE TSDE TOÅDETOºODE
D. T¯DE TDE T¯DE
A. TÎNDE TNDE TÎDE
Pl.
N. O¾DETO¸DE A¾DETA¸DE TjDE
G. T¤NDE TjVNDET¤NDE T¤NDE
D. TOºSIDE TSIDE TOºSIDE
A. TOÃSDE TjSDE TjDE
Note: The dative masculine/neuter plural is sometimes TOºSDESSIinstead of

TOºSIDE
78. USES
a. ÒTÎis the most common pronoun in Greek. It has three meanings: When
it modifies a noun, it has the force of a weak demonstrative adjective: that,
occasionally equivalent to the. When it has a definite antecedent, it has the force
35
of a relative: who, which, what. This use and meaning will be explained in a later
lesson. Finally, when it merely stands in place of a noun already mentioned, it
has the force of a personal pronoun: he, she, it, that.
b. In the nominative plural, TO¸ and TA¸are never used as pronouns. They are
frequently used as demonstratives, and for relative force.
c. ÔDEDETÎDE a strengthened form of ÒTÎ, is always demonstrative
(adjective or pronoun), this (one). It refers to what is near in place, time, or
thought.
d. Examples:
(1). as demonstrative adjective:
TOºODENDROIOKARPO¸E»SIKALO¸mLLkTOÅDEE»S¹KAKO¸
The fruits of that tree are fine, but this one’s are bad.
(2). as personal pronoun:
ÔDEST¹F¸LOWMETROWTOÅLÎGOIE»S¹SOFO¸
This man is our friend. His (= of him) words are wise.
79. MEMORIZE
BROTÎWÎN mortal, human
ÎWÎN own; his, her
YHSAURÎWOÅ [m.] treasure
YNHTÎWÎN mortal
KRATERÎWÎN strong
NÎOWOU [m.] mind
NOÅSOWOU [f.] disease
PONHRÎWÎN worthless, base, wicked
XALEPÎWÎN difficult
80. TRANSLATE
1. TOºSIYjNATOWOÆXALEPÎW
2. KEºNOIPONHRO¸E»SIT¤NRGAST¹KAKj
3. TOºONÎOWENKRATERÎW
4. T¤NDEPÎNVNKARPÏWDÎJA
5. DENDROISIÔDEPOTAMÎWSTINmGAYÎW
6. GGÄWTWPTRHWNYHSAURÎW
7. A¾DEOÈKE»SIPONHRA¸mLLkTjVNXALEPÎWSTIB¸OW
8. OºSIF¸LOIWmGAYÎWSTIYHSAURÎW
9. TWÑFYALMO¹SANKALO¸
10. DEST¹NmRXTOÅLÎGOU
36
Lesson 15
81. WRITE IN GREEK

1. The fruit of our tall tree is abundant. [“abundant” = “much”]
2. That account is not opinion, but the truth.
3. The man is Truth’s friend and is clearly our friend also.
82. WORD STUDY

AMBROSE (mMBRÎSIOWfor mMBRÎTIOW im-mortal); — THESAURUS (a
dictionary of words arranged by synonyms, etc.), TREASURE, TREASURY (by
change in pronunciation from ‘thesury’).
37
Lesson 16
A Map of the Greek Verb
Note: This lesson is not as hard as it looks! Its purpose is to provide you with an
overall view of the divisions of the Greek verb, so that when you learn these various
divisions one by one in coming lessons you will understand how they fit into the
whole grammatical picture. It tells us what the verb divisions are, and what they mean,
before you deal with their actual forms or verb endings. As you will see by turning to
Appendix A at the end of the book, these endings are quite simple, and many of them
are alike. Before long, as you work through later lessons, this will all become clear and
familiar. This ‘map’ will help you on your way. Don’t expect to remember it all now,
but use it for frequent reference to keep your bearings. Besides, there is only one
conjugation in Greek—not four, as in Latin; and it is not nearly as complicated as the
verb-system in many other languages, such as Russian.
This lesson should be spread over two days. On the first day, study Sections 83, 84,
86; on the second, Sections 85, 87, 88 and review the whole.
83. DIVISIONS OF THE VERB

a. This lesson includes a “map” of the Greek verb. Every verb form you will meet
can be located in one of the squares on this chart.
b. Notice that there are eight possible systems. A system is the collection of all the
verb forms which are derived from the same stem. Scarcely any Greek verb has
all eight systems or stems. Most verbs have six, and these are indicated, as in
Latin, by the principal parts of that verb, as given in the vocabulary.
c. There are three voices:
(1). Active voice: the subject acts upon something else.
E.g., They washed the clothes.
(2). Middle voice: the subject acts on himself or for himself.
E.g., They washed themselves.
They washed their clothes. (= They washed clothes for themselves.)
(3). Passive voice: the subject is acted upon by someone else.
E.g., The clothes were washed by them.
d. There are four moods (i.e., types or qualities of meaning), besides the infinitive
and participles, namely: Indicative (for statements of fact), Subjunctive
(implying subordination, dependence, intention), Optative (for wishes and
hypothetical quality), Imperative (for commands). Rules for their use will be
seen in later lessons.
38
Lesson 16
e. There are six tenses. In all the moods, each tense expresses a different aspect. By
aspect is meant whether the verbal action is viewed as a) in progress, b)
completed, or c) simple, that is, occurring without completion or incompletion
specified. Sometimes, as in the indicative mood, tense gives information about
time-value (i.e., whether the verbal action is in present, past, or future time).
The tenses in the indicative mood have the following significance of time and
aspect: Present (indicating an action in the present time and of progressive
aspect), Imperfect (past time, progressive aspect), Future (future time and
either in progress or simple), Aorist (past time, with simple aspect), Perfect
(present time, completed), Pluperfect (past time, already completed earlier).
For some grammatical relationships, the tenses are divided into two classes:
PRIMARY TENSES SECONDARY TENSES
Present Imperfect
Future Aorist
Perfect Pluperfect
f. Verbs that are conjugated so as to reflect person and number are called finite.
The indicative, subjunctive, optative and imperative are referred to as finite
moods because verbs in these moods show person and number.
84. MEANING OF THE TENSES

a. In the indicative, all six tenses are used, with the differences in meaning
indicated above in #83e. In the indicative mood the meanings of the tenses for
the English verb ‘write’ are as follows:
PAST TIME PRESENT TIME FUTURE TIME
COMPLETED pluperfect perfect future perfect
ASPECT I had written I have written I shall have written
PROGRESSIVE imperfect present future
ASPECT I was writing I am writing I shall be writing
SIMPLE aorist present future
ASPECT I wrote I write I shall write
Notes:
1. To express simple past action (e.g., He spoke), Homer sometimes uses the
imperfect, rather than the aorist— implying but not stressing the
continuing nature of the action.
2. The future perfect tense is not introduced in this book, because of its
rarity in Homer (as in Ancient Greek generally).
b. In the subjunctive, optative, and imperative there are only three tenses. Only
three are needed. Why? Because in the subjunctive, optative and imperative the
different tenses do not denote a difference of time but only of kind of action, or
aspect. The present has the idea of the continuance of action (irrespective of
when the action occurred); the aorist has the idea of a simple occurrence of an
39
action (no matter when it happened); and the perfect (which is rarely used in
these moods) has the idea of completion with finality.
For example:
1. Honor thy father and mother. The present imperative is used.
2. Meet me at nine o’clock. The aorist imperative is used.
3. Die, then, and go to your ancestors. The perfect imperative is used.
c. In the infinitive, also, the tenses represent aspect or kind of action, not time,
except in accusative and infinitive construction. On the relationship of tenses in
indirect statement, see the note under Section 114b3).
d. In the participle, the tenses indicate time of action—but in relation to that of
the main verb. Thus:
1. Hearing this (present participle), I marveled. (contemporaneous action)
2. I came, being about to ask (future participle) what had happened.
(subsequent to main action)
3. Having said this (aorist participle), I walked away. (antecedent to main action)
4. After dying (perfect participle), he was forever honored. (completed before
main action)
e. Henceforth, in the MEMORIZE vocabularies, the tense-systems of verbs will
be indicated by listing the verb’s Principal Parts— the first singular active
indicative form of the Present, Future, Aorist, Perfect, Perfect Middle/Passive
and Aorist Passive. For most verbs, only those principal parts are assigned for
memory which actually occur in the Homer readings in this book.
85. MEMORIZE
A»SXRÎWÎN shameful
G¸GN¢SKVGN¢SOMAIGN¤N I know
GNVKAGNVSMAIGN¢SYHN
L¸YOWOU [m.] stone
LÃVLÃSVLÃSALLUKA I loose, I release
LLUMAILÃYHN
ÓLBOWOU [m.] happiness, prosperity
ÒRjVÓCOMAI½DON¢RAKA I see, I look at
¢RAMAIÓFYHN
H¸DIOWHON easy
XRÎNOWOU [m.] time
86. QUIZ IN MAP ANALYSIS

1. Which systems of the Greek verb are confined to the active voice?
2. Which to the passive voice?
3. What moods does the future system lack? The perfect middle system?
4. What is similar about the way the imperfect and the pluperfect fit into the
general line-up of the verb?
40
Lesson 16
5. Name all possible infinitives, stating both tense and voice.

6. Which tenses and voices have no imperative listed?
7. Which aorist has no middle forms?
8. What principal part supplies the stem for the passive of all aorists—first, second
and third?
9. The fourth principal part of a verb cannot be used in which third(s) of the map:
top, middle or bottom? Why?
10. In what mood alone can an imperfect occur?
87. PLOTTING SITUATIONS ON THE MAP

State in full (by tense, mood, voice) the precise block of the map in which the
underlined portions of the following sentences belong. (The number in parentheses
after the sentence indicates how many forms are to be explained, lest the compound
English forms mislead you).
1. They were walking along the shore. (1)
2. He intends to burn the new tie that she gave him. (2)
3. I have never been so praised before. (1)
4. While defending himself, he was wounded and died. (3)
5. I am coming, mother! (1)
6. Give me that translation! (1)
7. Socrates repeatedly said, ”Do always only what is right.” (1)
8. It will be glorious to be respected by all, he said daily. (3)
9. We had left already before he came. (2)
10. They made themselves a fortune, but will be hated by those who have been
defrauded. (3)
88. WORD STUDY

GNOSTICS (ancient heretical sect claiming inner ‘knowledge’ of religious truths); —
MONOLITH (a structure carved from a single block of stone), LITHOGRAPH
(printing from stone or metal plate carrying design in soapy ink); — ANALYZE
(mNj up; to ‘break up’ or dissolve into parts for better understanding), CATALYST
(KATj —; a chemical agent which helps ‘break down’ or change chemicals without
being changed itself ), ELECTROLYSIS (to loose or break up chemical compounds
by an electric current; — ELECTRIC is from the word for amber, easily electrified by
friction), LYSOL (a dissolving disinfectant); — CHRONOLOGICAL (in ‘order of
time’, as a chronological chart of American presidents), CHRONIC (continuing a
long time, lingering, as ‘chronic rheumatism’), CHRONICLE (a register of events in
the order of time occurrence, a history), SYNCHRONIZE (put into same time or
beat with something else, as to ‘synchronize watches or gears’); — AUTOPSY (‘seeing
for oneself,’ especially in coroner’s examination of body to determine cause of death).
41
MAP OF THE GREEK VERB

SYSTEMS
(principal parts)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
1st 2nd 3rd m.-p. Aor.
Pres. Fut. Aor. Aor. Aor. Pf. Pf. Pass.
ACTIVE VOICE:
pres. ind. ind. ind. ind. ind. pf. ind. — —
impf. ind. plpf. ind.
subj. — subj. subj. subj. subj. — —
opt. [opt.] opt. opt. opt. opt. — —
impt. — impt. impt. impt. impt. — —
inf. inf. inf. inf. inf. inf. — —
ptc. ptc. ptc. ptc. ptc. ptc. — —
MIDDLE VOICE:
pres. ind. ind. ind. — — — pf. ind. —
subj. — subj. subj. — — [subj.] —
opt. [opt.] opt. opt. — — [opt.] —
impt. — impt. impt. — — impt. —
inf. inf. inf. inf. — — inf. —
ptc. ptc. ptc. ptc. — — ptc. —
PASSIVE VOICE:
pres. ind. [ind.] — — — — pf. ind. ind.
subj. — — — — — [subj.] subj.
opt. [opt.] — — — — [opt.] opt.
impt. — — — — — [impt.] impt.
inf. [inf.] — — — — inf. inf.
ptc. [ptc.] — — — — ptc. ptc.
Notes:
1. Forms in brackets are not presented in this book, either because they are not
Homeric, or are exceedingly rare.
2. There is no spot on this chart for the Future Perfect, which is formed on the
stem of the perfect middle, though it is generally passive in sense.
42
Lesson 17
The Present and Imperfect Indicative Active.
Constructions in Statements of Fact, and of Past Contrary to Fact
89. STEM AND ENDINGS

The stem of the present system is obtained from the first principal part (the present
indicative active), by dropping the ending. Thus LÃV = I loose, present stem LU.
The endings are these:
PRES. IND. ENDINGS

Sg. Pl.
1st pers. V OMEN
2nd pers. EIW ETE
3rd pers. EI OUSIN
PRES. IND.
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. LÃV I loose LÃOMEN we loose
2nd pers. LÃEIW you loose LÃETE you loose
3rd pers. LÃEI he/ she/ it looses LÃOUSIN they loose
IMPF. IND. ENDINGS
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. ON OMEN
2nd pers. EW ETE
3rd pers. E ON
IMPF. IND.
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. LÃON I was loosing LÃOMEN we were loosing
2nd pers. LÃEW you were loosing LÃETE you were loosing
3rd pers LÃE he/ she/ it was loosing LÃON they were loosing
90. NÅ MOVABLE
Words ending in SI, and the third person singular ending in E may add an extra
letter N, called “NÅmovable”, before a vowel or at the end of the sentence,
occasionally before a consonant. A few other words also take NÅmovable, as you
will see when you meet them. (Cp. English: a pear, an apple.)
43
91. USES OF THE INDICATIVE

a. The indicative (all tenses) without a particle is the mood of fact, as in English.
The negative is OÆ.
Examples:
OÆLGVTÎDE I do not say this.
BROTO¹YNSKOUSIN Mortals die.
b. Contrary to Fact Conditions: With the particles oN or KEN [untranslatable,
merely giving a less factual turn to the thought], the indicative is used in
contrary to fact conditional sentences in present or past time. The imperfect or
aorist tense is used in both clauses; oN or KEN in conclusion only. The negative
is M in the if-clause, but OÆ in the conclusion.
Examples:
E»MA»E¹EÍDENPOLLjKEMjNYANEN
If he were not always sleeping, he would be learning many things.
E»D¤RAFREFILOMENqNAÆTÎN
If he were bearing gifts, we would love (=be loving) him.
Note: The if-clause (called a protasis) in a contrary-to-fact condition contains a

supposition which the speaker believes to be false. The conclusion (called an
apodosis) is based on this unreal supposition. Thus, in the examples above,
he is, in fact always sleeping (and therefore is not learning much), and he is
not bearing gifts (so we do not love him).
92. MEMORIZE
oGVoJVoGAGON I lead
EÉDVEÇDSVEÉDHSA I sleep
YNSKVYANOMAIYjNON I die
LGV I say, I tell; I call
MANYjNVMAYSOMAIMjYON I learn
M not;MHDand not, nor, not even
FRVO½SVNEIKA I bear, I bring
FILVFILSVF¸LHSA I love
¦W <adv. and conj.] as, that, how
93. TRANSLATE
1. TÎDELGEIWAÆTÎW
2. ÏNF¸LONOÆGIGN¢SKEI
3. KEºNOIFRONL¸YON
4. E»MLGEWOÆKqNG¸GNVSKON
44
Lesson 17
5. OÈKEMANYjNETEmLHYE¸HNE»MYNSKEN
6. mRETFREIÓLBON
7. A»E¹EÉDETE
8. KA¹mGAYO¹YNSKOUSIN
9. NOÅSOIFRONYjNATON
10. MTERARGAOÈKSTINA»SXRj
94. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Did you (sg.) know that?
2. Gold does not always bring happiness.
3. Mortals do not know much.
4. If he were not dying, he would not be sleeping.
5. If it were bad, we would not love it.
6. Men love gold and treasures.
7. A strong mind knows the truth.
8. He kept saying, “I know, I know.”
9. Time brings both good and bad.
10. We see many stones in that river.
95. READINGS
1. mPÏXYR¤NDPOLLkMANYjNOUSISOFO¸ (Aristophanes)
2. A»E¹TÏNÒMOºONoGEIYEÏWPRÏWTÏNÒMOºON (Homer)
3. OÆXEÉDEIYEOÅÑFYALMÎWGGÄWDSTINmNYR¢PVN
PÎNOIW (Stobaeus)
4. PÎNOWGjR¦WLGOUSIDÎJHWmRXSTIN (Euripides)
5. KAKÏNFROUSIKARPÏNKAKO¹F¸LOI (Menander)
XYRÎWÎN hateful
NOWHON young, new
96. WORD STUDY

MATHEMATICS (MjYON); — PERIPHERY (PER¸ around, about; the line which
‘carries around’ the area of a body, its circumference or surface); — NEO- a prefix
meaning “new, revived”, as in NEO-PLATONIC, NEO-SCHOLASTICISM, NEO-
CLASSICAL, NEO-LITHIC (an archeological period, the New Stone Age), NEON
(the ‘new’ element, when discovered in 1898);— CHRISTOPHER (‘Christ-bearer’).
45
Lesson 18
The Present Subjunctive Active; The Subjunctive of E»M¸
Hortatory and Purpose Constructions
97. ENDINGS
PRES. SUBJ. ENDINGS PRES. SUBJ. SUBJ. OF E»M¸
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. V VMEN LÃV LÃVMEN « «MEN
2nd. pers. ×W HTE LÃ×W LÃHTE W TE
3rd pers. × VSIN LÃ× LÃVSIN «SI
Notes:
1. These endings are similar to the present indicative, the vowels merely
becoming long, and iota being subscribed when it occurs.
2. No translation of the subjunctive is given with the paradigm because the
translation of a subjunctive varies according to the type of construction in
which it appears. For some examples, see Section 98 below.
98. USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE

a. Hortatory: Requested or proposed actions referring to the speaker himself,
alone or among others, are put into the subjunctive. Negative M.
Examples:
MLGVMENA»SXRj Let us not say shameful things.
D¤RONFRV Let me carry the gift.
b. Purpose: purpose clauses are introduced by ¾NA¨WÔPVWor ÓFRA= that,
in order that, to. After a primary main verb they take the subjunctive, sometimes
also after a secondary main verb. Negative ¾NAM¦WMÔPVWMÓFRA
M, occasionally M alone.
Examples:
OÆLGEI¾NAMGIGN¢SKVMEN
He does not tell, (in order) that we may not know.
D¤RAYEOºSIFROMENÓFRAmNYR¢POUWFILVSIN
We bring gifts to the gods, (in order) that they may love men.
99. MEMORIZE
NNPVN¸CVNISPON I say, I tell
PE¸ [conj.] when; since
XVJV or SXSVSXÎN or SXYON I have, I hold
46
Lesson 18
¾NA [adv.] where; [conj.] that, in order that, to

KEÃYVKEÃSVKÃYON I hide
ÔPVW [conj.]that, in order that, to
ÔTI [conj.] that; because
ÓFRA [conj.] that, in order that, to
PARXVPARJV or PARASXSVPARjSXON I supply
[Note: A compound verb is a verb (XV) prefixed with a preposition (PARj); in some of the forms of com-
pound verbs, as here in the case of PARXV the spelling of the prefix may be altered because of the vowel or
consonant which follows it.]
ZVJVJA I do
100. TRANSLATE
1. mLHYE¸HNA»E¹NNPVMEN
2. EÉDOMEN¾NAMYNSKVMEN
3. D¸KHNFILEIÓFRAÓLBONX×
4. XALEPkDFRVMEN
5. LGV¦WMANYjNHTE
6. TjDEDZON¾NADÎJANNÅNXVSIN
7. NNPV[subjunctive]ÔPVWGIGN¢SK×W
8. YNSKEI¾NAB¸ONXHTEAÆTO¸
9. mLHYE¸HNMKEÃYVMEN
10. PÎNOUWFROUSINÓFRAXRUSÏNXVSIN
101. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Let us lead a noble life!
2. I hide the treasure [in order] that he may not see it.
3. He supplies fruit in order that we may be strong.
4. Let us bear this difficult disease.
5. They die in order that you (sg.) may not die.
6. Let us always have justice.
7. If we know the truth, let us not hide it.
8. Let us love our friends from the heart.
9. We learn in order that our mind may be strong.
10. Let us not do evil things nor wicked deeds.
102. READINGS
1. MFILVMENNLÎG¡MHDNGL¢SS×mLLkNRG¡KA¹mLHYE¸×
OÉTVWDGIGN¢SKOMENÔTIJmLHYE¸HWE»MN (St. John)
2. TjDEZV¾NADÎJANNmNYR¢POISINX× (Homer; Zeus, speaking of
Odysseus)
47
3. ZVMENDOÉTVWPE¹YEÏWOÉTVWoGEI (Plato)
4. LGEIKA¹OÆKEÃYEINÎ¡¾NAKA¹AÆTGIGN¢SKV
[subjunctive]. (Homer)
5. TLHTÏNGkRYEO¹YUMÏNPjREXONmNYR¢POISIN (Homer)
GL¤SSAHW [f.] tongue, language

TLHTÎWÎN enduring
103. WRITE IN GREEK

1. I would not have done it if I had known it was evil.
2. Many diseases bring death to mortals.
3. Even if it had been difficult, he would have said it.
104. WORD STUDY

GLOSSARY (a dictionary of obscure or foreign words in some authors, explaining
their meaning), GLOSS (a marginal note in old manuscripts), hence also to GLOSS
(over) some statement by a plausible explanation covering its defects; POLYGLOT
(POLÃ many; in many tongues or languages, as a ‘polyglot bible’).
48
Lesson 19
The Present Optative Active: Wishes and
Purpose Construction After Secondary Main Verbs
105. ENDINGS
PRES. OPT. ENDINGS PRES. OPT.
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. OIMI OIMEN LÃOIMI LÃOIMEN
2nd. pers. OIW OITE LÃOIW LÃOITE
3rd. pers. OI OIEN LÃOI LÃOIEN
Note: As with the subjunctive, and for the same reasons (Section 97, note 2),
no translation of the optative is given with the paradigms.
106. USES OF THE OPTATIVE

a. Wishes: Both possible and impossible wishes are expressed by the optative alone
(hence its name, from Latin opto, I wish or hope). Sometimes E»E½YE or E»GkR
( = “would that”, “if only”) introduce the wish, especially if it is an impossible
one. Negative M. Note that a wish often = a polite imperative.
Examples:
MANYjNOIMI May I learn! I hope I learn.
MTÎDEKELEÃOIW Please don’t command this.
b. Purpose: after a secondary main verb,¾NA¦WÔPVW or ÓFRA generally take
the optative (occasionally the subjunctive; cp. 98b) to express purpose. Negative
¾NAM etc. Thus,
POLLOÄWFREPÎNOUW¾NAKALkMANYjNOI
He bore many labors (in order) that he might learn noble things.
Note: As indicated here and in Section 98b, the mood of the verb in a purpose
clause depends on the tense of the main verb of the sentence. This relation
between the tenses and moods of the verbs in complex sentences is called
sequence of moods. A primary tense (Section 83e) of the main verb
requires a subjunctive in the purpose clause; this is termed primary
sequence. A secondary tense requires an optative; this is called secondary
sequence. Sequence of moods will apply in other constructions besides
purpose constructions.
49
107. MEMORIZE
mDIKVmDIKSVmD¸KHSA I (do) wrong, I injure
DI¢KVDI¢JVD¸VJA I pursue
SY¸VDOMAIFjGON I eat
¼KjNV [pres. system only] I come
KELEÃVKELEÃSVKLEUSA I command [+ acc., dat., inf.]
POIVPOISVPO¸HSA I make, I produce, I do
FOITjVFOITSVFO¸THSA I roam (back and forth)
108. TRANSLATE
1. MPOTEmDIKOIMI
2. KEÅYONXRUSÏN¾NAMTÏNÒRjOIW
3. ÓLBONA»E¹XOIMEN
4. SYIENÔPVWMYNSKOI
5. E»GkRB¸ONXOIMIH¸DION
6. ¾KANENÓFRAPOTAMÏNÒRjOI
7. KARPOÄWFROMEN¾NASY¸OITE
8. LÎGOUWSYL¤NMANYjNOIMEN
9. POLLkXALEPkZE¾NAÓLBONXOI
10. ÑFYALMOÄWMETROUWXOMENÓFRAÒRjVMEN
109. PUT INTO GREEK

1. He brought fruit (in order) that we might eat.
2. May we always do noble things!
3. He roamed back and forth in order to see the river.
4. If only she loved those things!
5. The foolish fellows slept, in order that they might not learn.
6. Please don’t say that.
7. Did you (pl.) hide the fruit in order that we might not eat it?
8. May you (sg.) never do wrong!
9. They bore the other labors also, in order that they might not die.
10. May I learn the same truths!
110. READINGS
1. oGNVSTONDF¸L¡KALÏNMPOTEXOIMI (Callimachus)
2. mLLkoNYRVPOWSIGD¤RAYE¤NXOI (Homer)
3. NOÅSOIDE»WmNYR¢POUW¼KjNOUSINAÆTÎMATAIKA¹POLLkKAKk
YNHTOºSIFROUSINSIGDFOITjOUSIPE¹OÆKXOUSI
FVNN (Hesiod)
50
Lesson 19
4. mGAYÏWMNoNYRVPOWJmGAYOÅYHSAUROÅWKRAD¸HWPROFREI
mGAYÎNPONHRÏWDKPONHROÅPONHRÎN (St. Matthew)
5. AÁCAGkRNKAKOºSIBROTO¹GHRjSKOUSIN (Homer)
oGNVSTOWHON unknown
AÆTÎMATOWHON spontaneous
GHRjSKV I grow old
KRAD¸HHW heart
PROFRV I bring forth
SIGW silence
111. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Foolish people sleep [in order] that they may not learn difficult things. [Do not
translate “people”]
2. If he commands this, let us do it as for a friend.
3. Men who have a noble mind pursue truth and justice, that they may never do
wrong.
112. WORD STUDY

ESOPHAGUS (O½SV from FRV, and FjGON, ‘the food bearer’, the tube through
which food passes from mouth to stomach); — POET (POIHTW a maker), POEM
(PO¸HMAa thing made), POETIC; — AGNOSTIC (‘unknowing’, one who denies
certain knowledge is possible, a full skeptic), AGNOSTICISM: — AUTOMATIC
(self-moving, self-operating), AUTOMATON (a mechanical device imitating human
actions; a person whose actions seem to be mechanical and involuntary, a ‘living
machine’); — CARDIAC (from KARD¸A variant spelling for KARD¸H-of the heart, as
‘cardiac glands’).
51
Lesson 20
The Present Active Imperative, Infinitive and Participle.
Commands. Accusative With Infinitive in Indirect Statement.
113. FORMS
PRES. IMPT. ENDINGS PRES. IMPT.
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
2nd. pers. E ETE LÃE loose/ be loosing LÃETE loose/ be loosing
PRES. INF. ENDINGS PRES. INF.

EINor LÃEIN or to be loosing/ to loose
EMENor LÃEMEN or
EMENAI LÃEMENAI
PRES. PTC. ENDINGS PRES. PTC.

m. f. n. m. f. n.
VNOUSAON LÃVNLÃOUSALÅON
114. USES
1. The imperative expresses a command. Negative M
Example: MTÏSY¸ETE Do not eat that!
2. Some of the constructions in which the infinitive is used are the following:
a. Complementary infinitive: after verbs of wishing, planning, etc., as in English.
Example: YLEIMANYjNEIN He wishes to learn.
b. as a noun. When used as nouns, infinitives are always neuter in gender.
Example: mDIKEINA»SXRÎNSTIN
To do evil is shameful. (= evil-doing is shameful).
c. Indirect Statement: When statements are quoted indirectly, they are
introduced by verbs of saying, thinking, believing, perceiving, and knowing
(e.g., “She says that the guest is sleeping.”). After some Greek verbs, such as
LGV and NOM¸ZV, the verb in the quoted statement is put into the
infinitive mood, and the subject of that verb is put into the accusative case.
Direct and indirect objects retain their ‘original’ cases. The negative of the
infinitive is OÆ
Examples:
LGEIJEºNONOÆXEÉDEIN She is saying that the guest is not sleeping.
(The subject of the infinitive is the accusative JEºNON
52
Lesson 20
NOM¸ZOMENKEºNONEÁNAISOFÎN We consider that man to be wise.

(= We think that that man is wise. The subject of the infinitive EÁNAIis
KEºNON, with the predicate adjective SOFÎNmodifying it.
»HTRÏWLGETOÃSDENOÅSONFEÃGEIN
The doctor was saying that these people were escaping the disease.
The subject of the infinitive FEÃGEIN is TOÃSDE; its direct object is
NOÅSON.
Note: The action denoted by the present infinitive is contemporaneous with the
action of the main verb, i.e., the guest is not sleeping when she speaks; that
man is wise as we speak, and the people were escaping the disease at the
same time as the doctor was saying that they were escaping. As new tenses
are introduced, so will new tense relations in indirect statement be
presented. We shall see that the tense of the infinitive in indirect statement
represents the tense of the finite verb in the direct statement.
3. Declension, uses and translations of the participle will be introduced in Lessons
29 and 30. Participles will not appear in exercises until then.
115. MEMORIZE
YLVYELSVYLHSA I wish
Z¢VZ¢SVZ¤SA I live
D [conj.] and
NOVNOSVNÎHSA I think, I perceive
NOM¸ZVNOMI¤NÎMISA I consider, I think, I believe
PARj [prep. + gen.] from
[prep. + dat.]at, beside
[prep. + ace.]to, along
FEÃGVFEÃJOMAIFÃGON I flee, I escape
116. TRANSLATE
1. YLVPOLLkMANYjNEIN
2. LGVmRXNEÁNAImGAYN
3. MPOTEmDIKETE
4. KEºNOILGONDNDREONYNSKEIN
5. A»SXRkMNÎEEYUM¯
6. TNLGEINÅN¼KANMEN
7. NPIOWYLEIKARPÏNÏNKA¹XEINKA¹SY¸EIN
8. DNDREADPTRAWPARkPOTAMÏNÒRjETE
9. ¦WD¸KAIOWYLVA»E¹ZVMENAI
10. NOM¸ZEIKE¸NOUWPONHROÄWKEÃYEINYHSAURÎN
53
117. PUT INTO GREEK

1. We always wished to eat.
2. Let us never wish to injure a friend.
3. He said that the women were bringing gold and treasure.
4. He is saying that it is easy to do wrong, but hard to hide the base deeds.
5. To live in peace and justice is good.
6. May our mind perceive the truth!
7. They say you (sg.) are just.
8. Speak, in order that many people may know.
9. To wrong a friend is wicked and foolish.
10. Let us learn from noble men never to do wrong.
118. READINGS
1. 4VKRjTHWLGEIPOLLOÄWmNYR¢POUWZ¢EIN¾NASY¸VSINAÆTÏWD
SYIE¾NAZ¢OI (Xenophon)
2. XALEPÏNPOIEINKELEÃEINDH¸DION (Philemon)
3. mGAYÏNOÈKSTINMmDIKEINmLLkMHDYLEIN
mDIKEIN (Democritus)
4VKRjTHW Socrates
119. WRITE IN GREEK

1. They kept roaming back and forth in order to see the trees and rocks along
the river.
2. May we love and do the same things!
3. He always did just deeds, that he might live forever in the minds of mortals.
120. WORD STUDY

ZOOLOGY (science of animals as living things), ZOO (abbreviation for zoological
park, a place for displaying various animals); — PARADOX (a contradictory
statement, or one seeming to be contradictory), PARADIGM (DEºGMA a showing;
hence, a chart showing the forms of a word beside one another), PARAGRAPH
(GRjFV I write; originally a mark in the margin ‘written beside’ the word beginning
a new division of the thought; hence, a division of thought in composition),
PARALYSIS (a loosening of the muscles beside the bones, resulting in inability to
move the limbs).
54
Lesson 21
Review of the Present System Active
The ‘Alpha Privative’
121. ENDINGS
PRESENT SYSTEM ACTIVE
V OMEN
EIW ETE
EI OUSIN
ON OMEN
EW ETE
EN ON
V VMEN
×W HTE
× VSIN
OIMI OIMEN
OIW OITE
OI OIEN
E ETE
EIN
EMEN
EMENAI
VNOUSAON
122. SYNTAX
1. Indicative: Imperfect or Aorist Indicative in both clauses, oN or KN in
conclusion, to express contrary-to-fact condition in the past. (Negative M in
if-clause, OÆ in conclusion).
2. Subjunctive: Exhortation. (Neg., M)
Purpose:¾NA¦WÔPVWÓFRA(Negative M
3. Optative: Wishes. (Neg. M)
Purpose: ¾NA¦WÔPVWÓFRA(Negative M
4. Imperative: Commands. (Neg. M)
5. Infinitive: After verb of wishing, etc., (Neg. M)
As a noun. (Neg. M)
In Indirect Statement (Neg. OÆ)
Note: the general distinction between OÆ and M is that OÆ negates statements of
concrete fact; M, the others (possibility, condition, general, etc.).
55
123. THE ALPHA PRIVATIVE

In the ancient Indo-European mother language from which Greek, Latin, and English
are descended, the vocalic-n sound (n· ) prefixed to words, often negatived their
meaning. This sound became mN in Greek, in in Latin, un- in English (e.g.,
mDIKV, in-vincibilis, un-kind). Notice this negative or privative force of Aor AN in
many Greek words which you will meet. (Can you find the two instances in which it
has already occurred?). Not all initial alphas, of course, have this negative force.
124. MEMORIZE
mYjNATOWHON immortal, eternal
nMARTjNVnMARTSOMAI I fail of, I miss, I err [often + gen.]
pMARTON
DIDjSKVDIDjJVD¸DAJA I teach
D¸W [adv.] twice, a second time
DOKVDOKSVDÎKHSA I seem, I appear
ÓMBROWOU [m.] rain, storm
OÆD and not, nor, not even
PANTOºOWHON of all sorts
PjREIMI I am present
P¸PTVPSOMAIPSON I fall
POU [indefinite adv.] perhaps, I suppose,of course, no doubt
POÅ [interr. adv., always with circumflex] where?
SPEÃDVSPEÃSVSPEÅSA I hasten
TRFVYRCVYRCA I nourish, I feed, I rear
FRONVFRONSVFRÎNHSA I consider, I have understanding
125. TRANSLATE
1. PANTOºAmGAYkBROTO¹YLOUSINXMEN
2. RGOND¸KHWE»RNHST¸N
3. SXTLIOWMKA¹DOKOIMIMMEN
4. SPEÅDEPRÏWYjLASSAN
5. POLLO¹PARSANÔPVWMANYjNOIEN
6. »HTRÏWTjDEKELEÃEIPOIEIN¾NAB¸ONX×WKRATERÎN
7. LGETNDEPTRHNP¸PTEINE»WPOTAMÎN
8. OÆKoNYNSKENE»MnMjRTANEKA¹P¸PTE
9. TROUWDIDjSKVMENPANTO¸OUWFILEIN
10. MSPEÃDETEÓFRAMP¸PTHTE
11. SOFO¹NOM¸ZOUSINmRETNDOJkNFREIN
56
Lesson 21
126. PUT INTO GREEK

1. If you (sg.) wish to have happiness, do noble things.
2. If he were fleeing the rain, he would be hastening.
3. Truth nourishes our mind.
4. I say men’s souls are immortal.
5. Let us eat in order that we may live.
6. If they were considering all sorts of things, they would not err.
7. Time teaches mortals both good and bad.
8. Don’t flee toil, lest you seem to be a coward.
9. May we live forever!
10. Only the foolish do not love beautiful things.
127. READINGS
1. KA¸POUDOKEIWmGAYÏWMMENAIDKRATERÎWÔTIPARkÑL¸GOIWKA¹
OÆKmGAYOºSINÒMILEIW (Homer)
2. SOF¯GkRA»SXRÎNSTINnMARTjNEIN (Aeschylus)
3. OÆGkRXRÎNOWDIDjSKEIFRONEINALLkmGAYTROFTEKA¹CUX
(Democritus)
4. ÓLBOWmNYR¢POUST¹B¸OWKATkNÎONKA¹mRETNTjDEGkR
MjLISTjSTINoNYRVPOW (Aristotle)
5. D¹WP¹AÆT¯L¸Y¡P¸PTEINA»SXRÎNSTIN (Greek proverb)
6. E»RNHGEVRGÏNKA¹NPTR×SITRFEIKAL¤WPÎLEMOWDKA¹N
PED¸¡KAK¤W (Menander)
7. SPEÅDEBRADVW (Augustus’ favorite maxim, quoted by Suetonius.)
BRADVW [adv.] slowly
GEVRGÎWOÅ [m.]farmer
KAK¤W [adv. of KAKÎW]badly
KAL¤W [adv. of KALÎW]beautifully, well
MjLISTA [adv.]especially
ÒMILV I associate with
PED¸ONOU [n.]plain
TROFW [f.]rearing
128. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Let us learn all sorts of things, in order that we may live with men
according to justice and truth. [Do not translate “of things”]
2. We know the soul is immortal, both by our own mind and by the words of
the wise.
3. Let us not wish to seem noble and brave, but to be, [in order] that our friends
may be many.
57
129. WORD STUDY

ATHANASIUS (‘the immortal one’); — DIDACTIC (aimed at teaching something,
as ‘didactic poetry’); — DISSYLABLE (a word of two syllables); —GEORGE,
GEORGIA, Vergil’s Georgics (poems on the art of farming).
58
Lesson 22
The Present and Imperfect Middle and
Passive Indicative. Deponent Verbs
130. NOTE
In all systems except the aorist, the form (but not the meaning) of the middle and the
passive are exactly alike. For the meaning of middle and passive voice verbs, see the
paradigms below and review Section 83c.
131. ENDINGS
PRES. IND. M.-P. ENDINGS
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. OMAI OMEYA
2nd pers. EAI ESYE
3rd pers. ETAI ONTAI
PRESENT IND. M.-P.
Sg.
1st pers. LÃOMAI I loose for myself/ am loosed
2nd pers. LÃEAI you loose for yourself/ are loosed
3rd pers. LÃETAI he looses for himself/ is loosed
Pl.
1st pers. LUÎMEYA we loose for ourselves/ are loosed
2nd pers. LÃESYE you loose for yourselves/ are loosed
3rd pers. LÃONTAI they loose for themselves/ are loosed
IMPF. IND. M.-P. ENDINGS
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. OMHN OMEYA
2nd. pers. EO ESYE
3rd. pers. ETO ONTO
IMPF. IND. M.-P.

Sg.
1st pers. LUÎMHN I was loosing for myself/ was being loosed
2nd. pers. LÃEO you were loosing for yourself/ were being loosed
3rd. pers. LÃETO he was loosing for himself/ was being loosed
59
Pl.
1st pers. LUÎMEYA we were loosing for ourselves/ were being loosed
2nd pers. LÃESYE you were loosing for yourselves/ were being loosed
3rd pers. LÃONTO they were loosing for themselves/ were being loosed
Note: SometimesOMESYA is used for OMEYA
132. DEPONENT VERBS

Some Greek verbs have no active forms, but their middle or passive forms have active
meaning. These are called deponent verbs because they “lay aside” some of their
forms. They are easily recognized in the vocabularies by the fact that the first form
given has middle endings, while the meaning remains active. There is an example in
the vocabulary of this lesson. The middle of deponent and of active verbs often has
intransitive force. That is, the action does not ‘go over’ onto another object. E.g.,
TRPOMAII turn (myself ), in distinction to the transitiveTRPVI turn (something
else).
133. MEMORIZE
mJVmEJSVmJHSA I enlarge, I increase [trans.]; [in mid.]:
I increase (myself ), I grow [intr.]
A»TVA»TSVA½THSA I ask, I request
DOMAISOMAISjMHN I am pleased with [+ dat.]
LAMBjNVLCOMAILjBON I take, get
MjXOMAIMAXOMAI I fight (against)
MAXSOMAIMAXESSjMHN
METj [prep. + dat.] among, with;
[prep. + acc.] into the midst, after
OÌN therefore, then [not of time!]
PLHS¸OWHON near; neighbor(ing)
TRPVTRCVTRCA I turn [trans.]; [in mid.]: I turn (myself ) [intr.]
134. TRANSLATE
1. PÎNOIWMOÃNOIWPOLLkMANYjNETAI
2. BROTO¹ÓLBONDI¢KONTAIA»E¸
3. KARPO¹FRONTOPRÏWPLHS¸OUWMETROUW
4. »HTRÏWOÆKA»TETAIXRUSÎNmLLkÓLBONTROIW
5. RGOISImGAYOºSImJETAImRET
6. ÇPÏF¸LVNGIGNVSKÎMEYA
7. GGÄWPETRjVNTRPETOPOTAMÎW
8. NÎOWmLHYE¸×DETAI
60
Lesson 22
9. PLHS¸OISImGAYOºSIMAXESYE
10. POLLkKA¹ÇPÏSOF¤NOÆNOETAI
135. PUT INTO GREEK

1. The treasure was hidden among the trees.
2. I was pleased with the gifts.
3. The wise, then, teach themselves all sorts of things.
4. You (sg.) are said to be brave.
5. The stones were being taken by force and borne to the sea.
6. The evil man was being pursued by many.
7. We are pleased with this gift.
8. After a rain, the rivers increase.
9. Let us nourish our souls with truth and justice.
10. Are you pleased with her voice?
136. READINGS
1. YOWÒRjEImNYR¢POUWKA¹PLHS¸OWPjRESTINÔWDIKA¸OIWDETAI
KA¹OÆKmD¸KOIW (Menander)
2. "½GUPTOWLGETAIMMEND¤RON/E¸LOUPOTAMOÅ (Herodotus)
3. A»TETEKA¹OÆLAMBjNETEÔTIKAK¤WA»TESYE (St. James)
4. mNjGK×GkROÆDYEO¹MjXONTAI (Simonides)
5. mJETAImRETMETkSOFOºSINmNYR¢PVNMETjTEDIKA¸OIW¦W
DNDREONÇPÏÓMBROUXREI£DPANTO¸HST¹F¸LVN
mNYR¢PVN (Pindar)
6. OÆGkRAÁCAYE¤NmYANjTVNTRPETAINÎOW (Homer)
oDIKOWON unjust
"½GUPTOWOU [f.] Egypt
KAK¤W [adv.of KAKÎW] badly, wrongly
ÔW [rel. pronoun] who
/EºLOWOU [m.] Nile
XREI¢ [indecl. f.] need
137. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Let us, then, hasten to learn all sorts of noble deeds and to flee from
cruel (deeds).
2. Take (pl.) the gold and hide it in the earth, that it may not be the beginning of
war among friends. [Omit “it” both times.]
3. If you (sg.) wished to increase the life of the soul, you would do only what is just
and excellent.
61
138. WORD STUDY

HEDONIST (one who does only what is pleasant, an extreme pleasure-lover); —
METAPHYSICS (‘the treatise after the Physics’ in Aristotle’s writings; hence, the
science of ultimate principles underlying all things, the philosophy of Being)—
METAMORPHOSIS (MORF form; a change into one form or state after another, a
transformation)— METAPHOR (FOR, a carrying, fromFRV : hence, a
comparison where one idea ‘carries after it’ its implications directly to another object
without use of like, as, etc.; e.g., “He is a lion on parade, but a rabbit in battle.”); —
SYLLABLE (part of a word ‘taken together’ as a unit of sound) — SYLLABUS (a
brief outline or schedule of studies, etc. ‘taken together’ in a concise view of the
whole).
62
Lesson 23
The Present Subjunctive and Optative,
Middle and Passive
139.
PRES. SUBJ. M.-P. ENDINGS PRES. SUBJ. M.-P.
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. VMAI VMEYA LÃVMAI LU¢MEYA

2nd pers. HAI HSYE LÃHAI LÃHSYE
3rd pers. HTAI VNTAI LÃHTAI LÃVNTAI
140.
PRES. OPT. M.-P. ENDINGS PRES. OPT. M.-P.
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. OIMHN OIMEYA LUO¸MHN LUO¸MEYA

2nd pers. OIO OISYE LÃOIO LÃOISYE
3rd pers. OITO OIATO LÃOITO LUO¸ATO
Note:
In the optative middle (pres. and aor.) and also in the Perfect middle
indicative (see Sections 269 and 338) the 3 pl. ending is ATO not the
expected NTO —which is the 3 pl. optative middle-passive ending in later,
Classical Greek.
141. MEMORIZE
mNXOMAImNJOMAI I hold up under, I endure
or mNASXSOMAImNjSXON
or SXEYON
G¸GNOMAIGENSOMAI I am born, I become, I am, I happen
GENÎMHNGGAA
TAºROWOU [m.] companion, comrade
LIOWOU [m.] sun
MISVMISSVM¸SHSA I hate
ÑRYÎWÎN straight, true
P¸NVP¸OMAIP¸ON I drink
« O! [in direct address]
63
142. TRANSLATE
1. MMISVMENTA¸ROUW¾NAMKA¹MISE¢MEYA
2. XALEPkmNXOIOÓFRAPOTXHAIKALj
3. MjXETOÔPVWMLAMBjNOITO
4. SYLkA»E¹DI¢KVMEN
5. G¸GNOITOE»RNHÑRYTEKA¹DIKA¸H
6. P¸PTEIE»WGAºANÓMBROW¾NADNDREAmJHTAI
7. DO¸MEYAA»E¹KE¸NOIW
8. PONHRO¹KEÃYONTAI¾NAMÒRjVNTAI
9. POLLkmNEXÎMHN¾NAGIGNO¸MHNSOFÎW
10. MPOTETRPOISYEmPÏmLHYE¸HWNHP¸VNLÎGOIW
11. mJETAIÓLBOWPE¹D¸KAIOISAN
143. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Let us nourish our minds with good things.
2. We eat and drink [in order] to become strong.
3. May he endure sickness as a brave man.
4. They fled, lest they be seen.
5. Didn’t you (sg.) bring this that it might be eaten?
6. Hide (pl.) the treasure in the rocks, that it may not be taken.
7. “May I always fight for the sake of truth and justice,” he said.
8. He wished to die that he might not be said to be a coward.
9. May our hearts be pleased with good things, as our eyes are with the beautiful.
10. Let us fight and die as brave men.
144. READINGS
1. GAºAKELAINP¸NEIÓMBRONP¸NEIDDNDREAGAºANPOTAMOÄWP¸NEI
YjLASSALIOWDYjLASSANmNXOISYEOÌN«TAºROIE»KA¹
AÆTÏWYLVP¸NEIN
(Anacreontic)
2. MSPEÅDEPLOUTEINMAÁCAPTVXÏWG¸GNHAI (Menander)
3. TÎDEOÈKSTIXALEPÎN—YjNATONFEÃGEINmLLkFEÃGEINPONHROÄW
KA¹PONHRjTÎDEDSTIXALEPÎN (Plato)
KELAINÎWÎN black
PLOUTV I am rich
PTVXÎWOÅ [m.] beggar
64
Lesson 23
145. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Many men are pleased with truth and beautiful things; but many think life is to
eat and to drink.
2. The sun is said by the foolish to drink from the rivers and the sea.
3. He fought in the war, that we might live and die in peace.
146. WORD STUDY

NITROGEN (a ‘nitrate-born’ element), GENESIS (the first book of the Bible, telling
of the ‘birth’ or making of the world);, — HELIOTROPE (LIOW, later spelling for
LIOW, and TROPfrom TRPV : hence ‘sun-turner’, a purple flower which turns
to face the sun), HELIUM (an element first discovered in the sun); —
MISANTHROPE (a hater of mankind); —ORTHODOX (holding the true opinion,
un-heretical), ORTHOGRAPHY (GRjFV I write; correct spelling or writing); —
PLUTOCRAT, PLUTOCRACY (KRjTOW power; government by the wealthy),
PLUTO (god of the underworld of the dead in ancient mythology, as being ‘rich’ in
possessions).
65
Lesson 24
The Present Imperative, Infinitive, Participle Middle and Passive
The Use of Infinitive For Imperative
147. FORMS
PRES. IMPT. M.-P. ENDINGS
Sg. Pl.
2nd pers. EO or EU ESYE
PRES. IMPT. M.-P.
Sg. Pl.
2nd pers. LÃEO orLÃEU loose for yourself LÃESYE loose for yourselves
be loosing for yourself be loosing for yourselves
be loosed be loosed
PRES. INF. M.-P. ENDINGS PRES. INF. M.-P.
-ESYAI LÃESYAI to loose for oneself
to be loosed
PRES. PTC. M.-P. ENDINGS PRES. PTC. M.-P.
m. f. n. m. f. n.
MENOWHON LUÎMENOWLUOMNHLUÎMENON
Note: The present participle middle-passive declines like KALÎWÎN
148. INFINITIVE AS IMPERATIVE

Not infrequently the infinitive is used in an independent clause with the force of an
imperative, e.g., PONHRkFEÃGEINFlee from base things!
149. MEMORIZE
oPEIMI I am away
AÆTjR but, yet
DUNATÎWÎN able, possible [+ E»M¸and infinitive]
able (to do something)
MLLVMELLSV I am about, I am going, I intend,
MLLHSA I am destined (to do something) [+ infinitive]
66
Lesson 24
ÓFRA (in order) that, to [+ subjunctive or optative in purpose

construction]; while, until [+ indicative if purely
factual, + purpose construction if anticipatory]
PLV—, PLON I come to be, I am
or deponent form:
PLOMAI—PLÎMHN
PMPVPMCVPMCA I send
SÎWÎN your [sg.]
TO¸ surely, you see [postpositive]
150. TRANSLATE
1. MLAMBjNEOTjDEMTERA
2. LGEIPOLLOÄWPMPESYAI
3. LÃESYA¸POUYLEI¾NAFOITj×
4. MLLEWSÏNJEºNONPMPEIN
5. MFEÃGETEmLLkmNXESYE
6. E¾NEKAB¸OIOMjXONTO
7. mGAYÏWPLEUÓFRATAºROWSÏWoPESTIN
8. TOºSDEOÌNDESYAIPE¹AÆTÏWFREW
9. MTRPEUÓFRAMP¸PT×W
10. KARPO¹MLLONmPÏDENDRVNLAMBjNESYAIAÆTkRÓMBROW¾KANE
KA¹E»WGAºANP¸PTON
11. DUNATO¸E»SINPOLLOÄWPÎNOUWmNXESYAI
151. PUT INTO GREEK

1. While they are away, hide yourself!
2. To be hated is an evil thing.
3. They were being taken by force.
4. Are you (pl.) now able to fight?
5. He seems to endure both good and bad with a noble spirit.
6. Good and noble things were done by your (sg.) companions.
7. Surely you (sg.) wish to be taught!
8. He said your companions are being pursued in war.
9. Endure (pl.) troubles, until you become strong in heart.
10. If only we were not destined to be sent to that land!
152. READINGS
1. F¸LVNO¾TEPjREISIKA¹OÀoPEISIMIMNSKEO (Thales)
2. MPOTTOIKAKÏNoNYRVPONF¸LONPOIESYAITAºRONmLLkA»E¹
FEÃGEIN¨WTEKAKÏNÔRMON (Theognis)
67
3. MZ¤E¦WMLLVNZ¢EINA»E¸YjNATOWPjRESTIÓFRAZ¢EIWÓFRA
DUNATÎWSSImGAYÏWG¸GNEO (Marcus Aurelius)
4. AÆTkRPE¹TÎNDEPÎNONPMPONYEO¹mYjNATOImNXEOMHD
ÑDÃREOSÏNKATkYUMÎN (Homer)
MLLVN nom. m. ptc, modifying subject: translate: “(one) destined” [+ infinitive]

MIMNSKV I am mindful of [+ gen.]
ÑDÃROMAI I grieve
O¾ [relative pronoun] who
ÔRMOWOU [m.] harbor
153. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Those people wish to learn many things, that they may become wise.
2. This wise man endured many and difficult toils, that he might come to be
strong and just.
3. “Let us fight as brave men,” he said, “in order that we may be loved by many.”
154. WORD STUDY

POMP (POMPa sending; a grand procession or pageant; hence, ostentatious
display, a show of magnificence.)
68
Lesson 25
Review of the Whole Present System
155. ENDINGS
IND.
PRES.
ACT. M.-P.
V OMEN OMAI OMEYA
EIW ETE EAI ESYE
EI OUSIN ETAI ONTAI
IMPF.
ACT. M.-P.
ON OMEN OMHN OMEYA
EW ETE EO ESYE
E ON ETO ONTO
SUBJ.
PRES.
ACT. M.-P.
V VMEN VMAI VMEYA
×W HTE HAI HSYE
× VSIN HTAI VNTAI
OPT.
PRES.
ACT. M.-P.
OIMI OIMEN OIMHN OIMEYA
OIW OITE OIO OISYE
OI OIEN OITO OIATO
IMPT.
PRES.
ACT. M.-P.
E ETE EOEU ESYE
INF.
PRES.
ACT. M.-P.
EINEMENEMENAI ESYAI
PTC.
PRES.
ACT. M.-P.
VNOUSAON OMENOWOMENHOMENON
69
156. COMMENTS ON THE PRESENT SYSTEM

a. Notice that the subjunctive endings are simply lengthened forms of the present
indicative. These same endings are used for the subjunctive of all tenses.
b. Note that every ending begins with a vowel. This vowel is called a thematic
vowel. In the present system, it is always O or E, or a lengthened form of them.
c. You will find that the optative of all systems always has an iota diphthong OI
AIEAIEIUI to match the one here. Use this fact as a clue in recognizing an
optative ending.
157. MEMORIZE
mME¸BOMAImME¸COMAImMEICjMHN I (ex)change; I reply
GE [enclitic particle] at least, in fact
DE¸DVDE¸SOMAIDEºSADE¸DIA I fear [+ infinitive or M and purpose construction]
E½ROMAIE»RSOMAIRÎMHN I ask
¼ERÎWÎN holy, sacred
NHÎWOÅ [m.] temple
PEÃYOMAIPEÃSOMAIPUYÎMHN I learn (by inquiry), I inquire (from), I hear of
[+ acc. of thing heard, + gen. of person heard]
PR¤TOWHON first
S¢ZVS¢SVS¤SA I save
158. TRANSLATE
1. POLLkPEÃYEAISOºWÑFYALMOºW
2. NPIOIDE¸DOUSIME»WGAºANP¸PT×LIOW
3. AÁCAPOIVMENPE¹XRÎNOWSPEÃDEI
4. NOM¸ZEIWTÎNDENHÏN»ERÎNEÁNAI
5. MGENPIAE½REU
6. TA¸ROUWKLEUE¼KANMENÓFRAMAXEO¸ATO
7. SYLÎWTEPLEIKA¹DOKEISOFÏWMMEN
8. MPOTEDE¸DOITEPANTO¸OUWXMENAIF¸LOUW
9. MjXONTO¾NATA¸ROUWS¢ZOIEN
10. DIDjSKVDmME¸BOMAIÓFRAMANYjNHTE
159. PUT INTO GREEK

1. An evil man fights with his own soul.
2. Do you (sg.) see her?
3. Take (pl.) those stones and bring them to the river.
4. Neither the earth nor the sea is (use PLOMAI) always the same.
5. The trees grew straight and high.
70
Lesson 25
6. We learn by inquiry (use PEÃYOMAI) in order not to become foolish.

7. While drinking, don’t (sg.) fall into the river!
8. If you (sg.) wish to have glory, bear up under hard things.
9. May peace come, the fruit of justice and truth!
10. Please don’t fight (pl.), but become friends.
160. READINGS
1. POLLkDKAKkmNXEOSÏNKATkYUMÎN (Homer)
2. DNDREONmGAYÏNKARPOÄWKALOÄWPOIEIPONHRÏNDPONHROÄW
POIEIKARPOÃW (St. Matthew)
3. CUXoNYRVPOWDUNATÎWSTIFEÃGEINMNKAKÎNDI¢KEINDKA¹
LAMBjNEINmGAYÎN (Plato)
4. MDE¸DEOPR¤TÎWE»MIKA¹SXATOWNEKRÏWAKA¹NÅNZ¢VE»WA»E¸
(Apocalypse)
5. OÆGIGN¢SKETEÔTINHÏWYEOÅSTENHÏWDYEOÅSTIN¼ERÎW
(St. Paul)
6. SOFÏWNCUXPERIFREIkmGAYj (Menander)
SXATOWHON last
NEKRÎWOÅ [m.]dead body; dead
PERIFRV I carry around
161. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Let us learn those these truths by inquiry.
2. Evil men fear death, but to the holy it seems good and the beginning of
eternal life.
3. A few things you (sg.) know; learn also these, that you may be able to speak
(LEG) among the wise.
162. WORD STUDY

AMEBA (the simplest form of animal life, consisting of a single cell frequently
changing shape); — HIERARCHY (mRX rule; the clergy as a group, ‘the rulers of
holy things’, i.e., the Church; sometimes applied to any other group of persons or
things similarly organized according to degree and rank, as “in the hierarchy of the
sciences, Theology has the highest place”), HIEROGLYPH (GLUF a carving;
picture-writing, as that invented by the priests of ancient Egypt and carved on sacred
monuments; hence, humorously, illegible or unintelligible writing); — PROTON
(the ‘first constituent’ of an atom, carrying the positive charge and larger than its
complementary part, the electron), PROTEIN (a basic food-element in meat, etc., a
‘first essential’ of a healthy diet), PROTOPLASM (PLlSMA molded form; the basic
molded or organized substance from which living cells are formed), PROTOTYPE
(the original form or model of something, the standard pattern to which other things
of the same kind should conform).
71
Lesson 26
The Future System
Relative Pronoun and Relative Clauses
163. FORMATION OF THE FUTURE

The future system is formed by adding the endings of the present system to the future
stem. This future stem is found by dropping the V or OMAIof the second
principal part of the verb.
For instance, to form the future passive infinitive of LÃV, take the future stem LUS
from the second principal part (LÃSV) and add ESYAI. LÃSESYAI: to be about to be
loosed. Similarly for the other forms: LÃSEIWLÃSEILÃSOUSIetc. See full list of
forms in Appendix A. For example, here is the future active indicative of LÃV:
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. LÃSV I shall loose LÃSOMEN we shall loose
2nd pers. LÃSEIW you will loose LÃSETE you will loose
3rd pers. LÃSEI he will loose LÃSOUSIN they will loose
Remember that the subjunctive, optative and imperative are not used in the future
system!
Note: Regarding Indirect Statement involving the future tense. As noted in
Section 114, a present infinitive in indirect statement indicates that the action
of the infinitive is contemporaneous with that of the main (introducing) verb.
Likewise, if an infinitive in indirect statement is in the future tense, then the
action of the infinitive is future in respect to that of the main verb.
LGEIJEºNONOÆXEÇDSEIN She is saying that the guest will not be sleeping.
»HTRÏWLGETOÃSDENOÅSONFEÃJESYAI The physician was saying that these
people would escape (be escaping) the disease.
164. RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE CLAUSES

1. The relative pronoun (“who, which, what, that”) is declined according to the
first and second declension, and in particular resembles the demonstrative
pronoun/adjective ÒTÎ
M. F. N.
Sg.
N. ÔW Ô
G. OÍ W OÍ
D. · ·
A. ÔN N Ô
72
Lesson 26
M. F. N.
Pl.
N. O¾ A¾ p
G. ¬N ¬N ¬N
D. OÂSI SI OÂSI
A. OÉW pW p
2. In the English sentence, “The man who sent the gift is noble” the noun ‘man’ is
modified (described) by a dependent clause (‘who sent the gift’) known as a
relative clause. The relative clause is linked to its antecedent (man) in the main
clause by a relative pronoun (‘who’) which stands for the noun ‘man.’
Within its own relative clause, the relative pronoun has a grammatical role. In
this example, the relative pronoun ‘who’ is the subject of its clause. In Greek the
nominative case is used for subjects, so the relative pronoun in this case would
have to be nominative ÔW:
oNYRVPOWÖWD¤RONPMPESYLÎWSTIN
But compare the roles of the relative pronouns in the following English
sentences:
I saw the treasures that you were hiding. (direct object)
The trees on which much fruit grows are tall. (object of preposition)
The companion whose brother is dying will request food. (possesive)
In Greek, each of these relative pronouns would have to be put into the proper
case to signal its grammatical role (cp. Section 18). The Greek equivalents
would be:
ÔRAONYHSAUROÄWOËWKEÃYEW (accusative)
DNDREAÇCHLjSTINP¹OÂSIPOLLÏWKARPÏWmJETAI (dative after P¹
ÒTAºROWOÍKASIGNHTÏWYNSKEIA»TSETAISºTON (genitive)
Notice that each of the pronouns has the same gender and number as its
antecedent in the main clause. In our first sentence, ÖWis masculine and singular
because its antecedent oNYRVPOWis masculine and singular. In the second
sentence, OËW is masculine and plural as is its antecedent YHSAUROÃWIn the
third sentence, OÂSIis neuter and plural as is DNDREAAnd in the last sentence,
OÍ is masculine and singular as is TAºROW
To summarize: the gender and number of a relative pronoun will be the same as
its antecedent in the main clause, but its case will be determined by its
grammatical role within its own relative clause.
3. Besides the relative pronoun introduced and declined in this Lesson, the
demonstrative pronoun/adjective ÒTÎ is also used by Homer as a relative
pronoun. E.g., oNYRVPO¸TO¸E»SINmGAYO¸POLL¤NF¸LOIE»S¸N Men
who are good are friends of many.
73
165. MEMORIZE
mPOLLÃVmPOLSV I kill, I destroy; I lose; [in pf. and mid.] I perish, I am lost
mPÎLESSAmPÎLVLA
2 aor. mid.: mPOLÎMHN
MÎWÎN my, mine
RXOMAILEÃSOMAI I come, I go
LUYONELLOUYA
ZVW [f.] life
KASIGNHTÎWOÅ [m.] brother
OÆRANÎWOÅ [m.] heaven, sky
PARRXOMAI I go past, I pass
P¤W [interr. adv.] how?
PVW [enclitic adv.] somehow, in any way
SºTOWOU [m.] bread, food
166. TRANSLATE
1. KEºNAPEÃSOMAIrOÆGIGN¢SKV
2. O¾POIOUSIKALkRGAGENSONTAIKALO¸
3. POLLO¹BROTO¹OÂSIYEÏWPMPEINOÅSONYANONTAI
4. PÎNOUWJEIWAÆTkRKA¹DÎJAN
5. YjNATONOÈPVWFEUJÎMEYABROTO¸
6. LGEIKASIGNHTOÄWOÄWLEÃSESYAI
7. MLLEIÓCESYAIOÆRANÏNJOÍÓMBROWPESETAI
8. P¤WZVNMNS¢SVE½RETO
9. POLLjTOIOÈPOTEGN¢SESYE
10. RXEUKA¹SOºSIÑFYALMOºSIÓCEAIYjLASSAN
11. O¾DENÎMIZON¼ERÏNNHÏNOÈPOTEmPOLSESYAI
12. TÏNSºTONÖNMLLEIWDESYAIMISV
167. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Command! (sg.) We shall do what you say.
2. Mortal men will never flee (i.e., escape) death.
3. He is about to take the gold, but he will be taken himself.
4. True justice will never be turned away from evil deeds.
5. My brother, whom you were pursuing, will take this treasure and hide (it).
6. Rain is falling; the rivers, then, will suddenly increase.
7. I don’t know, but I shall inquire and find out. (use a form of PEÃYOMAI
8. There are many things that we mortals shall never learn.
74
Lesson 26
9. He will bring bread that we will eat.

10. Evil men, who are never wise, will always fear justice.
11. She is about to wrong a man whom I love.
168. READINGS
1. ÖNYEO¹FILOUSIYNSKEINOW (Menander)
2. O¾POTETETLEmPÏYEOºONÅNGGÃWSTEN9RIST¯AÆTÏWGjR
STINMETRHE»RNH
3. OÆRANÏWKA¹GAºAPARELEÃSONTAILÎGOIDMO¹OÈPOTEPAR
ELEÃSONTAI (St. Matthew)
4. ÖMNKALÎNSTINF¸LONST¸NÖDOÆKALÎNOÆF¸LON
ST¸N (Theognis)
5. mYANjTHST¹NMETRHCUXKA¹OÈPOTEmPOLSETAI (Plato)
6. TÎDEGEYAUMjSIONXVmGAYÎN·S¢ZOMAIOÆGkRA»SXÃNOMAI
MANYjNEINmLLkPEÃYOMAIKA¹E½ROMAIKA¹FILVTÏNÖW
mME¸BETAI (Socrates, in Plato)
A»SXÃNOMAI I am ashamed
YAUMjSIOWHON marvelous
TLE [adv.] far, far away
9RISTÎWOÅ [m.] Christ, the Anointed One
169. WRITE IN GREEK

1. We shall pass the river, which turns near those rocks and goes into the sea
2. Life is difficult but supplies men many good things by which we are always
pleased.
3. Strong rain, which falls to earth from the sky, will forever destroy many works
of men.
170. WORD STUDY

URANUS (a planet named after the Greek god of the heavens, grandfather of Zeus),
URANIUM an element named after Uranus); — PARASITE (one who eats at a rich
man’s table, getting a place ‘beside the food’ by means of flattery; hence, an animal or
person living off another’s resources and doing no work of its own); — HOMILY (an
explanation of some text from Scripture, etc. for ‘gathering’ or ‘association’ of people).
75
Lesson 27
The Third Declension—Masculine and Feminine.
Rules of Gender
171. GENDER
The third declension contains masculine, feminine, and neuter forms. The gender can
easily be told from the word’s stem (found by dropping theOWof the genitive
ending.) The general rules are these:
stems ending in ATARAEmTjRAE are neuter,
stems ending in DIYITTHTDIYITTHT are feminine,
all others are masculine.
There are a few exceptions to the above rules. In any case, the gender of nouns is
indicated in the Memorize sections and Vocabularies.
172. ENDINGS of third declension masculine and feminine nouns, adjectives, participles:
Sg. Pl.
N. — EW
G. OW VN
D. I SIESSI
A. AN AW
173. NOTE
a. Many nouns have alternative endings other than the above, especially in the
dative and accusative. When these occur in the readings, they will be identified.
b. Stems in I or U take N in the accusative singular (e.g.,PÎLIN»XYÃN).
Adjectives in UW take accusative singular masculine in UN
c. In the dative plural, a TDYor Nending the stem drop out before the ending,
while a KG, or X blend with the S of the ending into a J. Thus, oNAKTSI
becomes oNAKSI, then oNAJI When both N and T drop, the vowel lengthens
in compensation: GRONTSIbecomes GROUSI
174. EXAMPLES OF THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS

Sg.
N. oNAJ [m.] lord PAºW [m., f.] child PATR[m.] father
G. oNAKTOW PAIDÎW PATROWPATRÎW
D. oNAKTI PAID¸ PATRIPATR¸
A. oNAKTA PAºDA PATRA
76
Lesson 27
Pl.
N. oNAKTEW PAºDEW PATREW
G. mNjKTVN PA¸DVN PATRVNPATR¤N
D. mNjKTESSIoNAJI PA¸DESSIPAIS¸ PATRjSI
A. oNAKTAW PAºDAW PATRAW
Sg.
N. PÎLIW [f.] city GRVN[m.] old man
G. PÎLIOWPÎLHOW GRONTOW
D. PÎLEIPÎLHI GRONTI
A. PÎLIN GRONTA
Pl.
N. PÎLIEWPÎLHEW GRONTEW
G. POL¸VN GERÎNTVN
D. POL¸ESSI GERÎNTESSIGROUSI
A. PÎLIAWPÎLEIW GRONTAW
PÎLHAW
Notes:
1. For clarity's sake, the full genitive (not just the ending) of each third
declension noun listed in the Memorize sections will be given.
2. Present and Future participles in VN have their stem in ONT e.g.,
LÃVNLÃONTOWLÃONTILÃONTAetc. Participle stems will be seen in
Lesson 29.
175. MEMORIZE
oNAJoNAKTOW [m] king, lord
mNRmNROWormNDRÎW [m.] dat. pl. oNDRESSIor mNDRjSIman, male
GRVNGRONTOW [m.] old man
KASTOWHON each
or, than; ... either ... or, whether ... or
MTRONOU [n.] measure
PAºWPAIDÎW [m., f.] child, boy, girl
PATRPATROW [m.] father
orPATRÎW
PER [encliticparticle] surely, by far [adds force];
[+ participle] though
PÎLIWPÎLIOWor PÎLHOW [f.] city
FÃSIWFÃSIOW [f.] nature
77
FA¸NVFANVFNA I show, I reveal; in mid: FA¸NOMAIFANOMAI

aor. pass. w. act. force: FjNHN I show myself, I appear
176. TRANSLATE
1. TÏNLGOUSINMMENAIoNDRAKRATERÎN
2. PAID¹YjLASSANFA¸NVMEN
3. PANTO¸OUWoNDRAWTRFEIPÎLIWKjSTH
4. oNAKTEWD¸KHNFILOUSINDDIKA¸OUW
5. ÇPÏmNDR¤NSOF¤NA»E¹FILSETAImLHYE¸H
6. KASTOWKATkNFÃSINZ¢EI
7. mNDR¤NRGVNMTRONmRET
8. PAIS¹mGAYOºSIPOLLkD¤RAPATREWPARXOUSI
9. mNRIKjST¡PERZVSTINDEºA
10. mNjKTESSIPÎNOUWA»E¹PARASXSEIE»RNHPÎLEMOW
177. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Let us tell the king what our companions saw.
2. Each thing grows toward the measure of its own nature.
3. Only an evil man will take bread away from children.
4. The city will be saved by strong men.
5. He appears (use FA¸NOMAI) to be just, but he is pitiless.
6. They are coming to show the boys the gold.
7. To each man death will sometime come.
8. May we reveal our nature by our deeds!
9. Please show yourselves men, not children!
10. Do you (sg.) see the rain that is falling among the trees?
178. READINGS
1. D¹WPAºDWE»SIGRONTEW (Menander)
2. mNDRÏWXARAKTRKLÎGOUGIGN¢SKETAI (Menander)
3. YNSKEINMLGEoNDRAWmGAYOÃW (Callimachus)
4. oNYRVPOWFÃSIIPOLITIKÎNSTIZVÎN (Aristotle)
5. XRÎNOWD¸KAIONoNDRAFA¸NEIMOÅNOW (Sophocles)
6. POLLO¹MNoNYRVPOIÑL¸GOIDoNDREW (Herodotus, of the Persian
army. mNRoften has the meaning of man in distinction to woman, as in Latin
vir is more specific than homo).
7. KASTOWÏNMISYÏNLCETAIKATkÏNPÎNONYEOºOGjRE»MENSUN
ERGO¸
(St. Paul)
GRVNGRONTOW [m.] old man
78
Lesson 27
ZVÎWÎN living
MISYÎWOÅ [m.] wages
POLITIKÎNÎN living in a community, social
SUNERGÎWÎN working together; a cooperator
XARAKTRXARAKTROW [m.] stamp, character
179. WRITE IN GREEK

1. A strong storm that comes from the sky will destroy both fruits and trees.
2. I shall go, then, to your brother and request the gold, of which I shall have need
in order to live.
3. He will indeed be pleased with the gifts, which will appear to be yours,
not ours.
180. WORD STUDY

ANDREW (“manly,” “strong”); — METRE or METER (the ‘measure’ of poetic
rhythm, a verse structure), hence HEXAMETER, PENTAMETER, etc. (six, five, etc.
feet or ‘measures’ to a line, in poetry), — METER (a measuring instrument, as in
SPEEDOMETER, VOLTMETER, THERMOMETER [YRMOW heat], etc.),
GEOMETRY (G, variant form of GAºA, the science of mathematical laws growing
out of the measurement of space; so called because the Greeks who invented geometry
at first drew their figures in the earth or dust); — PEDAGOGUE (mGVGÎW a leader:
cp. oGAGON. Originally a slave who led children to school; thence, a school-master,
teacher), PEDAGOGY, PEDAGOGIC (the science of education); —PHYSICS (the
science of natural laws of weight, gravity, light, electricity, etc.), PHYSICIST (a
professional expert in physics), PHYSICAL, PHYSICIAN (one who cares for man’s
natural powers and body, a doctor), PHYSIC (a medicine helping nature readjust
itself ); — PHENOMENON (‘that which appears or reveals itself ’; hence, a visible
appearance or effect; also, an unusual event, a marvel), PHENOMENAL (in
appearance only; more commonly: extraordinary, marvelous), CELLOPHANE
(plastic wrapper through whose cells the contents appear), EPIPHANY (feast of the
‘Revealing’ of Christ to the world); — POLITICAL, POLITICS (pertaining to
community administration and public policy); — CHARACTER,
CHARACTERISTIC (distinctive quality stamped on an individual).
79
Lesson 28
The Third Declension—Neuter
181. FORMS
Neuter nouns, adjectives, and participles of the third declension have endings identical
with masculine and feminine except in the nominative and accusative. Thus. POW
PEOW (word) is declined:
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.

N. — A POW PEA
G. OW VN PEOW PVN
D. I SIESSI PEI PESIorPESSI
A. — A POW PEA
Note:
Third declension nouns whose nominative ends in OW are always neuter.
Be careful to distinguish them from masculine nouns of the second declension.
The genitive ending (OWrather than OU) supplies the clue.
182. MEMORIZE
DIj [prep. + gen.] through
[prep. + acc.] through; among, on account of
POWPEOW [n.] word
KRKROW [n.] heart
MKOWMKEOW [n.] length
PRlGMAPRjGMATOW [n.] deed; [in pl.]: trouble, deeds
PÅRPURÎW [n.] fire
S¤MAS¢MATOW [n.] body, corpse
T where [rel. adv.]; there
TDE [adv.] here
FjOWFjEOW [n.] light
XRMAXRMATOW [n.] possession, property; [in pl.] wealth
183. TRANSLATE
1. MFILVMENXRMATAmNDRÎWmLLkoNDRAAÆTÎN
2. NPIOIPAºDEWDIkPURÏWYLOUSIFOITjEIN
3. NÎONmNDRjSIFA¸NOMENPESSIN
80
Lesson 28
4. KRImNROWPONHROÅKEÃYETAISXTLIARGA
5. SPEÃSVKASIGNHTÏNMÏNKA¹PAºDAWKPURÏWS¢ZEIN
6. OÈTOIMKOWB¸OIOmLLkmRETFREIDÎJAN
7. KPRAGMjTVNGN¢SETAImNRmLHYE¸HN
8. S¢MASIYNHT¤NNOÅSOIFROUSIYjNATONOÆDCUXSIN
9. FjEIEL¸OIODUNATO¹PLONTAIÑFYALMO¹ÒRjEIN
10. TXRMATATSTIKA¹PRjGMATA
184. PUT INTO GREEK

1. The soul supplies life to the body.
2. “Wealth is the man,” says the fool.
3. We hastened down the river in order to flee the king.
4. May virtue ever increase in your soul and heart!
5. By the light of the fire, many trees were seen.
6. He said this temple, which is the property of a god, is therefore holy.
7. Shameful deeds reveal a base mind and heart.
8. That light was similar to a fire that is falling in the sky.
9. They wanted to take the stranger’s property for themselves.
10. We learn many things from the words of our friends.
185. READINGS
1. KAKWmPÏmRXWG¸GNETAITLOWKAKÎN (Euripides)
2. KA¹Nb*VSFKALÏWT¯E½DEIKA¹¦RAºOWTÓCEISFÎDRA
(Genesis XXXIX 6, from the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the
Hebrew Bible)
3. TGjRSTISÏWYHSAURÎWTSTIKA¹SÏNKR (St. Matthew)
4. E»WAÆTÏPÅRKKAPNOÅ (Lucian)
5. oGEIDPRÏWFjOWmLHYE¸HNXRÎNOW (Greek proverb)
6. XRMATAGkRCUXPLETAIDEILOºSIBROTOºSIN (Hesiod)
7. KASTOWDIkkPRjGMATASYLÎWSTINKAKÎW (Apollodorus)
8. MTRONB¸OUST¹KjLLOWOÆXRÎNOUMKOW (Plutarch)
9. KEºNONCUXE»SILÎGOIÔPERKjLLOWNS¢MATI (Aristides)
DEILÎWÎN wretched, worthless

EÁDOWE½DEOW [n.] figure, appearance, “looks”
b*VSF [indecl.] Joseph, a son of Jacob, sold by his jealous brothers
into slavery in Egypt
KAPNÎWOÅ [m.] smoke
KjLLOWEOW [n.] beauty, nobleness
ÓCIWÓCEOW [f.] face
SFÎDRA [adv.] exceedingly
TLOWEOW [n.] end
¦RAºOWHON beautiful
81
186. WRITE IN GREEK

1. The boys hastened to the tall tree among the rocks near the sea, since the
treasure was said to be hidden there.
2. I shall do what the king commands, for he is noble.
3. By his very nature, man wishes to learn the truth, in order that his mind may
live and grow; for truth is the mind’s food.
187. WORD STUDY

DIAMETER (the ‘measure through’ the center of a circle or sphere), DIAGONAL
(GVN¸Hangle; a line cutting at an oblique angle through a figure), DIAGRAM (an
outline or sketch which ‘writes’ the essential lines ‘through’ the fuller plan; i.e., puts
the skeletal structure, around which the whole is built, in clearer view), DIALOGUE
(a ‘word or discourse among’ two or more speakers), DIALECT (LGV‘a way of
speaking among’ certain people, a special modified form of a language used among
certain classes, groups, or localities), DIAPHRAGM (FRjGMAbarrier, fence; the
midriff, a muscle which lies between the thorax and abdomen as a ‘barrier through’
the body under the lungs; it controls breathing; hence, a similar dividing partition in a
mechanical device); — PRAGMATISM (the doctrine that concrete results are the
only test of truth); — PYRE (a pile of inflammable materials arranged for burning a
dead body), PYRAMID (so called, it is thought, because pointed like a bonfire),
PYROTECHNICS (TEXNart; art of making and using fireworks), PYREX (trade
name for fire-hardened glass utensils); — PHOSPHOROUS (F¤W by contraction of
FjOW + FRV— ‘light-bearer’, a soft yellow element that glows under certain
conditions), PHOTOGRAPH (‘drawing or picture made by light’).
PHOTOELECTRIC (pertaining to combined action of light and electricity); —
CALLISTHENICS (SYNOW strength; light exercises to promote gracefulness and
health); — TELEOLOGY (the philosophical doctrine that all activity is purposive,
directed at some goal or ‘end’); — EPIC (a long narrative poem celebrating in exalted
‘words’ the adventures of some national hero).
82
Lesson 29
How To Predict the Stems of Adjectives and Participles.
The Participle of E»M¸
188. THE PROBLEM

While the genitive form of a noun is given in vocabularies and dictionaries in order to
indicate the noun’s declension, adjectives and participles are conventionally listed in
the vocabularies only in the nominative forms. But the genitive and other cases, just as
with nouns, are all built on the stem, not directly on the nominative form. It is
essential, then, to know how to tell from the nominative itself (i.e., the dictionary
entry) what the stem (and hence the other cases) will be. The clue lies in being able to
identify the particular declension type of adjective or participle to which the word in
question belongs.
189. ADJECTIVE DECLENSION TYPES (review Sections 60-61)

Type A. First and second declension: masculine and neuter belong to the second
declension, feminine to first in H. Hence, if an adjective or participle ends in OW,H,
ON, you at once know its stem (the nominative form minus the OWHor ON), and
know that its genitive ends in OUHWOU, with the other cases following regularly.
Notes:
(1). All middle participles are of this type. Here is the Present Middle-Passive
Participle of our paradigm verb LÃV:
M. F. N.
Sg.
N. LUÎMENOW LUOMNH LUÎMENON
G. LUOMNOU LUOMNHW LUOMNOU
D. LUOMN¡ LUOMN× LUOMN¡
A. LUÎMENON LUOMNHN LUÎMENON
Pl.
N. LUÎMENOI LUÎMENAI LUÎMENA
G. LUOMNVN LUOMNVN LUOMNVN
D. LUOMNOISI LUOMN×SI LUOMNOISI
A. LUOMNOUW LUOMNAW LUÎMENA
(2). A few adjectives (mostly compounds) have no separate feminine forms, but use mas-
culine endings when modifying either masculine or feminine words. Hence their
nominative is listed as OWON.
For a paradigm of the Type A adjective, see the complete declension of KALÎW
ÎNin Section 61.
83
Type B. First and third declension: masculine and neuter belong to third declension,
feminine to first in A (not in H as with type A!). There are these divisions:
Adjectives, two kinds (Note: the differences in the accusative masculine singular,
and the nominative and accusative neuter singular between these two
adjectives):
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Sg.
N. DÃW DEºA DÃ PTERÎEIW PTERÎESSA PTERÎEN
G. DOW DE¸HW DOW PTERÎENTOW PTEROSSHW PTERÎENTOW
D. DI DE¸× DI PTERÎENTI PTEROSS× PTERÎENTI
A. DÃN DEºAN DÃ PTERÎENTA PTERÎESSAN PTERÎEN
Pl.
N. DEW DEºAI DA PTERÎENTEW PTERÎESSAI PTERÎENTA
G. DVN DE¸VN DVN PTERONTVN PTEROSSVN PTERONTVN
D. DESSI DE¸×SI DESSI PTERÎESSI PTEROSS×W PTERÎESSI
A. DAW DE¸AW DA PTERÎENTAW PTEROSSAW PTERÎENTA
Note: Masculine and neuter PTERÎESSIare contracted from PTERONTESSI

Participles, four kinds:
1. PRES. ACT. FUT. ACT.

M. F. N. M. F. N.
Sg.
N. LÃVN LÃOUSA LÅON LÃSVN LÃSOUSA LÅSON
G. LÃONTOW LUOÃSHW LÃONTOW LÃSONTOW LUSOÃSHW LÃSONTOW
D. LÃONTI LUOÃS× LÃONTI LÃSONTI LUSOÃS× LÃSONTI
A. LÃONTA LÃOUSAN LÅON LÃSONTA LÃSOUSAN LÅSON
Pl.
N. LÃONTEW LÃOUSAI LÃONTA LÃSONTEW LÃSOUSAI LÃSONTA
G. LUÎNTVN LUOUSjVN LUÎNTVN LUSÎNTVN LUSOUSjVN LUSÎNTVN
D. LUÎNTESSI LUOÃS×SI LUÎNTESSI LUSÎNTESSI LUSOÃS×SI LUSÎNTESSI
LÃOUSI LÃOUSI LÃSOUSI LÃSOUSI
A. LÃONTAW LUOÃSAW LÃONTA LÃSONTAW LUSOÃSAW LÃSONTA
Note: Types 2-4 belong to tense systems which are yet to be introduced. They
are given here for future reference.
84
Lesson 29
2. FIRST AOR. ACT.

M. F. N. M. F. N.
Sg. Pl.
N. LÃSAW LÃSASA LÅSAN LÃSANTEW LÃSASAI LÃSANTA
G. LÃSANTOW LUSjSHW LÃSANTOW LUSjNTVN LUSASjVN LUSjNTVN
D. LÃSANTI LUSjS× LÃSANTI LUSjNTESSI LUSjS×SI LUSjNTESSI
LÃSASI LÃSASI
A. LÃSANTA LÃSASAN LÅSAN LÃSANTAW LUSjSAW LÃSANTA
3. PERF. ACT.
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Sg. Pl.
N. LELUK¢W LELUKUºA LELUKÎW LELUKÎTEW LELUKUºAI LELUKÎTA
G. LELUKÎTOW LELUKU¸HW LELUKÎTOW LELUKÎTVN LELUKUIjVN LELUKÎTVN
D. LELUKÎTI LELUKU¸× LELUKÎTI LELUKÎTESSI LELUKU¸×SI LELUKÎTESSI
LELUKÎSI LELUKÎSI
A. LELUKÎTA LELUKU¸AN LELUKÎW LELUKÎTAW LELUKU¸AW LELUKÎTA
4. AOR. PASS.
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Sg. Pl.
N. LUYE¸W LUYEºSA LUYN LUYNTEW LUYEºSAI LUYNTA
G. LUYNTOW LUYE¸SHW LUYNTOW LUYNTVN LUYEISjVN LUYNTVN
D. LUYNTI LUYE¸S× LUYNTI LUYNTESSI LUYE¸S×SI LUYNTESSI
LUYEºSI LUYEºSI
A. LUYNTA LUYEºSAN LUYN LUYNTAW LUYE¸SAW LUYNTA
Type C. Third declension only: all forms belong to third declension; there are no
special feminine endings. In some cases, the word has two terminations (one for
masculine and feminine, and the other for neuter), in others, only one (serving for all
genders). Three kinds:
M./F. N. M./F. N.
Sg. Sg.
N. mLHYW ALHYW PRÎFRVN PRÎFRON
G. mLHYOW mLHYOW PRÎFRONOW PRÎFRONOW
D. mLHYI mLHYI PRÎFRONI PRÎFRONI
A. mLHYA mLHYW PRÎFRONA PRÎFRON
85
M./F. N. M./F. N.
Pl Pl
N. mLHYEW mLHYA PRÎFRONEW PRÎFRONA
G. mLHYVN mLHYVN PROFRÎNVN PROFRÎNVN
D. mLHYSSI mLHYSSI PROFRÎNESSI PROFRÎNESSI
A. mLHYAW mLHYA PRÎFRONAW PRÎFRONA
Sg.
N. MjKAR
G. MjKAROW
D. MjKARI
A. MjKARA
Pl.
N. MjKAREW
G. MAKjRVN
D. MAKjRESSI
A. MjKARAW
Note:
1. MjKARand other adjectives of one termination occur only occasionally
as neuter, and then solely in the oblique cases (i.e., genitive and dative).
2. In words of one termination (like MjKAR), the genitive will be given in
the vocabularies, as with third declension nouns, for convenience in
determining the stem, since these words have to be treated individually, as
they do not fall into a pattern.
3. There are no participles in Type C, but only adjectives.
190. PRESENT PARTICIPLE OF E»M¸

¢NOÅSAÎNis declined like LÃVNLÃOUSALÅON (genitive: ÎNTOW
OÃSHWÎNTOW
191. MEMORIZE
A¼RVA¼RSVLON I seize; [in mid.] I pick for myself, I choose
mLHYWW true
DONW [f.] pleasure
DÃWDEºADÃ sweet, pleasant
KR¸NVKRINVKRºNA I pick out; I separate; I judge
MjKARAROW happy, blessed
PRÎFRVNON willing, eager, ready
86
Lesson 29
PTERÎEIWESSAEN winged
XRHSTÎWÎN worthy, good
192. TRANSLATE
1. SOFOºSIMANYjNEINmLHYAPARXEIDONN
2. TÎDEPOUPRÎFRONIYUM¯POISV
3. MjKARoNYRVPOWÖWDUNATÎWSTINXRMATAkS¢ZEINmPÏPURÎW
TEKA¹ÓMBROU
4. mNDRÏWXRHSTOÅCUXMETkMAKjRESSIZ¢SEIA»E¸
5. PEAPTERÎENTATkKRIXEIWLGE
6. XRHSTkKR¸NETAIÇPÏXRHST¤N
7. KEºNOWoNAJmPÏOÍMÏWKASIGNHTÏWFEÃGEIKA¹NPAºDAmD¸KEEN
8. OÆKPESSIDESSIFANETAImLHYE¸H
9. mNRAMjKARAFA¸NOUSINÖWA¾REETkXRMATA
10. MDÄA»E¸A¼RESYEmLLkÔSTIXRHSTÎN
193. PUT INTO GREEK

1. That tree bears sweet fruit.
2. He said the voice of a true friend is always pleasant and good.
3. They chose to die, that they might have glory among the living.
4. Who loves pleasure, loves a winged thing that quickly perishes.
5. I know your companion will come eagerly.
6. Each of my companions is a brave and worthy man.
7. These are gifts for the king, who is a friend of my brother’s.
8. They did not seem to be the words of evil men who were about to
seize our gold.
9. I hope to choose true pleasures.
10. Justice is winged, and pursues mortals doing evil.
194. READINGS
1. S¤MAMN1LjTVNOWDEGAºAKATXEICUXDYEOEIDWN
MAKjRESS¸NSTIN (Speusippus)
2. mLHYWGkROÈPOTELGXETAI (Plato)
3. XRHSTÏWmNRKASTAKR¸NEIÑRY¤WKA¹NKjSTOIWmLHYE¸HT¯
FA¸NETAITEROIDPOLLO¹DIkDONNnMARTjNOUSIDÄGjROÆK
ÏNA»E¹mGAYÎN¦WmGAYÏNA¼RONTAILÃPHND¦WKAKÏN
FEÃGOUSINMOÅNOWOÌNXRHSTÏWÖmLHYWSTINNKjSTOIW
ÒRjEI (Aristotle)
4. OÆXÔRKOIE»S¹NP¸STIWmNDRÏWmLLkÔRKVNmNR (Aeschylus)
87
5. KA¹JRXETOmNRDUNATÏWKTWPARATjJEOWT¤NmLLOFÃLVN
(OLIkYÓNOMAAÆT¯K(YÉCOWAÆTOÅTESSjRVNPXEVNKAI
SPIYAMW (i Kings XVII 4, from the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the
Hebrew Bible)
mLLÎFULLOIVN [m.] foreigners [here = Philistines]

(Y [indecl.] Gath, a major Philistine city [here = gen., obj. of prep.]
(OLIjY [m. indecl.] Goliath, a Philistine giant who would be killed by
David’s slingshot
DUNATÎWÎN strong
LGXV I put to shame; I refute
JRXOMAI I come out (of )
YEOEIDWW [m.] godlike
KATXV I hold down, contain
LÃPHHW [f.] pain
ÓNOMAONÎMATOW [n.] name
ÑRY¤W [adv.] rightly, correctly
ÔRKOWOU [m.] oath, pledge
PARjTAJIWPARATjJEOW [f.] battle line
PXUWPXEOW [m.] fore-arm; cubit (18 inches)
P¸STIWP¸STIOW [f.] faith; guarantee
1LjTVNVNOW Plato, the famous philosopher
SPIYAMW [f.] the space one can span with thumb and pinkie:
a span [about 8 inches]
TSSAREWVN [m., f.] four
ÉCOWÉCEOW [n.] height
195. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Of those trees, many will fall on account of storms, and many will be destroyed
by fire, but others will grow where they were.
2. We fear lest they are about to fight with our good neighbors.
196. WORD STUDY

HERETIC (‘one who picks and chooses’ among religious or other serious doctrines,
thus separating himself from those who hold the entire and common belief ),
HERESY; HERESIARCH (one who begins a heresy); — HEDONISM (the
philosophical system which makes pleasure the only good and the test of all things);
— CRISIS (KR¸SIW a separation or judgment; hence, the turning point at which
events are decided one way or the other), CRITIC (one who separates good from bad,
true from false; a judge), CRITICAL (at the crisis or turning point; decisive),
CRITERION (a standard or test by which to judge things for correctness).
88
Lesson 30
Review of the Third Declension
Uses of the Participle
197. FORMS
Masculine and feminine nouns are declined as oNAJ, neuters as POW. Third
declension adjectives and participles follow the same models.
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.

N. oNAJ oNAKTEW POW PEA
G. oNAKTOW mNjKTVN PEOW PVN
D. oNAKTI oNAJImNjKTESSI PEI PESIorPESSI
A. oNAKTA oNAKTAW POW PEA
198. NOTES
1. Stems in IandU end in N in accusative singular.
2. Masculine adjectives with nominatives in UWhave accusative singular in UN
3. A KGor X blends with S to become J.
4. In neuters, the accusative is always like the nominative.
5. Gender of nouns: stems in ATARAE are neuter; stems in DIYIT
THT are feminine; the rest are masculine.
199. USES OF THE PARTICIPLE

Participles are both verbs and adjectives, and as such possess both verbal and adjectival
characteristics and functions.
1. As verbs, participles:
a. have tense and voice
b. are built from the principal parts of verbs
c. have subjects and may have objects
2. As adjectives, participles:
a. have gender, case and number
b. agree in gender, case and number with the noun or pronoun they modify
(which may also be thought of as the participle’s subject)
Participles in Greek are used
1. Where a relative clause might be used:
89
The man speaking winged words is not my brother. (The man who is speaking
winged words is not my brother.)
mNRPEAPTERÎENTALGVNMÏWKASISGNHTÏWOÈKSTIN
In this type of participial clause (the participle, its subject, and any objects),
the participle is modifying the noun it modifies (its subject) in the same way
that a relative clause would. Note thatLGVNagrees in case, gender and
number with its nominative, masculine and singular subject mNROf course, a
participial clause need not be nominative:
We sent gifts to the man speaking winged words. (We sent gifts to the man
who was speaking winged words.)
D¤RAPMPOMENmNDR¹PEAPTERÎENTALGONTI
Here the participle LGONTIis dative, in agreement with its subjectmNDR¸
which is a dative indirect object of the verb PMPOMENIn both sample
sentences, PEAPTERÎENTAis accusative because it is the direct object of the
participle in its clause.
2. To express some type of circumstance attendant upon the action of the main
verb. The negative with all circumstantial participles is OÆwith the exception
of those that express a condition, where Mis used.
a. Cause:
Because she loved my brother, she saved him. (Loving my brother,
she saved him.)
FILOUSAMÏNKASIGNHTÏNS¤ZEN
b. Time (with the tense of the participle denoting a point of time relative to
that of the main verb of the sentence):
They died while saving the city.
YNSKONPÎLINS¢ZONTEW
They will die while saving the city.
YANONTAIPÎLINS¢ZONTEW
c. Purpose or Intention (usually with the future participle):
He comes in order to (intending to) ransom his brother.
RXETAILUSÎMENOWÏNKASIGNHTÎN
d. Concession (often with PER):
Although we are able to conceal the truth, we reveal (it). (Being able to
conceal the truth, we [nevertheless] reveal it.)
DUNATO¸PERÎNTEWmLHYE¸HNKEÃYEINFA¸NOMEN
e. Condition
Not seeming wise, I would not be loved. (If I did not seem wise, I would
not be loved.)
MFAINÎMENOWSOFÎWOÆKqNFILEÎMHN
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Lesson 30
3. After certain verbs, e.g., ÒRjVPEÃYOMAIGIGN¢SKVandmKOÃV, to

express indirect statement. The subject of the participle in the subordinate
clause, if different from the subject of the introductory verb, is put in the
accusative case, just as the subject of the infinitive is put into the accusative case
after LGVand NOM¸ZV. The tense of the participle represents a point of time
relative to the tense of the introductory verb; it may also be thought of as
representing the corresponding tense of the verb in the “original” statement.
I see that she is hiding the gold. (I see “XRUSÏNKEÃYEI.”)
XRUSÏNKEÃYOUSANÒRjV
I saw that she was hiding the gold. (I saw “XRUSÏNKEÃYEI.”)
XRUSÏNKEÃYOUSANÔRAON
I saw that she was (being) about to hide the gold. (I saw “XRUSÏNKEÃSEI”)
XRUSÏNKEÃSOUSANÔRAON
Note: ÒRjVPEÃYOMAIand mKOÃVin indirect statement denote intellectual

perception, and are essentially equivalent to an English verb such as “realize”
or “know.” When mKOÃV denotes sense perception, it takes a genitive
object:
I hear the king speaking winged words.
oNAKTOWPEAPTERÎENTALGONTOWmKOÃV
Likewise can PEÃYOMAItake a genitive when it means “hear (tell) of ”:
I hear of his being away.
PEÃYOMAImPONTOW
When ÒRjVdenotes actual “seeing” as opposed to “realizing”, however, it
still takes an accusative object, so that, for example, the first sample sentence
above could be translated, “I see her hiding the gold.”
200. MEMORIZE
mKOÃVmKOÃSOMAIoKOUSA I hear
pPAWpPASApPAN [m./ n. gen. pPANTOW> all, the whole
EÂWM¸AN[m./n. gen. NÎW] one
MISUWEIAU half
MHDE¸WMHDEM¸AMHDN [for gen., see under EÂW] no one, none
OÆDE¸WOÆDEM¸AOÆDN [for gen., see under EÂW] no one, none
PlWPlSAPlN [m./ n. gen. PANTÎW>all, every, the whole
PEIRjVPEIRSVPE¸RHSA I make trial of [+ gen.];
I attempt, I try [+ gen., or + inf.]
PATR¸WPATR¸DOW [ f.] fatherland, country; [as f. adj.]:
of one’s fathers, ancestral
91
201. TRANSLATE
1. PjNTEWYLOUSINZ¢EINTEKA¹MjKAREWMMEN
2. OÆDE¸WSTINÖWNPATR¸DAOÆFILEI
3. NÏWTOÅDEDENDROIOpPANTEWO¾DEKARPO¸E»SIN
4. E»MDUNATÎWSSIPlNLAMBjNESYAIMISÃGEA¼REO
5. mNDRÏWmRETWPEIRjEIPTÎLEMOW
6. ÒRjEIWTNDEPTRHNP¸PTOUSANE»WPOTAMÎN
7. PlSIBROTOºSINOÅSOIPLONTAIXALEPA¹FREIN
8. MHDEN¹TR¡KEºNOMÏND¤RONFA¸NOITE
9. PASjVNCUXjVNmYANjTHST¹ZVS¤MADYNSKEI
10. mKOÃOMENKE¸NOUWPONHROÄWNPjS×SIPOL¸ESSIÎNTAW
11. E»WPATR¸DARXETOoNAKTOWPEIRSOUSA
12. TÎDEPO¸EEP¸NVN
13. MISVTOÃSDEMÏNF¸LONmDIKONTAW
14. MPARXONTEWD¤RAOÆKqNNÅNFEÅGON
202. PUT INTO GREEK

1. To all men, the sun seems to be like a fire in the sky.
2. Half of every deed is the beginning.
3. To no one seeing it from the river does this rock seem high.
4. Do you (sg.) not see that it is noble to save our fatherland now?
5. Let us make trial of all the food that she says is there.
6. These are gifts for the king, who is (use participle) a friend of my brother’s.
7. To die for the sake of your country is not indeed pleasant, but it is noble.
8. The king is coming to see his brother’s children.
9. Of all men, only the just and good have true happiness.
10. The sun was said to be Nature’s eye, seeing everything.
11. The mind of a man falling to death quickly considers many things.
12. That is the only sea of the whole earth which he does not know.
13. Although all men are mortal, nevertheless many attempt to live forever.
14. While roaming back and forth I saw many things.
203. READINGS
1. EÂWmNROÆDE¹WmNR (Greek maxim)
2. F¸LOUWXVNNÎEEYHSAUROÄWXEIN (Greek proverb)
3. mRXDTOIMISUPANTÎW (Greek proverb)
4. oNYRVPOWYjNATONFEÃGVNDI¢KEI (Democritus)
5. mDÃNATÎNSTIPOLLkPEIRAÎMENONoNYRVPONPjNTAKAL¤W
POIEIN(Xenophon)
92
Lesson 30
6. OÆKP¹S¸T¡MOÃN¡Z¢EIoNYRVPOWmLLkP¹PANT¹LÎG¡J
ERXOMN¡DIkSTÎMATOWYEOÅ (St. Matthew)
7. RGONST¹NOÆDNÓNEIDOWmERG¸HDÓNEIDOW (Hesiod)
8. pPANTAKALOºWoNDRESSImGAYj (Greek proverb)
9. OÆDE¹WYEÏWDÃSNOOWmNYR¢POIW (Plato)
10. pPASAGAºAmNDR¹SOF¯PATR¸W (Thales)
11. SKHNSTIPlWB¸OW (Palladas) Can you translate this into Shakespeare’s
famous words for the same idea?
12. GHRjSKVDA»E¹POLLkDIDASKÎMENOW (Solon)
mERG»HHW [f.] idleness

mDÃNATOWON unable (mDÃNATÎNSTI+ acc. and infinitive “it is impossible”)
GHRjSKV I grow old
DÃSNOOWON unfriendly to, ill-minded towards
EJRXOMAI I come out
KAL¤W [adv.] well
ÓNEIDOW [n.] reproach, disgrace
SKHNW [f.] tent; stage
STÎMAATOW [n.] mouth
204. WRITE IN GREEK

1. To a wise man judging the works of mortal men, not all deeds appear worthy,
and many seem foolish.
2. Now is the time to teach all men that war, even though just, is the beginning of
many evils, both to the fatherland and to the whole earth. [Use the participle of
E»M¸after “though”].
3. Since pleasures are winged, they are not true happiness, which only virtue and a
noble life are able to supply.
4. The light of a fire near the sea is pleasant to one seeing (it) from these high rocks
where we now are.
205. WORD STUDY

ACE (a single-spot card; a unit); — HEMISPHERE (SFAºRA ball, sphere; the ‘half-
sphere’, half of the earth’s surface, divided either at the equator or through the poles);
— PATRIOT (one devoted to his fatherland), PATRIOTIC, PATRIOTISM; —
PAN- (a prefix meaning ‘including all’, e.g., PAN-AMERICAN, PAN-SLAVIC,
PANCHROMATIC [XR¤MA color]), PANORAMA (‘a seeing of all,’ a complete
view in all directions; a series of pictures or scenes following one another to give a view
of the whole sweep of some large topic, e.g., of American frontier life), PANTHEISM
(the doctrine that ‘all is God,’ i.e., everything is but an aspect of divinity),
PANTHEON (a great Roman temple ‘all divine’ [YEºON], designed by Emperor
Hadrian), PANTS (colloquial abbreviation from PANTALOONS, (a type of trousers
worn by renaissance Venetians, who were nicknamed Pantaloons from their
connection with St. Pantaleon [‘all-lion’, mighty]), PANTOMIME (MºMOW imitator;
the conveying of ideas or a story ‘all by imitation’, i.e., by imitative gestures and
actions; a play without dialog, only expressive action), DIAPASON (‘through all’
93
stops of an organ at once; hence, the complete range of a thing’s powers all exerted at
one time); — PIRATE (one who ‘makes attempts on’ ships); — STOMACH (the
‘mouth’ of the digestive organs), CHRYSOSTOM (‘golden-mouthed,’ honorary title
of St. John, archbishop of Constantinople in 5th century, most famous as a preacher);
— SCENE (originally, painted stage-effects, SCENERY; hence, a division of a play
by change of setting; also, a striking view), SCENIC, SCENARIO.
REVIEW EXERCISES
206. READINGS
1. MHDNoGAN (Greek maxim; imperative implied. One of the most basic and
often quoted principles of the Greek philosophy of life.)
2. mNDR¹SOF¯JEºNONOÆDN (Antisthenes)
3. ·MEÂWKA¹AÆTÎWSTINA»E¹B¸OUSKOPÎWKEºNOWEÂWKA¹AÆTÏWDIk
OÉLOIOB¸OIOMMENAIOÈKSTIDUNATÎW (Antoninus)
4. 4VKRjTHWFHYEOÄWPjNTAGIGN¢SKEIN (Xenophon)
5. OÆDIkPOLLÏNoNYRVPOIZ¢OMENXRÎNONmLLkÑL¸GONCUXD
mYANjTHKA¹mGRVWZ¢EIDIkXRÎNOUPANTÎW (Phocylides)
6. GIGN¢SKOMENÔTImNYR¢POISIFILEÎNTESSIYEÏNPjNTASUNERGEIE»W
mGAYÎN (St. Paul)
7. mLHYE¸HDPjNTVNMNmGAY¤NYEOºWESTIPR¤TONPjNTVND
mNYR¢POIW (Plato)
8. s4ÎLVN4ÎLVNe&LLHNEWA»E¹PAºDWSTEGRVNDe&LLHNOÈK
STINNOIGjRSTECUXSIPjNTEW (An Egyptian priest to Solon the
philosopher on a visit to Egypt; quoted by Plato)
9. mLLk;EÄWPjNTVNÒRjEITLOW (Solon)
10. MTERONGkRPOL¸TEUMANOÆRANOºWSTIN (St. Paul)
11. BROTOºWpPASINSUNE¸DHSIWYEÎW (Menander, referring to the commands
of reason which man must obey in his mortal life)
12. FILOSOF¸HB¸OUKUBERNTHW (Motto of Phi Beta Kappa fraternity)
13. pPANTASIGjVNYEÏWTELEI (Menander)
14. KGA¸HWMNPjNTAG¸GNETAIKA¹E»WGAºANPjNTATELETAI
(Xenophanes)
15. XRÎNOWKRUPTkPjNTAPRÏWFjOWFREI (Menander)
16. oNYRVPOIDNPIANOOMENGIGN¢SKONTEWOÆDNYEO¹DKATk
SFTERONNÎONPjNTATELOUSI (Theognis)
17. XRUSÎWSTIAÂMAKA¹CUXBROTOºW (Antiphanes)
18. PjNTEWDYE¤NXATOUSIoNYRVPOI (Homer)
19. ÇPÏPANT¹L¸Y¡SKÎRPIOWEÉDEI (Greek proverb)
94
Lesson 30
20. GHRjSKEIPjNTAÇPÏXRÎNOU (Aristotle)

21. OÆDMjKAROÆDE¹WPLETAIBROTÎWmLLkPONHRO¹PjNTEWYNHT¤N
TOÄWLIOWÒRjEI (Solon)
22. mPOLLÃOUSINYEAXRHSTkÒMIL¸AIKAKA¸ (Menander)
23. OÈTOIXRMATA½DIAXOUSIBROTO¸ (Euripides; take ½DIA here as
predicate adj., not modifier)
24. PlNYOWDIkYOW (Plato)
25. F¸LOUWXMENAIOÆMOÅNONmNjGKHST¹NmLLkKA¹KALÎNoNDRAW
GkRFILOF¸LOUWPjNTEWAINOMEN (Aristotle)
s [exclamation] ah!
oGAN [adv.] to excess, beyond reasonable bounds
mGRVWVN ageless, undecaying
AÂMAATOW [n.] blood
A»NV I praise
GRVNONTOW [m.] old man
GHRjSKV I grow old
YOWEOW [n.] habit
e&LLHNHNOW [m.] a Greek (cp. HELLENISM: Greek culture; HELLENIST: a lover
of Greek literature and culture; HELLENISTIC age: C. 333-19 B.C.,
when Greek culture and language were most widespread)
YOWEOW [n.] character, moral trait (cp. ETHICS: the philosophy of character
and morality; ETHICAL)
½DIOWHON private, personal, one’s own (cp. IDIOM: an expression confined to or
peculiar to a particular language and not literally translatable into
another; IDIOT: an imbecile, a private, common, ignorant person;
IDIOSYNCRASY [SÃNKRASIW a mingling together], hence, a personal
distinctive peculiarity or mannerism)
KRUPTÎWÎN hidden, secret
KUBERNTHWOU [m.: a variation of the first declension] pilot, steersman
NOWHON young, new
JEºNOWHON strange, foreign
ÒMIL¸HHW [f.] association, company
OÍLOWHON whole, entire
ÔTI [conj.] that [introducing a subordinate clause in indirect statement, just
as in English; its use is confined to certain verbs, including LGV]
POL¸TEUMAATOW true country, place of citizenship
SIGjV I keep silent
SKOPÎWOÅ [m.] goal, aim
SKÎRPIOWOU [m.] scorpion
SUNE¸DHSIWIOW conscience, perception of right and wrong
SUNERGV I work together, I cooperate
SFTEROWHON their
TELV I accomplish, I bring to its completion or end
TLOWEOW [n.] end; object, aim
FILOSOF¸HHW [f.] philosophy, i.e., ‘love of wisdom’
FILÎFILOWHON friend-loving, affectionate
XATV I have need of, I have a natural yearning after [+ gen.]
207. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Every man pursues happiness according to his own nature.
2. Life is like war— it shows a man to be either brave or a coward.
95
3. “Let us fight,” he said, “with all spirit, that our children may have true peace.”
4. If he had not taught it, how would we have learned to love all other men?
5. Choose (pl.) what you wish, for I brought everything that it might be eaten.
6. Yet at that very time, I suppose, we were near the rock where the treasure was!
7. They will supply your brother food of all sorts, as a gift from the king.
8. May I never be turned away from the truth a second time by the voice of fools!
9. Though requesting only what is just, they fail of that for the sake of which the
king sent them.
10. Only strong men are able thus to endure what they at heart hate.
11. We did not see that they were seizing the possessions.
12. Because they pursue pleasure (use participle), they love sweet things.
208. IDENTIFY, by stating completely the precise form of the word (e.g., 3 decl. m. dat.
pl.; pres. mid. ind. 2 sg.); then give the exact meaning of the word in that form.
(Where there are two words, translate both but identify only the second):
1. oPESSI 26. PARMEN
2. DE¸SONTAI 27. DOIO
3. DONjVN 28. mRX
4. E½ROITO 29. ¾NAW
5. PE¹mPA 30. MYNSKOI
6. KEºNOPTERÎEN 31. LÃE
7. PAREÎNTI 32. ÔPVWLAMBjNHTE
8. TREFOMN×W 33. LUÎNTESSI
9. ÓFRA« 34. MELLMEN
10. DVNKARP¤N 35. oPEIMEN
11. LÃSASI 36. ¾NAA¼RVMAI
12. OÃSHW 37. OÈTESAN
13. oGVMEN 38. MKRINO¸MEYA
14. ZVN 39. «MEN
15. ¾NATE 40. ÓFRAP¸N×W
16. MmDIKOIW 41. LAMBjNETE(!)
17. LUÎMHN 42. mLHYW
18. PjREIW 43. MHDSVZO¸ATO
19. LÃOUSAI 44. ¦WFEÃGOIMI
20. YANjTOIO 45. LÃSONTEW
21. ÔPVW«SI 46. mPSYA
22. LÃONTOW 47. ÑFYALMOºSI
23. JEºNOI 48. LÃETO
24. KENP¸PTETE 49. PTERÎEIW
25. KELEÃSEIW 50. PURÏWÇCHLOºO
96
Lesson 30
51. FRÎNEEW 66. PARHN

52. SPEÅDE(!) 67. ¾NARXHTAI
53. ¼ER¯NH¯ 68. SXTLIAPRjGMATA
54. ÓFRAFOITj× 69. E»M¸
55. PRÎFRON 70. PTERÎESSA
56. A¼RSOMAI 71. ¼KjNOIEN
57. ¾NAG¸GNVNTAI 72. LÃEU
58. MKEI 73. PLHS¸A
59. MAXEÎMHN 74. ÎN
60. PELÎMESYA 75. ÎN
61. DESYE 76. POÅSAN
62. ÓFRAKELEÃHSYE 77. DÃW
63. A¼REO(!) 78. AÆTÎ
64. DI¢KETO 79. ¾NA
65. LÃMEN 80. mLHYW
209. TRANSLATE
1. OÆKOÌNGIGN¢SKEIWLÎGOUWCUXWÎNTAW»HTRÎN
POTAMÏNNÅNAÁCA¼KjNOITTEKA¹TKEÃYOISYEMETkDENDROIW
POIEÎNTESSIXALEPjTjDEGEH¸DIAEÁNAIDOKSEITjPOTEOÆK
YELONPEIRjEIN
TAºROIMO¸PARERXÎMENOIEÍDENP¹YALjSS×
E½YED¸KHNOÆB¸HNNOOIMENPjNTEWmLHYWMNPLESYAIPATR¸DOW
MTRONmLHYADDÎJAN
6. POLLkWTOÅS¢MATOWNOÃSOUWPRÎFRVNFROUSAÑRYFA¸NEAI
YEOºOF¸LH[TOÅhere is the article, “the”]
RGOIOKjSTOIOMISUMNA¼REUMISUDJVAÆTÎW
KRISYL¯mEJSETAIÇPÏPÎNVNmRET
MPOTEPOWA»SXRÏNNNEPMEN¾NAMFA¸NHAIA»SXRÏWKA¹AÆTÎW
LGEIoNYR¢POUWLÎGOISImMEIBOMNOUWmLHYSIF¸LOUWDIDjSKEIN
DSÄNTOºWmLHYE¸HNPEÃYESYAI
END OF FIRST UNIT
97
Lesson 31
The Interrogative And Indefinite Pronouns/Adjectives
210. MEANING
When it is a pronoun, the interrogative T¸WT¸means “who?, what?” It can also
modify other nouns as an adjective, just as demonstratives do; in this case it means
“which?, what?”
T¸WRXETAIWho is coming? (Pronoun)
T¸WmNRRXETAIWhich/What man is coming? (Adjective)
T¯TÎDED¤RONXRHSTÏNFA¸NETAIEÁNAITo whom does this gift seem to be
useful? (Pronoun)
T¯NHP¸¡TÎDED¤RONXRHSTÏNFA¸NETAIEÁNAITo what fool does this
gift seem to be useful? (Adjective)
When it is a pronoun, the indefinite TIWTImeans “someone/anyone, something/
anything.” But as an adjective, it means “some, any, certain.”
RXETA¸TIWSomeone is coming. (Pronoun)
mNRTIWRXETAIA certain man is coming. (Adjective)
ÒRjEITINARXONTAHe sees someone coming. (Pronoun)
ÒRjEImNRATINkRXONTAHe sees some man coming. (Adjective)
211. MORPHOLOGY
The forms of the indefinite and interrogative pronouns are spelled alike. They must
be distinguished by their pitch mark. The interrogative always has a pitch mark and
has it always on the first syllable. The indefinite is an enclitic and very seldom has a
pitch mark, and then on the last or second-last syllable. (See the Appendix C for more
on enclitics.) There is no distinct form for the feminine gender, which shares one
form with the masculine.
98
Lesson 31
212. FORMS
T¸WT¸ who? which? what? TIWTI some(one), some(thing), certain,

any(one), any(thing)
M./F. N. M./F. N.
Sg. Sg.
N. T¸W T¸ TIW TI
G. TEÅ TEÅ TEU TEU
D. T¯T¡ T¯T¡ T¡TE¡ T¡TE¡
A. T¸NA T¸ TINA TI
Pl. Pl.
N. T¸NEW T¸NA TINEW TINA
G. TVN TVN TEVN TEVN
D. TOISI TOISI TEOISI TEOISI
A. T¸NAW T¸NA TINAW TINA
213. NOTES
a. The neuter T¸is often used as an adverb meaning “why?”
b. The neuter TI is often used as an adverb meaning “somehow,” “in some
respect.”
c. The indefinite pronoun, when used as an adjective, generally follows the word it
modifies, and gives it a vague, undefined sense; e.g., oNYRVPÎWTIW some man
or other, a certain man (whose name I do not know or will not mention).
99
214. THE INDEFINITE RELATIVE PRONOUN/ADJECTIVE AND INDIRECT

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN/ADJECTIVE
1. The indefinite relative pronoun is ÔWTIWTIWÔTIÔTTI: whoever,
whatever. It is generally written as two words in the nominative and accusative,
both parts being declined (e.g., ÔNTINApWTINAW). Sometimes in the
nominative and accusative, and always in the genitive and dative, the masculine
and neuter forms are written as one word, only the last part being declined, the
first part shortening to -Ò (e.g., ÔTEUÒTOISIÔTIW).
M. F. N.
Sg.
N. ÔWTIWÔTIW TIW ÔTIÔTTI
G. ÔTEUÔTTEU ÔTEUÔTTEU ÔTEUÔTTEU
D. ÔT¡ÔTE¡ ÔT¡ÔTE¡ ÔT¡ÔTE¡
A. ÔNTINAÔTINA NTINA ÔTIÔTTI
Pl.
N. O¾TINEW A¾TINEW pTINApSSA
G. ÔTVNÔTEVN ÔTVNÔTEVN ÔTVNÔTEVN
D. ÒTOISI ÒTOISI ÒTOISI
A. OÉWTINAWÔTINAW pWTINAW pTINApSSA
ÔWTIWRXETAID¤RONA¼RSEIWhoever is coming will choose a gift.
ÔTIA¼REOAIREOAÁCAWhatever you choose, choose immediately.
2. The same forms are also used as indirect interrogative pronouns. As such they
introduce an indirect question, which is a question quoted within a complex
sentence (cf. indirect statement).
They ask who is coming. (They ask, “Who is coming?”)
A»TOUSINÔWTIWRXETAIA»TOUSIN“T¸WRXETAI”
When the main verb introducing an indirect question is in a secondary (i.e., past)
tense, the verb in the subordinate clause may be put into the optative mood (same
tense as the “original” question). Or the indicative may be retained:
They asked who was coming. (They asked, “Who is coming?”)
A½TEONÔWTIWRXOITOA½TEON“T¸WRXETAI”
A½TEONÔWTIWRXETAI
Alternatively, the direct interrogative pronoun may be retained:
A»TOUSINT¸WRXETAIThey ask who is coming.)
Other ways to introduce an indirect question will be seen later.
100
Lesson 31
215. MEMORIZE
oNEMOWOU [m.] wind
oRAA [postpositive] therefore, then [not of time!]
RDVRJVRJA I do
TI [adv.] yet, still;
OÆKTI no longer
NKTARNKTAROW [n.] nectar [the special drink of the gods]
PE¸YVPE¸SVPEºSAor I persuade, I win over; [in mid.] I am
PPIYON2 aor. mid.PIYÎMHN persuaded by, I am obedient to, I obey [+ dat.]
216. TRANSLATE
1. T¸WDUNATÎWSTIPjNTARDMEN
2. ÒRjVTINkPARkPOTAMÏNFOITjONTA
3. TOISIPÎLEMOWDÄWFA¸NETAIEÁNAI
4. PRlGMjTIKALÏNoRARDVMEN¾NADÎJANXVMEN
5. T¸NAAPE¸SETERGONOÉTVWXALEPÏNRDEIN
6. O¾TINEWTÎDELGOUSINnMARTjNOUSIN
7. T¸SPEÃDEIWXRÎNOWTISTIPOLLÎW
8. ÔWTIWYEOºWPE¸YETAIÔDESOFÏWPLETAID¼ERÎW
9. PjNTEWPOUF¸LOIE»MNTEOISIKA¸TINAWXOMENF¸LOUW
10. ÔTEUDÒXRUSÎWSTINSÎWGOÆKSTIN
11. A»TSVpSSAYLEIWS¢ZEIN
12. ÒPAºWA½TEENO¾TINEWTAºROIPARERXO¸ATO
13. BROTÏWKASTOWFÃSINTINkXEI
14. FANEIPOÃTIWTÏNNON¼ERÎN
217. PUT INTO GREEK

1. All men are in some respect good and noble.
2. The rain was being borne along by some wind or other.
3. Never do (pl.) anything that is shameful!
4. Some of my companions are no longer able to endure the toil.
5. Whom (pl.) did he say to be present?
6. With whom (pl.) are you (pl.) fighting, and for the sake of what?
7. No one who attempts to persuade all men is wise.
8. Why do mortals not drink nectar?
9. A certain king once hid his treasure under those rocks.
10. Have you (sg.) any friends who are also mine? Which?
11. We ask what words he is able to hear.
12. We asked what words they said.
101
218. READINGS
1. T¸WoRAÔDEST¸N·KA¹oNEMOWKA¹YjLASSAPE¸YONTAI(St. Mark)
2. OÆPlWRDVNTIDIkDONNA»SXRÎWSTINmLLkKEºNOWÖWDIk
DONNA»SXRÎNTIRDEI(Aristotle)
3. ÔTIKALÎNF¸LONA»E¸(Euripides. Keats said, “A thing of beauty is a joy for-
ever.”)
4. STITIWOÉTVWNPIOWÖWNOEIYEOÄWOÆKEÁNAI(Socrates, quoted by
Plato)
5. OÆXDOMAITROFFYORWOÆDDONSITOÅDEB¸OUSºTONYEOÅ
YLVÔSTIS¤MA9RISTOºOKA¹P¸NEINYLVAÂMAAÆTOÅÔSTIN
mGjPHmYANjTH (St. Ignatius of Antioch)
6. 1ÃRRVNFHMHDNDIAFREINZ¢EINYNSKEINE½RETOoRATIWT¸
OÌNOÆYNSKEIWÒDFHÔTIOÆDNDIAFREI (Diogenes Laertius)
mGjPHHW [f.] love

AÂMAATOW [n.] blood
DIAFREINDIAFREI [impersonal] it makes a difference
FH (he) said
ÔTI [conj.] because
1ÃRRVN Pyrrho of Elis, philosopher, friend of Alexander the Great
and founder of the Skeptics
TROFW [f.] nourishment, food
FYORW [f.] decay [meaning here this passing world]
219. WRITE IN GREEK

1. That beautiful and lofty tree which we all knew and loved is no longer there
beside the sea.
2. Of all my friends, none is so wise and good and pleasant as my brother.
3. Only those, then, who always do what is noble and true are happy.
220. WORD STUDY

ANEMONE (‘wind-flower’, a beautiful spring flower of the woods); — NECTAR
(now any delicious drink), NECTARINE (a variety of peach ‘fit for the gods’); —
ATROPHY (a wasting of part of the body from ‘lack of nourishment’).
102
Lesson 32
The Forms of the First Personal Pronoun
221. FORMS of G¢“I”) and MEºW(“we”)
Sg. Pl.
N. G¢N MEºWoMMEW
G. MEUMEºO MVN
D. MO¸MOI MºNoMMIN
A. MME MAWoMME
Note:
1. The English personal pronoun shows case, as does Greek; the
“objective case” of the nominative I and we is me and us.
2. The unaccented forms above are enclitic (see Appendix C) and are less
emphatic.
3. A Greek verb form contains the subject (e.g., FA¸NV I reveal) so the
nominative personal pronoun appears only where emphasis on the subject is
intended. For example:
FA¸NVYHSAURÎN
I reveal the treasure.
G¢FA¸NVYHSAURÎN
I reveal the treasure.
4. The genitive of the first- or second-person personal pronouns may be
used to show possession. Thus the sentence
FILVKASIGNHTÎNMEU
I love my brother.
means the same thing as
FILVMÏNKASIGNHTÎN
which uses the possessive adjective rather than the genitive of the personal
pronoun. (See Sections 79, 149, and 165 on the possessive adjectives.)
222. MEMORIZE
oLLOWHO other, another, else
BOÃLOMAIBOULSOMAI I desire, I prefer
BOULÎMHN
GLUKÃWEºAÃ sweet, delightful
NYEN [adv.] from there; then [of time]
103
M¸SGVM¸JVM¸JA I mix (something, in acc.) with (something, in dat.),

I mingle with
.OÅSAHW [f.] Muse [a goddess of poetry and art]
ÉDVRÉDATOW [n.] water
FRNFRENÎW [f.] mind, spirit
223. TRANSLATE
1. T¸MOIBOÃLEAIG¸GNESYAI
2. O¾DEE»S¸MEUPAºDEWLGENKEºNOW
3. KELEÃEIME¼KANMENÓFRAMO¹XRUSÏNPARX×
4. YEO¹MNNKTARP¸NOUSINMEºWDÉDVR—oLLOTI
5. MVNnPjNTVNKEºNOWA»E¹PR¤TOWKR¸NETAI
6. E»WPOTAMÏNRXESYEKA¹NYENFRETMOIÉDATOWMTRON
7. M¸SGOISYEMºN¦WF¸LOISIF¸LOI
8. G£D.OUSjVNGLUKE¸×DOMAIFVN
9. MAWOÌNPMCEIPRÏWoNAKTA
10. oMMEWoRABOULÎMEYATÎDEOÆDTIoLLO
11. ÔDEF¸LOWST¸MOIÔWTIWMO¹PE¸YETAI
12. PjNTEWA»TOUSINpTINAG£BOÃLOMAIMANYjNEIN
224. PUT INTO GREEK

1. He seems to me a brave and strong fellow.
2. They would have brought us food, had they known our need.
3. Which of us will learn all this first? I?
4. The Muses teach us many beautiful things.
5. He is my true friend; who else, indeed, is so good to me?
6. Mix (sg.) everything with water, then bring it to me (use PRÎW).
7. We, at least, prefer to die like brave men, not flee as cowards.
8. He saw us pursuing his brother among the trees.
9. I know that man —he once fought near me in the war.
10. Truth is dear to me, and food for my mind.
225. READINGS
1. OÈPOTEÉDVRKA¹PÅRM¸JONTAIOÆDPOTEMEºWF¸LOIGENHSÎMEYA
(Theognis)
2. MMOIG¸GNOITOTkBOÃLOMAImLLkTjMOISUMFREI (Menander)
3. mNT¹PÎNVNPVLOUSINMºNPjNTAmGAYkYEO¸ (Epicharmus)
4. KA¹G£NKTARXUTÎN.OUSjVND¤RONoNDRESSIF¸LOIWPMPV
GLUKÄNKARPÏNFRENÎW (Pindar)
104
Lesson 32
5. MMEPESIMNF¸LEENÎONDXVNKA¹FRNAWoLLAWE½GMEFILEIW
KA¹mLHYAXEIWNÎON (Theognis)
6. Z¢VOÆKTIG¢Z¢EIDNMO¹9RISTÎW (St. Paul)
7. EÂWSºTOWNS¤MAE»MNoMMEWPOLLO¸PjNTEWGkRJNÏWS¸TOIO
SY¸OMEN (St. Paul)
mNT¸ [prep. + gen.] for, in place of, over against

PVLV I sell, I exchange
SUMFRV I am of benefit to, I am good for
XUTÎWÎN out-poured
226. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Certain of the gods drink only nectar; nor do they desire anything else, so
delightful does it seem.
2. What, then, shall lead me away from justice? Shall war? or death? or toil? or
pleasure? Nothing!
3. Of which Muse is your delightful voice the gift?
227. WORD STUDY

ALLERGIC (RGON, ‘other-working’, in a condition of heightened susceptibility to a
certain infection, a second exposure to which ‘reacts otherwise’ than the first, which
was harmless, the second being violent), ALLEGORY (mGOREÃV I speak; an
elaborate literary simile ‘speaking’ of one truth by telling of some ‘other’ similar to it,
which is an illustrative parallel; e.g., Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Spenser’s Faerie
Queene); — GLUCOSE (a sweet sugar-compound), GLYCERINE,
NITROGLYCERINE; — MUSIC (‘the Muses’ art’), MUSICAL, MUSICIAN;
MUSEUM (a temple of the Muses, i.e., of the arts); — HYDROGEN (a ‘water-
born, water-producing’ element), HYDRANT (a water valve), HYDRAULIC
(AÆLÎW pipe; moving by the force of water-pressure in pipes, e.g., hydraulic brakes),
HYDROPLANE (an airplane which can operate from the water); — FRENETIC,
or FRANTIC (suffering from excessive mental agitation), FRENZY (violent fury,
mental delirium; literally, ‘inflammation of the brain’); — ANTI- (a prefix to many
words, meaning ‘opposed to, against’; e.g., ANTI-AIRCRAFT, ANTI-CHRIST,
ANTI-CLIMAX, ANTI-SOCIAL), ANTIDOTE (DÎTH f. adj., ‘given’; a medicine
given to counteract a poison or other harmful substance), ANTISEPTIC (SHPTIKÎW
making rotten, corrupting; an acid, etc., acting against or preventing the corruptive
effect of germ-laden matter), ANTITOXIN (TOJIKÎW poison; a substance formed in
the living tissues of an animal to neutralize the poisonous effect of the germs whose
activity produced the antitoxin itself ); — MONOPOLY (‘only selling’, the exclusive
control of a product or service so that there is no price-competition).
105
Lesson 33
The Forms of the Second Personal Pronoun
228. FORMS of SÃ (“you”) and ÇMEºW (“you all”)
Sg. Pl.
N. SÃ ÇMEºW
G. SEÅSEºO ÇMVN
D. SO¸TOI ÇMºN
A. S ÇMAW
229. MEMORIZE
DXOMAIDJOMAIDEJjMHN I receive, I accept
EÇR¸SKVEÇRSVEÍRON I find, I discover
EÆRÃWEºAÃ wide, broad
LAÎWOÅ [m.] people [a nation]; followers
ÒDÎWOÅ [f.] way, road; journey
OÁNOWOU [m.] wine
PÎYEN [interr. adv.]from what source? whence?
230. TRANSLATE
1. OÈTOIPE¸SOMAIPE¹KAKÎNSTINÖKELEÃEIW
2. SEºOST¹TÎDED¤RONoLLOUTEU
3. RXOISYEDEJÎMEYAGkRÇMAW¦WF¸LOUW
4. MEºWMNKEºNONBOULÎMEYAPR¤TONEÁNAIÇMEºWDT¸NA
5. PjNTASO¹mGAYkPARXEIYEÎW
6. KALÎNTIRDEINKA¸SEUDÎJAMETkPlSINmEJSETAI
7. NÅNDTIWÇMVNÉDATITÏNOÁNONM¸SGOI¾NAP¸NVMEN
8. SÄDT¸NAWSOIA¼REAITA¸ROUW
9. FA¸NETA¸POUÇMºNH¸DIONMMENAIEÇR¸SKEINÒDÏNOÉTVWEÆREºAN
10. PÎYENS¼KANMENLJV
231. PUT INTO GREEK

1. How shall we find you (pl.)?
2. We are your (sg.) friends; do whatever you wish here.
3. I shall show you (pl.) the road leading towards the sea.
106
Lesson 33
4. Bring (sg.) me that rock, and I will call you strong!

5. Why does he seem to you (sg.) so wise?
6. Which of you drank that wine?
7. You (pl.) are my companions; let us fight that we may save our fatherland.
8. I know the king is pleased with you(sg.) as with a true friend.
9. Who sends you (pl.) to me? From where?
10. You (pl.) bring the food, but you (sg.) the water.
232. READINGS
1. mGAPSEIWPLHS¸ONSEU¦WSAÆTÎN (St. Matthew. An instance of the
‘future of command’, as in “thou shalt…,” “you shall…”)
2. PÎYENPÎLEMOIKA¹PÎYENMjXAINÇMºNOÆKNYENKDONjVN
ÇMVNPOLEMEOUSjVNNÇMºNPIYUMETEKA¹OÆKXETEMjXESYE
OÌNKA¹POLEMETE (St. James)
3. KA¹SÃTKNON (The dying Caesar to Brutus, according to Suetonius)
4. PjNTVN»HTRÏWKAK¤NXRÎNOWST¸NKEºNOWKA¹SNÅN»jSETAI
(Menander)
mGAPjV I love
PIYUMV I set my heart upon something, I covet
»jOMAI»jSOMAI I cure, I heal
MjXHHW [f.] battle, conflict
POLEMV I wage war
TKNONOU [n.] child, son
233. WRITE IN GREEK

1. I, at least, shall not obey, because it does not seem to me just or noble. [“or”
here, after a negative, = “nor”].
2. From what source will we receive food and wine and water for the king and his
people?
234. WORD STUDY

LAITY (‘the people’, as distinguished from the clergy, or from members of a
profession), LAYMAN, LAY (of the laity; non-professional); — ELECTRODE (a
‘road for electrons or electricity’, one of the poles of a battery or dynamo), ANODE
(mNj up; the positive electrode, providing the entry or 'way up’ for the current into
something), CATHODE (KAY
, from KATj, the negative pole, the exit or ‘way
down’ for the current).
107
Lesson 34
The Forms of the Third Personal Pronoun. The Future of E»M¸
235. NOTE
a. The nominative case of the third personal pronoun (he, she, it and they) is
generally unexpressed, being contained in the verb ending. When it is expressed
for the purpose of emphasis or contrast,ÒTÎor KEºNOWHO are used.
(See Lessons 14, 15.)
b. Generally, whenever one of the third personal pronoun forms listed in section
236 has a pitch mark (as the forms in parentheses below), it is reflexive in sense.
Thus, LGEIÏNPAºDAÒMOºONOÁMMEN He says his son is like him(self ).
Sometimes AÆTÎWÎ is added, in the same case as the pronoun.
236. FORMS
Sg. Pl.
N. — —
G. OO SFEVNSFVN
D. O¼OÂ SFINSFISISF¸SI
A. MIN SFEAWSFAW
237. FUTURE OF E»M¸

IND.
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. SSOMAI SSÎMEYA
2nd pers. SSEAI SSESYE
3rd pers. SSETAISTAI SSONTAI
PTC. INF.
m. f.. n.
SÎMENOWHON SESYAI
238. MEMORIZE
GÎNUGOÃNATOW [n.] knee
E»SRXOMAIE»SELEÃSOMAIE½SELYON I enter
NTOLW [f.] command, order
ZHTVZHTSVZTHSA I seek, I search after
PÃLHHW [f.] gate, entrance
U¼ÎWOÅorU¼OW [m.] son
108
Lesson 34
239. TRANSLATE
1. EÂWSFEVNYNSKENTEROIDTIFEÃGOUSIN
2. OÆDE¹WSTIYNHT¤NOÆDNPOTEOÆDSETAIÔWPjNTAGIGN¢SKEI
3. KLEUSFEAWPRÎWmGMENAIKASIGNHTÎNSFEVN
4. EÇRSEIWMINKA¸OU¼OÄWÇPÏDENDROISISY¸ONTAW
5. PjNTAWBOÃLONTAISF¸SIPE¸YESYAI
6. A½TESFEAWE»SRXESYAIO¼DOÆKYELON
7. ZHTVMNMINÓFRAS¢ZVMEN
8. oNAKTOWPE¸YESYENTOLSIKA¹ÇMAWFILSEIKA¹E»WE»RNHNoJEI
9. T¸NEWSFVNU¼O¸SEUE»S¸N
10. PONHROºOU¼EWPONHROÄWZHTSOUSINTA¸ROUWKA¸SFINSONTAI
240. PUT INTO GREEK

1. They said he seemed to them to be a man of noble mind.
2. I shall be to him a true friend, as he also will be to me.
3. They fell at (E»W) his knees and requested gifts.
4. Hasten! (sg.) and you will be able to save her and her sons.
5. Who of us does not love himself?
6. Death will be for them the gate of glory, for they did noble deeds.
7. We tried to hide the children, so that no one might find them.
8. The river was not wide, yet its length was great (POLLÎN).
9. She has a noble mind, but they seize everything for themselves.
10. I shall eagerly receive them as companions.
241. READINGS
1. OÆDTIMINPAºDEWPRÏWGOÃNASIPAPPjZOUSIN (Homer, of a dead
warrior)
2. E»SRXESYEDIkSTEINWPÃLHWSTEINDPÃLHKA¹ÒDÏWoGEIE»W
B¸ONKA¹ÑL¸GOIE»S¹NO¾MINEÇR¸SKOUSIN (St. Matthew)
3. MEºWGkRNHÏWYEOÅZ¢ONTÎWE»MEN¦WLGEIYEÎWNOIKSVN
SFINKA¹SOMA¸SFEVNYEÎWKA¹AÆTO¹SONTA¸MEULAÎW
(St. Paul)
4. E»FILETEMNTOLkWMkWFULjSSETEÔWTIWXEINTOLkWMkWKA¹
FULjSSEIKEºNÎWSTINÖWFILEIMEKA¹G£FILSVMINKA¹FANVO¼
MAÆTÎN (St. John)
5. KAKOºWÒMILVNAÆTÏWKBSEAIKAKÎWSOFOºSID
SOFÎW (Menander)
KBA¸NVKBSOMAI I come out, I turn out

NOIKVNOIKSV I dwell in
ÒMILV I associate (with) [+ dat.]
PAPPjZV I call someone “papa,” “father”
109
STEINÎWÎN narrow
FULjSSV I observe, I keep (literally, I stand guard over)
242. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Which of you is able to discover the road leading through the trees to the river?
2. If he had known you (sg.) were present, he would no doubt have spoken to you
personally. [“personally” = “himself ”]
3. She was searching after her son among all our companions’ children.
243. WORD STUDY

POLYGON (‘many-angled,’ from GVN¸H ‘joint’ or ‘angle’, a word derived from
GÎNU. Hence also PENTAGON, HEXAGON, OCTAGON, etc., the prefix being
the Greek number for 5, 6, 8, etc.); — PYLON (in architecture, a massive doorway to
a temple or other building flanked by a pyramidal tower; in aviation, a tower serving
as turning-point in the racecourse); — PAPACY, POPE (office and name of the
‘Holy Father’); — STENOGRAPHER (‘narrow-writer’, i.e., one who uses
shorthand).
110
Lesson 35
The First Aorist System Indicative and Subjunctive Active.
Present General and Future More Vivid Conditions
244. TYPES OF AORIST

From the map of the verb (Lesson 16) you have noticed that there are three different
aorist systems in the active voice. Almost every verb has only one of these systems.
Look at the third principal part. If it ends in A, it is first (1st) aorist. If it ends in
ON, it is second (2nd) aorist. If it ends in a long vowel plus N (e.g., BNGN¤N
DÅN), it is third (3rd) aorist.
245. NOTE
1. The characteristic vowel of the first aorist indicative is A. To form the first aorist
indicative active, remove the Aending from the third Principal Part (Sections
83-84) to find the aorist tense stem. Add the first aorist indicative endings
(below) to this stem.
2. The subjunctive endings of all tense-systems, including the aorist, are alike (cp.
Section 156a). To form the first aorist subjunctive active, use the aorist stem as
described above, and add the subjunctive endings.
3. For the meaning of the aorist tense in the indicative, refer to Section 84a. For
the subjunctive, see Section 84b and Section 247, below.
246. ENDINGS
1st AOR. IND.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. A AMEN LÅSA I loosed LÃSAMEN we loosed
2nd pers. AW ATE LÅSAW you loosed LÃSATE you loosed
3rd pers. EN AN LÅSEN he loosed LÅSAN they loosed
1st AOR. SUBJ.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. V VMEN LÃSV LÃSVMEN
2nd pers. ×W HTE LÃS×W LÃSHTE
3rd pers. × VSIN LÃS× LÃSVSIN
247. FURTHER USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE

a. Future More Vivid Condition
When a probable future supposition forms the basis for a conclusion (apodosis,
cp. Section 91) in the future indicative or an imperative, the verb of the
111
supposition (the protasis, cp. Section 91) is put into the subjunctive. This
subjunctive may be introduced by oN or KEN. The supposition itself may be
introduced by E»orN(if ); ÔTEPE¸orPN(when); or forms of the
indefinite relative ÔWTIW(whoever). Thus:
(1). YjNATONDG£DJOMAIÔTEqND;EÄWYL×PMPEIND
mYjNATOIYEO¹oLLOI But I shall accept death [conclusion]whenever
Zeus and the other deathless gods wish to send it. [supposition: the gods will
probably wish to send death]
(2). E½KENPMC×SERXEUPRÎFRVN If he sends you [supposition: it is
likely he will send you], go willingly! [conclusion]
(3). O¾TINEWKTOÅDEKARPOÅSY¸VSINAÁCAYANONTAIWhoever
eat(s) of this fruit [supposition: people will likely eat the fruit] will quickly
die. [conclusion]
b. Present General Condition
When the protasis implies repeated occurrence in the present, the subjunctive is
used to express the supposition; the verb in the conclusion (apodosis) is in the
present indicative. The subjunctive sometimes has oN or KEN. The protasis
may be introduced by E»orN(if ); ÔTEPE¸orPN(when); or forms of the
relative or indefinite relative ÔWÔWTIW(who, whoever).Thus:
ÔTErNBOÃLHTAIP¹YjLASSANRXETAI Whenever he wishes
[supposition: he often or repeatedly wishes], he goes to the sea. [conclusion]
c. Hence, these two constructions differ in their main verb, the apodosis or
conclusion; but both put the verb of the protasis in the subjunctive. The
subjunctive is the mood of supposition, likelihood, and exhortation, not of
plain fact.
d. Whether the subjunctive in the protasis is present or aorist depends, according
to the regular rule (Section 84b), on the aspect, or kind of action implied.
Present subjunctive is used if the verb’s action is thought of as continuing; aorist
subjunctive is used if the action is thought of as simply occurring, without
attention to whether or not it is continuous or completed.
e. The negative of both conditions is M in the protasis, butOÆin the apodosis,
just as in the contrary-to-fact conditions introduced earlier (cp. Section 91b).
248. MEMORIZE
b"PÎLLVNb"PÎLLVNOW [m.] Apollo [the god]
DÃVor DÃO [indecl.] two
PN contraction of PE¹oN
N contraction ofE»oN
MjLA [adv.] very, quite, greatly
112
Lesson 35
ÔTE [adv.] when, whenever

TEÃXVTEÃJVTEÅJA I build; I make ready. [In pf. pass. often = I am]
pf. mid.: TTUGMAI
249. TRANSLATE
1. KLEUSSFEAWPRÏW¼KANMEN
2. E½KENKTOºODENDROIOP¸PT×YANETAI
3. NHÏNPARkYALjSS×TEÅJANYE¯
4. ÔTEPAºDEWKARPOÃWTINAWÒRjVSIBOÃLONTA¸SFEAWSY¸EIN
5. ZHTSAMNSEOÆDDUNATO¹MENEÇR¸SKEIN
6. NMEA»TS×WMISUMNZEINZVOÆDPlN
7. OÆKqNFRONSATMINOÉTVWEÁNAIKAKÎNE»MTÎDERJEN
8. DÃVPMPOIWTA¸ROUW¾NAMHDNDE¸SVMEN
9. PNTÏNL¸YONTRCHTEYHSAURÎNPOUEÇRSETE
10. TÎNDEOÁNONÉDATIM¸JVMENMjLAGkRGLUKÄWPLETAI
11. ÔWTIWPMPHTAIE»WMNPATR¸DAKEºNOWFILSETAIÇPÏPjNTVN
12. pTINATEÃJ×TEÃXEIPRÎFRVN
250. PUT INTO GREEK

(Note: from this lesson on, translate mere past statements by the aorist, using the
imperfect to express action continued or repeated in the past. This will aid clarity
and uniformity. When later you meet again in the text of Homer imperfects with
non-continuous force, you will recognize the fact from context or from the word’s
meaning.)
1. Whoever does that is evil.
2. When he teaches us anything, we learn!
3. If they send the strangers to the king, he will kill them.
4. We always hasten to the gate if we see anyone entering.
5. When the gods loose rain from heaven, the rivers increase.
6. If she had sought her son here, she would have saved him quickly.
7. When we know all these things, we shall be very happy.
8. Whatever evil they request, say (sg.) that you will not do (it).
9. If you (sg.) send me into the war, I shall fear greatly.
10. Whenever you (sg.) are with me, I am happy.
251. READINGS
1. ÖWX×U¼ÏNYEOÅXEIZVNÖWMX×U¼ÏNYEOÅZVNOÆKXEI
(St. John)
2. TOÄWDÃVb"PÎLLVNPO¸HSEb"SKLHPIÏND1LAT¤NATÏNMN¾NA
CUXNTÏND¾NAS¤MAS¢ZOI (Anonymous inscription)
113
3. MjLAGkRXYRÎWMOIKEºNOWÖWTERONMNKEÃY×NFRES¸oLLOD
LG×(Achilles, in Homer)
4. OÁNONTOIPOLLÏNP¸NEINKAKÎNNDTIWP¸N×SOF¤WOÆKAKÏW
mLLkmGAYÎW (Theognis)
5. ÖWGjRKENYL×S¢ZEINCUXNOAÆTOÅmPOLSEIMINÖWDmP
OLS×CUXNE¾NEKAMEºOEÇRSEIMIN (St. Matthew)
6. ÔTEoNTIMLL×WSÏNPLHS¸ONKAKHGOREINPR¤TONSEÅAÆTOÅPI
SKPTEOKAKj (Menander)
b"SKLHPIÎWOÅ Asclepius [a minor god, inventor of medical arts]

PISKPTOMAI I pass in review, I examine
XYRÎWÎN hateful to
KATHGORV I criticize, I say evil against
1LjTVN¤NOW Plato [the philosopher]
SOF¤W [adv.] wisely, sensibly
252. WRITE IN GREEK

1. I shall bring them half of all the fruit from our trees; for I love them as very
friendly [use F¸LOWHON] neighbors.
2. None of them was able to find the treasure, yet two were very near it twice.
3. Send (sg.) her these two gifts from (use PARj) me, and request her to receive
my brother kindly. [Put “receive” last]
253. WORD STUDY

HENDIADYS (NDIkDÃV, a literary figure of speech in which one idea is expressed
through two related words, e.g., ‘with might and main’, = ‘with all one’s strength’, or
Vergil’s ‘they drank from cups and gold’, i.e., from golden cups); — PENTATEUCH
(TEÅXOW book [originally, a case built to hold written pages, thence coming to mean
the book itself ], ‘the five books’ ascribed to Moses and forming a unit at the beginning
of the Bible, e.g., Genesis, Exodus, etc.).
114
Lesson 36
The First Aorist Optative, Imperative, Infinitive, and Participle Active
254. ENDINGS
1st AOR. OPT.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. AIMI AIMEN LÃSAIMI LÃSAIMEN
2nd pers. EIAW AITE LÃSEIAW LÃSAITE
3rd pers. EIEN EIAN LÃSEIEN LÃSEIAN
1st AOR. IMPT.
2nd. pers. ON ATE LÅSON LÃSATE loose! loose!
1st AOR. INF.
AI LÅSAI to loose
1st AOR. PTC.
m. f. n. nom. m. f. n. nom.
AWASAAN LÃSAWLÃSASALÅSAN
255. NOTE
1. In the optative the iota diphthong is characteristic (see Section 156c).
2. Review the force of the aorist tense in these moods (Section 84). The aorist
participle generally represents a point of time prior to that of the main verb, just
as other tenses of the participle represent points of time relative to the tense of
the main verb. Review Section 199.
YNSKONPÎLINS¢SANTEW
They died after saving the city.
ÒRjVYHSAURÏNDI¢JASAN
I see that she pursued the treasure.
3. For the declension of the first aorist participle, see Lesson 29.
256. MEMORIZE
BOULEÃVBOULEÃSVBOÃLEUSA I plan, I consider whether to or how to [+ inf.,
or ÔPVW and purpose construction]
BOULW [f.] plan, advice, will
GAMVGAMVGjMHSAorGMA I marry
YMIWYMISTOW [f.] a right, custom; YMIWST¸ it is right, lawful
[+ acc. and inf.]
115
LANYjNVLSVLjYON I elude, I escape someone’s notice, I deceive;

[in mid.] I am forgetful of
PV [adv., + negative] never yet, in no way, not at all
257. TRANSLATE
1. MHDNPVA»TSEIAWmPÏMEºOPONHRÎN
2. P¤WTIWGAMSAWMjKARSTAINMPOLLkmNXHTAIPRÎFRVN
3. TSIOÆDEM¸AFA¸NETAIÒDÎWZHTHSjS×SIPERDIkXRÎNOUPOLLOÅ
4. YMIWST¹KAKÎNTIoNDRAPOISANTAKA¹KAKkDXESYAI
5. mDIKSAIMNA»SXRÎNMjLADA»SXRÏNmDIKEIN
6. E»OÁNOWGLUKÄWPLETOOÆKqNTÏNM¸JASÄNÉDATI
7. SXTLIARGAMPOTEJON
8. TOÄWBOÃLETOLANYANMEN¾NAMmPOLSEIAN
9. SPEÅSA¼KANMENÓFRAÇMAWS¢SAIMI
10. GAMSASIPOLLjPOUSSETAIKA¹XALEPkKA¹DA
11. »HTROºOoNDRAKNOÃSVNLÃSANTOWmJETAIDÎJA
258. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Whenever you (pl.) plan to do something fine, do it!
2. Having mingled its water with the sea, the river perishes.
3. He said they persuaded him to send them the gold.
4. We feared (aor.) that you (sg.) would destroy us.
5. It was being built thus, so that no one might loose the wine into the ground.
6. It was the advice of the man who sent us. (use ptc., not rel. pron.)
7. Whatever you (sg.) build, make it strong and beautiful.
8. They were being led by force, so that the king might judge them.
9. May you (pl.) never in any way do evil!
10. To separate good from bad is a virtue of our mind.
259. READINGS
1. OÂGEAÆT¯KAKkTEÃXEImNRoLL¡KAKkTEÃXVNKAKDBOUL
BOULEÃSANTIMjLISTAKAK (Hesiod)
2. PlWLÎGOWE½KENmPRGANPIOWFA¸NETAI (Demosthenes)
3. OÆDE¸WPVJEºNONmPATSAWmYANjTOUWLANYjNEI (Theognis)
4. OÆKSTIYNHTOºSINPRÏWYEOÄWPOLEMSAIOÆDEN¹TÎDEYMIWST¸N
(Theognis)
5. OÆKSTIGAMSAWÔWTIWOÆXEIMjZETAILGOUSINPjNTEWKA¹
GAMOUSINGIGN¢SKONTEW (Greek Anthology)
6. 4VKRjTHWFHPOLLOÄWmNYR¢POUWZ¢EIN¾NASY¸VSINAÆTÏWD
SYIE¾NAZ¢OI
116
Lesson 36
mPATjVmPATSVmPjTHSA I deceive
FH [3rd. pers. sg. impf. of FHM¸> (he) said
MjLISTA [adv.] especially
OÆKSTI [+ inf.] it is not possible (to do something);
OÆKSTIÔWTIW there is no one who; nobody
POLEMVPOLEMSVPOLMHSA I wage war
4VKRjTHW Socrates, the philosopher
XEIMjZOMAI I am storm-tossed
260. WRITE IN GREEK

1. In the beginning, God made the heavens and the earth and the light of the sun,
and separated the waters into seas. And He said, “Let us make man similar to
Ourselves, and king of all things which are seen.”
2. To whom (pl.) did you (sg.) show the gold that my brother sent you?
261. WORD STUDY

BIGAMY (with Latin bis, = ‘twice-married’, the practice of marrying again while still
married to another living person), BIGAMIST (one guilty of bigamy), MONOGAMY
(‘single-marriage’), POLYGAMY (simultaneous ‘marriage with many’ persons); —
LETHARGY (RGON, ‘causing to forget work’, a state of powerless inactivity, stupor,
apathy), LETHARGIC (like one affected by lethargy; drowsy, hard to rouse to
activity); — GENEALOGY (the account of one’s race, lineage, offspring, a ‘family
tree’ listing descendants and relatives within several generations), HOMOGENEOUS
(similarity throughout the whole, as ‘a homogeneous group’); — CINEMA (‘moving
pictures’).
117
Lesson 37
The First Aorist Indicative and Subjunctive Middle
262. ENDINGS
1st AOR. MIDDLE IND.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. AMHN AMEYA LUSjMHN LUSjMEYA
2nd pers. AO ASYE LÃSAO LÃSASYE
3rd pers. ATO ANTO LÃSATO LÃSANTO
1st. AOR. MIDDLE SUBJ.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. VMAI VMEYA LÃSVMAI LUS¢MEYA
2nd pers. HAI HSYE LÃSHAI LÃSHSYE
3rd pers. HTAI VNTAI LÃSHTAI LÃSVNTAI
Note:
Remember that in the aorist system, middle endings do not also have
passive force; there are special aorist passive endings (Lessons 51-52). Thus,
the indicative forms above would mean: I loosed for myself, You loosed for
yourself, He loosed for himself, etc.
263. MEMORIZE
BASILE¸HHW [f.] kingdom
jVjSVASA I leave (alone); permit, allow (to do or
be something) [+ inf.]
PjSXVPE¸SOMAIPjYON I suffer, I experience
PONOMAIPONSOMAIPONHSjMHN I labor, I toil at, I am busy about
XjRIWXjRITOW, acc. sg. XjRIN [f.]grace; beauty, charm
264. TRANSLATE
1. ÑL¸GAA»THSjMHNMOÅNONSºTON¾NAZ¢OIMI
2. KASIGNHTÎNSEUPEMC¢MEYAMjLAGkRSOFÎWSTIN
3. POLLOÄWNOSANTEWRXOMNOUWTRECjMEYAKA¹FEÃGOMEN
4. NPRjGMATAPONSASYEXRHSTjKRATERqNENBASILE¸H
5. b"PÎLLVNSXETL¸OIS¸SFEVNPRjGMASIOÈPVSATO
6. XRMATAPOLLkOÆKJEIWE»MKEPONSHAI
7. ÔTIMAXONTO¦WoNDREWmGAYO¸PATR¸DAS¢SANTO
118
Lesson 37
8. ÔTEA»SXRÎNTIJVNTAIBROTO¸PE¸SONTA¸TINEW
9. PANTO¸AWBOULEÃSASYEBOULjWTkWG£NOÆKjSVoNAKTA
LANYjNEIN
10. PNTRCHTAIPR¤TOWTRPONTAIKA¹TEROIPjNTEW
11. DEST¹FVNF¸LOUPAºDAW¼KANMENKELEÃONTOW
12. PAIS¹MANYjNOUSISPEÃDEIXRÎNOW
265. PUT INTO GREEK

1. When he kept asking, “Who are you (pl.)?” what did you reply?
2. We prepared ourselves much food, that we might all eat.
3. All of them fought with much glory.
4. Whatever custom requests of us, let us do it willingly.
5. I was pleased with the charm of your (sg.) voice.
6. I shall lead my brother to you (pl.), that you may receive him as a companion.
7. Who taught you (sg.) that? Or did you teach yourself?
8. Let us build ourselves a temple to the Muses by the sea.
9. If you (sg.) accept my advice, you will save the whole kingdom.
10. He reared his two sons into men of many virtues.
266. READINGS
1. KALSAWPRÏWAÆTÏNPAºDAWFHb*HSOÅWjETEPAºDAWPRÎWME
RXESYAIKA¹MKVLÃSATSFEAWTO¸VNGjRSTIBASILE¸HYEOÅKA¹
LGVÇMºNÖWqNMDJHTAIBASILE¸HNYEOÅ¦WPAºWOÈPOTEE½WMIN
E»SELEÃSETAI (St. Luke)
2. XjRITIYEOÅE»MIÔE»MIKA¹XjRIWYEOÅE»WMOÆKENEENPOLLk
PONHSjMHNOÆKG£DmLLkXjRIWYEOºOSÄNMO¸ (St. Paul. E»WM
= “given me” or “toward me”)
3. OÆKSTINOÆDE¹WÔWTIWOÆXOÂAÆT¯F¸LOW (Menander)
4. TNDENTOLNXOMENmPÏYEOÅ¾NAÔWTIWFILEIYEÎNFIL×KA¹ÏN
KASIGNHTÎN (St. John)
5. oNYRVPOWMFILVNÏNKASIGNHTÏNTÏNÒRjEIYEÏNTÏNOÆXÒRjEI
P¤WFILSEI (Phocylides)
b*HSOÅWOÅ Jesus
KALVKALVKjLESA I call
KENEÎWÎN empty; fruitless
KVLÃVKVLÃSVK¢LUSA I forbid, I prevent
TOºOWHON of such a kind, such
267. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Having planned what they wished to do (aor.), they hastened to the river and
hid themselves (impf.) among the trees.
119
2. Leave (pl., aor.) all your possessions, and flee (pres.)! May the cruel king not
destroy us too!
3. We built the gate so high and strong, that no one might even try to enter and
seize our gold.
268. WORD STUDY

PSYCHOPATHIC (‘suffering in the soul’ from mental disease; in an overwrought
and upset state of mind), TELEPATHY (‘suffering or experiencing at a distance’, the
supposed psychic phenomenon of direct communication of thought to another mind
far away without any external expression through words, etc.; usually termed ‘mental
telepathy’), PATHOS (the quality of an event or artistic representation which causes
one to experience a ‘suffering’, i.e., a feeling or an emotion, of pity, compassion, or
sadness), PATHETIC (arousing pathos; sad, pitiable), APATHETIC (unfeeling,
emotionless, unmoved by stirring events), APATHY (the state of being insensible,
indifferent, experiencing no emotion); — CLETUS (“called,” “chosen out”),
PARACLETE one ‘called alongside’ as a helper or official protector, a special name or
title of the Holy Spirit as Divine Intercessor or comforter of the soul), ECCLESIA
(the people’s legislative assembly in ancient Greek cities, composed of citizens ‘called
out’ to vote on some law; a church, the assembly of the faithful ‘called out or chosen’
by God into His special religious society), ECCLESIASTIC (a churchman, a member
of the clergy or hierarchy), ECCLESIASTICAL (pertaining to the Church, as
‘ecclesiastical ceremonies’).
120
Lesson 38
The First Aorist Optative, Imperative, Infinitive, Participle Middle.
The Impersonal Verb XR
269. ENDINGS
1st AOR. MIDDLE OPT.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. AIMHN AIMEYA LUSA¸MHN LUSA¸MEYA
2nd pers. AIO AISYE LÃSAIO LÃSAISYE
3rd pers. AITO AIATO LÃSAITO LUSA¸ATO
1st AOR. MIDDLE IMPT.
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
2nd pers. AI ASYE LÅSAI loose for yourself! LÃSASYEloose for yourselves!
1st AOR. MIDDLE INF.
ASYAI LÃSASYAI to loose for oneself
1st AOR. MIDDLE PTC.
m. f. n. nom m. f. n. nom.
AMENOWHON LUSjMENOWHON
270. THE IMPERSONAL VERB XR

The “verb” XR, translated it is necessary, is actually an indeclinable noun, with an
understood ST¸XR is thus a 3rd person singular verb, but it has no definite subject.
Instead, an infinitive stands as its subject; the infinitive, if it has a subject, has an
accusative subject. Because XRhas no definite subject, it is called an “impersonal” verb.
XRÇMAWTÏNYHSAURÏNZHTSAI
It is necessary for you all to search for the treasure. (Literally: For you all to search for the
treasure is necessary.)
271. MEMORIZE
mE¸RV—oEIRA I lift up, I take up, I raise
MARMATOW [n.] day
MLONOU [n.] sheep; flock
PISTEÃVPISTEÃSVP¸STEUSA I believe (in), I have faith in [+ dat.]
XA¸RVXAIRSVXjRHN I rejoice (in); XjRHN aor. pass. with act. force
XR it is necessary [+ inf. w. acc. sub.: see Section 270]
121
272. TRANSLATE
1. E½GEBOULEÃSHSYEE»WmGAYÏNPATR¸DOWBOULEÃSASYE
2. XRMATAkmE¸RAITOKA¹RXOITOMISOMENGjRPjNTEW
3. oNYRVPONXRKATkNFÃSINZ¢EIN
4. LGEISFAWD¢ROISIÇMVNMjLASASYAI
5. BOULÎMEYjSE¼KANMENÓFRASEPRÏWoNAKTAPEMCA¸MEYA
6. E»MLjSEUEÇR¸SKEINYLEIWZTHSAIAÆTÎW
7. TÎDEJAN¾NAmRETWSEUPEIRHSA¸ATO
8. POLLkXRoNYRVPONOºSINÑFYALMOºSIPEÃYESYAI
9. RGOISINPES¸TEÑRYOºSINPONE¢MEYAE¾NEKAD¸KHW
10. KE¸NOUWTRECAMNOUWKA¹FEÃGONTAWDI¢KEI
11. MLASkmPÏM¤NKR¸NAIO¦WGIGN¢SKVMENTEÅSTINKASTON
12. DIkMATOWPANTÏWPONHSjMENOINÅNEÉDOMEN
273. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Receive (pl.) them as friends for my sake.
2. I know he toiled; but I toiled, too.
3. Loose (sg.) your flocks, in order that they may eat under the trees.
4. We wished to hide the gold, so that not even after searching might they find it.
5. We considered how you might release yourselves and flee.
6. We were fighting, that we might save our property from the evil king.
7. Answer (pl.) quickly, that I may rejoice in the truth.
8. Having turned near the river, they were now passing the high rocks beside
the sea.
9. Believe (pl.) me! I did this only that you might be pleased.
10. He said the strangers, after building themselves something or other under the
trees, are fleeing.
11. It is necessary for you (sg.) to do this deed.
12. Those children ought to learn useful (XRHSTÎWÎN things.
274. READINGS
1. ITIWYLEIÑP¸SVMEURXESYAIXRMINmRNSASYAIAÆTÏNKA¹
mE¸REINÏNSTAURÏNPANT¹MATIKA¹PESYA¸MOI (St. Luke)
2. KATANOSAWD.VUSWTÏNPÎNONT¤NU¼¤Nb*SRALÒRjEI
oNYRVPON"»GÃPTIONTÃPTONTjTINAb&BRAºONT¤NAUTOÅ
mDELF¤NT¤NU¼¤Nb*SRALPERIBLECjMENOWD¬DEKA¹¬DEOÆX
ÒRjEIOÆDNAKA¹PATjJAWTÏN"»GÃPTIONKRÃCENAÆTÏNNT
oMM¡ (Exodus II 11, from the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the
Hebrew Bible)
122
Lesson 38
3. 9RISTÏNOÆXÒRjONTEWFILETEKA¹T¯PISTEÃETEMjLAOÌN
XAIRSETEDEJjMENOITLOWP¸STIOWÇMVNSVTHR¸HNCUXjVN (St.
Peter)
4. ÓLBONA¼REÎMEYAA»E¹DIkAÆTÏKA¹OÈPOTEDIkoLLOTIDÎJANDKA¹
DONNKA¹NÎONKA¹PlSANmRETNA¼REÎMEYAMNKA¹DIkAÆTkKA¹
E¾NEKAÓLBOUNOONTEWOÉTVWÓLBONJEINÓLBONDE¾NEKAKE¸NVN
OÆXA¼REÎMEYAOÆDDIkoLLOTIDIkDAÆTÎSTIGkRmGAYÏNNOÂ
AÆT¯ (Aristotle)
5. D¸KAIONOÌNSTIMLIPOTAKTEINMAWmPÏBOULWYEOÅ
(St. Clement of Rome, the fourth Pope)
6. XRMAWPAºDATIÎNTADIDASKMENKALkRGA (Phocylides)
7. ZHTEINXRYEÎNPE¸GEOÆTLEmPÏNÏWKjSTOUMVNST¸NN
T¯GkRZ¢OMENKA¹KINEÎMEYAKA¸E»MENTOÅGkRKA¹GNOWE»MN
¦WKA¸TINEWÇMVNPOIHTjVNLGOUSIN (St. Paul, at the end quoting
Aratus.)
mDELFÎWOÅ [m.] brother, kinsman

"»GÃPTIOWHON Egyptian
oMMOWOU [f.] sand
mRNOMAImRNSOMAImRNHSjMHN I renounce, I deny
GNOWEOW <n.] race, offspring
D¸KAIÎNSTI it is right [+ acc. and inf.]
AUTOÅWOÅ of himself (herself, itself )
b&BRAºOWOU [m.] a Hebrew
POMAI I come along with, I follow
STI there is [STI at the beginning of a sentence
accented in this way has this meaning]
b*SRAL [indecl.] Israel [here= gen. “of Israel”]
KATANOVKATANOSV I observe
KATANÎHSA
KINOMAI I move about
KRÃPTVKRÃCVKRÃCA I hide, I cover
LIPOTAKTV I abandon my post, I am a deserter
.VUSWOÅ [m.] Moses, an Israelite leader
NÎOW here = wisdom
ÑP¸SV [adv., prep. + gen.] after
PATjSSVPATjJVPjTAJA I slay by striking
PERIBLPOMAIPERIBLCOMAI I look around
PERIBLECjMHN
P¸STIWP¸STIOW [f.] faith
POIHTA¸jVN [m.] poets
STAURÎWOÅ [m.] cross
SVTHR¸HHW [f.] salvation, safety
TLOWEOW [n.] goal, consummation, fulfillment
TLE [adv.] afar off, at a distance
TÃPTV I beat
¬DEKA¹¬DE “this way and that”
123
275. WRITE IN GREEK

1. If you (sg.) fight for your country’s sake, you will have much glory; for it is a
noble thing in the eyes of all men.
2. They received your (pl.) gifts rejoicing, and wish you to know they are greatly
pleased.
3. The wise king replied that to command is easy and pleasant, but to obey is
sometimes very difficult.
4. It is difficult to be always good; yet we ought to make the attempt, for that is the
way to happiness.
276. WORD STUDY

EPHEMERAL (F
from P¸+ MRHan alternative form for MAR, hence, ‘on a
day’, i.e., for a short time only, transient, quickly passing, short-lived, as in the
sentence ‘His enthusiasms are usually ephemeral.’)
124
Lesson 39
Review of The First Aorist System
277. ENDINGS
See Appendix A for complete list of endings.
278. MEMORIZE
oKROWHON top(most), outermost, extreme; [as n. noun:] edge, tip
oLLHLOIVN [pl. only] one another, each other
pMA [adv., or prep. + dat.] at the same time, together, with
PEITA then, thereupon
KÎSMOWOU [m.] world
MAKRÎWÎN long, large [in space or time]
279. IDENTIFY AND TRANSLATE

Stating the exact form in tense, voice, mood, etc.
(e.g., aor. mid. ptc. n. nom.-acc. sg.):
1. PMCANTI 13. NÎHSE
2. LÃSEIAN 14. DJAITO
3. mDIKSAI 15. mPOLSANTEW
4. TRCATO 16. mE¸RAIMI
5. NPOIS×W 17. E»FRONSATE
6. YRCATE 18. A»TSAO
7. PONHSAMNOUW 19. SASYAI
8. JAIMI 20. D¸DAJON
9. MMAXSASYE 21. TRECjSHW
10. RJAI 22. PISTEÃSAW
11. S¢SAMEN 23. NPEIRSHAI
12. ¾NAmME¸CAIO 24. PE¸SEIAW
280. SIGHT READING

The Road to Inner Peace
FILVMENOÌNmLLLOUWÔPVW¼KjNVMENPjNTEWE»WBASILE¸HNYEOÅ
KASIGNHTO¸MEUPOISVMENBOULNYEOºOKALSANTOWMAW¾NA
Z¢SVMENKA¹DI¢JVMENmRETNKAK¸HNDFEÃGVMENDmSEBE¸HNM
MAWKATALAMBjN×KAKjNGkRmGAYkPOIVMENPRÎFRONEW
125
DI¢JETAIMAWE»RNHMEºWoRANKAYAR¯KRIDOULEÃSVMENYE¯KA¹
SÎMEYAD¸KAIOIPOIONTEWGkRBOULN9RISTOÅEÇRSOMENmNjPAUSIN
(From the earliest preserved Christian homily, c. 130 A.D., by an
unknown author; formerly attributed to St. Clement of Rome.)
mNjPAUSIWIOW [f.] rest, peaceful repose
mSEBE¸HHW [f.] evil-doing
DOULEÃVDOULEÃSVDOÃLEUSA I am a slave to, I serve
KAYARÎWÎN pure, clean
KAK¸HHW [f.l wickedness
KALVKALVKjLESA I call, I choose out
KATALAMBjNV I seize upon, I befall
281. READINGS
1. POLLO¹»HTRO¹E»SERXÎMENO¸MEmPÎLESAN (Droll epitaph on a Greek
tomb)
2. MOÅNOWENPR¤TOWYNHT¤NÖWFNE¯TEB¸¡KA¹PESSI¦W
pMAmGAYÏWKA¹MjKARG¸GNETAImNR (Aristotle’s tribute to Plato,
inscribed on an altar erected in his honor)
3. MAKRDKA¹ÑRYSTINÒDÏWE»WmRETNKA¹NmRXXALEPPN
DTIWE»WoKRON¼KjN×HID¸HDPEITAPLEIÒDÎW (Hesiod)
4. A»TVÔPVWPjNTEWN«SIN¦WSÄNMO¹KA¹G£NSO¸–ÔPVWKA¹
O¾DENMºNN«SING£NSFINKA¹SÄNMO¸ÓFRAGIGN¢SK×
KÎSMOWÔTIF¸LHSjWSFEAW¦WMF¸LHSAWYLVDSFEAWEÁNAI
METjMOI¾NAÒRjVSIDÎJANMN (Christ’s prayer to His Father at the
Last Supper; from St. John)
5. SºTOWYEOÅKATABA¸NVNJOÆRANOºOZVNPARXEImNYR¢POISIN
AÆTÎWE»MISºTOWZVW (St. John)
6. mLLkKA¹ÇMAWXR«oNDREWEÆLPIDAWEÁNAIPRÏWYjNATONKA¹
NTITÎDENOEINmLHYWÔTIOÆKSTINmNDR¹mGAY¯OÆDNKAKÏN
OÈTEZ¢ONTIOÈTEYNSKONTIOÆDYEO¹mMELOUSITOÅDE
PRAGMjTVN(Socrates’ final address to the jury; from Plato)
mMELV I am neglectful of, I am unconcerned about [+ gen.]

EÈELPIWIDOW of good hope
KATABA¸NV I come down
282. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Don’t flee (pl.), but keep hiding under the rock while he is passing, lest he
perceive and destroy you. [Determine carefully which of these verbs are aorist,
and which middle!]
2. There are many treasures in the world, but it is not lawful to take whatever we
desire from one another.
126
Lesson 39
283. WORD STUDY

AKRON (‘city on the heights’), ACROBAT (BjTHWa walker, ‘one who walks on his
outermost limbs’, i.e., on tiptoe), ACROBATIC; ACROSTIC (STºXOW line, a
cleverly devised poem or prose piece in which the ‘outermost line’ of initial or final
letters themselves spell something when read down the line in order); — PARALLEL
(lines uniformly running ‘beside one another’; a close likeness between things, as a
‘literary parallel’ between pieces of writing similar to each other), PARALLELISM,
PARALLELOGRAM; — COSMOS (the world or universe as a whole; any orderly
system organized out of confusion and chaos), COSMIC (universal; coming from
distant worlds, as ‘cosmic-rays’) — MACRON (a long mark over a vowel to show it is
long in pronunciation; — CATHERINE (‘pure’).
127
Lesson 40
The Second Aorist System Active.
Should-Would and Potential Constructions
284. ENDINGS
So far, the aorists we have seen in sentences and readings have had third principal
parts ending in Aor AMHN, including our paradigm verb LÃVIn other words, we
have been using only first aorists. However, all along in our vocabulary lists we have
seen verbs whose third principal parts end in ON orOMHN; such verbs are said to have
second aorists. (For example, PjSXV, introduced in Lesson 37, has as its third
principal part PjYONThe deponent verb G¸GNOMAIwith its third principal part
GENÎMHN, was introduced in Lesson 23. Both of these verbs have second aorists.) The
distinction between first and second aorists is strictly “morphological,” i.e., there is no
difference in meaning between the two types of aorist.
The second aorist system endings are exactly the same as for the present system
(including the imperfect, for indicative forms); the infinitive ending EIN sometimes
becomes EEIN. See Appendix A for list of endings separately. Thus ½DON (I saw),
second aorist and third principal part of ÒRjV is conjugated in the active:
2nd AOR. ACT.

IND. SUBJ. OPT. IMPT.
Sg.
1st pers. ½DON ½DV ½DOIMI
2nd pers. ½DEW ½D×W ½DOIW ½DEor »D)*
3rd pers. ½DE ½D× ½DOI
Pl.
1st pers. ½DOMEN ½DVMEN ½DOIMEN
2nd pers. ½DETE ½DHTE ½DOITE ½DETE
3rd pers. ½DON ½DVSI ½DOIEN
INF. PTC. (m.f. n. nom.)

»DEºN»DEIN»DMENAIor½DMENAI »D¢N»DOÅSA»DÎN
*The second pers. sg. 2nd aor. act impt. of five verbs is accented on the final syllable.
These are: LABEÇRE»PLYand, in Attic Greek, »DHowever,»D appears in
Homer as ½DE
128
Lesson 40
285. FURTHER USES OF THE OPTATIVE

a. Should-would (Future Less Vivid) condition
When a less likely future supposition is to be expressed, it is put into the
optative, sometimes with oN or KEN added; negative M. This supposition, or
protasis, is generally accompanied by a conclusion (apodosis) stating what
would result if the supposition were to come true. Such a theoretical conclusion,
being itself only a rather vague future possibility, is also put into the optative
(negative OÆ); if oN orKEN is added, it makes the conclusion more definite, =
“in that case, then, under those circumstances” (not necessarily to be translated
explicitly). For example:
E½KENLYOIXA¸ROIMEN
If he should come, we would rejoice.
E»PSOIÒL¸YOWPjNTEWqNYjNOITE
If that rock happened to fall, you would all [in that case] die.
In English, a Future Less Vivid Condition may be expressed in four ways; using
the first example above, these are: (1) If he should come, we would rejoice. (2) If
he happens/happened to come, we would rejoice. (3) If he came, we would
rejoice (4) If he were to come, we would rejoice.
It is possible, of course, that the conclusion should not be a vague but a definite
reaction— an ordinary imperative or hortatory subjunctive, e.g., “If he should
come, receive him gladly” (or “…let us receive him gladly”). Such a sentence is a
mixed construction, not a true should-would condition.
b. Potential optative
When an opinion as to what might, could, or would happen is expressed,
without explicitly stating the conditions or circumstances which would bring it
about, the verb is again put into the optative, usually with KEN or oN (negative
OÆ). Such a statement is really equivalent to the conclusion (apodosis) of a
should-would sentence in which the supposition or protasis on which the
conclusion depends is not expressed. Hence, it follows the same rule: For
instance:
T¸NAKENEÁNA¸MINLGOIW
Who would you say he is? [if you were to be asked]
OÆDKRATERÏWTÎDEqNPOISEIEN
Not even a strong man could do that. [if he should try]
c. Note: Remember that “would have” in English refers to past contrary to fact, and is
therefore expressed in Greek by the imperfect or aorist indicative with KEN or oN (see
Section 91b). Sometimes, however, Homer uses the optative with KEN in this sense, as the
context makes clear in each case.
129
286. MEMORIZE
AÆLW [f.] courtyard, farmyard, fold
LPVor LPOMAI [present system only] I expect, I hope, I suppose [+ inf.]
EÈXOMAIEÈJOMAIEÆJjMHN I claim to be, I boast, I exult; I pray (to) [+ inf.]
POIMNPOIMNOW [m.] shepherd
287. TRANSLATE
1. LYETEKA¹½DETET¸EÍRON
2. E»KAKÎNTIPjYOIWmNXEO¦WmNR
3. EÆJjMEYAYEOºWPjSINÓFRAS¢SEIANMAWmPÏYANjTOU
4. TA¸ROUWLPETAImGAGEºNE»WPATR¸DAoLLHN
5. POLLjPERMAYÎNTAWKA¹oLLAPOLLkXRÇMAWMAYEºN
6. E»XRUSÏNTDEKÃYOITEOÆDE¸WPOTMINEÉROI
7. mLLkT¸KEJAIMIPE¹OÆKLYONTAºROI
8. PjNTAkMLAE»WAÆLNmGAG¢NPOIMNNÅNEÉDEI
9. T¸NYENLjBOIEN
10. S¤SONMAW¾NAMYjNVMEN
11. PEMPOMNOISILGErXRPOIEIN
12. OÆXNAMOÅNONmLLkPjNTAWXRE¾NEKAPATR¸DOWPRjGMATAmN
XESYAI
288. PUT INTO GREEK

1. How did you (sg.) miss my words?
2. Having eluded the shepherd, they seized two sheep and fled.
3. May you (pl.) learn much while you are still boys.
4. If they should come now, what would you (sg.) do?
5. Command (pl.) them not to take anything.
6. What else could I eat, since we had only bread?
7. We expect to find all the sheep sleeping in the fold.
8. Bring (sg.) me your sons, that I may see them.
9. From what place did you (sg.) take the wine?
10. (On) seeing us they (f.) greatly rejoiced.
289. READINGS
1. LjBETEFjGETETÎDEST¹S¤MjMEU (St. Matthew)
2. oNYRVPOW£NpMARTONMYAÃMAZE (Menander)
3. E»KAKkPO¸HSAWKAKkKA¹PAYEºNSEXR (Sophocles)
4. E»DYEÏNmNRTIWLPETAILAYMENRDVNTInMARTjNEI (Pindar)
5. E»MGAMOIoNYRVPOWOÆKqNXOIKAKj (Menander)
130
Lesson 40
6. T¸DXEIWÖOÆLjBEWPARkYEOÅE»DKA¹LjBEWT¸EÈXEAI¦WM
LAB¢N (St. Paul)
7. OÆKSTINEÇREºNB¸ONoLUPONOÆDNOW (Menander)
8. G¢E»MIPOIMNKALÎWPOIMNKALÏWYNSKEIE¾NEKAMLVNG£
GIGN¢SKVMLAMkKA¹GIGN¢SKOUSINMKA¹PONTA¸MOIoLLA
DMLAXVTkOÆKSTINKTSDEAÆLWTkXRMmGAGEºNKA¹
FVNWMWmKOÃSOUSIKA¹GENSONTAIM¸APO¸MNHEÂWPOIMN
(St. John)
mKOÃVmKOÃSV I hear the sound of, I hear [+ gen.]
oLUPOWON free from sorrow
POMAI I follow [+ dat.]
OÆKSTIN [+ inf.] it is not possible (to do something)
YAUMjZV I wonder, I am surprised
PO¸MNHHW [f.] flock
290. WRITE IN GREEK

1. He replied that his brother persuaded all his companions not to allow the king
to receive them.
2. If men did not do cruel deeds to one another, there would be peace always; for
peace is the fruit of justice.
291. WORD STUDY

ACOUSTIC (suitable for, or pertaining to, hearing, as ‘good acoustic qualities’ of a
hall, making it easy to hear), ACOUSTICS (the science of sound and the laws of
hearing).
131
Lesson 41
The Second Aorist System Middle
292. ENDINGS
Identical with those of the present system (including the imperfect, for indicative
forms). See Appendix A. Thus d½DON(I saw) is conjugated in the middle:
2nd AOR. MIDDLE

IND. SUBJ. OPT. IMPT.
Sg.
1st pers. »DÎMHN ½DVMAI »DO¸MHN
2nd pers. ½DEO ½DHAI ½DOIO ½DEO½DEU
3rd pers. ½DETO ½DHTAI ½DOITO
Pl.
1st pers. »DÎMEYA »D¢MEYA »DO¸MEYA
2nd pers. ½DESYE ½DHSYE ½DOISYE ½DESYE
3rd pers. ½DONTO ½DVNTAI »DO¸ATO
AOR. INF. PTC. (m. f. n. nom.)

»DSYAI »DÎMENOWHON
293. MEMORIZE
mPjNEUYE [adv., and prep. + gen.] away (from), apart (from), afar
EÁPON [2 aor. system only] I said, I told
PER¸ [adv.] round about; especially [prep. + gen.] about; excelling
[prep. + dat. or acc.] about; for
PÎRON [2 aor. system only] I gave, I offered
TELVTELVTLESA I fulfill, I accomplish, I complete
294. TRANSLATE
1. SOFO¹GENO¸MEYAXRGjR
2. OÆBOÃLONTOPER¹TROIWKAKkNISPEºN
3. E½GEPRÎFRVNZHTOIWPOLLjPOUPÃYOIO
4. LjYONMAWmPjNEUYEPARERXÎMENOI
5. OÆKjSVSEÖMO¹PÎRELABSYAI
6. NmRXEÁPEYEÎWGNOITOFjOWKA¹GNETO
7. POLLOÄWmNASXOMNHPÎNOUWB¸ONTLESEKALÎN
132
Lesson 41
8. P¤WDLO¸MHNoNPE¹NMOÅNÎNMOIPÎREW
9. E»MLjBOITOoLLVNXRMATAOÈKEPONHRÏWPLOImNR
10. EÈXETOSOFÏWMMENAIÓFRAPOLLO¸O¼PISTEÃOIEN
11. ROMNOISIXRmLHYE¸HNE»PEºN
12. MAXEÎMENOIPOLLO¹YjNON
13. MAXOMNOUWE¾NEKAB¸OIOOÆK½DETE
295. PUT INTO GREEK

1. To desire and to accomplish are not the same (thing).
2. Let us endure even this for our country’s sake.
3. What would happen if he should come?
4. If a storm should suddenly come, the topmost trees would all fall.
5. Having made your (pl.) choice of anything, do not quickly choose
something else.
6. To endure fools is never easy.
7. If you (sg.) asked, I would tell you all I know about them.
8. Of these two (pieces of ) fruit, choose (sg.) one and give me the other.
9. He would not obey, not even if I should command it.
10. Whenever you (sg.) desire to learn something, inquire.
296. READINGS
1. KA¸SOIPjNTAGNOITOpTINAFRES¹SSIBOÃLEAI (Homer)
2. DÃSTIKA¹PUYSYAI (Hesiod)
3. MjLAGkRF¸LHSEYEÏWKÎSMONKA¹PÎREÏNU¼ÏNMOÅNON¾NAPlW
PISTEÃVNO¼MmPÎLHTAI (St. John)
4. YANEINGkRKALÏNNPROMjXOISIPESÎNTAoNDRAmGAYÏNPER¹
PATR¸DIMAXÎMENON (Tyrtaeus)
5. TÎDETOILGOIMIoNSOIMHDNAP¢POTELABÎNTATINONÎNTA
TNDEDÎJANPER¹YE¤N¦WOÈKE»SINB¸ONTELSAIPRÏWGRAW
ME¸NANTANTDEDÎJ× (Plato)
6. mPjNEUYEF¸LVNOÆDE¹WLOITÎKEZ¢EINXVNPERoLLAmGAYk
PjNTA(Aristotle)
7. JmRXWB¸OUA»E¸MISEINMNTkrXRMISEINKA¹FILEINTkrXR
FILEIN—TÎDEST¹NÑRYPAIDE¸H (Plato)
GRAWAOW [n.] old age

MNVMENVMEºNA I remain
NOWHON young
PAIDE¸HHW [f.] education
PRÎMAXOWOU [m.] front-line fighter
133
297. WRITE IN GREEK

1. The shepherd hid all his sheep away from the road, so that no one going past
might discover them.
2. Having eaten half of the food and drunk all the wine, the two strangers fled,
fearing someone might discover and seize them. (For “fearing” use the aor. ptc.
+ M.]
298. WORD STUDY

PERIMETER (‘the measure around’, the line bounding a two-dimensional figure),
PERIOD (the ‘way around’, a space of time marked by the recurrence or ‘coming
around again’ of some event, e.g., the ringing of a bell to mark beginning and end of a
class period; in literature, a sentence in which the flow of thought is complete and
clear only when the last word is reached and the ‘journey around’ from main subject
to main verb is completed), PERIODIC (recurrent, as ‘periodic explosions’),
PERIODICAL (magazine coming out at recurrent intervals), PERIPHRASTIC (by
‘round about expression’, as a ‘periphrastic conjugation’, where a verb form is
constructed by use of a helping verb, instead of inflection of the verb itself, e.g., Latin
erat docens [“was teaching"] for docebat), PERISCOPE (SKOPV I look; an
instrument for ‘looking around corners’ by means of mirrors or prisms properly
arranged).
134
Lesson 42
The Third Aorist Indicative And Subjunctive Active
299. ENDINGS
Many of the verb endings seen so far comprise two parts: the person marker
(e.g., Wfor the 2nd person singular active,MENfor the 1st person plural active,SYE
for the 2nd person plural middle/passive); and the thematic vowel Obefore Mor NE
before other consonants), which comes between the verb stem and the person marker.
The third aorist has no thematic vowel between the root/stem and the endings. It is
therefore sometimes called a ‘root aorist’. The root always ends in a long vowel.
Examples are BN(from BA¸NVSTN (from ¾STHMI)GN¤N (from GIGN¢SKV)
andDÅN(from DÃV) There are very few others.
3rd AOR. IND. ENDINGS

Sg. Pl.
1st pers. N MEN
2nd pers. W TE
3rd pers. — SAN
Thus BN (I went), GN¤N (I knew), DÅN(I entered, I sank into, I set)

1st pers. BN BMEN GN¤N GN¤MEN DÅN DÅMEN
2nd pers. BW BTE GN¤W GN¤TE DÅW DÅTE
3rd pers. B BSAN GN¤ GN¤SAN DÅ DÅSANDÅN
3rd AOR. SUBJ. ENDINGS

Sg. Pl.
1st pers. V VMEN
2nd pers. ×W HTE
3rd pers. × VSI
1st pers. BV BVMEN GN¢V GN¢VMEN DÃV DÃVMEN
2nd pers. B×W BHTE GN¢×W GN¢HTE DÃ×W DÃHTE
3rd pers. B× BVSI GN¢× GN¢VSI DÃ× DÃVSI
135
300. MEMORIZE
BA¸NVBSOMAIBNBBHKA I go
DÃVDÃSVDÅN I enter
V [pres. syst.] I flow
STN [3 aor. syst. of ¾STHMII stand] I stood (intr.)
TLjVTLSOMAITLN I endure (something) patiently, I have the heart,
I dare (to do something) [+ inf.]
301. TRANSLATE
1. STmPjNEUYEÓFRAM½DOIEN
2. TNGN¤MENÔTETIPAºWEN
3. NTL×WTNDENOÅSONDÎJANJEIWOÆKÑL¸GHN
4. DE¸DVMB×PAºWE»WPOTAMÏNKA¹mPÎLHTAI
5. DIDjSKOIWMAWPER¹KAKWTSDENOÃSOU¾NAMYjNVMEN
6. STSANGGÄWPTRHWJWÉDVREGLUKÃ
7. OÆDE¹WTLO¼NISPEºNPER¹YANjTOUOºOU¼OºO
8. FANVÇMºNXRUSÏNpPANTAÔTEKEBVSI
9. LGET¸WSSI¾NAGN¢×oNAJ
10. T¸OÆKE»WLYETEmLLkPARkPÃL×SISTTE
11. O¾TINEWGN¢VSIPOLLkKALkG¸GNONTAIKALO¸
12. ÔTELIOWDÃ×E»WYjLASSANÒPOIMNMLAoGEIE»WAÆLN
302. PUT INTO GREEK

1. He knew many (people) from (K) that land.
2. Let us endure patiently whatever life might bring us.
3. If you (sg.) stand upon that rock, you will be able to see the sea.
4. When they saw the shepherd coming, the sheep went into the fold.
5. The physicians did not know the disease that he had.
6. Because you (sg.) dared fight with many, I knew you were a brave man.
7. Two of them went down the road, two towards the river.
8. If we had known that, we would not have come.
9. When you (pl.) stood afar, you seemed very small.
10. Which of you had the heart to seize the child from the fire?
303. READINGS
1. POLL¤NmNYR¢PVN½DENoSTEAKA¹NÎONGN¤ (Homer, of Odysseus’
benefits from his travels)
2. NÅNU¼O¹YEOÅE»MENKA¹OÈPVFANERÎNSTIT¸SÎMEYAGIGN¢SKOMEN
ÔTIÒMOºOIYE¯SÎMEYAÔTIÑCÎMEYjMIN¨WSTIN (St. John; the
second ÔTIhas a different meaning from the first!)
136
Lesson 42
3. FÅMNOÆDE¹WBROT¤NÔWTIWOÆPONETAI (Euripides)
4. E»mNjGKHGNOITOmDIKEINmDIKESYAILO¸MHNqNMlLLON
mDIKESYAImDIKEIN (Plato)
5. ÒDMjKARST¸NÔNTINA.OÅSAIFILONTAITOÅmPÏSTÎMATOW
GLUKEºAEIFVN (Hesiod)
6. TEROWJTROUSOFÏWKA¹PjLAIKA¹NÅNOÆDGkRH¸DION
mRRTVNPVNPÃLAWEÇREºN (Bacchylides)
7. rDqNMjY×PAºWTjPOUS¢SONTAIPRÏWGRAW (Euripides)
8. MZ¤E¦WMLLVNZ¢EINA»E¸YjNATOWPjRESTIÓFRAZ¢EIWÓFRA
DUNATÎWSSImGAYÏWG¸GNEO (Marcus Aurelius)
9. KA¹mNjSTH(OLIkYKA¹BE»WSUNjNTHSIN%AUE¸DKA¹KTE¸NEN
%AUE¹DTNXEºRAAÆTOÅE»WTÏKjDIONKA¹LjBENKEºYENL¸YONNA
KA¹SFENDÎNHSENKA¹PjTAJEN(OLIkYP¹TÏMTVPONAÆTOÅKA¹DÅ
ÒL¸YOWDIkTWPERIKEFALA¸HWE»WTÏMTVPONAÆTOÅKA¹PSENP¹
PRÎSVPONAÆTOÅP¹TNGAºAN i Kings XVII 48-49, from the
Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible)
mNjSTH aor. 3 of mN¸STHMII stand up [intr.]

oRRHTOWON unspoken
oSTUEOW [n.] city
GRAWAOW [n.] old age
(OLIjY [m. indecl.] Goliath, a Philistine giant
%AUE¸D [m. indecl.]David, a future king of Israel and Judah,
here still a youth
KEºYEN [adv.] from that place, thence
KTE¸NV I stretch out
TEROW…TEROW [idiom] one…another
KjDIONOU [n.] vessel
MlLLON [adv.] rather
MTVPONOU [n.] forehead
PjLAI [adv.] in the past, long ago
PATjSSVPATjJVPjTAJA I strike
PERIKEFALA¸AHW [f.] helmet
PRÎSVPONOU [n.] face
STÎMAATOW [n.] mouth, lips
SFENDONjVSFENDONSV I sling
SFENDÎNHSA
SUNjNTHSIWIOW [f.] a meetingEWSUNjNTHSIN%AUE¸D= “to meet David”
FANERÎWÎN evident, known
FÅN [3 aor. of FÃV] I was born, I was
XE¸RXEIRÎW [f.] hand
304. WRITE IN GREEK

1. (On) hearing of the death of your (sg.) two sons, we desired to come, but the
length of the journey did not allow it. [“On hearing” = aor. ptc.]
2. If she had married the king’s son, she would now be very happy.
3. I feared to enter, lest I should fall into the fire and perish.
137
305. WORD STUDY

RHEOSTAT (an instrument for ‘regulating the flow’ of an electrical current),
RHEUMATISM (a ‘flowing’ or shifting inflammation of the nerve-structure of the
muscles and joints), CATARRH (an excessive secretion of mucous membrane
‘flowing down’ from the sinus, as in head colds); — PALEOGRAPHY (the science of
working out ancient systems of writing or old manuscripts and inscriptions),
PALEOZOIC (name of the lowest geological layer, containing fossils of the ‘life
long ago’).
138
Lesson 43
The Third Aorist Optative, Imperative,
Infinitive, Participle Active
306. ENDINGS
3rd AOR. OPT. ENDINGS

Sg. Pl.
1st pers. IHN IMEN
2nd pers. IHW ITE
3rd pers. IH IEN
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. BA¸HN BAºMEN GNO¸HN GNOºMEN

2nd pers. BA¸HW BAºTE GNO¸HW GNOºTE
3rd sing. BA¸H BAºEN GNO¸H GNOºEN
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. DÃHNDU¸HN DÅMENDUºMEN
2nd pers. DÃHWDU¸HW DÅTEDUºTE
3rd pers. DÃHDU¸H DÅENDUºEN
3rd. AOR. IMPT. ENDINGS

Sg. Pl.
2nd pers. YI TE
2nd pers. BYI BTE GN¤YI GN¤TE DÅYI DÅTE
3rd. AOR. INF. ENDINGS

NAI BNAI GN¤NAI DÅNAI
3rd. AOR. PTC. ENDINGS (m. f. n. nom.)

WSAN BjWBlSABjN GNOÃWGNOÅSAGNÎN DÃWDÅSADÃN
Notes:
1. In the optative and participle the root-vowel is absorbed into the
endings.
2. The genitives of the masculine and neuter singular participles are:
BjNTOWGNÎNTOWandDÃNTOWThe feminine participles decline like
GAºA
139
307. MEMORIZE
oLGOWoLGEOW [n.] pain, distress, woe
LE¸PVLE¸CVL¸PON I leave
ÑÚVorÑÚOMAIÑÚSOMAIÑÐSjMHN I think, I suppose, I imagine
POYVPOYSVPÎYESA I long (to do something), I yearn (to do something)
[+ inf.], I miss (a person or thing)
308. TRANSLATE
1. GN¤Y¸SFEAWOÆKTIBjNTAW
2. oLGOWTIE¾NEKAF¸LHWTLNAIDÃSTIFILONTI
3. OÆDE¸WMIN½DEE»WPOTAMÏNDÃNTATmPÎLETO
4. E»TDESTA¸HWFÃGOIWKENÓMBRONTEoNEMÎNTE
5. POLLjPERGNÎNTATIqNDIDjSKOIM¸SEoLLAPOLLj
6. E»WoKRHNPTRHNBNAIMNPOYVOÆDTLjV
7. STTETSTEÓFRAKENPARLY×oNAJ
8. D¤RAPANTOºAPÎREMºNJEºNOW¾NAGNOºMNMjLAMºNF¸LON
ÎNTA
9. TA¸ROUWMOÄWKRATERkTLjNTAWSÃNMOIoLGEAOÈPOTELE¸CV
10. ÑÚOMA¸MINE»WPÎLEMONBNAIOÆDGIGN¢SKV
11. PEMPOMNOISILGErXRTLNAI
309. PUT INTO GREEK

1. If a difficult disease should bring us pain, we ought to endure (it) like men.
2. Stand (sg.) apart from the others, that I may see you alone.
3. “Please go (sg.) to the temple and offer Apollo our gifts,” he said.
4. Who would have the heart to destroy so beautiful a tree?
5. (After) standing near the road throughout the whole day, the sheep are now
going to the fold.
6. I expect to find that great treasure for the sake of which many fought (impf.)
and died.
7. Know (pl.) this! that I shall never leave my sons.
8. Having endured the toils of war, he now yearns after peace.
9. If I knew all things, I would not be (PEL-) mortal, but a god.
10. Even if you (pl.) were to go to another land, you would still love this country
most of (PER¸) all.
310. READINGS
1. PjNTEWoNYRVPOIGN¤NAIPOYOUSIFÃSII (Aristotle)
2. rMG¸GN¢SKVTkOÆDÑÚOMAIGN¤NAI (Plato)
3. GN¤YISAÆTÎN (Thales; later inscribed on the Delphic temple)
140
Lesson 43
4. D¹WE»WAÆTÏNPOTAMÏNOÆKqNBA¸HW (Heraclitus)
5. A»SXRÎNSTIPLOUTEINKA¹oLLOMHDNGN¤NAI (Euripides)
6. OÆDUNATÎWE»MIPjNTASOIPARASXEºN«KRTkBOÃLEAITLYI
KAL¤NOÈTISÄMOÅNOWPOYEIW (Theognis)
7. T¸OÌNSTIZ¢EINOÆCUXWFSOMENRGONEÁNAI (Plato)
8. DIkPOLLjVNYL¸CEVNXRMAWE»WELYEºNE»WBASILE¸HNYEOÅ
(Acts of the Apostles)
9. XRGkRFILEINKEºNONÖNYEÏWFILEI (Greek Anthology)
YLÅCIWEOWor EVW [f.] affliction, hardship

PLOUTV I am wealthy, rich
FHM¸FSVFSA I say, I claim [+ acc. and inf. in indirect statement]
311. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Why did you (sg.) stand upon that very rock from which your brother fell and
perished? [Express “fell and” by the aor. ptc. alone =‘falling’]
2. (After) passing the river we found a wide and straight road, and went quickly
down it to the sea.
3. Say (sg.) what is in your mind, that we may all know what you believe about
these things.
312. WORD STUDY

NEURALGIA (NEÅRON nerve; a sharp ‘pain in the nerve’ tissues, often accompanied
by partial paralysis), ANALGESIC (mN privative; a medicine bringing ‘painlessness’,
as an anaesthetic); — ECLIPSE (a ‘leaving out’ or fading out of a bright object when
a dark body comes between it and the observer; figuratively, to cast someone into the
shadow by superior excellence, e.g., ‘he eclipses all other singers’), ELLIPTICAL (L
for K before L: ‘leaving something out’, as an ‘elliptical construction’ omitting the
verb or other words in a sentence).
141
Lesson 44
Review of All Aorists—Active and Middle
313. REVIEW
Endings from complete list in Appendix A.
314. MEMORIZE
BjLLVBALVBjLON I throw, I strike
EÌ [adv.] well
MNVMENVMEºNA I remain, I stay; I await
SjRJSARKÎW [f.] flesh
315. SIGHT READING
Life of Our Life

G¢E»MIoMPELOWÇMEºWÓZOIÔWTIWMN×NMO¹KA¹G¢NO¼KEºNOWFREI
KARPÏNPOLLÎNmPjNEUYEDMEºOOÆDUNATO¹SESYEPOIEINOÆDN¦W
ÓZOWNMMN×NmMPL¡ME¸NATENMO¸KA¹G£NÇMºNNME¸NHTE
NMO¹KA¹LÎGOIMEUNÇMºNME¸NVSINÔTTIKENYLHTEA»TSASYEKA¹
GENSETAIÇMºN
(Jesus at the Last Supper; from St. John)
oMPELOWOU [f.] vine
ÓZOWOU [m.] branch
316. PUT INTO GREEK

1. We received other gifts too from our friends. (pl.)
2. Stay! (pl.), don’t leave us, lest we perish.
3. The strong wind threw many trees to the ground.
4. If I offered you (sg.) gold or happiness, what would you choose?
5. If you do not remain here with him, he will flee to his own country.
6. Whatever you (sg.) do, do it well
7. They hid all their possessions, that you might not take anything.
8. We sent two companions to bring them food, water, and wine.
9. Though they threw (ptc.) the rock with much force, they missed (nMART)
the tree.
10. Because you (sg.) commanded it, I eagerly obeyed.
142
Lesson 44
317. READINGS
1. TÎDEGN¤YISAÆTÎNSTIGN¤NAISkPRjGMATAKA¹T¸XRSE
POIEIN (Menander)
2. G¢E»MISºTOWZ¢VNJOÆRANOºOKATABjWNTIWFjG×KTOÅDE
S¸TOUZ¢SEIE»WA»E¸KA¹SºTOWÖNG£DVRSOMAISjRJMEÃSTIN
E»WZVNKÎSMOU (St. John)
3. mGAPHTO¸E»OÉTVWYEÏWF¸LHSENMAWXRKA¹MAWmLLLOUW
FILEIN (St. John)
4. E»GkRYEÏWÇPRMVNST¸T¸WoNTAMVNÔWGEOÅU¼OÅOÆ
FE¸SATOmLLkE¾NEKAMVNPjNTVNDVRSATÎMIN—P¤WOÆKA¹
SÄNAÆT¯PjNTAMºNDVRSETAI (St. Paul)
5. mLLkT¸KEJAIMIYEÏWGkRDIkPjNTATELEINBOULN (Homer)
6. XRYNHTÏNmNjGKAWKYE¤NFREIN (Euripides)
mGAPHTÎWÎN beloved
oNTA [prep. + gen.] against
DVROMAIDVRSOMAIDVRHSjMHN I give
KATABA¸NV I come down
ÇPR [prep. + gen.] on the side of, for; above
FE¸DOMAIFE¸SOMAIFEISjMHN [+ gen.] I spare, I keep back
318. WRITE IN GREEK

1. I suppose they went along the river until they found the gold which we left
under the fallen tree. [“They went” is in acc. and inf. construction, but not the
rest of the sentence.]
2. The king well planned how he might (by) fighting destroy the enemy
(XYROÃW) and save his people. [“how” is ÔPVW— cp. Section 256, under
BOULEÃV ]
3. Not daring (aor.) to remain, he stood apart from the others, and thus escaped
our notice.
319. WORD STUDY

DEVIL (by false pronunciation of DIjBOLOW, ‘the one who throws through a
person’s character’, ‘slanderer’), DIABOLIC, DIABOLICAL (devilish, satanic),
METABOLISM (the complete process of assimilating food, ‘throwing it into’ another
form; digestion in the broad sense; hence, ‘metabolism tests’, etc.); — EUGENE
(‘well-born’, noble), EUGENICS (the movement devoted to improving the human
species by controlling hereditary factors in mating), EULOGY (‘well speaking’ or
praise of a person or thing, ‘a good word’, commendation), EUCHARIST (XjRIW
grace, thanks; ‘thanks-giving’, because Christ “taking bread into His hands gave
thanks” before instituting the Sacrament), EUCHARISTIC (pertaining to the Blessed
Sacrament), EUCALYPTUS (KALUPTÎWÎNcovered; a large type of evergreen
tree with ‘well-covered’ seed pods), EUPHONY (‘sounding well’, a pleasant
combination of sounds or word-order), EUPHONIOUS (melodious, pleasant to the
ear), EUTHANASIA (‘pleasant death’, the theory that persons very old or greatly
suffering should be painlessly put to death for their own or society’s benefit),
143
EUSTACE (STjXIOWONof ripe grain; ‘well-harvesting’, prosperous); —

SARCASM (‘flesh-tearing’ irony or scornful taunt), SARCASTIC (taunting, ‘biting’),
SARCOPHAGUS (‘flesh-eating’, applied to a kind of corrosive limestone used by the
Greeks for coffins, thence to a coffin or funeral monument in general).
144
Lesson 45
The Perfect And Pluperfect Indicative Active.
Reduplication
320. ENDINGS
PF. ACT. IND.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. A AMEN LLUKA LELÃKAMEN
2nd pers. AW ATE LLUKAW LELÃKATE
3rd pers. EN ASIN LLUKEN LELÃKASIN
PLPF. ACT. IND.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. EAH EMEN LELÃKEALELÃKH LELÃKEMEN
2nd pers. HW ETE LELÃKHW LELÃKETE
3rd pers. EI ESAN LELÃKEI LELÃKESAN
Notes:
1. The A of the 3rd plural ending is usually short, but occasionally long.
2. For the meaning of the perfect and pluperfect in the indicative mood,
see Section 84.
3. Sometimes the perfect has present force, and the pluperfect has imperfect
force. For an example, see OIKAin Section 323.
321. REDUPLICATION
As an aid in remembering and identifying the principal parts of verbs, notice the
characteristic of the perfect systems: reduplication or doubling of the sound at the
beginning of the verb. (Cp. Latin cano, canere, cecini; cado, cecidi; parco, peperci,
etc.) Reduplication in Greek is of three kinds:
a. Verbs beginning with a single consonant are reduplicated by placing the
initial consonant with Ebefore the stem:
LÃV LLUKA(perfect active) LLUMAI(perfect middle-passive)
(However, initial becomes RR: for example, VbecomesRRÃHKA,
and ¸PTVbecomes RRIFA
b. Verbs beginning with two consonants simply prefix :
STLLV STALKA(perfect active) STALMAI(perfect middle-passive)
145
c. Verbs beginning with a short vowel or a diphthong lengthen the initial

vowel. (If the first vowel of an iota diphthong is lengthened, the Iis
subscribed):
nMARTjNV MjRTHKAperfect active) MjRTHMAI(perfectmiddle-passive)
AÆJjNV HÈJHKA HÈJHMAI
A¼RV RHKA RHMAI
d. Some verbs begin with a combination of a mute (PBFKGXTDY
and a liquid (LMNRThe combination of a mute and a liquid, because
easy to pronounce, is generally treated as a single consonant; such verbs
reduplicate by placing the initial consonant with E before the stem.
However, GN is treated as two consonants:
GRjFV GGRAFAperfect active) GGRAMMAI(perfect middle-passive)
GIGN¢SKV GNVKA GNVSMAI
e. Initial mutes which contain an “h” sound (called aspirates or rough
consonants) reduplicate without the “h”, Fbecoming P, X becoming K,
Y becoming T:
FILV PEF¸LHKAperfect active) PEF¸LHMAI(perfect middle-passive)
f. Some reduplications are irregular; these forms should simply be learned
from the vocabularies as the actual principal parts of the verbs in question.
322. DRILL
It is generally possible to recognize the perfect stem on the basis of the present stem.
For practice, identify and translate the following perfects and pluperfects, using the
hints given on characteristics of the various classes of verbs; note that a few of these
verbs will be unfamiliar to you:
A. Class 1: from present stems ending in a long vowel or diphthong; perfect stem
reduplicates, ends in K:
1. KEKELEÃKASI 4. PTA¸KAMEN(PTA¸Vstumble)
2. PEP¸STEUKAW 5. KEKROÃKEI(KROÃVbeat)
3. DEDÃKAMEN(DÃVenter) 6. PEPAÃKETE(PAÃVcease)
B. Class 2: from present stems ending in E; perfect stem reduplicates, ends in HK
(E lengthening to H):
1. NENOKATE 3. PEFRONKAMEN 5. PEPOIKEA
2. RKASI 4. PEFILKHW 6. GEGAMKETE
C. Class 3: from present stems ending in a consonant; perfect stem reduplicates, ends in K
stem vowel may change or drop:
1. KKRIKAW 3. TEYNKEI 5. BBLHKA
2. BEBKEA 4. GN¢KASI 6. MARTKATE
146
Lesson 45
D. Class 4: irregular; stem-vowel of present may change or drop, reduplication

irregular, perfect stem may end in other letter than K; but not hard to recognize
if first three principal parts are known:
1. PFEUGE 3. E»LHLOÃYEI 5. VRjKATE
2. LELO¸PETE 4. mPOL¢LHW 6. GEGjASI
323. MEMORIZE
mGjPHHW [f.] love, charity
GUNGUNAIKÎW [f.] woman, wife
DÎLOWOU [m.] cunning, craftiness; trickery; bait for catching fish
OIKA [pf. with pres. force; KEA plpf. with impf. force] I seem,
I am like to [+ dat.]; [in 3 sg. impers. construction, which may take
acc. and inf.] it is fitting
324. TRANSLATE
1. POLLk¢RAKAOÆDNDOÉTVWKALÎN
2. PjNTEWBEBKETEÔTELYONG¢
3. F¸LOWmLHYWOIKENEÁNAI
4. OÈPVE»LHLOÃYEIGUNKASIGNHTOºOMOºO
5. TOºOmGjPHNmLHYAOÅSANGN¢KAMENDIkRGVNTOÅmGAY¤N
6. L¸YOUWLELÃKESANÓMBROIPOLLO¹OÌNP¸PTON
7. POLM¡mPÎLVLENoNAJOÈGEB¸×mLLkDÎL¡
8. GUNAºKAWOÆKmD¸KHSANOÆGkRKEI
9. CUXNmPÏS¢MATOWLLUKEYjNATOW
10. T¸XALEPkMNDE¸DIAWOÆDA»SXRj
325. PUT INTO GREEK

1. We have come eagerly.
2. None of them had ever seen a sheep.
3. To love money is sometimes the beginning of many evils.
4. Two of my sons have gone to war, the other still remains with me.
5. It is fitting to have faith in others, and not imagine guile in all their deeds.
6. Why have evil men not yet perished from the earth?
7. He has known your (sg.) craftiness from the beginning.
8. Where have you (sg.) ever seen so tall a tree?
9. The children had not yet come when the stone fell.
10. The light was like to the sun falling from the sky.
326. READINGS
1. XRHSTÏWmNR¦WOIKEKA¹oLLOUWXRHSTOÄWPOIEI (Menander)
147
2. G£FjOWE»WKÎSMONE»LLOUYA¾NAPlWÖWPISTEÃ×MOIMME¸N×N
ZÎF¡ (St. John)
3. ÖWDGUNAIK¹PPOIYEPPOIYENÔGEDÎL¡ (Hesiod)
4. T¯LGEIb*HSOÅWÔTI¢RAKjWMEPEP¸STEUKAWMjKAREWKEºNOIO¾
OÆK»DÎNTEWPEPISTEÃKASIN (Christ to His doubting Apostle, Thomas;
from St. John)
5. EÉRHKA (Archimedes, on discovering the law of displacement of liquids)
6. OÆDTEYNKASIYANÎNTEW (Simonides, epitaph for the heroes of the great
battle of Plataea)
7. KA¹EÁPENÒYEÏWPjLINPRÏW.VUSNOÉTVWREºWTOºWU¼OºWb*SRAL
c,URIOWÒYEÏWT¤NPATRVNÇM¤NYEÏWb"BRAkMKA¹YEÏWb*SAkK
KA¹YEÏWb*AK¢BmPSTALKNMEPRÏWÇMlW
Exodus III 15, from the
Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible)
8. NT¯DEGN¢KAMENmGjPHNYEOÅÔTIKEºNOWYjNENE¾NEKAMVNKA¹
MAWoRAXRYANEºNE¾NEKAMETRVNKASIGNHT¤N (St. John)
b"BRAkM [indecl.] Abraham, the first patriarch of the Hebrews [here = gen., “of Abraham”]
mPOSTLLV pf. mPSTALKAI despatch (on some service)
E½RVER¤ I announce
EÉRHKA p f. o f EÇR¸SKV
ZÎFOWOU [m.] darkness, gloom
b*AK¢B [indecl.] Jacob, son of Isaac and father of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel
[here = gen., “of Jacob”]
b*SAkK [indecl.] Isaac, son of Abraham and father of Jacob [here = gen., “of Isaac”]
b*SRAL [indecl.] Israel [here= gen. “of Israel”]
KÃRIOWOU [m.] lord [,ÃRIOWÒYEÎW= the Lord God]
.VUSWÅ [m.]acc. .VUSNMoses, an Israelite leader
PjLIN [adv.] back, again, here= also
PPOIYA pf. of PE¸YV[with pres. mid. force] = I trust
PEP¸STEUXA pf. of PISTEÃV
TYNHKA pf. of YNSKV<with present force]= I am dead
ÇMlW = contraction of ÇMAW
ÇM¤N = contraction of ÇMVN
327. WRITE IN GREEK

1. You (sg.) left some food there, no doubt, that my companions might find it and
eat, if they should happen to come. (For “find it and,” use aor. ptc. alone]
2. Don’t stand (pl.) in the light, but hide yourselves among the trees until he
passes. [Make all vb. forms aor.]
3. The shepherd replied to our questioning that some of the sheep went into the
river and perished, others died along the road, and only two still remained in the
fold. [“to our questioning” = “to us asking.”]
328. WORD STUDY

AGAPE (the early Christian name for the Mass or Communion-assemblies, as ‘feast
of divine love’); — MISOGYNIST (‘woman-hater’); — EUREKA! (an exclamation
of joyous discovery, ‘I have it!’).
148
Lesson 46
The Perfect Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative, Infinitive, Participle Active
329. ENDINGS
The endings of the perfect subjunctive, optative and imperative active are the same as
those of the present system. Thus:
PF. SUBJ. ACT. PF. OPT. ACT.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. LELÃKV LELÃKVMEN LELÃKOIMI LELÃKOIMEN
2nd pers. LELÃK×W LELÃKHTE LELÃKOIW LELÃKOITE
3rd pers. LELÃK× LELÃKVSI LELÃKOI LELÃKOIEN
PF. IMPT. ACT.

2nd pers. LLUKE LELÃKETE
PF. INF. ACT.

ENAIor EMENAI LELUKNAIor LELUKMENAI
PF. PTC. ACT. (m. f. n. nom.)

VWUIAOW LELUK¢WLELUKUºALELUKÎW
330. NOTES
1. The perfect indicative expresses completed action in the present time. Thus
LLUKAmeans I have just loosed.
2. Remember that the perfect, outside the indicative (or the infinitive or participle
in indirect discourse) does not signify past time, but state of the action as one
completed with finality. For examples, review Section 84.
3. The genitive singular of the masculine and neuter perfect participle of LÃV is
LELUKÎTOWThey belong to the third declension, while the feminine is
declined like GAºASee Lesson 29 for the full declension.
331. MEMORIZE
MSSOWHON middle (of ), midst (of ) [followed by noun in same case]
OÁKOWOU [m.] house, home
PjLIN [adv.] back (again); again
SFTEROWHON their(s)
149
332. TRANSLATE
1. KASIGNHTOÃWMEUPRÏWOÁKONKPOLEMOºOE»LHLOUYÎTAWXA¸RVN
DEJjMHN
2. ME¸NATEmPjNEUYEPURÎWÓFRAMmPOL¢LHTE
3. F¸LONJoLGEOWLELUKMENS¢MATOWCUXWKALÏNPLEI
4. BBHKENGkRPjLINSE½DVGGÄWO½KOUMOÅBALVSEE»W
POTAMÎN
333. PUT INTO GREEK

1. He said the woman had come from the middle of the house, carrying food
and water.
2. He said death is for the good a gate into life and happiness.
3. Two shepherds seem to be coming, no doubt that they may release (pf.) their
sheep from under the tree.
4. The king’s brother died fighting so that the king himself might not perish.
334. TRANSLATE AT SIGHT

FHb*HSOÅWG¢E»MImNjSTASIWKA¹ZVÔWTIWPISTEÃ×E»WMKqN
YjN×Z¢SETAIKA¹PlWZ¢VNDPISTEÃVNE»WMOÈPOTEYANETAIA»E¸
PISTEÃEIWTÎDELGEIO¼.jRYAG£PEP¸STEUKAÔTISÃE»W9RISTÎWU¼ÏW
YEOÅE»WTÎNDEKÎSMONE»LHLOUY¢W (St. John)
mNjSTASIWIOW [f.] resurrection

b*HSOÅWOÅ Jesus
KqN crasis (contraction) for KA¹jNeven if, although
.ARYA Martha [sister of Lazarus, whom Jesus raises from the dead
according to John 11.1-44]
335. READINGS
1. T¸WoNYRVPOWJÇMVNXVNKATÏNMLAKA¹mPOLSAWNJ
SFEVNOÆLE¸PEIoLLAPjNTAKA¹RXETAIP¹TÎDENmPOLVLÎW
ÓFRAEÉR×KA¹EÇR£NFREIXA¸RVNE»WOÁKONKA¹KELEÃEIF¸LOUW
OÄWDPLHS¸OUWLYEºNLGVNSFINXA¸RETESÃNMOIÔTIEÍRON
MLÎNMEUmPOLVLÎW (St. Luke)
2. GIGN¢SKVDTÎDEÔTIE»PjNTEWoNYRVPOISFTERAKAKkE»WMSON
SUNENE¸KEIANBOULÎMENOImME¸BESYAIPLHS¸OISI—ÒRjONTEWKAKk
PLHS¸VNmSPAS¸VWqNKASTOImPOFERO¸ATOPjLINTkE»S
ENHNÎXESAN (Herodotus)
3. FILVMENmLLLOUWPE¹mGjPHKYEOÅSTINKA¹PlWÔWTIWFIL×
KYEOÅGGAEKA¹GIGN¢SKEIYEÎNÖWDMFIL×OÆKGNVKEYEÎN
ÔTIYEÏWmGjPHST¸N (St. John)
mPOFRVmPOO¸SVmPONEIKAmPOENNOXA I carry off

mSPAS¸VW [adv.]gladly
E»SFRVE»WO¸SVE»WNEIKAE»WENNOXA I bring in, I bring along
150
Lesson 46
KATÎN [indecl.] a hundred

SUNFRVSUNO¸SVSUNNEIKASUNENNOXA I bring together
336. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Have you (pl.) ever seen so brave a man? He was like to a rock in the midst of
the sea being struck again and again by wind and rain. Any other would have
fled, but he dared to remain and fight.
2. I seek to find the truth, which is sometimes sweet, sometimes difficult— but is
always good for me.
337. WORD STUDY

MESOPOTAMIA (‘the country between the rivers’, i.e., between the Tigris and
Euphrates— ancient Assyria and Babylonia); — ECONOMY (NOM¸Hfrom NMVI
manage; ‘household management’, as in ‘domestic economy’; a plan by which something is
managed or run; also, a frugal avoidance of waste, as ‘he shows great economy of effort’),
ECONOMICS (the science of household management, or of business and finance on the
broad plane), ECONOMICAL (sparing, well-budgeted or managed, cheap); —
PALINDROME (DRÎMOW a running; a word or saying in which the letters ‘run back
again’, i.e., spell the same whether read forward or backward— e.g., the words on a sacred
fountain in the courtyard of Hagia Sophia cathedral in Constantinople: NICON
ANOMHMATAMHMONANOCIN ‘Wash your sins, not only your face’, or Napoleon’s reply
when asked if he could invade England: ‘Able I was I ere I saw Elba’).
151
Lesson 47
The Perfect And Pluperfect Indicative, Middle and Passive
338. ENDINGS
PF. M.-P. IND.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. MAI MEYA LLUMAI LELÃMEYA
2nd pers. SAI SYE LLUSAI LLUSYE
3rd pers. TAI ATAINTAI LLUTAI LELÃATAILLUNTAI
PLPF. M.-P. IND.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. MHN MEYA LELÃMHN LELÃMEYA
2nd pers. SO SYE LLUSO LLUSYE
3rd pers. TO ATONTO LLUTO LELÃATOLLUNTO
Note:
A verb’s perfect middle-passive stem can be found by removing MAI from
its fifth principal part. For example, the fifth principle part of GIGN¢SKV
is GNVSMAIThus the verb’s perfect middle-passive stemisGNVS
339. CONSONANT CHANGES (For reference; no need to memorize)

a. The perfect middle-passive stem of some verbs ends in a consonant. When the
endings are added, certain euphonic changes sometimes take place, to make the
combination of sounds easier to pronounce and more pleasing.
b. There are three types of consonant stems, as they appear in the fifth principal
part:
(1). ending in M,which stands for P B, orF
(2). ending in G, which stands for K, G, or X.
(3). ending in S which stands for TDorY.
c. Rules for changes before consonants of other endings:
1. M+S=C 1. G+S=J 1. S+S=S
2. M+T=PT 2. G+T=KT 2. S+T=ST
3. M+SY=FY 3. G+SY=XY 3. S+SY=SY
4. M+NT=FAT 4. G+NT=XAT 4. S+NT=YAT
d. Drill: What, then, are the perfect middle-passive forms built on LLEIMMAI
from LE¸PVTTUGMAIfrom TEÃXVPPUSMAIfrom PEÃYOMAI?
152
Lesson 47
340. MEMORIZE
KEºMAI [pf. mid. system] I have been placed, I lie (down)
KRÃPTVKRÃCVKRÃCA I conceal
TÎTE [adv.]then
341. TRANSLATE
1. OÁKONPARkYALjSS×TETÃGMEYA
2. PAºWP¹GA¸×KEºTOPARERXOMNOUWYLVNLAYMEN
3. EÌDKRÃPTETAIYHSAURÎWOÈPOTEGkR¢RATAIÇPÏOÆDENÎW
4. MLALLUTOPOIMNÓFRAPARkPOTAMÏNFOITjOIEN
5. TOºOPUYÎMEYARGAOÆDE¹WDTÎTEBOÃLETÎMINLEIN
6. T¸TTUXYEPULNOÉTVWÇCHLN
7. KEºSÎPOUÇPÏDENDR¡ÓFRAPONONTOTEROI
8. mPÏmRXWGN¢SMEYAÇPÏoNAKTOW
9. OÈPVTTUKTOOÁKOWÔTEÓMBROWmPÎLESSEN
10. T¸TDEKEºSYEEÁPENOÆDSÄNMºNRXESYE
342. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Two of my companions have released themselves and are now fleeing.
2. “You (pl.) have been seen!” he said. “Hide quickly!”
3. The woman lay beside the river, looking into the flowing water.
4. The house had been well built, yet it was not beautiful.
5. If it did not seem right to have this, we would not have requested it.
6. Why do you (sg.) lie so near the fire?
7. They had been seen, but no one pursued them.
8. Where have you (sg.) built yourself your house?
9. The man who struck my brother with the rock has never been known.
10. After the storm, many large trees lay on the ground.
343. READINGS
1. ÒYEÏWT¤Nb&BRA¸VNPROSKKLHTAIMlWPOREUS¢MEYAOÌNÒDÏN
TRI¤NMER¤NE»WTNRHMON¾NAYÃSVMENT¯YE¯M¤N
(The words the Lord instructs Moses to say to the Pharaoh, Exodus III 18, from
the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible)
2. 9RIST¯SUNESTAÃRVMAI (St. Paul, referring to the Christian ‘death’ to
things merely of this world)
3. ZVÇMVNKKRUPTAISÄN9RIST¯NYE¯ÔTEqND9RISTÎWZV
MVNFA¸NHTAITÎTEKA¹ÇMEºWSÃNO¼FANESYENDÎJ× (St. Paul)
4. POLLkPI£NKA¹POLLkFAG£NKA¹POLLkKAKkE»P£NPER¹
mNYR¢PVNKEºMAI5IMOKRVNc3ÎDIOW (A mock epitaph by Simonides
153
for his rival Timocreon, a poet and champion athlete from Rhodes, of
somewhat scandalous habits. He was still alive, and wrote a reply to this, to the
effect that reports of his demise were somewhat exaggerated— as Simonides
would find out if he came around!)
5. EÁPENb*HSOÅW1ILjT¡E»M¹DBASILEÃWG£E»WTÎDEGEGNHMAIKA¹
E»WTÎDEE»LLOUYAE»WKÎSMON¾NAMARTURSVmLHYE¸×PlWÖWJ
mLHYE¸HWmKOÃEIFVNWMEUBASILE¸HDMOÆKSTINKKÎSMOU
TOÅDE (St. John)
mKOÃV [+ gen.] I hear, I listen to

BASILEÃWOW [m.] king
GEGNHMAI pf. mid. of G¸GNOMAI I am born [= GGAA]
b&BRAºOWOU [m.] a Hebrew
RHMOWOU [f.] wilderness, desert
MlW contraction of MAW
M¤N contraction of MVN
YÃVYÃSVYÅSA I sacrifice
ÒDÏNTRI¤NMER¤N “a journey of three days” [cognate acc. with POREUS¤MEYA—
on which see Section 602—and. gen. of extent]
1ILlTOWOU Pontius Pilate [1st century A.D. Roman procurator of Judaea,
who condemned Jesus to be crucified]
POREÃOMAIPOREÃSOMAI I travel
POREUSjMHN
PROSKKLHTAI pf. mid. of PROSKALOMAII call (to myself )
c3ÎDIOWHON of Rhodes
SUNESTAÃRVMAI pf. mid. of SUSTAURÎV I crucify along with
TRI¤NMER¤N see ÒDÏNTRI¤NMER¤Nabove
344. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Be gone (pl.)! For if you come again and try to take anything, I shall seize you
and bring you to the king.
2. I had never seen them, but when they had come into the house I quickly knew
them to be my brother’s sons, and received them rejoicing. [“when they had
come” is simply the perfect participle, agreeing in case with the following
“them”]
345. WORD STUDY

CRYPTIC (‘concealed, secret’, as a ‘cryptic message’), CRYPT (a concealed chamber
or vault, as a basement chapel under a church, or a hidden cemetery vault),
GROTTO (from Italian mispronunciation of KRUPT, a crypt or small cave-like
opening in a hillside), GROTESQUE (‘like a grotto’, i.e., strangely-formed, odd,
fantastic); — BASIL (‘kingly’), BASILICA (a ‘royal’ building of special design—
oblong, with naves and rows of pillars— used in Greece and Rome as courts of justice,
later turned into cathedral churches; a modern cathedral built on the same plan),
BASILISK (‘little king’, a lizard with a crest or crown of scales on the head; a mytho-
logical dragon-like beast of the desert said to be able to kill a man by its mere look or
fiery breath); — MARTYR (‘a witness’ to a hated cause), MARTYRDOM (‘witness
unto death’), MARTYROLOGY (a list or historical account of a series of martyrs).
154
Lesson 48
The Perfect Imperative, Infinitive, Participle Middle and Passive.
Review of All Perfects
346. ENDINGS
PF. IMPT. M.-P.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
2nd pers. SO SYE LLUSO LLUSYE
PF. INF. M.-P.

SYAI LELÃSYAI
PF. PTC. M.-P. (m. f. n. nom.)

MENOWHON LELUMNOWLELUMNHLELUMNON
Note:
a. The same euphonic changes take place as in the indicative.
b. The middle-passive participle declines like KALÎWONSee Section
189, under Type A.
c. See Appendix A for complete list of perfect system endings, active and
middle-passive, for review.
347. MEMORIZE
mMF¸ [adv.; prep. + dat. or acc.] on both sides,
around, concerning
KTE¸NVKTENVKTEºNAorKTjNON I kill
MTHRMHTROWorMHTRÎW [f.] mother
PATRPATROWorPATRÎW [m.] father
348. TRANSLATE
1. OÆGN¤oNAJVRAMNOUWMAWDDIVKOMNOUW
2. mMF¹O½K¡KEºSYEÓFRAMTIWLjY×ÇMAWE»SERXÎMENOW
3. EÇREºNSFEAWPEIRjOMENO¼DBEBKESAN
4. PjNTEWMO¹U¼EWNT¯DEAÆT¯O½K¡GEGjASIN
5. D¸KHTEKA¹mGjPHKA¹E»RNHMETkPlSINE»LHLOÃYOIENmNYR¢POISIN
6. KARPO¹POLLO¹KDENDRVNLELUMNOIE»WGAºANP¸PTON
7. MjLAPOUDE¸SATEMPVWBEBKOIMEN
155
8. OÆDNOÉTVWGLUKÃPOTEGN¢KAMEN¦WMHTRVNMVNmGjPHN
9. oNDRATINkKTE¸NAWE»WTRHNBBHKEPATR¸DA
10. MjLADPATR¹M¯KEISEUKASIGNHTÎW
349. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Lying afar under a tree, we saw him concealing the gold.
2. He said the road had been built from the river to the sea.
3. She has never seen her father, who is still away fighting in the war.
4. Lie (sg.) near the temple until they pass; then flee!
5. My mother had gone home, but my brother and I remained with our friends.
6. Since they have come as companions, we ought to receive them.
7. It is easy to seek happiness, but difficult to find it and to hold it.
8. We suffered, in order that you (pl.) might not perish (utterly).
9. Having released the king, they led him into their own country.
10. We shall not kill you (pl.), because you have come as true friends of my father.
350. READINGS
1. XRTLNAIoNDRAXALEPOºSINNoLGESIKE¸MENONPRÎWTEYE¤N
mYANjTVNA»TEINKLUSIN (Theognis)
2. YEÏNOÆDE¸WP¢POTE¢RAKENNDFILVMENmLLLOUWYEÏWN
MºNMNEIKA¹mGjPHYEOÅNMºNTETELESMNHST¸NYEÏWmGjPH
ST¸NKA¹ÔWTIWMN×NmGjP×NYE¯MNEIKA¹YEÏWMNEIN
O¼ (St. John)
3. FjOWE»LLOUYENE»WKÎSMONmLLkF¸LHSANoNYRVPOIMlLLON
ZÎFONFjOWRGAGjRSFEVNNPONHRjPlWGkRPONHRk
RDVNMISEIFjOWKA¹OÆKRXETAIPRÏWFjOW¾NAMKR¸NHTAIk
RGAÖWDmLHYE¸HNPOI×RXETAIPRÏWFjOW¾NAFA¸NHTAIk
RGAÔTINYE¯PEPO¸HNTAI (St. John, developing the idea of Christ as
Light of the world)
KLUSIWIOW [f.] release, relief

ZÎFOWOU [m.] darkness
MlLLON [adv.] rather, more
PEPO¸HNTAI Attic Greek for PEPOIATAI3rd pers. pl. pf. m.-p. of POIV
TETLESMAI pf. m.-p. of TELV
351. WRITE IN GREEK

1. He who lives in the truth is like to a man who has built (mid.) his house upon a
rock. For even if the waters loosed (pf.) from heaven and the storms and winds
should strike it, it will not fall; for it has been well built, upon a rock.
2. I had never known you (sg.) or whence you had come.
156
Lesson 48
352. WORD STUDY

AMPHIBIOUS (‘living on both sides’, i.e., on land or water; used loosely, as ‘an
amphibious attack’), AMPHIBIAN (e.g., an airplane, operating from both land and
water), AMPHITHEATER (an elliptical structure with a ‘theater [seeing-place] all
around’ i.e., at both ends of the oval); — METROPOLIS (PÎLIW city; ‘mother-city’,
capital of a district or a large city surrounded by suburbs), METROPOLITAN
(pertaining to a large city; an archbishop with special dignity and authority over
neighboring dioceses); — PATRIARCH (oRXV I rule; the ‘ruling father’ of a tribe or
large social family-group [PATRIj]; head of a family; hence, a venerable man of
authority; a Bishop of the highest rank, ruling great churches like Jerusalem,
Constantinople, etc.), PATRISTIC (of the ‘Fathers of the Church’, the great teachers
of the first five centuries).
157
Lesson 49
The Comparison of Adjectives
353. RULES
Greek adjectives have three degrees: positive (e.g., “fine”); comparative (e.g., “finer”
or “rather fine”); and superlative (e.g., “finest” or “very fine”). This Section and
Section 354 will explain how to form the comparative and superlative degrees. Section
355 will cover their declension.
a. To most second/first declension adjectives, remove the ending OW from the
masculine singular nominative to find the stem; add to this stem:
ÎTEROWOTRHÎTERON (comparative)and
ÎTATOWOTjTHÎTATON (superlative)
if the last syllable of stem is long (including syllables long ‘by position’, i.e.,
ending in two consonants). Thus:
POSITIVE: D¸KAIOWHON(“just”)
COMPARATIVE: DIKAIÎTEROWDIKAIOTRHDIKAIÎTERON
(“more just”)
SUPERLATIVE: DIKAIÎTATOWDIKAIOTjTHDIKAIÎTATON
(“most just”)
if the last syllable of the stem is short add to it:
¢TEROWVTRH¢TERON (comparative) and
¢TATOWVTjTH¢TATON (superlative) if the last syllable of the
stem is short
POSITIVE: XALEPÎWÎN (“difficult”)
COMPARATIVE: XALEP¢TEROWXALEPVTRHXALEP¢TERON
(“more difficult”)
SUPERLATIVE: XALEP¢TATOWXALEPVTjTHXALEP¢TATON
(“most difficult”)
b. To third declension adjectives in HWEWand to third/ first declension
adjectives in ÃWEºAÃ,add to the neuter nominative singular (which is
identical with the stem) the same suffixes as in (a) above:
POSITIVE: mLHYWW(“true”)
COMPARATIVE: mLHYSTEROWmLHYESTRHmLHYSTERON
(“truer”)
SUPERLATIVE: mLHYSTATOWmLHYESTjTHmLHYSTATON
(“truest”)
c. To third declension adjectives in VNON, add the suffixes STEROW
ESTRHSTERON(comparative) and STATOWESTjTHSTATON
158
Lesson 49
(superlative) to the stem, which is found by removing the OW from the
genitive singular:
POSITIVE: oFRVNON(“senseless”)
COMPARATIVE: mFRONSTEROWmFRONESTRHmFRONSTERON
(“more senseless”)
SUPERLATIVE: mFRONSTATOWmFRONESTRHmFRONSTATON
(“most senseless”)
d. To a select group of second/first declension adjectives and third/first declen-
sion adjectives, the suffixes ¸VNION(comparative) andISTOW¸STH
ISTON(superlative) are added to stems that are slightly different from the
stem of the positive degree. The comparative and superlative degrees of
these adjectives must be learned individually.
POSITIVE: A»SXRÎWÎN(“shameful”)
COMPARATIVE: A»SX¸VNA½SXION(“more shameful”)
SUPERLATIVE: A½SXISTOWA»SX¸STHA½SXISTON
(“most shameful”)
POSITIVE: DÃWDEºADÃ(“sweet”)
COMPARATIVE: D¸VNDION(“sweeter”)
SUPERLATIVE: DISTOWD¸STHDISTON(“sweetest”)
354. IRREGULAR COMPARISON

As in English, there are Greek adjectives whose comparative and superlative degrees
are irregular, i.e., based on stems radically altered or entirely different from their
positive degree. (Cf. “good”, “better” and “best.”) The suffixes for such irregular
comparatives and superlatives are ¸VNION(orVNON) (comparative) and
ISTOW¸STHISTON (superlative), as in (d) above. There is one exception listed
below, F¸LOW, which follows more closely the pattern in (a) above.
The following adjectives introduced in this course have irregular comparison:
POSITIVE: mGAYÎWÎN (“good”)
COMPARATIVE: mRE¸VNoREIONormME¸NVNoMEINON(“better”)
SUPERLATIVE: oRISTOWHON(“best”)
POSITIVE: POLLÎWÎN(“many”)
COMPARATIVE: PLE¸VNPLEºON(“more”)
SUPERLATIVE: PLEºSTOWHON(“most”)
POSITIVE: KALÎWÎN(“beautiful”)
COMPARATIVE: KALL¸VNKjLLION(“more beautiful”)
SUPERLATIVE: KjLLISTOWHON(“most beautiful”)
POSITIVE: MGAWMEGjLHMGA(“big”)
COMPARATIVE: ME¸ZVNMEºZON(“bigger”)
SUPERLATIVE: MGISTOWHON(“biggest”)
POSITIVE: TAXÃWEºAÃ(“swift”)
COMPARATIVE: YjSSVNYlSSON(“swifter”)
SUPERLATIVE: TjXISTOWHON(“swiftest”)
159
POSITIVE: F¸LOWHON(“dear”)
COMPARATIVE: F¸LTEROWHON(“dearer”)
SUPERLATIVE: F¸LTATOWHON(“dearest”)
355. DECLENSION
Comparatives and superlatives ending in OWHON are declined likeKALÎW
ÎNand comparatives in VNON like PRÎFRVNPRÎFRONin Lesson 29.
356. MEMORIZE
oFRVNON senseless
DEÃTEROWHON second
;EÃW%IÎW or;HNÎW Zeus [father and chief of the gods]
TAXÃWEºAÃ swift
357. TRANSLATE
1. mLHYSTATADEÁPEW
2. E»PLE¸ONEWMENOÆKqNMAXSANTOmLLkFÃGON
3. mNYR¢PVNnPjNTVNPONHRÎTATOISANKEºNOI
4. ME¸ZONOWDÎLOUOÆDE¸WPOTEPLETO
5. KjLLISTONDMGISTONMMENSFTERONÑÚONTAIOÁKON
6. PLE¸ONAoGEIMLAÔDEPOIMNKEºNOW
7. PASjVNGUNAIK¤NmR¸STHKA¹KALL¸STHKA¸MOIFILTjTHMTHR
PLETOM
8. YjSSVNMNSTIKEºNOWPOTAMÎWPLEºONDÉDVRXEIÔDE
9. %¸APATRADMGISTONYE¤NEÁNAIÑÚONTÎPOTEPOLLO¸
10. DEUTR¡PUR¹mPÎLETOXRMATAMTERAPjNTA
11. PATRMÏW½DERGAA»SX¸ONAPjNTApPOTEVRjKHG¢
12. PAºDEWA»E¹YLOUSIFAGEºNKARPOÄWD¸STOUW
358. PUT INTO GREEK

1. You (pl.) were hoping, no doubt, to receive more gifts than you did receive.
2. That was the loftiest tree of all that I have ever seen.
3. It is better to be noble than to seem to be noble.
4. He gave most gold to the first and swiftest— myself.
5. The road was longer than you (sg.) would believe.
6. They stood on the very topmost rock, trying to see the sea.
7. He was the bravest man whom I ever knew.
8. It is necessary to build true peace now, if we do not wish to fall into a second
and greater war.
160
Lesson 49
9. I love my father as the noblest man whom I have ever known.

10. Endure patiently (sg.)! Others held up under even more, and more difficult, woes.
359. READINGS
1. SOFÏW4OFOKLWSOF¢TEROWD&ÆRIP¸DHWmNDR¤NDPjNTVN
4VKRjTHWSOF¢TATOW (An ancient oracle)
2. OÆGkRDOKEINoRISTOWmLLkEÁNAIYLEI (Aeschylus)
3. KMELTHWPLE¸ONEWKFÃSIOWmGAYO¸ (Critias)
4. AÆTkRDEÃTERA¸PVWFRONT¸DEWSOF¢TERAI (Euripides)
5. NIKjEINGjRTINjAÆTÏNPASjVNNIKjVNST¹PR¢THTEKA¹
mR¸STH (Plato)
6. PjNTVNKTHMjTVNoRISTÎNSTIF¸LOWmGAYÎW (Xenophon)
7. XALEPÎNSTIMFILSAIXALEPÏNDKA¹FILSAIXALEP¢TATOND
PjNTVNmPOTUGXjNEINFILONTA (Anacreontic)
8. oRISTONMNÉDVR… (Pindar; Horace disagrees: “Nulla placere diu nec
vivere carmina possunt quae scribuntur aquae potoribus.” No poems are able to be
pleasing nor to survive for long which are written by drinkers of water.)
mPOTUGXjNV I am unsuccessful
&ÆRIP¸DHW Euripides [the tragic poet]
KTMAATOW [n.] possession
MELTHHW [f.] careful practice, training
NIKjV I conquer
N¸KHHW [f.] victory, conquest
4OFOKLW Sophocles [the tragic poet]
4VKRjTHW Socrates [the philosopher]
FRONT¸W¸DOW [f.] thought
360. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Have you (sg.) ever known anyone (pl.) so swift to accept pains for the sake
of others?
2. One temple had been built near the sea to Zeus, a second to Apollo among
the trees.
3. Our fathers were brave and just, and they left for us a noble country in which we
now live happily (= happy).
361. WORD STUDY

DEUTERONOMY (NÎMOW law; ‘the second Law’, the fifth book of the Old
Testament, containing the second statement or account of the Law of Moses
regulating the life of the Jews); — ARISTOCRACY (KRATV I rule; ‘rule of the
best’, i.e., government controlled by a group of nobles or wealthy and prominent
citizens), ARISTOCRAT (a member of the ruling aristocracy; a person of self-
important and refined bearing or attitude); — CALLISTUS, CALLISTA (proper
names); — NICOLAS, NICHOLAS (‘victory’ + ‘the people’), NICODEMUS
(DMOW people; ‘victory’ + ‘the people’).
161
Lesson 50
The Formation And Comparison of Adverbs
362. FORMATION OF ADVERBS

a. Adverbs are commonly formed from the corresponding adjectives, by adding
VW to the neuter stem. Thus, KAL¤W(“beautifully”)TAXVW(“swiftly”)
b. Often the neuter accusative, singular or plural, is used as an adverb. E.g.,
PR¤TON or PR¤TA“at first”), DÃ (“sweetly”), T¸ (“why?”) (cp. Section 213
b, c).
c. We have already learned and used many adverbs not based on adjectives, such as
ÔTE (“when”) and NÅN(“now”). Such adverbs rarely form comparatives or
superlatives.
d. Most prepositions can be used without governing any noun, pronoun, or
adjective, thus functioning as adverbs, with the same general meaning as in their
prepositional uses. E.g., mPÎALYON (“They therefore went away.”)
GGÄWST. (“He stood near.”)
363. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

The neuter accusative singular of the comparative adjective is used as the comparative
of the adverb; the neuter accusative plural of the superlative adjective functions as the
superlative form of the adverb. Thus, the comparison of adverbs relies on rule (b) in
Section 362 above.
mPÎALYONYlSSON(They therefore went away more swiftly.)
mPÎALYONTjXISTA(They therefore went away most swiftly.)
364. MEMORIZE
DKATOWHON tenth
MGAWMEGjLHMGA [m. acc. sg.MGAN, n. acc. sg. MGA, rest of m. and
n. is 2nd declension, on stem MEGAL] great, large, big
NÃJNUKTÎW [f.] night
O»KVO»KSVO½KHSA I dwell, I inhabit
365. TRANSLATE
1. SOF¤WGEEÁPEWPATRDKA¹SOF¢TERON
2. L¸YONMGANMAKRÎTATjPVWBjLEN
3. RXEUSÃNMOIoLLVWGkROÆDBSOMAIAÆTÎW
4. OÁKONMN½DOMENE»WDOÆKLYOMEN
5. E»DIKA¸VWMETkmLLLOIWO»KOIENoNYRVPOIE»RNHNPOUXOIENoN
162
Lesson 50
6. PE¹oNAJOÉTVWST¹NmGAYÎWT¸OÈMINPLEºONFILETE
7. PjNTEWMEGjLVWXA¸ROMENÔTESEMjYOMENLEÃSESYAI
8. TDEDIkNUKTÏWDEKjTHWnPjSHWME¸NANTEWAÁCApMAMATI
FAINOMN¡FÃGON
9. KAL¤WDPOISATEMHTRAMNKYANATOºOA»SX¸STOUS¢ZONTEW
10. ÉDVRTjXISTANE¸KATEÓFRAMPjNTAPUR¹mPOL¢L×
366. PUT INTO GREEK

1. We saw a great light falling swiftly through the sky.
2. 1 would have labored more if I had had more time.
3. Whoever comes first will receive the biggest gift.
4. The water fell most swiftly the second night.
5. Lie (sg.) afar, and conceal yourself well.
6. Great winds kept violently (MEGAL-) striking the house.
7. You (sg.) sleep the most of all boys whom I have ever known!
8. At first we dwelt away from the sea, but now quite near.
9. Whenever rain falls, the rivers flow more swiftly.
10. You have all come most swiftly, and I am greatly pleased.
367. READINGS
1. DOKEIDMOIXALEP¢TERONEÁNAIEÇREºNoNDRAKAL¤WmGAYk
FRONTAKAKj (Xenophon)
2. OÈTOImPÏmRXWPjNTAYEO¹YNHTOºSIFA¸NOUSImLLkXRÎN¡
ZHTONTEWEÇR¸SKOMENoREION (Xenophanes)
3. JRGVNDoNDREWG¸GNONTAIPLOÃSIOIKA¹PONEÎMENOIPOLLÏN
F¸LTEROImYANjTOISIN (Hesiod)
4. mE¸RETA¸TIWÇCHLÎTERON¾NAYjSSONPS× (Menander)
5. ¦WKAK¤WPLETAIPlW»HTRÏWE½KEKAK¤WMHDE¹WPL× (Menander)
6. OÆZ¢EINMGATIST¸NmLLkEÌZ¢EIN (Plato)
PLOÃSIOWHON rich, wealthy
368. WRITE IN GREEK

1. The man who saved my father when he fell into the sea was the bravest and
noblest man whom I have ever known. [“when he fell” = aor. ptc.]
2. I would choose to suffer evil, but not to do evil; for it is nobler.
3. My brother hopes to build a bigger and more beautiful house and dwell in it
with his wife and children until he dies.
163
369. WORD STUDY

DECADE (a period of ten years); — MEGAPHONE (a device for concentrating
sound waves to produce a ‘great voice’), MEGALOMANIA (MAN¸H madness; a form
of insanity in which a person thinks he is someone great or famous; a tendency to
exaggerate one’s importance or greatness), MEGALOMANIAC; —
ECUMENICAL (pertaining to the whole ‘inhabited earth’ [O»KOUMNH contracted
form of O»KEOMNH], hence worldwide, universal, as an ‘ecumenical Council’ of
Bishops from all countries of the globe), DIOCESE (a region ‘inhabited throughout’
by members of the Church, a Bishop’s territory of government), DIOCESAN
(belonging to a diocese).
164
Lesson 51
The Aorist Indicative and Subjunctive Passive
370. ENDINGS
Aorist passive forms are very similar to those of the 3rd aorist active (see Appendix A).
Remember that there is no distinction of first, second, and third aorist in the passive,
but only one system. The aorist passive system is built on the stem of the sixth
principal part. The aorist passive of our paradigm verb LÃV in the indicative 1st
person singular LÃYHNtranslates as “I was loosed.” (Refer to Sections 83c and 84a on
the meanings of the tenses and the voices.)
AOR. PASS. IND.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. HN HMEN LÃYHN LÃYHMEN
2nd pers. HW HTE LÃYHW LÃYHTE
3rd pers. H HSAN LÃYH LÃYHSAN
AOR. PASS. SUBJ.
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. V VMEN LUY¤ LUY¤MEN
2nd pers. ×W HTE LUYW LUYTE
3rd pers. × VSIN LUY LUY¤SIN
371. MEMORIZE
pZOMAI [pres. syst. only] I respect, I revere; I hesitate to
or shrink from [+ inf.]
MLOWMLEOW [n.] member (of the body), limb
XE¸RXEIRÎW [f.] hand
372. TRANSLATE
1. PONONTAI»HTRO¹POLLO¸¾NAJoLGEOWTOÅDEMEGjLOULUYW
2. ÓFYHMENDDIVKÎMEYAAÆTjRSFEAWLjYOMEN
3. XRÎNOWPLETAIBROTOºSI»HTRÏWPjNTVNKAK¤NKA¹mLGVN
4. KRÃCASYETAXVWÓFRAMGNVSYTEPAREÎNTEW
5. PLEºSTjTOIXjRHPATRU¼APjLINKPOLEMOºODEJjMENOW
6. DE¸DVMÇPÏPLE¸ONOWÓMBROULUY¤SINKEºNOIL¸YOIDP¸PTVSIN
7. E»NO½K¡MEºNAW¨WSEKLEUSAOÈKENÓFYHW
8. oNAKTALAYMENPEIRAÎMHNTjXISTADGN¢SYHN
165
9. TOºOXEºREWMNJÉDATOWFjNHSANTERADMLEAKEÃYETOPjNTA
10. mGAYÏWPLEU¾NAÔTEoNSE½D×XjR×SEUMTHR
11. ÔWTIWMpZHTAImDIKEINPONHRÎWESTIN
373. PUT INTO GREEK

1. The water was released and fell into the sea.
2. Say (sg.) what you saw, in order that the whole truth may appear.
3. Seeing him, we rejoiced and seized his hand.
4. My companions were seen, but not I.
5. I was about to eat when you (pl.) appeared afar off on the road.
6. Raise (pl.) the tree, that we may be released and go.
7. Let us hide the food, lest it be seen.
8. We shall remain in the house until you (pl.) appear at the gate.
374. READINGS
1. MKR¸NETE¾NAMKRIYTE (St. Matthew)
2. ¦WS¤MAST¹NNKA¹MLEAPOLLkXEIPjNTADMLEAS¢MATOW
POLLkÎNTAST¹NNS¤MAOÉTVWKA¹9RISTÎWÇMEºWGjRSTE
S¤MA9RISTOÅKA¹GkRNN¹PNEÃMATIMEºWPjNTEWE»WNS¤MA
BAPT¸SYHMENKA¹DS¤MAOÆKSTINNMLOWmLLkPOLLkMLEA
NE½P×POÃWÔTIOÆKE»M¹XE¸ROÆKE»M¹KS¢MATOWOÆDIkTÎDE
OÆKSTINKS¢MATOWNÅNDPOLLkMNMLEANDS¤MAKA¹E»
PjSXEINMLOWSUMPjSXEIPjNTAMLEAE»DDÎJANDXETAIN
MLOWXA¸REISÃNO¼PjNTAMLEA (St. Paul)
3. ZHTVGkRmLHYE¸HNTOÆDE¸WP¢POTEBLjBH (Marcus Aurelius)
BAPT¸ZV,aor. pass. BAPT¸SYHN I baptize

BLjPTV, aor. pass. BLjBHN I harm, I injure
KR¸YHN aor. pass. of KR¸NV
PNEÅMAATOW [n.] spirit; breath
POÃWPODÎW [m.] foot
SUMPjSXV I suffer along with
375. WRITE IN GREEK

1. We ought to respect our father and mother more than anyone else, because they
love us most and labor long for our sake.
2. If one wishes to be (fut.) king to others, he should first learn to be led by justice
and truth.
166
Lesson 51
376. WORD STUDY

CHIROPRACTOR (PRjKTVR worker; a doctor who ‘works with his hands’ to cure
ailments by massaging and manipulating the muscles and spinal column),
SURGEON (by false pronunciation of XEIROURGÎW‘hand-worker’ [cp. RGON], a
doctor who operates to cure bodily defects or injuries), SURGERY, SURGICAL; —
BAPTIZE, BAPTISM, BAPTIST; —PNEUMATIC (‘operating by breath or air’),
PNEUMONIA (PNEÃMVN breather, lung; disease of the lungs); — TRIPOD (TRI
three, a ‘three-legged’ stand), PEW (PÎDION little foot, foot-stool, taken over into
French as peu, and thence into English as name for church seat); — SYMPATHY
(‘suffering or feeling along with’), SYMPATHETIC, SYMPATHIZE—
ANTIPODES (people on the other side of the world, with their ‘feet opposite’ ours)
— PODIATRIST (a doctor who cures feet).
167
Lesson 52
The Aorist Optative, Imperative, Infinitive, Participle Passive.
The Optative of E»M¸
377. ENDINGS
AOR. PASS. OPT.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. EIHN EIMEN LUYE¸HN LUYEºMEN
2nd pers. EIHW EITE LUYE¸HW LUYEºTE
3rd pers. EIH EIEN LUYE¸H LUYEºEN
AOR. PASS. IMPT.

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
2nd pers. HYIHTI HTE LÃYHTI LÃYHTE
Note:
HYI is changed to HTI when the aorist passive stem ends in a rough
consonant — FYor X— as in the case of LÃV<aorist passive stem LUY>
and many other verbs.
AOR. PASS. INF.

HMENAI LUYNAILUYMENAI
AOR. PASS. PTC. (m. f. n. nom.)

EIWEISAEN LUYE¸WLUYEºSALUYN
Note: For the declension of the aorist passive participle, see Section 189.
378. PRESENT OPTATIVE OF E»M¸

Sg. Pl.
1st pers. E½HN EÁMEN
2nd pers. E½HW EÁTE
3rd pers. E½H EÁEN
379. MEMORIZE
mNABA¸NVmNABSOMAImNjBHN I go up, I ascend
KRDION [comp. adv.] more beneficial, better
LILA¸OMAI [pres. syst. only] I long (to do
something) [+ inf.]
168
Lesson 52
380. TRANSLATE
1. E½POTEL¸YOWKEºNOWLUYE¸HKA¹PSOIKTE¸NEIKEPOLLOÃW
2. MGNVSYNTOWOÆDEM¸APOTmGjPH
3. EÁPONFjOWTImPjNEUYENYALjSS×FANNAI
4. KRDIÎNPOÃKENE½HMºNKAKkMPjSXEINNÅNDTLjVMEN¦W
oNDREW
5. XjRHTEÔTIGGÃTERONNÅNE»MNO½K¡METR¡KA¹F¸LOIW
6. E»WoKRHNPTRHNmNjBHSAN¾NAÇPÏPjNTVNÑFYEºEN
7. LUYMENAILILA¸ETAIMLAOÆDjSEIPOIMN
8. E»PEºNnZÎMHNÓFRAMNPIOWFANE¸HNMMEN
9. KASIGNHTÎWMEUSOF¢TERÎWSEUST¸NmLLkOÆGIGN¢SKEIPjNTA
10. E½KESÄTjDEÑFYE¸HWRDVNKA¹TERO¸POUKALkEÁNAIÑÐO¸ATOD
RDOIENAÆTO¸
11. ÓMBR¡AÁCALUYNTIPOLLkmPOLLÃETO
12. MAWLUYNTAWÔDE½DEKA¹D¸VJEN
13. ÑFYEºSAISPEÃDOMENmPÎ¾NAMKA¹GNVSY¤MEN
381. PUT INTO GREEK

1. It would seem better to remain in the house until he comes.
2. The children, having been seen, fled.
3. It is not lawful to reveal everything (pl.) known about the king.
4. If you (pl.) should be seen, quickly go up into a tree and hide.
5. Her soul longs to be released from the evils of this world and to find
(mid.) peace.
6. I brought you (sg.) these gifts, that you might rejoice.
7. They said the stranger’s great cunning was known from the beginning.
8. Never appear (sg.) again in this country, or we shall kill you!
9. It is difficult to conceal from others a plan known to many.
10. If he should die, who would then be king?
382. READINGS
1. RVTHYE¹Wb"RISTOTLHWT¸STIF¸LOWFHM¸ACUXNDÃV
S¢MASINO»KOUSA (Diogenes Laertius)
2. mLHYE¸HPARE¸HSO¹KA¹MO¸PjNTVNXRMA
KjLLISTON (Mimnermus)
3. ¦WDÃSTISVYNTAMEMNSYAIPÎNOU (Euripides)
4. oNYRVPONKTE¸NAWTIWÇPÏKE¸NOUF¸LVNDI¢KETOT¯DKATk
/EºLONPOTAMÏNBA¸NONTILÃKOWPROSRXETAIFOBHYE¹WOÌNmNjBH
P¹DNDREONPARkPOTAMÏNKA¹TKRÃPTETOOÉTVWDKE¸MENOW
RPETÏN½DEPROSERXÎMENONE»WPOTAMÏNoRABjLENAÆTÎNN
T¯DDEJjMENÎWMINFjGEKROKÎDEILOW (Aesop)
169
5. MO¹GkRZ¢EIN9RISTÎWSTIKA¹YNSKEINKRDIONLILA¸OMAID
LUYNAIKA¹SÄN9RIST¯EÁNAI (St. Paul; Z¢EINandYNSKEINhere are
both nouns and subjects of STI.)
b"RISTOTLHW Aristotle [the philosopher]

RPETÎWOÅ [m.] creeping thing, snake
RVTjVaor. pass. RVTYHN I ask
KROKÎDEILOWOU [m.] crocodile
LÃKOWOU [m.] wolf
MIMNSKVpf. mid. MMNHMAI I recall the memory of
/EºLOWOU [m.] Nile
PROSRXOMAI I come near (to)
S¢YHN aor. pass. of S¢ZV
FOBVaor. pass. FOBYHN I frighten
383. WRITE IN GREEK

1. If you (sg.) are known to be a friend of the king, you will no doubt receive
greater glory from the people.
2. All men ought greatly to revere children, for the happiness of a more beautiful
world lies in their hearts and hands.
3. When the sun appears and all my companions are seen, he will quickly flee.
384. WORD STUDY

ARISTOTELIAN (pertaining to the philosophy or followers of Aristotle); —
CROCODILE — MNEMONIC (from the root MNH; helping remember, as a
‘mnemonic rule’, e.g., mTjRAE to tell which third declension nouns are neuter); —
PHOBIA (a permanent dominating fear of something, e.g., a phobia of crossing
bridges), ACROPHOBIA (excessive ‘fear of height’), XENOPHOBIA (a strong
‘dislike of strangers’), CLAUSTROPHOBIA (Latin claustrum, enclosure; a morbid
‘fear of being confined’ in small or tight places), HYDROPHOBIA (a disease, rabies,
due to the bite of a mad animal, resulting in a ‘fear of water’, among other symptoms),
ANGLOPHOBE, GERMANOPHOBE, etc. (a person with a violent dislike of the
British, Germans, etc.).
170
Lesson 53
Review of The Entire Verb
385. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VERB

From your knowledge of the entire verb conjugation, and by aid of Appendix A, you
can now recognize more clearly certain characteristics of the Greek verb that will help
you in remembering the forms. Note in particular that:
a. In the middle, the perfect and pluperfect occur the basic middle endings
(primary and secondary) alone, without the joining vowel found in the other
systems.
b. In both active and middle, the joining (or “thematic”) vowel of the present,
future and second aorist endings is O before M or N and in the optative,
elsewhere E; the first aorist has A, except in the subjunctive and in four forms of
the optative and imperative.
c. Subjunctive endings are alike in all systems, with the thematic vowel
lengthened.
d. S between two vowels drops out. But compare the 2 sg. ind. or impt. of the
perfect m.-p., where the S is retained (LLUSO, for example), with that of the
other middle and m.-p. systems (e.g., LÃEO).
e. The optative always has an iota diphthong.
f. The future and second aorist have present system endings.
g. The aorist passive endings closely parallel those of the third aorist active.
h. Special endings occasionally occur: subj. act. 3 sg. ×SI for × , 2 sg. ×SYA for
×W; ind. or opt. mid. 3 pl. NTAINTO for ATAIATO; mid. subj. 2 sg. × for
HAI; mid. 1 pl. MESYA for MEYA

Give tense, voice, mood, number; where applicable, give also gender and case.
1. GIGN¢SKOIMI 10. MEÍDE
2. RXESYAI 11. PMCEIAW
3. N½DVSI 12. D¸VKEW
4. qNBA¸HW 13. POISAI
5. FjNHYI 14. N¸SPETE
6. MAXEOMNOUW 15. LUYE¸H
7. MLjBOITO 16. DEJA¸MEYA
8. GNVSYNAI 17. KLEUSON
9. KRÃCANTOW 18. LAYMEN
171
19. GEGjASI 30. LEUSOMN×W

20. LYOIEN 31. E»ÑÚOINTO
21. PONSASYAI 32. JAN
22. TLMEN 33. ÓFRAGN¢×W
23. ¾NAA»TSAIMEN 34. KÃYOIO
24. E»SRXESYE 35. ZHTHSjS×
25. BEBHKMENAI 36. LIPEºN
26. ÓFRAS¢SEIE 37. A¼ROI
27. LELÃSYAI 38. TTUKTO
28. ¾NAEÈXHTAI 39. KENSTA¸H
29. MFÃGOITE 40. LUYEISjVN
387. MEMORIZE
mLOMAI —mLEjMHNormLEUjMHN I avoid, I shrink before
YÃRHHW [f.] door
KRjTOWKRATEOW [n.] strength, power
NHÅWNHÎWorNEÎWdat. pl. alsoNHUS¸ [f.] ship
OÌLOWHON whole, entire
388. READINGS
1. FILÎSOFÎWTIWRVTHYE¹WT¸FILÎSOFOIMNP¹YÃRAWPLOUS¸VN
RXONTAIPLOÃSIOIDOÈPOTEP¹YÃRAWFILOSÎFVNFHÔTIO¼
MNGIGN¢SKOUSINTk¬NDONTAIO¼DOÆGIGN¢SKOUSIN
(Diogenes Laertius)
2. nLIEÃWPOTEÑL¸GON»XYÄNLjBEN»XYÄWDO¼FH»DMjLAÑL¸GOW
E»M¸NÅNOÌNLÅSÎNMEME¸ZONADGENÎMENONTÎTEDMEZTEETÏ
GjRSOIPOIONTIPOLLÏNKRDIONSSETAInLIEÄWDmME¸CATO
mLLkG£DNHPI¢TATOWqNE½HNE»PAREÏNmGAYÏNMLAB£N
oDHLONLP¸DADI¢KOIMI (Aesop)
3. YEÏWDPjNTVNMTRONMºNE½H (Plato)
oDHLOWON uncertain, obscure

nLIEÃWOW [m.] fisherman
DOMAI I am in need of [+ gen.]
LP¸WLP¸DOW [f.] hope
RVTjVaor. pass,RVTYHN I ask
»XYÃWÃOW [m.] fish
PLOÃSIOWHON rich, wealthy
FILÎSOFOWOU [m.] philosopher
172
Lesson 53
389. WRITE IN GREEK

1. A great fire quickly destroyed the entire ship, but some of the men, fleeing
through a small door, threw themselves into the sea and were saved (SVY).
2. It would be most base and shameful to avoid pain but not evil deeds.
3. They hid the ships where they would not be seen, because no longer having
strength or plan they feared to fight.
390. WORD STUDY

THYROID (a ‘door-shaped’ gland in the larynx, affecting some of the processes of
growth); — the suffix -CRAT (KRAT) in ARISTOCRAT, PLUTOCRAT,
BUREAUCRAT, DEMOCRAT, etc. (= “power or rule of the best, the rich,” etc.).
173
Lesson 54
Use of The Augment. Further Review of The Verb
391. THE AUGMENT

This is a special sign, used by Homer sometimes and by later Greek writers regularly,
to point out more sharply the past tenses of the indicative. Therefore, in reading
Homer you will often find the imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect indicative with the
augment. The augment (‘increase’) has two forms, the syllabic and the temporal:
a. Syllabic. Stems beginning with a consonant: prefix , thus adding a syllable.
For example:
unaugmented: augmented:
LÃON LUON
LUSjMHN LUSjMHN
LELÃKETE LELÃKATE
Note:
initial R often doubles after an augment (e.g., Ebecomes RREE).
b. Temporal. Stems beginning with a short vowel or diphthong which is not the
reduplication: lengthen the initial vowel, thus increasing the time required to
pronounce the first syllable. When the first vowel of an iota-diphthong is
lengthened, iota is subscribed. Here are some forms of the verbs oGVO»KV
and ¼KjNV:
unaugmented: augmented: unaugmented: augmented:
oGONTO GONTO O½KEEW ²KEEW
oGAGON GAGON O½KHSA ²KHSA
oXYHN XYHN(aor. pass.) O»KKEMEN °KKEMEN(plpf.)
¾KANE ¾KANE(spelling is unchanged, but iota is now long)
Note:
Eis usually lengthened to H; but it becomes EI in a few words, of which you
have met or will meet the following: XVjVPOMAI (I follow), LKV
(I drag), RPV or RPÃZV (I creep). Note also two 2 aorists: EÁDON
(unaugmented½DON) andEÂLON(unaugmented LON from A¼RV).
c. Stems beginning with a long vowel or with a vowel reduplication (recall Section
321) need no augment:
DÎMHN
GNVSMAI(pf. m.-p.. of GIGN¢SKV)
GNVSTO(plpf. m.-p. of GIGN¢SKV)
174
Lesson 54
392. DRILL
Give the augmented form of the following; then identify by tense, voice, mood,
person, and number:
1. LjBEN 11. ÓFYH
2. GN¢SYHTE 12. ¾KANE
3. O»KSAMEN 13. oGAGEW
4. GNVSO 14. TTUKTO
5. LKOMEN 15. LjYOMEN
6. BEBKEA 16. MAXSSATO
7. FjNHSAN 17. YELON
8. A¾REON 18. PÎMHN
9. XETE 19. KLEUSAW
10. LLUSO 20. mPÎLETO
393. TRANSLATE
1. E»WNAmNBHSANKA¹EÂLONoNAKTA
2. ÔTEFjNHLIOW§FYHMENJOÌNLYOMENDMAXÎMEYA
3. MjLADYELÎNMIN»DEINÒDBEBKEI
4. T¸TA¸ROUWMOÄWmP¢LESAW
5. DIkNUKTÏWnPjSHWKEINTOPARkPOTAM¯¾NANAWSEULjBOIEN
PARERXOMNAW
6. DÃVPAºDEWL¸YOUWE»WÉDVRBALLON
394. PUT INTO GREEK (using augment wherever allowed)

1. They requested us to come quickly and save them.
2. He kept avoiding (= impf.) us, that we might not ask what evil he had done. (pf.
= PEPO¸HKA; use plpf.)
3. They dwelt in a big house away from the road.
4. We found her roaming back and forth among the children.
5. Why did you (pl.) not allow them to say anything?
6. You (sg.) rejoiced, I suppose, (on) learning he still knows you and your friends.
395. VOCABULARY REVIEW

As the teacher directs.
396. READINGS
1. 4VKRjTHWEÈXETOPRÏWYEOÄWOÆXRUSÏNPARXEINO¼OÆD
oRGURONmLLkMOÅNONEÈXETOmGAYkPARXEINPE¹NÎHSEYEOÄW
oRISTAGN¤NAIrTINjTSTINmGAYj (Xenophon; the Tis from
TIWSee Section 212.)
2. FILVMENYEÎNPE¹AÆTÏWPR¤TOWF¸LHSENMAW (St. John)
175
3. NKALÏNX×TIWS¤MAKA¹CUXNKAKNKALNXEINAKA¹
KUBERNHTRAKAKÎN (Menander)
4. KA¹EÁDEN(OLIkDTÏN%AUE¹DKA¹T¸MASENAÆTÎNÔTIAÆTÏWN
PAIDjRIONKA¹AÆTÏWPURRjKHWMETkKjLLEOWÑFYALM¤N (i Kings
XVII 42, from the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible)
5. NmRXN-ÎGOWKA¹-ÎGOWNSÄNYE¯KA¹N-ÎGOWYEÎWN
AÆT¯ZVNKA¹ZVNFjOWmNYR¢PVN—FjOWmLHYWÔ
FVT¸ZEIPjNTAoNYRVPONKA¹-ÎGOWSjRJGNETOKA¹²KHSEN
METkMºNKA¹TOÅDÎJANE½DOMENPLRHWXjRITOWKA¹
mLHYE¸HW (St. John)
oRGUROWOU [m.] silver

mTIMjZVmTIMjSVmT¸MASA I esteem lightly
AÆTÎW here = he (i.e., David)
(OLIjD [m. indecl.] Goliath, a Philistine giant whom David
will kill [also spelled (OLIjY]
%AUE¸D [m. indecl.]David, a future king of Israel and Judah,
here still a youth
KjLLOWKjLLEOW [n.] beauty
KUBERNHTRROW [m.] steersman, pilot
-ÎGOWOU [m.] the Word, i.e., the Son of God as perfect expression
of the Father.
METj [prep. + gen.] with
ÔTI [conj.] because
PAIDjRIONOU [n.] boy, youth
PLRHWEW full of
PURRjKHWEW ruddy
FVT¸ZV I enlighten
397. WRITE IN GREEK

1. If you (sg.) threw fire into this ship, you would destroy both it and the others,
and perhaps save all your companions from death.
2. Whoever finds a worthy friend finds love and strength and the noblest
happiness.
3. I hope they will come quickly, for little time yet remains.
398. WORD STUDY

ARGYROL (trade name for a brown oily silver-protein compound used as an
antiseptic); — GOVERN (‘to steer the ship of state’, to control and guide-the English
word coming from Greek by way of the Latin imitation guberno), GOVERNOR,
GOVERNMENT; GUBERNATORIAL (pertaining to a governor or ‘steersman of
the state’; cp. Latin gubernator, e.g., ‘a gubernatorial election’).
176
Lesson 55
Rules of Vowel-Contraction.
Further Review of The Verb
399. CONTRACTION OF VOWELS

When a word’s stem ends in a vowel, Homer occasionally (later Greek regularly)
contracts or fuses this stem-vowel and the vowel of the ending into a single long vowel
or diphthong. Such contractions follow these simple rules:
1. A + E - sound = long A (if iota occurs, it is subscribed). Thus, AE = A (long),
AEI = (long) (E.g., ÒRjESYAI = ÒRlSYAI, ÒRjEIW = ÒRwW ).
2. A + O - sound = V. Thus, AO, AV, AOU = V (E.g., ÒRjOMEN = ÒR¤MEN,
ÒRjV = ÒR¤, ÒRjOUSA = ÒR¤SA ).
3. E + E or EI = EI. Thus, EE, EEI = EI (E.g., F¸LEE = F¸LEI, FILEIW = FILEºW).
4. E+ O or OU = EU or OU . Thus, EO,EOU = EU or OU (E.g., F¸LEON =
F¸LEUNor F¸LOUN, FILOUSA = FILEÅSA or FILOÅSA).
5. O+ E or O = OU. Thus, OE, OO = OU (E.g., GOUNÎESYAI = GOUNOÅSYAI,
GOUNÎOMAI = GOUNOÅMAI [I supplicate]).
400. DRILL
a. Give the contracted form of the following:
1. jOUSI 6. DOKEIW
2. A¼RETE 7. GOUNOÎMHN
3. PEIRjEIW 8. ÒRjESYAI
4. BALETAI 9. ZHTEIN
5. FO¸TAON
b. What would be the uncontracted form of these words?
1. mLEºSYE 6. KTENEºW
2. GAMEÅSI 7. mDIKEº
3. E½VN 8. ÒR¤SI
4. GOUNOÅTAI 9. FRONEºTE
5. FOIT¤NTEW
401. TRANSLATE
1. ²KEIJEºNOWNO½K¡MEGjL¡PARkYALjSS×
2. E½VNMINLYEºNBOÃLETOGjR
177
3. PR¤TONMNMARTEWT¸DOÆPjLINPEIRwWÓFRAPOTÑRY¤W
mME¸CHAI
4. ÓLBONPOYEÅNTEWYEÏNPOYEÅSINÒGkRmLHYWmNYR¢PVNÓLBOW
5. T¸POIEºWRXEUPRÎWME¾NAÒR¤AÆTÎW
6. FO¸TAPARkÒDÏNDIkMATOWPANTÎW
402. PUT INTO GREEK (using contracted forms where allowed)

1. I kept avoiding them, fearing either to fight or flee.
2. Bring (sg.) us the fruit, in order that we may see it.
3. Then will peace appear upon the earth, when all men do what is right and just.
4. He tries to seem wise, but nobody believes him.
5. We left her roaming back and forth beside the ships, seeking her two sons.
6. The rain was swiftly flowing down from the higher rocks.

404. READINGS
1. FA¸NETA¸MOIKEºNOW½SOWYEOºSIN
MMENAImNRÖWNANT¸OWTOI
¼ZjNEIKA¹PLHS¸ONDÄFVNEÃSHWÇPAKOÃEI (Sappho, to a young bride)
2. OÉTVWGkRoRISTAFANEº9RISTÏWÏNKRjTOWÔTEqNMLALÃKVN
PERIGNHTAIKA¹NMS¡LÃKVNÎNTAKA¹POLLkWLAMBjNONTA
¥TEILjWMMOÅNONMmPÎLHTAImLLkKA¹KE¸NOUWmGjG×E»W
mRE¸ONAB¸ON (St. Chrysostom, commenting on Christ’s words to the Apostles,
“Behold, I send you as sheep among wolves.”)
3. KÎSMOWPARRXETAIÔWTIWDPOIrYEÏWYLEIMNEIE»WA»E¸
(St. John)
4. FHb*HSOÅW5ÎDEST¹NÖYEÏWYLEI—PjNTAoNYRVPONÖWÒRw
U¼ÏNYEOÅKA¹PISTEÃ×AÆT¯XEINZVNmYANjTHNKA¹GER¤MINN
SXjT¡MATI (St. John)
5. ÒMO¸¡DÔMOIONA»E¹F¸LONST¸NmNROÌNmGAYÎWTEKA¹D¸KAIOW
SETAIYE¯F¸LOWÔMOIOWGjR (Plato)
GE¸RVGERVGEIRA I rouse from sleep (i.e., from death)

NANT¸OWHON next to
SXATOWHON last
¼ZjNV I sit
½SOWHON equal to
LÃKOWOU [m.] wolf
PERIG¸GNOMAI I get the better of, I overcome
ÇPAKOÃV I listen to [+ gen.]
FVNV I speak [cp. FVN ]
¥TEILW [f.] wound
178
Lesson 55
405. WRITE IN GREEK (using augmented forms)

1. We went up and stood on the very rock where the temple of Apollo had been
built, some stones of which still lay upon the ground.
2. If he had not died young, he no doubt would have been a noble and strong king
and had much wealth.
406. WORD STUDY

ISOMERES (MROW part; in chemistry, compounds having the same or equal parts—
i.e., basic elements— but different properties and characteristics).
179
Lesson 56
The Iterative Forms of the Verb.
The Position of Prepositions
407. ITERATIVE VERB-FORMS

Twenty-four times in your reading of Homer in this course you will find him using
special verb-forms to emphasize customary or repeated action. These iterative forms
are simply an expanded form of the imperfect or aorist, made by inserting ESK or
ASK between the regular stem of the imperfect or aorist indicative, active or
middle, and the regular imperfect or second aorist endings (even with first aorist
stems). ASK is used mostly with first aorist or A stems. Iterative forms practically
never take the augment. Thus:
XV imperfect: XON iterative: XESKON
KALV imperfect: KjLEON iterative:KALESKON
FEÃGV 2 aorist: FÃGON iterative: FÃGESKON
¥YV 1 aorist: «SA iterative:§SASKON
408. POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS

a. The ordinary position for a preposition is immediately before its noun or
pronoun or their modifier, if this precedes. Thus: PRÎWMESÄNPOLLOºW
TA¸ROIW
b. Sometimes, for poetic purposes, Homer places a preposition after its object (e.g.,
XEIRÏWoPO. In such cases, as this example shows, the pitch-mark on the
preposition shifts back from the last to the first syllable (KATj becoming KjTA,
etc.); this is called anastrophe. Sometimes, Homer places a preposition between
a modifier and its noun or pronoun, e.g., POLLOºWSÄNTA¸ROIW If you are on
the alert for this arrangement and consider the phrase as a whole, it will cause no
difficulty.
c. A preposition may be prefixed directly to a verb, thus forming a compound
verb, whose meaning is generally obvious as a combination of the meaning of
the verb and preposition alone. E.g., E»SRXOMAI I go in, I enter, PjREIMI
I am alongside, I am present. In such compounds, the preposition really
functions as an adverb, since it directly modifies the verb. If the compound
governs an object, this is in the same case that the preposition would take if
alone, e.g., NHÏWPIBA¸NOMEN (= P¹NHÏWBA¸NOMEN). Note that
prepositional prefixes drop their final vowel if the verb begins with a vowel or
has the augment, e.g.,PjREIMIPARj + E»M¸,PBHP¸ + BH. For more
on this, see the section on elision in Lesson 58.
180
Lesson 56
d. When the preposition is used strictly as a detached adverb (recall Section 362),
other words may come between it and the word with which it goes in sense, e.g.,
mMF¸APjNTEWSTHSAN (Everybody, therefore, stood around.) Such
constructions are often the equivalent of a compound verb (mMFSTHSAN),
between whose parts certain closely connected words have been slipped in.
409. TRANSLATE
1. PTR×PIÇCHLKE¸MENOINAW½DESKONPARERXOMNAW
2. DENDRVNoPOPESONKARPO¹LUYNTEW
3. YÃRHWDILYENL¸YOWKA¹TIMSS¡NO½K¡KEºTAI
4. TA¸RVNKjSTOUWPROSEILHLOUYÎTAWÇPÎTIDNDREONKRÃPTASKE
5. FjEAPANTOºAmPjNEUYENOÆRAN¯FjNESKE
6. MTHRPAºDAWOÆKASKELILAIOMNOUWPERÉDVRE»SBNAI
7. OÈSOIE»PSKOMENKAKÎNMINMMEN
8. T¸FÃGESKEWOÆDME¸NAWMjXEO
410. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Go down (sg.) into the ship and find me some food.
2. Socrates repeatedly said the same (thing): “Always live justly.”
3. All of them perished in the middle of the sea.
4. Why did you (pl.) (repeatedly) not allow us to speak?
5. Stand around (pl.) the house, so that no one may go out.
6. The women, fearing, kept holding each other by the hand(s).
7. We kept taking gold out of the river and bringing it to my father.
8. He always did the most difficult things himself.

412. READINGS
1. AÆTkRb"XILLEÄWNHUS¹PARMENOWTAXE¸×WMNIENOÈTEPOTMETk
TA¸ROUWPVLSKETOOÈTEPOTE»WPÎLEMONmLLkmPjNEUYEMENE
PÎLEMONDPOYESKE (Homer)
2. MPOTEE»PPOWMGAGIGN¢SKEIGkROÆDE¹WmNYR¢PVNÔTINÄJ
KA¹MARmNDR¹TELEº (Theognis; MGA here is idiomatic, = “proud,
boastful”; cp. our similar idiom, to “talk big”)
3. ÑL¸GOISIPÎNOIWMEGjLATINkP¤WoNTIWLOI (Euripides)
4. FILSEIWYEÎNSEUNOÈL¡KR¸SEUKA¹NOÈL×CUXSEUKA¹NOÈL¡
NÎ¡SEUDEST¹MEGjLHKA¹PR¢THNTOLDEUTRHDÒMO¸HST¸N
FILSEIWPLHS¸ONSEU¦WSAÆTÎN (St. Matthew)
5. %IÎWTOINÎOWMGAWB¸OIOmNDR¤NOÂF¸LVNKUBERNHTRSTIN
(Pindar)
181
b"XILLEÃWOW Achilles, central figure of the Iliad, who withdraws his forces from
the coalition against Troy after an argument with Agamemnon
KUBERNHTRROW [m.] pilot
MHN¸V I rage, I am furious
PjRHMAI I sit alongside
PVLOMAI I go
413. WRITE IN GREEK (use contracted forms)

1. If one has a beautiful body but a wicked soul, his (= to him) is a good ship but a
bad pilot. (cp. Sections 18.c and 412.5)
2. Do not allow (pl.) your country to perish; fight! try at least to save it, in peace as
also in war.
3. Do you (sg.) see them toiling around the ship? They are trying to complete the
work this very night.
414. WORD STUDY

MANIA (fury, insanity; a strong desire or ‘craze’ for, e.g., ‘he has a mania for flying’),
MANIAC (a mentally deranged person subject to fits of fury and madness),
CLEPTOMANIAC (KLPTVI steal; a crazed thief, one with a furious and insatiable
desire for stealing).
182
Lesson 57
The Vocative Case of All Declensions. Review of Nouns and Adjectives
415. THE VOCATIVE CASE: MEANING AND RULES FOR FORMATION

a. The vocative case is the case of direct address. In other words, the person or
thing designated by the noun in the vocative case is being spoken to. In the
following sentences, the italicized noun(s) would be put into the vocative case
in Greek:
Hugh, it is time you started paying attention.
That is the way the world works, my dears.
O Summertime, how I miss you and look forward to your return!
As you would expect, quite often the vocative case occurs with a verb in the
imperative mood, and with 2nd person verbs in any mood:
Stop your squirming, Tucker!
You are capable, Thomas, of cleaning the cage yourself.
b. The vocative is usually spelled the same as the nominative; it is always the same
in the plural and in all neuters.
c. The vocative singular differs from the nominative in the following instances:
(1). Second declension masculine OW takes vocative in E (e.g.,F¸LE, mGAY).
(2). Third declension in EUW and IW drop the W ( e . g . , ;EÅ, ‘b0DUSSEÅ
PÎLI city).
(3). A long vowel in the nominative of the third declension is shortened in the
vocative unless it stays long in the genitive and therefore in all other cases
(e.g., PjTER, b"GAMMNON but KRb"PÎLLVN).
d. Irregular vocatives: the vocatives of YEÎW and GUN are YEÎWand GÅNAI.
Notes:
1. The interjection «(English O! in direct address) is not needed before the
vocative, but it is often used, especially if the vocative is spelled the same as
the nominative (e.g., «TAºROI).
2. Greek seldom expresses by a separate word the “my” before a vocative
which is very common in English, but the “my” should often be added
when translating a Greek vocative into English, if the context calls for it
(e.g., SPEÃDETEF¸LOI = “Hurry, my friends!”).
416. REVIEW OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

Recall forms, distinctions, and gender-rules of the three declensions by the aid of
Lessons 9, 11, 13, 30.
183

418. TRANSLATE
1. NALjBETETAºROIKA¸SFEAWDI¢KETE
2. MISEÅMNSEKAKÔTIFÃGEWOÆDE¾NEKAPATR¸DOWMAXSAO
3. D¸KAIOWMºNE½HW«oNAJ
4. DÎJASOIE½HmGAYDmGjPHPARkmNYR¢PVNnPjNTVN
5. T¸XEIW«PA¸SNXEIR¸
6. YEÏNOÈPOTTILSETENPIOIKAKkoRAMZETE
7. MMEBjLLEPjTERPONHRjPERRJANTA
8. MÑÚEOKRPjNTATOIGENSESYAITkPOYEIW
9. E»MKEÃYHSYEJEºNOIÓCONTAIÇMAWDA¼RSOUSIN
10. E»PMOI,ÃKLVCT¸TA¸ROUWMOÄWKTEINAW
419. PUT INTO GREEK

1. Fear not, stranger, no one will do you wrong.
2. We should do to others that which we would desire them to do to us.
3. Always be (PEL) a man, my son, and a true friend to your friends.
4. Lady, give this to your son as a gift from the king.
5. Let us endure even this patiently, men, that our plan may be more swiftly
fulfilled.
6. May I be sent, O king! for I alone know the way.
7. There is no one of mortals who will not have many troubles while he lives.
8. Speak, my friend; for truth, even though not always being pleasant, is a
great good.
9. Their voice was carried to the very door of the temple: “Zeus and Apollo,
save us!”
10. My brave men, let us remain here and endure until we are commanded to go.
420. READINGS
1. ;EÅF¸LEpZOMA¸SESÄGkRPjNTESSINmNjSSEIWDÎJANAÆTÏWXVN
KA¹KRjTOWMGAmNYR¢PVNDEÌGIGN¢SKEIWNÎONKA¹YUMÏN
KjSTOUSEÅDKRjTOWST¹MGISTON«oNAJ (Theognis)
2. KASTOWMVN«oNDREWOÆX¯PATRIKA¹MHTRIMOÅNON
GGAENmLLkKA¹PATR¸DI (Demosthenes)
3. G¢E»MIÒDÏWKA¹mLHYE¸HKA¹ZVOÆDE¹WRXETAIPRÏWPATRAE»M
DIkMEºO (St. John)
4. OÆDNMO¹DÃSTINE»MKA¹mLHYW (Plato)
5. ÔWKEYEOºWPE¸YHTAIMjLAKLÃOUSINAÆTOÅ (Homer)
184
Lesson 57
mNjSSV I rule over [+ dat.; cp. oNAJ]

KLÃV I hear, I give ear to the prayers of [+ gen.]
421. WRITE IN GREEK

1. He kept saying no one was present, but we, knowing it was not true, sought the
strangers throughout the house until we found and seized them.
2. Two rivers were (constantly) flowing into the sea, mingling their waters with it
and with one another.
3. You showed yourself to be a man of great manliness, because you kept trying
until you accomplished this most difficult work.
185
Lesson 58
Special Case-Endings. Elision
422. SPECIAL CASE-ENDINGS

Homer uses at times a few special endings (remnants of old cases) to give nouns,
adjectives, and pronouns a special adverbial force:
a. DE may be added to the accusative to denote place to which. Thus,
O»KÎNDE homeward. When it is added to the plural accusative, DEblends with
the preceding a into ZE. Thus, YURjSDE becomes YURjZE to the doors.
b. YEN may be added to a noun or pronoun to denote place from which, source, or
separation. E.g., O½KOYEN from the house, %IÎYEN from Zeus.
c. FIN may be added to denote various functions of genitive and dative— by, at,
from, with, on or in. Context will make clear which force is meant in a given
passage. Thus, B¸HFI by force, YÃRHFIN at the door.
Note:
To find the form of the word to which YEN or FINshould be added,
simply drop the final W or U of the nominative or genitive. Homer uses these
endings only with a certain few words.
423. ELISION
a. Ordinarily, for easier pronunciation, a short final vowel (except U), and
sometimes final AI or OI, drop out if the following word begins with a vowel
or diphthong. This is called elision (“driving out”), and is indicated by an
apostrophe (’) in the place of the omitted syllable. E.g., mP
mRXW for mPÏ
mRXW
b. Elision does not occur in the dative plural of the third declension, in PER¸PRÎ
ÔTIT¸ and very seldom in monosyllables unless they end in E. (ÔT
always
= ÔTE, never ÔTI).
c. Forms taking movable N (Section 90) before a vowel take it instead of eliding;
however, ST¸ may do either.
d. Elision also occurs between the parts of compound words, e.g., PjREIMI
PjREIMIPBHPBHSee Section 408c.
e. When elision brings PT or K directly before a rough breathing at the
beginning of the following word, these three consonants change into their
corresponding ‘rough’ or aspirated forms— FYX. Thus, KATk
ÒDÎN becomes KAY
ÒDÎN, while mPÎ + A¼RV becomes mFAIRV
mFAIRV Note that the rough breathing is not then written over the second
part of the compound word, since its syllable is no longer first.
186
Lesson 58
424. TRANSLATE
1. L¸YONTÎNDEMGANOÆRANÎYENPOTPESEºNÑÚSANY
pPANTEW
2. AÁC
mP
ÑFYALM¤NFRETONHÅWÇF
ÉDATOWPOTAMOºOTAXÄ
ONTOW
3. T¸ÇP
MEºOKAKÎNPOTEPjYETEoLLOTIÖOÆXRF¸LONRDEIN
4. PÎLEMÎND
BEBKESANPjNTEWOÆD
EÂWTIPARN
5. oNEMOWDNDREAPOLL
E»WGAºANKRATERFIBjLEB¸HFI
6. KSYENTÎDED¤RONPARjTEUoLLOU
7. YÃRHF¸ASTTEÓFR
qNJLY×TIWD
ÇMºNTIPÎR×
8. BOÃLOM
G¢GEMENMENO¼DFUGEºNLILA¸ONTAI
9. O»KÎNDEBVMENTAºROIOÆDNGkRTDEPOIEºNDUNATO¹O¸KAMEN
10. ÔT
LYEWTIPOUEÍDONOÈGEFVNNSEUPUYÎMHN
425. PUT INTO GREEK (eliding where proper)

1. According to others, this road is both longer and more difficult.
2. The ships lay upon the water very near one another.
3. The good, though having died (aor. ptc.), will never die, but will always live in
the minds of mortals.
4. Night came swiftly down from the sky.
5. He seems to be a brave and noble companion for you.
6. If you (sg.) had stood at the door, as I ordered, they would not easily have fled
from the house.
7. If you have faith in me, he said, you will all be very happy.
8. Do you (pl.) see them going away? Or do they still await us?
9. If you (sg.) do not find him, come home quickly.
10. From what place have you come, men? Speak!
426. READINGS
1. NN
MMENAI.OÃSAWLGOUSITINW¦WNHP¸VW½DEKA¹4APF£
-ESBÎYENST¹DEKjTH (Plato)
2. «F¸LOIÔGEKTE¸NEIMEDÎL¡OÆDB¸HFIN (Homer; the giant
Polyphemus speaking.)
3. YEÎYEND
OÆKST
mLASYAI (Homer; STI + an infinitive often = “it is
possible,” as here; mLOMAI= “evade, hide”)
4. ;EÅMEGjLAImRETA¹YNHTOºWRXONT
KSYEN (Pindar)
5. EÂWO»VNÏWoRISTOW— mMÃNESYAIPER¹PATR¸DOW (Homer: Hector
refuses to withdraw from the battle despite his brother’s worry.)
6. OÆKKXRHMjTVNmRETG¸GNETAImLL
JmRETWXRMATAKA¹oLL

mGAYkPjNT
mNYR¢POISIN (Plato)
187
7. «JEºN
mGGLLEIN-AKEDAIMON¸OIWÔTITDE
KE¸MEYATOºWKE¸NVNMASIPEIYÎMENOI
(Simonides’ world-famous inscription over the grave of the Spartans
who died to a man in the heroic stand at Thermopylae.)
mGGLLV I announce, I report

mMÃNOMAI I serve as protection, I am a defense
NNA nine
-AKEDAIMÎNIOWOU Lacedemonian, Spartan
-SBOWOU Lesbos [a large and beautiful island in the Aegean sea, near Asia Minor]
O»VNÎWOÅ [m.] omen, premonition; a large bird of omen
MAATOW [n.] word; command
4APF¢ Sappho [the poetess from Lesbos]
427. WRITE IN GREEK

1. If I should become king, O companions, I would give each of you much gold
and whatever else you might desire.
2. Tell me the truth, son! Why did you strike your brother?
3. Let us pray our sons may be (fut. inf.) very brave and very just; for there is great
necessity of men living in this way.
428. WORD STUDY

ANGEL (‘messenger’ of God, announcing His will to men), ANGELIC; ANGELA;
ANGELUS (the thrice-daily prayer to the Blessed Virgin, beginning in Latin with the
words “Angelus Domini…,” the former a borrowing from Greek), ARCHANGEL
(‘ruling-angel’, an angel of higher nature and rank), EVANGEL (EÆAGGLION the
‘good news’ of Christ’s coming, the Gospel), EVANGELIST (one who writes or
preaches the Gospel, a missionary), EVANGELICAL (pertaining to the Gospels or to
early Christianity); — SAPPHIC (pertaining to Sappho, as ‘the Sapphic meter’, a
special poetic rhythmic pattern, exemplified by her poem in Section 404).
188
Lesson 59
General Review of First Unit
429. TOPICS COVERED

In the first thirty lessons, the most important principles studied were the following,
which should receive special emphasis in your review, particularly those which you
individually feel less confident of having mastered:
1. Pronunciation and stress of Greek words.
2. Syllable-division.
3. The three declensions.
4. Rules of gender.
5. Types and stems of adjectives and participles.
6. The present system of the verb, all tenses, moods, and voices.
7. The future system entire.
8. All forms of E»M¸ except the future and optative.
9. ÒTÎ and its uses.
10. Relative, intensive, demonstrative pronouns.
11. Significance of the cases.
12. Meaning of the moods and tenses.
13. Syntax rules: statements of fact, contrary-to-fact conditions, exhortations,
wishes, purpose constructions, commands, uses of the infinitive, uses of the
participle, relative clauses.
14. Vocabulary words.
15. Numerous English derivatives.
430. QUESTIONNAIRE
Use these leading questions to guide your review and to focus it on key points.
Be prepared to answer all:
1. What are the rules for syllable division in Greek words?
2. When is a syllable long in Greek? When short?
3. What are the basic meanings of the genitive case? The dative?
4. State the main uses of the accusative.
5. Where do first declension nouns in A differ in ending from those in H?
6. Where are second declension neuters different in form from masculines?
7. What is to be noted about neuters in their accusative endings? In the verb of
which they are subject?
189
8. With what declension of the masculine and neuter are feminine adjectives and
participles in A used? Those in H?
9. What is special about the endings of pronouns which follow the first and second
declension?
10. How can you tell grammatically when AÆTÎWÎ, and KEºNOWHOare
adjectives, not pronouns?
11. What are the different meanings of ÒTÎ, and how is it used differently to
indicate which meaning is to be taken?
12. Give the meaning and uses of ÔDEDETÎDE.
13. How does the middle voice differ in force from the others? When does it have
active force?
14. Name the secondary tenses; the primary.
15. When do the tenses indicate time of action? When kind of action?
16. What is the general significance of the aorist stem? The perfect?
17. Which stems of the verb are not used in the middle?
18. In what moods is there no future?
19. State two regular features of subjunctive endings.
20. How does Greek express wishes? Exhortations? Purpose?
21. Explain the relation between the tense of the main (introducing) verb and that
of the infinitive in indirect statement.
22. What is the general distinction in use between OÆ and M?
23. How do you recognize that a verb is deponent?
24. Give two ways of expressing command in Greek.
25. What is a thematic vowel?
26. What is characteristic of all optative endings?
27. What is the rule for gender of third declension nouns?
28. When does the accusative singular of the third declension end in N? in UN?
29. What is the simplest way of predicting the dative plural form of third declension
words whose stem ends in a mute?
30. How can you readily tell whether a noun whose nominative singular ends in OW
is of the second or third declension?
31. How do you determine the stem of a third declension adjective or participle?
190
Lesson 59
431. IDENTIFY AND GIVE THE MEANING

1. L¸YOISI 21. mNXOIO
2. XALEPjW 22. SYA
3. EN 23. PMPE
4. mRXjVN 24. B¸HN
5. PEUYO¸MHN 25. DI¢KESYAI
6. PLONTO 26. DE¸H
7. SYLW 27. SS¸
8. PUR¸ 28. mRETjW
9. FjEA 29. LAMBjNOUSI
10. ST 30. ¾NA
11. PTERÎESSAI 31. MHDNA
12. RGOIO 32. LGETE
13. PRÎFRONA 33. ÎNTAW
14. RX¢MEYA 34. PESSI
15. FÃSIN 35. mME¸BETO
16. MMENAI 36. ÒRjOIMI
17. PRjGMASI 37. PTRHW
18. MAXHSÎMENOI 38. MEN
19. NnMARTjN× 39. mNDRjSI
20. SYIÎNTESSI 40. PATR¸DA
191
Lesson 60
General Review of Second Unit
432. SUBJECTS FOR REVIEW

In Lessons 31-58, the main items studied were:
1. The pronouns—indefinite, interrogative, personal.
2. The three aorist systems.
3. Perfect, perfect middle, and aorist passive forms.
4. Further syntax rules: present general, future more vivid, and future less vivid
(should-would) conditions, potential constructions, and indirect question.
5. Future and optative of E»M¸.
6. Reduplication and augment.
7. Contraction and elision.
8. Iterative verb forms.
9. Vocative, special case endings.
10. Comparison of adjectives.
11. Formation and comparison of adverbs.
12. Use and position of prepositions.
13. Vocabulary words.
433. POINTS TO BE CLEAR ON

1. How can you tell apart parallel forms of the interrogative and indefinite pronouns?
2. How does a pitch-mark affect the meaning of a third personal pronoun form?
3. What determines whether an aorist is of the first, second, or third aorist type?
4. What is notable about 2nd aorist endings? About first aorist?
5. In what constructions isoNor KENwith the subjunctive used?
6. How is a vague future (future less vivid) supposition expressed?
7. What is the difference in thought between a more vivid and a less vivid future
supposition?
8. What type of thought does the potential optative express?
9. Which consonants are known as ‘mutes’? Which are called ‘liquids’?
10. Give the rule and an example for each of the three types of reduplication.
11. Give examples illustrating the regular changes undergone by a final consonant
of the perfect middle stem when the ending is added.
12. What are the rules for forming the comparative and superlative of adjectives?
13. How are comparative adjectives declined?
14. What is the ordinary way of forming an adverb from an adjective?
192
Lesson 60
15. How are adjectives and prepositions used as adverbs?

16. How do you form the comparative of an adverb? Superlative?
17. In what blocks of the Map of the Verb (Lesson 16) may the augment be used?
18. When is epsilon added for the augment? When is no augment needed?
19. Give examples illustrating the various types of contraction.
20. How are iterative forms constructed? What is their meaning?
21. What are the vocative endings, if different from the nominative?
22. What force do the three special case endings give to a word to which they
are added?
23. In what instances may elision occur?
434. DISTINGUISH between the various forms spelled alike for which each of the following might
stand (the number in parentheses indicates possibilities). If no pitch-mark is here given, it
would be different in the various forms:
1. XRHSTj(2) 7. TELEºTAI(4)
2. TjXISTA(3) 8. TI(6)
3. POISV(2) 9. LGOUSI(3)
4. FRE(2) 10. BjLLETE(3)
5. T¡ (6) 11. TINA(8)
6. PMPESYE(6) 12. «(2)

1. TTUKTO 21. POYEÅMEN
2. SF¸N 22. JON
3. POISAI 23. MIN
4. PO¸EI 24. BjL
5. mRE¸ONI 25. jSKOMEN

6. TEU 26. KAKVTROUW
7. FANNAI 27. GEGjASI
8. E»PSKEW 28. TVN
9. M 29. wW
10. ÒR¤SAI 30. YEÎYEN
11. mLHYESTjTHW 31. PONEºTAI
12. mPOL¢LEI 32. ÔNTINA
13. STHW 33. KEºSYE
14. YjNATÎNDE 34. PAYÎNTOW
15. ÇMEºW 35.
16. BEBKAMEN 36. §FYHN
17. LAYEN 37. B¸HFI
18. ÔTEU 38. PEIRlTE
19. LEÃSONT
39. MAXSAO
20. PONHR¤W 40. TOISI
193
Honor Work
Optional Supplemental Readings
1. MEºWDXRMAYE¤NE»MEN (Plato)
2. OÆDE¹WmNYR¢PVNOÈT
SSETAIOÈTEGGAEÔWTIWPlSINnD£N
RXETAIE»WYjNATONOÆDGkRÔWYNHTOºSINKA¹mYANjTOISIN
mNjSSEI;EÃWYNHTOºWPlSINnNDjNEI (Theognis)
nNDjNVnDSVtDON I am pleasing to; mNjSSV I am king over,
I rule over (+ dat.)
3. LGEIYEÎW¼ERO¹SESYEÔTI¼ERÎWE»MI (St. Peter)

4. PjNTAXVREºKA¹OÆDNMNEI (Heraclitus)
XVRV I pass on
5. OÆDE¹WPOI¤NPONHRkLANYjNEIYEÎN (Menander)
6. NPIOWÔWMNMÏNNÎONFULjSSEIkDPRjGMATAOÆNOEI
(Theognis)
FULjSSVFULjJVFÃLAJA I keep watch over, I observe
7. OÉTVWGIGN¢SKOMENÔTIGN¢KAMENYEÎN—E»TOÅNTOLkW
FULjSSVMENÔWTIWLGEIÔTIGNVKMINKA¹TOÅNTOLkWOÆ
FULjSSEINKE¸N¡mLHYE¸HOÆKSTINÖWDKENFULjSS×LÎGONYEOÅ
mLHYVWmGjPHYEOÅNO¼TELETAI (St. John)
FULjSSVFULjJVFÃLAJA I keep watch over, I observe
8. G¢E»MIoLFAKA¹«MGAmRXKA¹TLOWLGEIYEÎWÔWEIMIKA¹A
KA¹SOMAI (Apocalypse)
TLOWEOW end
9. YEÏWmRXNTEKA¹TLOWKA¹MSAÎNTVNnPjNTVNXEI (Plato)
TLOWEOW end
10. pTINjSTINmLHYApTINAD¸KAIApTINA¼ERjpTINAmGAYjTjDE
FRONETEKA¹YEÏWE»RNHWSETAISÄNÇMºN (St. Paul)
11. SYLkGkRmP
SYL¤NMAYSEAINDKAKOºSINM¸SG×WmPOLSEIW
KA¹TÏNXEIWNÎON (Theognis)
12. .OÅSAINHÎNTINALABEºNÖWOÈPOTEPESEºTAIZHTEÃMENAICUXN
EÍRONb"RISTOFjNEUW (Plato)
b"RISTOFjNHWEUW Aristophanes, Athenian comic poet.
13. ;EÅPjTERSYLkMNMºNPÎREKA¹EÆXOMNOIWKA¹MKAKkDKA¹
EÆXOMNOIWMPÎROIW (Socrates, in Plato)
14. DIKA¸VNDCUXA¹NXEIR¹YEOÅKA¹OÈPOTEpCETA¸SFEVNoLGOW
DÎKHSANNÑFYALMOºWNHP¸VNYANEºNKA¹NOEºTOYjNATÎWSFEVN
ÓLEYROWO¼DE»SINNE»RN×ÔTIPE¸RHSENAÆT¤NYEÏWKA¹EÍR
SFEAWmJ¸OUWOAÆTOÅ (Book of Wisdom)
pPTOMAIpCOMAI I seize hold of ; ÓLEYROWOU destruction;
oJIOWHON worthy of
194
Honor Work
15. OÆXRTÎDELANYjNEINÇMAWÔTINMARPARkYE¯¦WX¸LIATEj
STINKA¹X¸LIATEA¦WNMAR (St. Peter)
X¸LIOWOU a thousand; TOWEOW year
16. YEÏWFjOWST¸NKA¹ZÎFOWNO¼OÈKSTINOÆDN (St. John)

ZÎFOWOU darkness
17. MTRONoRISTON (Cleobulus)

18. OÆGkRDÇPÎGEYE¤NPOTEmMELEºTAIÖWqNPRÎFRVNYL×
D¸KAIOWG¸GNESYAIKA¹DI¢KEINmRETNE»WÔSONDUNATÏNmNYR¢P¡
ÔMOIOWPLESYAIYE¯ (Plato)
mMELV I neglect, I do not care for; E»WÔSON as far as
19. E½TESY¸ETEE½TEP¸NETEE½TTIPOIEºTEPjNTAE»WDÎJANYEOÅ
POIEºTE (St. Paul)
20. mNYR¢PVNKASTOWDÃOPRAWFREIM¸ANPRÎSYENDEUTRHND
ÓPISYENPRAIDGMOUSIKAK¤NmLL
MNPRÎSYENST¸NTRVN
KAKkXEIDÓPISYENAÆTOÅFRONTOWXEIKAKjDIkTÎDEOÌN
oNYRVPOISFVNAÆT¤NMNKAKkOÆXÒR¤SITRVNDMjLA
HID¸VWGIGN¢SKOUSIN (Aesop)
PRHHW [f.] knap-sack; PRÎSYEN in front;
ÓPISYEN in back, behind; GMV I am full of [+ gen]
21. NF¸LOWGNHTAIPONHRÎWXRoGEINMINPjLINE»WmGAYÎNoREION
GkRKA¹MlLLONF¸LOURGONST¹NBOHYEINE»WYOWE»W
XRMATA (Aristotle)
BOHYV I come to assistance;
YOWEOW character, morals; MlLLON more
22. GIGN¢SKVKA¸MOINFRES¹oLGEAKEºTAIÒR¤NPATR¸DAMN
KTEINOMNHN(Solon, referring to political decadence)
23. TjD
XVrMAYONKA¹NÎHSAKA¹KALkPARk.OUSjVNLABON
TERADPOLLkKA¹DAoNEMOWmFE¸LETO (Crates)
24. YNHTkYNHT¤NPjNTAKA¹PjNTAPARRXETAIMAWNDM
MEºWAÆTkPARERXÎMEYA (Greek Anthology)
25. KELEÃVÇMAWFILEINmLLLOUW¦WG£F¸LHSAÇMAWOÉTVW
FILETEmLLLOUWNT¯DEGN¢SONTAIPjNTEWÔTIMO¸STE—N
FILHTEmLLLOUW (St. John)
26. XA¸RETENYE¯A»E¸PjLINLJVXA¸RETEKA¹E»RNHYEOÅÇPR
PANTÏWNÎOUST¸NFULjJEIKRÇMVNKA¹NÎONN9RIST¯ (St. Paul)
ÇPR [prep. + gen.] over, above, “beyond
the grasp of ”; FULjSSVjJV I guard
27. MYAUMjZETEE»MISEIÇMAWKÎSMOWGIGN¢SKOMENÔTIBEBKAMENK
YANjTOIOE»WZVNPE¹FILOMENKASIGNHTOÃWÖWMFIL×MNEIN
YANjT¡KA¹PlWÖWMFIL×KASIGNHTÏNÏNmNYRVPOKTÎNOW
ST¸N (St. John)
YAUMjZV I marvel; mNYRVPOKTÎNOW manslayer, murderer
28. ME¸ZONAmGjPHNTNDEOÆDE¹WXEI—E»YjNOITIWE¾NEKAF¸LVN¤N
ÇMEºWF¸LOIMEÃSTENPOIHTETkG£KELEÃVÇMAW
(St. John)
195
29. ÑL¸GOUWEÇRSEIWoNDRAWNXALEPOºWF¸LOUWTA¸ROUWGENOMNOUW
O¾TINEWoNBOÃLOINTOKA¹mGAY¤NKA¹KAK¤NMROWMETjSEUXEIN
(Theognis)
MROW EOW share, portion
30. oREIÎNSTINSIVPjEINKA¹EÁNAILGONTAMMMENKALÏN
DIDASKMENNTIWLGVNKA¹POI× St. Ignatius of Antioch
SIVPjVI remain silent, I say nothing
31. MEG¸STHÑDÃNHPASjVNNmNYR¢POISIDE—POLLkFRONONTA
MHDNTELEINHerodotus
ÑDÃNHHWgrief, pain, anguish
32. FOIT¤N9RISTÏWPARkYjLASSAN½DENDÃOKASIGNHTOÃW4¸MVNA
1TRONKA¹b"NDRANBjLLONTAWD¸KTUONE»WYjLASSANSANGkR
nLIEWKA¹LGEISFINLYETEMET
MKA¹POISVÇMAWnLIAW
mNYR¢PVN St. Matthew
4¸MVNVNOWSimon;1TROWOUPeter;
b"NDRAWacc.ANAndrew;D¸KTUONOUnet;
nLIEÃWOWfisherman
33. OÆDNE»SENE¸KAMENE»WTÎNDEKÎSMONOÆD
KFREINTIDUNATO¸
E»MENSt. Paul
34. EÂWYEÏWNTEYEOºSIKA¹mNYR¢POISIMGISTOWOÆDMAWYNHTOºSIN
ÔMOIOWOÆDNÎ¡OÌLOWÒRwOÌLOWDNOEºOÌLOWDT
mKOÃEIKA¹
mPjNEUYEPÎNOIONOVNFREN¹PjNTAKINEºA»E¹D
NAÆT¯MNEI
KINEÃMENOWOÆDNOÆDOIKMINmME¸BESYAIoLLOTE
oLL× Xenophanes
DMAW<indecl. n.>shape, build;mKOÃVI hear;KINVI move;
oLLOTEoLL×now one way now another;AÆT¯“in the same state.”
35. mGjPH9RISTOÅÑTRÃNEIMAWGIGN¢SKONTAWÔTIEÂWE¾NEKA
PjNTVNYjNE¾NAOÀZ¢OUSIMHKTISF¸SIAÆTOºWZ¢VSINmLLj
9RIST¯E¾NEKjSFEVNYANÎNTIKA¹KNEKR¤NGERYNTI St. Paul
ÑTRÃNVI urge on; NEKRÎWOUcorpse, the dead;
GE¸RVaor. pass.GRYHNI raise up, I resurrect
36. OÆDE¹WGkRMVNOÂAÆT¯Z¢EIKA¹OÆDE¹WOÂAÆT¯YNSKEINTE
GkRZ¢VMENYE¯Z¢OMENNTEYNSKVMENYE¯YNSKOMENNTE
OÌNZ¢VMENNTEYNSKVMENYEOÅE»MENE»WTÎDEGkR9RISTÏW
YANEKA¹PjLINZ¢EI¾NAKA¹NEKR¤NKA¹ZVÎNTVNoNAJ
St. Paul
37. POLLOºWmNYR¢PVNGL¢SS×YÃRAIOÆKP¸KEINTAIKA¹POLLk
LGOUSITkOÆXRE»PEºN Theognis
GL¢SSHHWtongue;P¸KEIMAII am closed [of doors]
38. mLL
E»S¹MHTR¹PAºDEWoGKURAIB¸OU Sophocles
oGKURAHWanchor
39. NÎMOWST¹PjNTVNBASILEÃWYNHT¤NTEKA¹mYANjTVN Pindar
N¯MOWOUlaw;BASILE§WOWking
40. GIGN¢SKOMENÔTINOÁKOWMETRHWZVWP¹GA¸×LUY×OÁKON
mYjNATONKYEOÅXOMENNOÆRANOºWÓFRAOÌNNS¢MATIO»KOMEN
KDHMOMENmPÏYEOÅ St. Paul
KDHMVI am in exile
196
Lesson 61
436. MEMORIZE
5RO¸HHW [f.] Troy, Ilion
437. TEXT
The Poem’s Theme

d"NDRAMOINNEPE.OÅSAPOLÃTROPONÖWMjLAPOLLk
PLjGXYHPE¹5RO¸HW¼ERÏNPTOL¸EYRONPERSE
PRYVPRSVPRSA I destroy, I sack

PLjZVPLjGJVPLjGJA—, —, PLjGXYHN I beat; [in pass.] I wander
POLÃTROPOWHON resourceful
PTOL¸EYRONOU city, town
438. NOTES
NNEPEis transitive, = “make known, tell about”
439. COMMENT
The poem’s opening lines give us the theme of the poem (a man), modified by
an adjective that conveys the man's essential character and a relative clause that
includes general information about his past. This is the story of a man, a man of many
twists and turns of mind, versatile, shrewd, up to any demands thrust upon his
resourceful-ness by shifting fortune as he is buffeted far and wide on land and sea.
Troy, sacred to the gods who had built its lofty walls, has fallen at last to this man’s
stratagem.
oNDRA It is the human element that interests Homer, more than mere events. It
is this which he puts first, to catch our attention and impress itself upon our minds,
under the full weight of the main rhythmic emphasis.
.OÅSA The poet invokes the Muse, asking her to furnish him with information
about things that he has not personally experienced but which she, a goddess, would
know all about. Such an invocation is a conventional feature of Greek epic poetry.
Later epic poets imitate him. Vergil, for instance: Musa, mihi causas memora…, or
Milton: “Of man’s first disobedience, and the fruit / Of that forbidden tree…sing,
Heavenly Muse.”
POLÃTROPON can mean many things: “turning many ways,” “wandering,”
“ingenious” and “resourceful” are all good translations. The epithet links together
several aspects of Odysseus’ character; its prominent position makes it clear that crafty
intelligence will be the central virtue of this hero.
197
5RO¸HW…PERSE It was Odysseus who finally stormed impregnable Troy by the

wily trick of the Trojan Horse, for he was general of the troops hiding within it. Of
course, Odysseus originated the stratagem of the Wooden Horse. You can read the
story in both Menelaus’ account in Book 4 of the Odyssey and Vergil’s vivid account
in Book 2 of the Aeneid.
440. WRITE IN GREEK

1. All men desire to be happy, but not all wish to do the difficult things by which
alone true happiness is had.
2. Mother, take the children and hasten home; for I see a great storm coming in
from the sea.
3. If you (pl.) had fought more bravely then, you perhaps would have seized Troy
in the beginning of the war.
198
Lesson 62
441. MEMORIZE
oSTUoSTEOW [n.] town
RÃOMAIRÃSSOMAIRRUSjMHN I save, I rescue, I protect
NÎSTOWOU [m.] return (home)
PÎNTOWOU [m.] sea, the deep
¨W¬W [adv.] thus, so [always with pitch-mark]
442. TEXT
Preview of the Story

POLL¤ND
mNYR¢PVN½DENoSTEAKA¹NÎONGNV
POLLkD
ÔG
NPÎNT¡PjYENoLGEAÖNKATkYUMÎN
mRNÃMENOWNTECUXNKA¹NÎSTONTA¸RVN
mLL
OÆD
¬WTjROUWRRÃSATO¼MENÎWPER
oRNUMAI I seek to gain

¾EMAI I desire, I strive
443. NOTES
GNV = “came to know, became acquainted with.” To review the form, see
Lesson 42.
ÎWÎN is frequently shortened to ÔWÔN (for 8ÎW88ÎN ), as here and
in line 5.
OÆD
¬W = “not even so.” TAROW = TAºROW, and is often substituted for it for
metrical reasons.
444. COMMENT
To some, this proem seems to outline in a general way the story the poem is
about to tell; others, however, note that it really only covers a part of the poem
(roughly Books 5 through 12), and with some inaccuracy.
POLL¤ND
mNYR¢PVN½DENoSTEA… In fact, the wanderings described by
the poem are not so much among the cities of men as among fantastic or at least
isolated lands and peoples, far from mainstream human society. The episodes
included in this text are examples, but there are others (Circe's island, the Sirens,
Scylla and Charybdis, etc.).
199
POLL¤N…POLLk anaphora, a rhetorical device of repeating a word at the

beginning of successive lines or clauses. In this instance, the device serves to emphasize
the Odyssean characteristic of many-ness.
As we shall see, Odysseus will try hard to rescue his companions from the jaws of
the Cyclops. It is also Odysseus who has got them into trouble in this case, since his
curiosity led him to resist their desire to leave the monster's cave alone. However, in
general, Odysseus is not portrayed as driven by a craving for adventure; rather, he
seems to be conscientious about his responsibilities as a leader.
445. STRANGE STORY OF A LETTER THAT WAS LOST AND FOUND AGAIN
In the early Greek alphabet, there was an additional sound, equivalent to our w,
known as Wau or Digamma (‘double-gamma’); it was written 8, and came between E
and Z. By Homer’s time, this sound was beginning to be omitted in many words
where it formerly occurred, though it was still used with some, at least part of the
time. (It was pronounced regularly in one or two local dialects until the second
century BCE). Homer seems to have used it often with certain words, especially in
traditional phrases and formulas inherited from earlier poets, saying, e.g., 8POW
8jNAJA»8E¸8IDEºN8OºNOW (cp. Latin vinum, English wine from the same original
root-word). But later Greeks, not using the sound, never wrote it in copying the
poems of Homer, and before long forgot that he employed it.
In the 18th century, the great Greek scholar Richard Bentley rediscovered the
Homeric use of the digamma by a subtle detective-like study of certain peculiar facts
and unexplained ‘irregularities’ in the rhythm and euphony of Homer’s verse. Using
as a clue the similarity in sound between many Latin, German, English, and Sanskrit
words and their Greek equivalents, except for the absence of a w-sound in the Greek,
he proved that these Greek words did have the w-sound too in the beginning and that
its influence was still exerted in Homer’s verse. Thereby he solved most of the
problems of Homeric meter that for centuries had mystified the greatest scholars, even
in ancient Greece itself.
The digamma is ordinarily not written in modern texts of Homer, but its influence on
the grammar or meter will occasionally be pointed out in the notes.
446. WRITE IN GREEK

1. The ships stood afar off in the middle of the deep, for the king feared to be seen
from the city.
2. If they said they desired (inf.) peace, they would not have told the truth.
3. Quickly throw (sg.) water on the fire while it is yet small, for thus you will
rescue your possessions and perhaps the city itself.
447. WORD STUDY

NOSTALGIA (painful longing to return home, homesickness).
200
Lesson 63
448. MEMORIZE
mFAIROMAImFAIRSOMAImFELÎMHN I take away
BOÅWBOÎW[m., f.] [dat. pl. also BOUS¸] ox, cow
YUGjTHRYUGATROWorYUGATRÎW [f.] daughter
NÎSTIMOWHON of one’s homecoming
ÓLLUMIÑLSVÓLESSA I kill, I destroy, I lose;
ÓLVLA2 aor. mid. ÑLÎMHN <in pf. and mid.] I perish, I am lost
c6PER¸VNc6PER¸ONOW [m.] Hyperion [see Notes below]
449. TEXT
The Tragic Undertone

AÆT¤NGkRSFETR×SINmTASYAL¸×SINÓLONTO
NPIOIOÀKATkBOÅWc6PER¸ONOWb)EL¸OIO
SYIONAÆTkRÒTOºSINmFE¸LETONÎSTIMONMAR
T¤NnMÎYENGEYEjYÃGATER%IÎWE»PKA¹MºN
nMÎYEN [adv.] from some point

mTASYAL¸AI [pl. f.]recklessness, senseless folly
YEj [f. of YEÎW]goddess
450. NOTES
KATk here is an adv., with an intensifying sense: “utterly” or “to extinction.”
BOÅW<= BÎAW>is acc. pl. of BOÅWc6PER¸ONOWis either a cognomen of Helios the
sun god, agreeing with it in the genitive; or else it is a genitive of paternity = “[son] of
Hyperion”. Hyperion is Helios’ father at Hesiod’s Theogony 374.
T¤N is partitive gen. of the demonstrative after E»P, = “tell of these things.”
KA¹MºN: “to us, too,” either meaning “let us also know what you know;” or perhaps
“just as you have told other audiences.”
451. COMMENT
Odysseus’ prudence and great clarity of mind are highlighted against the
contrasting background of his companions' impulsiveness and folly. If his
companions are to perish before reaching home, it will be due to their own moral
failing. They cannot blame their leader for lack of concern or wise guidance at crucial
moments (cp. lines 5-6). In fact, such a negative assessment of Odysseus’ men is not
justified by the narrative of the Odyssey. Many of the companions die through no fault
of their own: for example, eleven of Odysseus’ twelve ships are destroyed by the
201
Laestrygonians, but not because the men are reckless. Indeed, the emphasis placed
here upon the men’s devouring of the Sun’s cattle indeed seems disproportionate to
the importance of the story in the narrative. The moral condemnation of them here
seems contrary to the spirit in which the episode will be told, for the poem will show
the men forced to the brink of starvation by the actions of the gods, and thus well-
motivated to do this sacrilegious deed.
mTASYAL¸×SIN: in the poem, it will be the suitors, back in Ithaca, who will more
notably perish thanks to their mTASYAL¸×SIN— not the companions.
Homer asks the Muse for help in starting the story of Odysseus from some point,
not necessarily the beginning.
452. THE ADVENTURES OF A BREATHING MARK

There is a curious history behind the simple, unpretentious little sign used to indicate
the ‘breathing’ to be employed in pronouncing initial Greek vowels and diphthongs.
In the alphabet used at Athens until 403 BCE, the symbol & stood for both Eand H,
while ) denoted an h-sound. When the Ionian system was adopted, ) was used to
indicate capital H, thus distinguishing it from E by its own symbol. But the first half of
) was retained to signify a rough breathing, and later the other half was employed to
indicate a smooth breathing. Time, and the innate human love of shortcuts, gradually
evolved the current symbols,
453. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Though we have suffered (ptc.) much distress both on land and on the deep,
we still hope to come to our fatherland and dwell there again in peace.
2. Some strangers destroyed the house and took away all the cows; but not even
thus did my wife and two daughters have the heart to leave that land where we
had all been born.
3. The mothers greatly rejoiced on the day of their sons’ homecoming from
the war.
454. WORD STUDY

BUCOLIC (pertaining to herdsmen; pastoral, as ‘bucolic poetry’, a type of poetry
dealing in a pleasantly idealized way with country scenes, and dialogues between men
watching their herds); — “HYPERION” (title of a narrative poem by Longfellow
connecting the action, laid in Europe, with the myth of the Sun-God).
202
Lesson 64
455. MEMORIZE
mTjR but
DV [pres. system only] I eat
EÁDARE½DATOW [n.] food
NNMAR [adv.] for nine days
PIBA¸NVPIBSOMAI [+ gen.] I land upon, I go upon
P¸BHNPIBBHKA
-VTOFjGOIVN [m.] Lotus-Eaters [a legendary people]
ÑLOÎWÎN destructive, deadly
The Adventures of Odysseus

The ten years’ war at Troy having ended in total victory for the Greeks, largely by
Odysseus’ doings, the triumphant princes return with their armies to their various
homes in Greece. Odysseus embarks his men on twelve swift ships and sets out for his
beloved island kingdom, Ithaca. But the winds carry him northwest, to the southern
coast of Thrace, beneath Mt. Ismarus. Finding there a town of the ,¸KONEW, allies of
hated Troy, he destroys it utterly and carries off rich spoils, though sorrowed by the
loss of many brave comrades in the battle. A mighty storm threatens to sink the entire
fleet as they sail southward for home. Though escaping disaster then, the ships are
blown far off their course and are driven for many days across unknown tracts of
the sea.
What strange and terrifying experiences befell the heroic band thereafter in their long
years of wandering we now learn from the lips of Odysseus himself, as he tells the
amazing story to kindly king Alcinous at the termination of his wanderings.
456. TEXT
First Adventure: Landing among the Lotus-Eaters

NYEND
NNMARFERÎMHNÑLOOºS
mNMOISI
PÎNTONP
»XYUÎENTAmTkRDEKjT×PBHMEN
GA¸HW-VTOFjGVNO¾T
oNYINONEÁDARDOUSIN
oNYINOWHON made of flowers

»XYUÎEIWESSAEN fish-swarming
457. NOTES
DEKjT× “on the tenth (day).” Dative of time when.
203
TE often is not to be translated, where it merely indicates the close connection of
a relative or subordinate clause with what had gone before.
458. COMMENT
NYEN That is, from Cape Maleia, the southernmost tip of Greece, away from
which the baneful winds kept forcing Odysseus’ fleet, which otherwise would have
soon been home. NNMARNine days is an unusually long voyage at sea.
Ancient ships, being fairly small and fragile, generally kept within sight of shore;
Odysseus and his men would have feared the open sea toward which the gale has
steadily driven them now for over a week.
The Lotus-Eaters are named after their staple (and only) food. At this point,
Odysseus and his companions have left their familiar Mediterranean world and have
entered the realm of fantasy and folktale.
459. THE DUAL IN DECLENSION

There are three numbers in the inflection of Greek words: the singular, denoting one
person or thing; the plural, indicating more than one; and the dual, signifying two or
a pair. The dual is but rarely used, since its meaning is easily carried by the ordinary
plural. But if the writer wishes to emphasize that it is two, a pair, of which he is
speaking, he will use special endings to call attention to this fact.
Learn, then, the following additional endings of the nominative and accusative dual:
2nd declension: add to stem: V
3rd declension: add to stem: E
Thus, T¤DEM¤XEºRE these two hands of mine
T¢AmPLYONXA¸RONTE The pair therefore went away rejoicing.
460. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Let us go upon the ships now, but not leave this land until our companions
bring the delightful food which we received from the Lotus-Eaters.
2. For nine days I lay in a deadly disease, suffering the greatest pains, nor was I able
either to eat or to drink.
3. Men might take away my gold and all other things, but never will anyone seize
from me my dearest possessions, love of truth and peace of soul.
461. WORD STUDY

LOTUS (a beautiful variety of large creamy water-lily, considered sacred in Egypt and
India, and much used in ornamental painting. Different from Homer’s lotus, which
was probably a prickly shrub with large fruit, similar to the mandrake).
204
Lesson 65
462. MEMORIZE
mFÃSSVmFÃJVoFUSSA I draw; I heap up
DEºPNONOU [n.] dinner, meal
NYA [adv.] there, then
YOÎWÎN swift
463. TEXT
Respite from the Angry Sea

NYAD
P
PE¸ROUBMENKA¹mFUSSjMEY
ÉDVR
AÁCADDEºPNONLONTOYOWPARkNHUS¹NTAºROI
PEIROWOU [f.] land, mainland
464. COMMENT
Upon escaping from the prolonged danger and strenuous battle with the sea,
Odysseus and his men stand again on dry land. They take a bit of rest, then busy
themselves with refilling the water-casks of each ship and preparing a warm meal to
eat in weary ease along the shore in the shadow of the towering ships.
465. INDIRECT QUESTIONS (REVIEW; SEE SECTION 214)

a. Meaning: Direct questions use the actual words of the inquirer, and are
independent sentences or clauses (e.g., “Who sent him?”). Indirect questions
state the substance of the inquiry, in the same or equivalent words, as a
dependent clause which is the object or subject of a verb of asking, knowing,
thinking, etc., or in apposition to its object or subject:
(a) I asked who sent him.
(b) Who sent him is not yet known.
b. Rule: Same as direct question, but after a secondary main verb the dependent
verb generally becomes optative. This means that when the verb of asking,
knowing, etc., on which the question is dependent is in a secondary tense, the
verb within the question itself ordinarily shifts from indicative (or subjunctive)
to optative; it may stay unchanged, and is always unchanged if the main verb on
which it depends is primary. In shifting to the optative, a present, imperfect, or
future verb becomes present optative, an aorist becomes the aorist optative, and
a perfect becomes the perfect optative. Thus, in example (a) above where the
main verb is in a secondary tense, the Greek would be:
E»RÎMHNÔWT¸WMINPMCEIEE»RÎMHNT¸WMINPEMCE
205
c. Note: Sometimes the verb of asking, wondering, etc., on which the question
depends may not be expressed, but only implied in the context. E.g., We came
[to find out] if you would give us anything. “Whether” is expressed by E», and
“whether…or” by …E.
466. WRITE IN GREEK

1. I know you (pl.) killed the oxen only in order to have food; but it was not right,
for they were not yours but the city’s.
2. Raising hands and eyes (dual) towards heaven, he prayed long, asking the gods
to protect his daughter and two sons from all evil of body or soul.
3. Swiftly make ready (pl.) a great dinner and draw much wine, for many guests
and friends will be present.
206
Lesson 66
467. REVIEW OF LESSONS 60-65
Go over again thoroughly the text (with notes and comment), vocabulary, and
grammar of the preceding five lessons, pointing your review by means of the following
questions:
1. What specific things do you learn about Odysseus’ character in the introductory
ten lines of the poem?
2. What hints of coming events in the story are contained in the first ten lines?
3. What action of Odysseus’ companions is foretold here as the turning point in
their destiny?
4. What characteristics of the men are already known from the poem’s opening
lines?
5. From what source does Homer claim to gain his knowledge of the matter
contained in this poem?
6. State two events on the homeward journey which precede the landing among
the Lotus Eaters.
7. Identify the precise form of the following words:
a. POLLj(line 1) i. SYION(9)
b. .OÅSA(1) j. YEj(10)
c. PLjGXYH(2) k. E»P(10)
d. oSTEA(3) l. FERÎMHN(11)
e. GNV(3) m. »XYUÎENTA(12)
f. Ô(4) n. GA¸HW(13)
g. N(5) o. YOW(15)
h. RÃSSATO(6)
8. Explain the meaning and forms of the dual in declension.
9. Write in Greek:
a. Protect us, Apollo, and show us the way leading homeward from Troy to
our fatherland.
b. Do not eat (pl.) that food! Though sweet, it is deadly. [Supply the ptc.
“being” after “sweet”].
c. I had never seen oxen and sheep so large and beautiful as here.
d. If you (pl.) had fought more bravely, they would not have destroyed our
town nor carried off all our possessions on swift ships to a land from which
we shall never receive them back again.
e. He died on the very day of his homecoming.
207
Lesson 67
468. MEMORIZE
D¸DVMID¢SVD¤KA I give [see Section 472]
¾HMISVKAorHKA I send forth, I cast; I place
»¢N»OÅSA»ÎN going [pres. act. ptc. of EÁMII go; gen. »ÎNTOW
»OÃSHW»ÎNTOW]
ÑPjZVÑPjSSVÓPASSA I send (someone) as a companion; I present
PATOMAI—PASSjMHN I partake of [+ gen.]
PRO¸HMIPROSVPROKA I send forth, I hurl
T¸YHMIYSVYKA I put, I place, I cause
XY¢NXYONÎW [f.] earth
469. TEXT
Reconnaissance
AÆTkRPE¹S¸TOIÎT
PASSjMEY
DPOTTOW
DTÎT
G£NTjROUWPROÚHNPEÃYESYAI»ÎNTAW
O¾TINEWmNREWEÁENP¹XYON¹SºTONDONTEW
oNDREDÃVKR¸NAWTR¸TATONKRUX
pM
ÑPjSSAW
KRUJUKOW [m.] herald, runner

POTWTOW [f.] drink
TR¸TATOWHON third
470. NOTES
In temporal clauses, the aorist often has the force of a pluperfect.
PROÚHN : See Section 473 below for the imperfect of ¾HMI
EÁEN: review Section 464.
oNDRE: review Section 459.
471. COMMENT
With the crews rested and refreshed and the ships’ supply of water renewed,
the Greeks are ready again to sail on in search of home. But Odysseus' curiosity about
strange countries spurs him before leaving to explore the region on whose coast the
storm has driven them. Odysseus, accordingly, dispatches a small group to go into the
interior and discover what sort of men dwell in this far-off land. The runner can report
anything special, or relay a call for help. Odysseus and the rest wait on the shore.
208
Lesson 67
Mortals eat bread, whereas the gods who dwell in the heavens live on nectar and
ambrosia.
472. MIVERBS
There is a group of verbs that have certain irregularities in common and are known as
MIverbs (because the 1 sg. act. ends in MI not V). You met one such verb, ÓLLUMI,
in Section 448; a 2 aor. middle form,ÓLONTOappeared in the passage in Section
449. MIverbs are irregular only in the present and 2 aor. systems active, where their
endings resemble those of E»M¸more than those of the regular Vverb, and (like E»M¸)
lack the thematic vowel between stem and ending. So also in the middle of these
systems (where the stem-vowel is always short), the thematic vowel is lacking; but the
endings are regular; the subjunctive, however, retains as usual the lengthened thematic
vowel, which absorbs an Aor E ending the stem and contracts with O to V.
The irregular forms of MI verbs will occur only rarely in the Homer readings. They
will be explained in the notes where they come up, except for a few forms that occur
often enough to merit memorizing; these are given individually in this lesson and in
three later lessons. There is no need to memorize the other forms that you will not be
meeting in the Homer readings.
For your information, however, and as a framework in which to locate the occurring
forms, here are some MI verb patterns for reference:
D¸DVMI I give
Active Middle
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
PRES. IND.
1st pers. D¸DVMI D¸DOMEN D¸DOMAI DIDÎMESYA
2nd pers. DIDOºWYA D¸DOTE D¸DOSAI D¸DOSYE
3rd pers. D¸DVSIDIDOº DIDOÅSI D¸DOTAI D¸DONTAI
IMPF. IND. (often augmented)
1st pers. D¸DOUN D¸DOMEN DIDÎMHN DIDÎMESYA
2nd pers. D¸DOUW D¸DOTE D¸DOSO D¸DOSYE
3rd pers. D¸DOU D¸DOSAN D¸DOTO D¸DONTO
2nd AOR. IND. (often augmented)
1st pers. [D¤KA DÎMEN DÎMHN DÎMESYA
2nd pers. D¤KAW DÎTE DOÅ DÎSYE
3rd pers. D¤KE]* DÎSAN DÎTO DÎNTO
PRES. SUBJ.
1st pers. DID¤MI DID¤MEN DID¤MAI DID¢MESYA
2nd pers. DID¤SYA DID¤TE DID¤AI DID¤SYE
3rd pers. DID¯SI DID¤SI DID¤TAI DID¤NTAI
209
PRES. OPT.
1st pers. DIDO¸HN DIDOºMEN DIDO¸MHN DIDO¸MESYA
2nd pers. DIDO¸HW DIDOºTE DIDOºO DIDOºSYE
3rd pers. DIDO¸H DIDOºEN DIDOºTO DIDO¸ATO
2 Aor. Subj. and Opt.: Same as Pres. forms, without initial syllable (DI: D¤MIDO¸HNetc.
PRES. IMPT.
2nd pers. D¸DOU D¸DOTE D¸DOSO D¸DOSYE
2nd AOR. IMPT.
2nd pers. DÎW DÎTE DOÅ DÎSYE
PRES. INF.
DIDÎMENAIDIDOÅNAI D¸DOSYAI
2nd AOR. INF.
DÎMENAIDOÅNAI DÎSYAI
PRES. PTC. (nom., m./f./n.)
DIDOÅWDIDOÅSADIDÎN DIDÎMENOWHON
2nd AOR. PTC. (nom., m. f. n.)
DOÅWDOÅSADÎN DÎMENOWHON
T¸YHMII put
Active Middle
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
PRES. IND.
1st pers. T¸YHMI T¸YEMEN T¸YEMAI TIYMEYA
2nd pers. T¸YHSYA T¸YETE T¸YESAI T¸YESYE
3rd pers. T¸YHSIT¸YEI TIYEºSI T¸YETAI T¸YENTAI
IMPF. IND. (often augmented)
1st pers. T¸YHN T¸YEMEN TIYMHN TIYMEYA
2nd pers. T¸YEIW T¸YETE T¸YESO T¸YESYE
3rd pers. T¸YEI T¸YESAN T¸YETO T¸YENTO
2nd AOR. IND. (often augmented)
1st pers. [YKA YMEN YMHN YMEYA
2nd pers. YKAW YTE YO YSYE
3rd pers. YKE>* YSAN YTO YNTO
PRES. SUBJ.
1st pers. TIY¤MI TIY¤MEN TIY¤MAI TIY¢MEYA
2nd pers. TIYSYA TIYTE TIYAI TIYSYE
3rd pers. TIYSI TIY¤SI TIYTAI TIY¤NTAI
210
Lesson 67
PRES. OPT.
1st pers. TIYE¸HN TIYEºMEN TIYE¸MHN TIYEºMEYA
2nd pers. TIYE¸HW TIYEºTE TIYEºO TIYEºSYE
3rd pers. TIYE¸H TIYEºEN TIYEºTO TIYE¸ATO
2 Aor. Subj. and Opt.: Same as Pres. forms, without initial syllable (TI: Y¤YE¸HNetc.
PRES. IMPT.
2nd pers. T¸YEI T¸YETE T¸YESO T¸YESYE
2nd AOR. IMPT.
2nd pers. YW YTE YEÅ YSYE
PRES. INF.
TIYMENAI TIYSYAI
2nd AOR. INF.
YMENAIYEºNAI YSYAI
PRES. PTC. (nom., m./f./n.)
TIYEºWTIYEºSATIYN TIYMENOWHON
2nd AOR. PTC. (nom., m./f./n.)
YEºWYEºSAYN YMENOWHON
* These forms are irregular first aorists; they are used in the aorist indicative singular instead
of second aorist forms.
473. FORMS OF ¾HMI AND D¸DVMI

Memorize:
¾HMISVKAorHKA I send forth, I cast; I place
Sg. Pl.
IMPF.
1st pers. ¾EIN¾HN ¾EMEN
2nd pers. ¾EIW ¾ETE
3rd pers. ¾EI ¾ESAN¾EN
D¸DVMID¢SVD¤KA I give
2nd AOR. SUBJ.
1st pers. D¤MI D¤MEN
2nd pers. D¯WYA D¤TE
3rd pers. D¯SID¢×SI D¤SI
211
2nd AOR. OPT.

1st pers. DO¸HN DOºMEN
2nd pers. DO¸HW DOºTE
3rd pers. DO¸H DOºEN
2nd AOR. IMPT.
2nd pers. DÎW DÎTE
474. WRITE IN GREEK

1. But his companions going out found the Lotus Eaters lying on the earth and
partaking of some food which none of us had ever seen.
2. After he had picked out (aor.) two brave men, he sent them forth afar from
the ships.
3. They said he would send with us two boys as companions.
475. WORD STUDY

ION (an atom or group of atoms bearing an electric charge and ‘going’ or moving
toward a positive or negative pole), IONIZE (to break up a substance into ions for
separating its elements, as by electrolysis).
212
Lesson 68
476. MEMORIZE
LVTÎWOÅ [m.] lotus
MDOMAIMSOMAIMHSjMHN I contrive, I plan
ÓLEYROWOU [m.] destruction
477. TEXT
The Natives’ Kindness

O¼D
AÁC
O»XÎMENOIM¸GENmNDRjSI-VTOFjGOISIN
OÆD
oRA-VTOFjGOIMDONY
TjROISINÓLEYRON
METROIS
mLLjSFIDÎSANLVTOºOPjSASYAI
O½XOMAI I proceed
478. NOTES
M¸GEN :irreg. 3 pl. aor. pass. (for M¸XYHSAN) of M¸SGVIn the passive voice, this
verb means “mingle (with)” and takes a dative of association.
DÎSAN: 3 pl. 2 aor. of D¸DVMISee Section 472.
479. COMMENT
Contrary to expectation, the inhabitants of this unknown land prove friendly
and hospitable. They had not fled inland at sight of the strange ships landing on their
coast. Rather, they had drawn near to watch, and when the Greek scouts approach
they come forward with lotus fruits as a gift and token of good will. It is to prove
more of a peril than a favor.
480. PAST GENERAL CONSTRUCTION

The rules for the present general construction were given in Lesson 35. You saw
there that when a supposition implies repeated occurrence in the present, the
subjunctive (sometimes with oN or KEN) is used to express the supposition, while the
main verb is in the present indicative.
But if the supposition implies repeated occurrence in past time, the optative is used to
express the supposition and the main verb is in the imperfect (rarely the aorist)
indicative. The supposition may be a conditional, temporal, or relative clause. Such a
construction is termed the past general construction. Examples:
If (ever) he ordered them to go, they quickly obeyed.
E½SFEAWBNAIKELEÃOIAÁCAPE¸YONTO
213
Whenever he ordered them to go, they quickly obeyed.

ÔTESFEAWBNAIKELEÃOIAÁCAPE¸YONTO
Whoever ordered them to go, they quickly obeyed.
ÔWTIWSFEAWBNAIKELEÃOIAÁCAPE¸YONTO
Observe that the Greek conditional system follows the sequence of moods just as do
purpose clauses (Section 106b). In conditional sentences, the verb tense of the
apodosis is linked to the mood of the verb in the protasis.
481. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Let us not mingle with them, for they might contrive some evil for us or
our friends.
2. He once told me who gave him that beautiful lotus, but I no longer know.
3. Whoever plans destruction for others, wrongs himself too, destroying (aor.) the
peace of his own soul.
214
Lesson 69
482. MEMORIZE
AÆTOÅ [adv.] in the same place, there
MELIHDWW honey-sweet
NOMAI [pres. syst. only] I return
483. TEXT
Strange Power of the Lotus

T¤ND
ÔWTIWLVTOºOFjGOIMELIHDAKARPÎN
OÆKT
mPAGGEºLAIPjLINYELENOÆDNESYAI
mLL
AÆTOÅBOÃLONTOMET
mNDRjSI-VTOFjGOISI
LVTÏNREPTÎMENOIMENMENNÎSTOUTELAYSYAI
mPAGGLLVmPAGGELVmPjGGEILA I bring back news

RPTOMAI I feed upon
484. COMMENT
There are many folktales from around the world about food which, when
tasted, prevents a return home from a fabulous land or an underworld. A familiar
example is the myth of Persephone, who after swallowing a pomegranate seed is
forever bound to the underworld. Here, having sampled the fruit of the lotus,
Odysseus’ men sink into a mood of listless inactivity. Forgetful of goals, they think
only of indulging without stint in this bewitching luxury.
Their mood has been beautifully depicted by Tennyson at the close of his poem, The
Lotos-Eaters:
“Dark faces pale against the rosy sun,
The mild-eyed melancholy Lotos-eaters came
Branches they bore of that enchanted stem,
Laden with flower and fruit, whereof they gave
To each, but whoso did receive of them
And taste, to him the gushing of the wave
Far, far away did seem to mourn and rave
On alien shores; and if his fellow spoke,
His voice was thin, as voices from the grave;
And deep-asleep he seem’d, yet all awake,
And music in his ears his beating heart did make.
They sat them down upon the yellow sand,
Between the sun and moon upon the shore;
And sweet it was to dream of Fatherland,
215
Of child, and wife, and slave; but evermore

Most weary seem’d the sea, weary the oar,
Weary the wandering fields of barren foam.
Then someone said, ‘We will return no more;’
And all at once they sang, ‘Our island home
Is far beyond the wave; we will no longer roam.’”
485. FORMS OF T¸YHMI, to be memorized

T¸YHMIYSVYKA I put, I cause
Impf. 3 sg. T¸YEI
2 aor. Ind. 3 pl. YSAN
2 aor. Opt. 1 sg YE¸HN 1 pl. YEºMEN
2 sg. YE¸HW 2 pl. YEºTE
3 sg. YE¸H 3 pl. YEºEN
486. WRITE IN GREEK

1. If they had not eaten this honey-sweet food, they would not have been forgetful
of the return home to their fatherland.
2. Whenever anyone partook of the lotus, he never wished to return to his
companions or go up again upon the ships.
3. If anyone desired to remain there among those friendly strangers, we all tried to
persuade him not to be forgetful of father and mother and home.
216
Lesson 70
487. MEMORIZE
GLAFURÎWÎN hollow
DVDSVDSA I tie, I fasten
R¸HROWON[pl. 3 decl.: R¸HREW, etc.] faithful, loyal
RÃV—RUSSA I drag, I draw
KLOMAIKELSOMAIKEKLÎMHN I order
KLA¸VKLAÃSVKLAÅSA I weep, I wail
¥KÃWEºAÃ swift, nimble
488. TEXT
Escape
TOÄWMNG£NP¹NAWoGONKLA¸ONTAWmNjGK×
NHUS¹D
N¹GLAFURSINÇPÏZUGkDSARÃSSAW
AÆTkRTOÄWoLLOUWKELÎMHNR¸HRAWTA¸ROUW
SPERXOMNOUWNH¤NPIBAINMEN¥KEIjVN
MP¢WTIWLVTOºOFAG£NNÎSTOIOLjYHTAI
ZUGj¤N [n. pl.l rowers’ benches

SPRXOMAI I hurry
489. NOTES
N may be written for metrical reasons asN¸E»NE»N¸ÇPÏZUGk: “under the
rowing benches”
490. COMMENT
When the scouting party does not return, Odysseus and several picked men
set out in search. On finding them and discovering their mood, he realizes at once the
danger of the situation. Odysseus resolutely resists the temptation to share in the
unmanning delights of the lotus, and snatches his companions away from the plant’s
mysterious and seductive influence.
The ZUGjare thwarts or heavy planks joining the side walls of the ship, crossing
its width a few feet above the floor and serving as benches on which the oarsmen sit
while rowing. The space underneath was used for safe storage, and there Odysseus
casts the deserters in chains until they merit release and reinstatement.
217
491. THE IRREGULAR VERB OÁDA

Memorize:
OÁDAE»DSV I know
IND. ACT. PF. PLPF. IMPT.
(pres. meaning) (impf. meaning)
sg. pl. sg. pl. sg. pl.
1st pers. OÁDA ½DMEN DEA ½DMEN
2nd pers. OÁSYA ½STE DHW ½STE ½SYI ½STE
3rd pers. OÁDE ½SASI DH ½SAN
INF. ½DMENAI
PTC. (m. f. n. nom.) E»D¢WE»DUºAE»DÎW
492. WRITE IN GREEK

1. May he bind their hands and put them in his swift ship, until they again
become faithful and brave companions.
2. Would any father give a stone to his son asking bread? We ought to have faith in
those who love us.
3. Whenever I gave him any food or honey-sweet wine, he always cast half into the
fire as a gift to some god.
218
Lesson 71
493. MEMORIZE
pLWnLÎW [f.] sea
ZOMAI—SA I sit down; [in aor.] I cause to be seated
JW [adv.] in order, in rows
RETMÎNOÅ [n.] oar
KAY¸ZV—KjYISA I seat myself; I cause to be seated
KLHÚWKLHºDOW [f.] oar-lock; bolt
POLIÎWÎN grayish, white
TÃPTVTÃCVTÃCA I strike, I beat
494. TEXT
Flight
O¼D
AÁC
E½SBAINONKA¹P¹KLHºSIKAYºZON
JWD
ZÎMENOIPOLINpLATÃPTONRETMOºW
495. COMMENT
Once again Odysseus and his men escape from a situation threatening
disaster, and proceed on their homeward voyage. Not knowing where they are, except
far to the south and west of their original course, they can only sail on in what seems
the likeliest direction and hope to come across some familiar place or friendly people
to guide them in their search. They take their places in the ship and churn the sea into
a snowy foam with vigorous rhythmic strokes of the oars.
496. THE HOMERIC SHIP

Ships were a perpetual source of wonder and delight to Homer’s mind. His poetic
imagination reveled in the beauty and details of their workmanship and the graceful
appearance they presented at sea. Vivid descriptions of ships may be found all through
both poems. The picture Homer wishes us to see in the present passage, as gathered
from these other descriptions, is one of a dozen slender black hulls upon a silver sea,
white sails billowing in the evening breeze, the water dancing and gurgling around the
sharp prows and twinkling oars, a pattern of gleaming wakes stretching out behind
the lofty sterns in the rosy glow of sunset-tinted waters as the graceful shapes plunge
swiftly through the waves. It is a picture one does not easily forget.
The Homeric ship, to judge from the evidence of the poems and ancient Greek vase
paintings, was generally about 100 feet long, but only 10 to 12 feet wide. Both prow
and stern were built up high above the level of the rest, and on each was a raised
219
platform or deck. The rest of the ship was not floored over to form a continuous deck
above the water line, but was left open, like our canoe or rowboat, with spaced cross-
beams (ZUGj) used for seats. The hull was firmly built, but slender; half-oval in
shape, it had a narrow flat bottom allowing it to be dragged up on the beach. Besides
a large sail on a central folding mast, there were 20 to 120 oars (most commonly 50);
sail and oars were used together. Steering was done by a large paddle held at an angle
along the stern. The prow was usually brightly painted, with a large eye to ‘guide’ the
ship and make it seem alive.
497. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Whenever they sit down in order at the oarlocks, they beat the sea white with
their long oars.
2. If they had put the food under the same rocks as at first, I would have known
where it was and made ready the dinner for them.
3. Everyone who gave them that honey-sweet but deadly food was contriving pain
for them and destruction.
498. WORD STUDY

HALOGEN (any of five ‘salt-making’ chemical elements, fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
astatine, and iodine, which form binary salts by union with metals); —
POLIOMYELITIS (MUELÎW marrow; infantile paralysis, attacking the ‘gray marrow’
of the spinal cord and causing loss of activity in certain muscles); — TYPE (an
impression ‘beaten’ into a hard substance; a mold or pattern; hence a division or class
of objects), TYPEWRITER, TYPIST; LINOTYPE (a machine by which a printer sets
up type in one mould for each line), TYPOGRAPHY (art of printing), TELETYPE
(automatic printing at a distance by wire), TYPICAL (‘according to pattern’).
220
Lesson 72
Restudy these lessons thoroughly, testing your knowledge with this sample
examination:
I. Vocabulary (25%)
1. going: n. dat. pl. =
2. we shall contrive =
3. destruction: dat. sg. =
4. they will be tied =
5. may he weep (aor.) =
6. oarlock: acc. sg. =
7. faithful: f. gen. pl. =
8. swift: m. dat. pl. =
9. honey-sweet: f. acc. sg. =
10. in order =
II. Text (50%)
1. Why did Odysseus have to bind some of his men?
2. How many men did he send to investigate the country?
3. How were they received?
4. Why did Odysseus order his men to leave so quickly?
5. In line 18, explain the form and construction of EÁEN.
6. In line 19, explain the form of KRUX
7. In line 21, explain the form of MDONY

.
8. In line 30, explain the case ofNH¤N.
9. In line 31, explain the form and construction ofLjYHTAI .
10. In line 33, explain the case of RETMOºW.
III. Grammar (25%)
Translate only the words in italics:
1. If we should put the oars in your boat, what would you (sg.) give us?
2. Whenever they ate the lotus, they no longer knew in what country
they once dwelt.
3. If a ship ever appeared, he sent forth two companions to meet it.
4. Ask him why he put the sails under the hollow rock.
5. Since you (sg.) knew it was mine all along, give it to me now.
221
Lesson 73
500. MEMORIZE
MOW [conj.] when
RIGNEIAHW the early-born (one)
b)¢Wb)ÎOW [f.] Eos [the personified goddess of the dawn]
M¸MNV [pres. system only] I remain, I await
ODODjKTULOWON rosy-fingered
Shortly after leaving the land of the lotus-eaters, the ships are surrounded by an
impenetrable mist. In the absence of any stars to indicate direction, the Greeks again
do not know where the wind is driving them. Suddenly at dawn they find themselves
running up on the beach of a small island near another much larger. They disembark
and spend the day in hunting wild goats and in feasting on the delicacy. Seeing smoke
and hearing the cries of men and animals on the large island across the strait, they
decide to investigate. But as night is near, they first take their sleep along the shore.
Odysseus now tells us of the exploration on the next morning and what they found.
Included in the omitted lines (9.105-169) leading up to our passage are sociological
and anthropological details about the Cyclopes. Odysseus observes that they have no
laws (YMISTEW) and no assemblies (mGORA¹BOULHFÎROI). Possessing no
technology, they neither build ships nor houses; nor do they cultivate the soil, but
subsist on the wild foods abundantly available to them. In this sketch, Odysseus
introduces the Cyclopes as culturally primitive. Because they lack ships, they have
been unable to settle or develop the fertile forested island with its excellent harbor, in
which the Greeks have now landed.
501. TEXT
Second Adventure: On the Island of the Cyclops

MOWD
RIGNEIAFjNHODODjKTULOWb)¢W
KA¹TÎT
G£NmGORNYMENOWMETkPlSINEIPON
oLLOIMNNÅNM¸MNET
MO¹R¸HREWTAºROI
AÆTkRG£SÄNNHÚT
MKA¹MOºS
TjROISIN
LY£NT¤ND
mNDR¤NPEIRSOMAIO¾TINWE»SIN
mGORW [f.] general assembly
222
Lesson 73
502. NOTES
KA¹TÎT
= “at once.” YMENOW: 2 aor. ptc. of T¸YHMISee Section 472. EIPON :
since EÁPON formerly began with a digamma, it has a syllabic augment (= 8EIPON).
oLLOIMN = “the rest of you” as opposed to the companions on Odysseus’ own
ship (37)
503. COMMENT
The beauty of this famous line, which Homer frequently repeats, is due not only
to the vivid metaphor but also to the melodious flow of soft liquid consonants and
echoing long vowels. The line represents a highly poetic combination of imaginative
charm and skilful word-music. Dawn’s “fingers” probably are her spreading crimson/
saffron rays along the horizon, reaching out to take over the sky.
Odysseus’ willingness to share in all risks (an essential of great leadership) is
one reason why his men have such respect and loyalty for him.
504. DATIVE OF POSSESSION

As was seen in Lesson 6, the personal dative expresses to whom a thing is given, or for
whom something is or is done (Dative of reference). When an object is “for” or
“belongs to” a person in a special way, the person is said to possess it. Thus a strong
Dative of reference, especially when it is a personal pronoun, may be considered a
Dative of possession. For example:
MºNKATEKLjSYHTOR = Our heart was crushed.
SFINNÎOWST¹YEOUDW = Theirs is a God-fearing mind.
505. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Let us all hope that the dawn of a better day will appear to men suffering (aor.)
the many woes and evils of this war.
2. If the others should remain and fight for the sake of our fatherland, would you
have the heart to show yourself a coward and hide among the women and
children?
3. If we had always made trial of the length and strength of those trees with which
we intended to build our ships, the ships no doubt would have been larger,
stronger, and swifter than they are now.
506. WORD STUDY

EOLITHIC (the ‘dawn of the Stone Age’, a very early geological period of the earth’s
history).
223
Lesson 74
507. MEMORIZE
oGRIOWHON wild, savage
mNjoroM [adv.] up; back
[prep. + gen.] on (to)
[prep. + dat.] on [at rest]
[prep. + acc.] on (to), over
508. TEXT
A Fateful Start

O¾G
ÇBRISTA¸TEKA¹oGRIOIOÆDD¸KAIOI
EFILÎJEINOIKA¸SFINNÎOWST¹YEOUDW
ªWE»P£NmNkNHÏWBHNKLEUSAD
TA¸ROUW
AÆTOÃWT
mMBA¸NEINmNjTEPRUMNSIALÅSAI
YEOUDWW god-fearing
PRUMNSIAVN [n. pl.] stern-cables
ÇBRISTA¸jVN [m.] haughty, violent men
FILÎJEINOWHON hospitable
509. NOTES
…E “whether…or” [in indirect question]
TA¸ROUW : i.e., the crew of his own flagship.
mMBA¸NEIN: = mNABA¸NEINmNj…LÅSAI = “loose and draw up”
510. COMMENT
Odysseus is driven by his curiosity about the inhabitants of this new land and
assumes that encounters with strangers will result in positive experiences—
specifically, hospitable entertainment and gift-exchange. However, after his
experience as the JEºNOWof Polyphemus, Odysseus will not evidence so much
curiosity or confidence in approaching new experiences.
Greek ships were ordinarily moored in shallow water, their prows facing out to
sea for easier departure. The PRUMNSIA were strong rope cables or hawsers binding
the stern to some rock, tree, or post on shore. Heavy anchor stones held the prow
firmly into the face of the waves.
224
Lesson 74
511. THE CHARACTER OF ODYSSEUS (PART 1)

A look at the opening lines of the Odyssey gives an efficient introduction not only to
the important themes of the poem but to the basic shape of the hero’s character. His
name is withheld from us, just as Odysseus will cunningly withhold his name from
the Cyclops, Polyphemus. Instead, with his first word Homer refers to him as a man;
the emphasis here is not on this hero’s immortal glory, but his humanity. We are told
that his wanderings were intellectually broadening, but also that he suffered much, all
in an effort to survive and to save his companions’ lives. That the hero struggled to
survive once again underlines his mortality, while his efforts to preserve the lives of
others contrasts with heroes of warfare such as Achilles, whose life-destroying wrath is
celebrated in the opening lines of the Iliad. The proem tells us that Odysseus is a man
of many ways (POLÃTROPOW), who wandered much, saw and learned about many
people, and suffered many pains; the reiteration of words with POLLpoints to an
essential characteristic of Odysseus, his versatility. It also anticipates the several
epithets of Odysseus which convey the versatile nature of his intelligence: besides
POLÃTROPOWthese include POLÃFRVNof much intellectual capacity)
POLUMXANOW(of many devices)POLÃMHTIW(of much cunning)
When Odysseus withholds his own name from the Cyclops and instead calls himself
“Nobody,” he is using a form of disguise in order to protect himself and increase his
chances of survival, just as he does in other episodes. And as in other episodes
featuring a disguised Odysseus, intellectual excellence is being pitted against physical
superiority. Odysseus will overcome the more numerous suitors occupying his house
in Ithaca in part thanks to his successful disguise as a helpless beggar. The disguised
Odysseus is able to penetrate and assess a hostile situation, gathering the information
needed to make an assault that makes up for its lack of physical power with its
timeliness and opportunism. In Book 4 Helen tells about Odysseus’ infiltration into
Troy similarly disguised as a beggar. Under the cloak of these unthreatening rags, the
wily Odysseus is able to gather information about the layout of Troy in preparation
for the Greek attack following their entry inside of the Wooden Horse— another sort
of disguise, and a brainchild of Odysseus. Indeed, Menelaus’ narrative of the Wooden
Horse, also in Book 4, points to another essential aspect of Odysseus’ proficiency at
disguise. Helen’s realistic imitation of the Greek’s wives’ voices as she circles the Horse
fools all the Greeks except Odysseus, and nearly moves them to blow their cover.
Only Odysseus is able to resist such an impulse, and thus control the timing of his
actions so as to maximize their appropriateness. Moreover, Odysseus’ intelligence and
self-control saves lives.
The episode we are reading stars a character who is antithetical to Odysseus.
Polyphemus is big and strong, but intellectually he is no match for Odysseus, who is
able to defeat him with his cunning. Odysseus resists the urge to kill the monster in
retaliation for the murder of his companions, knowing that only a live Polyphemus is
strong enough to remove the enormous boulder he uses as a door to his cave, allowing
the men to escape. Thus, they must manipulate the monster into using his physical
force for their benefit. As in many contests in which Odysseus competes, the stronger
man must be managed, not just eliminated. As we shall see, this method requires the
gathering and/or the controlling of information through disguise and/or observation,
and the self-control to wait until the opportune moment.
225
512. WRITE IN GREEK

1. I remained near the town, that I might learn whether these men were cruel and
their (dat.) hearts savage, or honorable and lovers of (ptc.) virtue.
2. We ourselves, indeed, quickly went upon the long ships and sat in order at the
oarlocks, but he ordered the others to take the sheep and bring them to the good
king. [For “to take…and” use the ptc. only.]
3. It is necessary for all mortals to suffer pain and death; to endure them patiently
is difficult but is noble.
513. WORD STUDY

ANACHRONISM (a chronological error which ‘throws time back’ by projecting
something from its own period into an earlier one where it is out of place, e.g., a play
showing Abraham Lincoln using a computer), ANAGRAM (a word formed by
‘writing over again’ the letters of some other word where they are differently arranged,
as “own, won, now,” or the answer (John 18.38) to Pilate’s question to Christ “Quid
est veritas?” [What is truth?] becoming “Est vir qui adest” [It is the man who is
present]), ANATOMY, ANATOMICAL (TOMa cutting; ‘cutting up’ or dissecting a
body to learn its structure; the science which studies the structural organization of
bodies), ANATHEMA (YMA, from T¸YHMI, an official religious curse or
denunciation of evil or error, declaring a person or doctrine ‘put up’ as an object of
horror to be avoided and as ‘given over’ to destruction).
226
Lesson 75
514. MEMORIZE
oGXI [adv., and prep. + gen.] near, close by
A½JA»GÎW [m., f.] goat
mFIKNOMAImF¸JOMAImFIKÎMHN I come to, I arrive [+ acc.]
ÓÐWÓÐOW [dat. pl. also ÓESSI, acc. pl. always ÓÐW]
[m., f.] sheep
SPOWSPOWorSPOW [n.] cave
X¤ROWOU [m.] place, region
515. TEXT
Arrival
O¼D
AÁC
JWD
mLL
ÔTEDTÏNX¤RONmFIKÎMEY
GGÄWÎNTA
NYAD
P
SXATISPOWE½DOMENoGXIYALjSSHW
ÇCHLÎNDjFN×SIKATHREFWNYADPOLLk
ML
ÓÐWTEKA¹AÁGEW»AÃESKON
DjFNHHW [f.] laurel

SXATIW [f.] extremity, edge
»AÃV»AÃSV½AUSA I pass the night
KATHREFWW roofed over
516. NOTES
TÏNX¤RON:TÏNis here demonstrative = ‘that’ (i.e., aforementioned) large
island across the strait that was mentioned in the summary in Section 500
E½DOMEN is the augmented form of ½DOMEN(= 8¸DOMEN).
ÓÐEW: for Ó8IEW — which explains why the OI is not a diphthong but two syllables
throughout the declension of this word (cp. the Latin for sheep: ovis). Whenever the
breathing is placed over the first of two vowels, it is a sign that they do not form a
diphthong.
517. COMMENT
It is characteristic of Homer’s oral and traditional style, and of epic and ballad
technique in general, to repeat certain lines or expressions whenever speaking of the
same thing again. This repetition of formulaic phrases and lines was also a welcome
227
aid to the ancient bards who composed orally as they performed. See if you can
recognize repeated lines as you read on.
The cave, which Odysseus can see from his vantage point, and the flocks sleeping
within it, are going to be important in the episode that follows. Moreover, the use of
caves for housing instead of built structures is emblematic of a technologically
primitive culture.
518. THE CHARACTER OF ODYSSEUS (PART 2)

Wily intelligence, self-control, awareness of mortality, versatility and humanity are the
qualities that stand out in the Odyssey’s hero. How consistent is this portrait with the
Odysseus who appears in the Iliad and elsewhere outside of the Odyssey?
In a scene in Book 3 of the Iliad, Helen suggests that Odysseus’ appearance is itself a
sort of disguise. To look at Odysseus before he begins to speak, she says, you’d think
him a bit simpleminded, for he has an awkward posture and a stare directed at the
ground beneath his own feet. But such impressions are dispelled by his powerful and
fluent speech, for he is unrivalled as a rhetorician and diplomat. Indeed, Odysseus is
Agamemnon’s right-hand man in the Iliad, serving as his spokesman and ambassador.
It is he who is charged with presenting Agamemnon’s offer to Achilles to persuade
him to rejoin the Greeks in their attack on Troy (Book 9). Thus the Iliad’s Odysseus
possesses a hidden excellence that seems to gain power beyond that which is intrinsic
to it as it emerges from an unlikely cover. Odysseus’ oratory ambushes the
unsuspecting audience the way a warrior camouflaged by the night might surprise his
foe.
And indeed a night ambush is another episode in which Odysseus stars in the Iliad.
Book 10 tells how Odysseus and Diomedes, on a spying mission, sneak into the
Trojan camp at night. They ambush a Trojan scout and trick him, with assurances
that he will be released alive, into giving information about Trojan plans and the
location of Hector, his gear and horses, as well as the stationing of the various Trojan
allies. After he has given them all this information, and even pointed out the camp of
the rich King Rhesus and his Thracians, they kill him; they then proceed to kill the
sleeping Rhesus and twelve of the Thracians and to steal their splendid horses. This
sort of warfare relies on cunning to a much more obvious extent than a battle between
spear fighters on a open plain, a type of battle that is more common in the Iliad, and
in which its physically powerful hero, Achilles, excels. Yet it is easy to see that
Odysseus’ character suits him well for the ambush, which requires some self-
concealment, patience, self-control and good timing in order to surprise the enemy.
The Epic Cycle presents an Odysseus who is inclined towards trickery, but not always
for heroic ends. Odysseus is first mentioned in the Cypria, according to the evidence
we have about that lost epic poem. Because Odysseus had been one of the suitors for
the hand of Helen, he had been bound by an oath to fight for her husband should she
ever be abducted. Yet, when this very thing happens and recruiters come to Ithaca to
collect Odysseus, he feigns insanity—pushing his plow backwards— in order to avoid
military service. Palamedes, another wily hero, is able to expose Odysseus’ insanity as
an act by placing the baby Telemachus in front of the plowshare; Odysseus gives
himself away when he opts to save his son. Odysseus later takes revenge on Palamedes
228
Lesson 75
by forging a letter from the Trojan King Priam to Palamedes, offering him a generous
bribe of gold in return for betraying the Greeks; Odysseus also hides the specified
amount of gold in Palamedes’ quarters and makes sure that the forged letter is seen by
Agamemnon, who has Palamedes stoned by the army.
In the Little Iliad Odysseus and Diomedes manage to steal the Trojan guardian statue
of the armed Athene called the Palladium. On the way back from this venture,
Odysseus tries to get Diomedes killed in order to be able to take all the credit for
himself.
519. WRITE IN GREEK

1. In a wide place close by the sea, we came to a very high cave in which we saw
many sheep and cows and wild goats.
2. He did not know that some shepherd is always roaming back and forth here
among the beautiful white sheep, lest anyone should injure them.
3. Whenever he perceived rosy-fingered Dawn appear over the deep, he took the
little sheep that he especially loved and put it at the door of the cave. [“He
took…and” = “taking”]
229
Lesson 76
520. MEMORIZE
mPÎPROSYEN [adv.] far away, aloof
»D [conj.] and [= D]
OÁOWHON alone
PEL¢RIOWHON gigantic, monstrous
521. TEXT
The Setting
PER¹D
AÆL
ÇCHLDDMHTOKATVRUXESSIL¸YOISI
MAKRS¸NTEP¸TUSSIN»DDRUS¹NÇCIKÎMOISIN
NYAD
mNRN¸AUEPEL¢RIOWÔWATkMLA
OÁOWPOIMA¸NESKENmPÎPROYENOÆDMET
oLLOUW
PVLEºT
mLL
mPjNEUYEN£NmYEM¸STIADH
mYEM¸STIOWHON lawless
DMV, —,DEºMA—,DDMHMAI I build
DRÃWDRUÎW [f.] oak
NIAÃV I pass the night in
KATVRUXWEW embedded in the ground
P¸TUWUOW [f.] pine-tree
POIMA¸NV I tend, I shepherd
PVLOMAI I am accustomed to go
ÇC¸KOMOWON lofty-leafed
522. NOTES
PER¸: round about (the cave’s mouth). AÆLhere means “fence” or “wall” (of a
farmyard).
mYEM¸STIADH: i.e., acknowledged no law. For the verb form, see Section 491.
523. COMMENT
The enormous size of the fence around the fold, built with whole trunks of
trees, is the first indication Odysseus has that the natives here are of unusual stature.
This man turns out to be the giant Polyphemus, a Cyclops (“Circle-eye”). No
mention is made of Polyphemus’ single eye; aside from the monster’s size, the poem’s
emphasis here is on his asocial character. Note that this information about
Polyphemus is not discerned by the hero from his position in the ship, but is gathered
later, as the episode unfolds.
230
Lesson 76
524. OPTATIVE OF EXPECTATION

Sometimes a potential optative has the special force of indicating what one desires or
expects to happen under the circumstances. This occurs in relative or temporal clauses
referring to the future and depending upon some present or projected action of the
main verb’s subject. This construction follows the regular potential optative rule
(optative with KE N or oNcp. Section 285b) but it has to be translated a bit
differently in English—by can, will, or some other less hypothetical expression than
could, should, or might. For example:
EÉRVMNTINAÔWKENE½POIT¸STIN
Let us find somebody who can (or will) tell us what it is.
525. WRITE IN GREEK

1. According to what our companions say, these monstrous shepherds used to
remain aloof, and did not wish to be loved or even seen by mortals who go upon
the broad sea in hollow ships.
2. He was like to a high tree which the gods put alone on a lofty rock, where it
appears to men far away in the middle of the deep.
3. Whenever we feared that something evil was about to happen, we prayed to
Apollo, and he always protected us, as (one) well knowing what need we had.
231
Lesson 77
526. MEMORIZE
mRNEIÎWOÅ [m.] (full-grown) ram
YUREÎWOÅ [m.] door-stone
¾STHMISTSVSTSA I put; I halt [trans.]
¾STAMAISTSOMAISTN I stand, I halt [intr.]
ÓROWÓREOW [n.] mountain
527. TEXT
The Giant Cyclops

KA¹GkRYAÅM
TTUKTOPEL¢RIONOÆDKEI
mNDR¸GESITOFjG¡mLLk¸¡ÇLENTI
ÇCHL¤NÑRVNÔTEFA¸NETAIOÁONmP
oLLVN
DTÎTETOÄWoLLOUWKELÎMHNR¸HRAWTA¸ROUW
AÆTOÅPkRNHÚTEMNEINKA¹NARUSYAI
YAÅMAATOW [n.] wonder, marvel

¸ONOU [n.] peak, crag
SITOFjGOWHON bread-eating
ÇLEIWESSAEN tree-covered, wooded
528. NOTES
TTUKTO Remember that in the pf. pass. system TEÃXV often = “I am,” etc.
PkR= PARk. RUSYAI= RÃESYAI.
529. COMMENT
In describing the vast and terrifying size of the monster who dwelt in this
cave, Odysseus is anticipating a bit in his story. At this point, the Greeks have not yet
seen the Cyclops; but in narrating things after the event, Odysseus draws on his fuller
knowledge and skillfully lets us in on important details necessary to put us in the right
mood for grasping the emotional significance of what is to follow. Alfred Noyes has
caught the mood of this passage in his imitation of it as the opening of his poem Forty
Singing Seamen:
Across the seas of Wonderland to Mogadore we plodded,
Forty singing seamen in an old black barque,
And we landed in the twilight where a Polyphemus nodded
With his battered moon-eye winking red and yellow through the dark
For his eye was growing mellow
232
Lesson 77
Rich and ripe and red and yellow

As was time, since old Ulysses made him bellow in the dark!
Were they mountains in the gloaming or the giant’s ugly shoulders
Just beneath the rolling eyeball, with its bleared and vinous glow,
Red and yellow o’er the purple of the pines among the boulders
And the shaggy horror brooding on the sullen slopes below?
Were they pines among the boulders
Or the hair upon his shoulders?
We were only simple seamen, so of course we didn’t know.*
*From Collected Poems of Alfred Noyes, Vol. 1 (Copyright, 1906).

Reprinted by permission of the publishers, J. B. Lippincott Co.
Sensing danger, Odysseus leaves most of his men at the ship, to protect it,
keep it in readiness for flight, and at least prevent the whole crew being swallowed up
by disaster if things go wrong at the cave.
530. WRITE IN GREEK

1. There the shepherd remained, to protect the rams and goats hiding in a great
cave in the middle of the mountain.
2. Whenever a ship appears, we rejoice; for we always fear that it may miss this
small place, on account of the storms and great winds.
3. None of us knew whether they gave the gold to some friend or put it under the
door-stone of some house where no one might find it.
531. WORD STUDY

ECSTASY (STjSIW a standing [cp. ptc. STjW], ‘a standing out of oneself ’ through
some overpowering emotion or mental exaltation; rapture, extreme enthusiasm; a
religious trance when the soul seems carried out of the body and united to God in
prayer), APOSTASY ( ‘ a standing away from’ some group or cause to which one
formerly belonged, especially desertion from one’s religion), APOSTATE,
APOSTATIZE.
233
Lesson 78
In lessons 73-77 you have memorized sixteen new words, have read twenty-five lines
of text, and have studied two new points of syntax: the Dative of Possession and the
Optative of Expectation. Review thoroughly; then test your review with this sample
examination.
I. Text (30%), 10 minutes:
1. Translate: METkPlSINEIPON
2. In 1.38, explain case of mNDR¤N .
3. In 1.42, why is LÅSAI an infinitive?
4. Translate: OÆDKEImNDR¸
5. In 1.40, explain case of SFIN.
II. Syntax (20%), 10 minutes; translate:
1. Let us wait here until someone comes who can show us the way.
2. We asked if these ships were his, and if he built them himself.
III. Vocabulary (20%), 10 minutes:
1. Dawn: acc. sg. =
2. we shall arrive =
3. MOW =
4. goat: dat. pl. =
5. wild: masc. dat. pl. =
6. cave: acc. pl. =
7. oGXI=
8. ÑRESSI=
9. sheep: acc. pl. =
IV. Story (30%), 15 minutes:
1. Write a brief (100 words) but accurate account of the events of these lines.
2. Was Odysseus a good leader? Cite evidence from the last 25 lines.
3. Homer’s style is unaffected and concrete. In the light of the lines read in
the last five lessons, give reasons for accepting or denying this statement.
234
Lesson 79
533. MEMORIZE
mGLAÎWÎN splendid
oMAJAHW [f.] wagon
mSKÎWOÅ [m.] bag
MLAWMLAINAMLAN [m. and n. gen. MLANOW] dark, black
ÇCÎSE [adv.] on high, upwards
534. TEXT
A Tactful Approach
AÆTkRG£KR¸NAWTjRVNDUOKA¸DEK
mR¸STOUW
BNmTkRA½GEONmSKÏNXONMLANOWO½NOIO
DOWÔNMOID¤KE.jRVN&ÆjNYEOWU¼ÎW
¼REÄWb"PÎLLVNOWÖWd*SMARONmMFIBEBKEI
OÉNEKjMINSÄNPAID¹PERISXÎMEY
DGUNAIK¹
nZÎMENOI²KEIGkRNoLSEÐDENDRENTI
'O¸BOUb"PÎLLVNOWÒDMOIPÎRENmGLAkD¤RA
A½GEOWHON of a goat, goatskin

oLSOWEOW [n.] sacred grove
mMFIBA¸NV I go around; I guard
DENDREIWESSAEN densely wooded
DUOKA¸DEKA <indecl.] twelve
&ÆjNYHWEOW [m.] Euanthes
¼EREÃWOW [m.] priest
d*SMAROWOU [m.] the town of the Cicones
.jRVNONOW [m.] Maron
OÉNEKA because, seeing that
PERIXOMAI I hold myself about, I protect
'OºBOWOU [m.] Phoebus (‘the bright one’), name of Apollo
535. NOTES
ÔW: the antecedent is b"PÎLLVN .
mMFIBEBKEI : the god had protected the city as its special guardian divinity
before it was destroyed; or perhaps = an impf. (cp. Section 320, n. 3): he had made
himself the city’s protector and was such permanently while it existed.
536. COMMENT
With characteristic foresight and psychology, Odysseus sets out not only with
a strong guard but with gifts— and just that sort of gift which is sure to be understood
235
and welcomed. He will win over the stranger’s friendship if possible, receiving aid and
friendly gifts in return; but he can protect himself, too, if the natives are hostile. He
feels ready for whatever may develop.
The wine is kept in a leather bag made of goatskin stitched together.
When he destroyed Ismarus, the Cicones’ town (cp. Section 455), Odysseus
had spared the priestly family at Apollo’s shrine, out of reverence and in fear of the
god’s anger. How the good man’s gifts of gratitude are now to work their blessing in
Odysseus’ favor will be seen as the tale unfolds.
537. THE TROJAN WAR (PART ONE)

Homer presupposes in the Odyssey (as does Vergil in the Aeneid) that his readers are
already familiar with the main details in the traditional account of the Trojan War.
You ought, then, to know at least the outlines of this, the most famous and widely
referred to war in literature.
The story of the Trojan War, its causes and aftermath, was the subject of eight epic
poems, two of which, the Iliad and the Odyssey, are extant. These poems belonged to
what is called the Epic Cycle, a collection of early Greek epics. From summaries of
their contents, compiled in antiquity, we are able to draw an outline of the legendary
war at Troy.
At the marriage banquet of Peleus and Thetis, parents of Achilles, the goddess Strife
(who had not been invited, because of her bad manners; she was always irritating
people) throws onto the table from heaven a golden apple inscribed ,ALL¸ST×. Since
each of the goddesses present naturally thinks this was meant for herself, quarrels
arise. The Trojan prince Paris is finally constituted judge, and on being promised by
Aphrodite (Venus) that he would win Helen, most beautiful woman in the world, for
wife, he awards her the prize.
But Helen is meanwhile married to Menelaus, king of Sparta in Greece. Paris
nevertheless lays a plot, and gaining possession of Helen takes her to Troy. The Greek
kings, shocked by the crime and this outrage to their honor, join forces under
Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and brother of Menelaus. They had earlier sworn an
oath, on Odysseus’ urging, to support Helen’s husband in defending her. In a mighty
expedition of 100,000 men and 1186 ships (as described in Book 2 of the Iliad) they
arrive, after many delays and strange incidents, at the coast of Troy and set up camp.
Menelaus and Odysseus go to king Priam of Troy and demand Helen’s return, with
rich gifts as reparations. But the Trojans are led by Paris’ insistence to refuse, and war
is declared.
236
Lesson 79
538. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Since we revered the holy man and saved his life, he gave us a great bag of
honey-sweet wine, with which I was greatly pleased.
2. Whenever you (pl.) ask for it, you will receive a most splendid gift, which I was
saving for you until you should arrive.
3. Some cruel (fellow), having seized the children’s wagon and lifted it on high,
hurled it afar into the river.
539. WORD STUDY

MELANCHOLY, MELANCHOLIC (XOL bile; a state of depression, gloom,
constitutional low spirits, formerly ascribed in medical theory to an excess of ‘black
bile’ getting into the bloodstream from the liver).
237
Lesson 80
540. MEMORIZE
oLOXOWOU [f.] wife
mMF¸POLOWOU [f.] handmaid, female attendant
DM¢WDMVÎW [m.] man-servant
PTj [indecl.] seven
EÆERGWW well made; fine
KRHTRKRHTROW [m.] mixing-bowl
541 TEXT
Maron’s Gratitude
XRUSOÅMNMOID¤K
EÆERGOWPTkTjLANTA
D¤KEDMOIKRHTRAPANjRGURONAÆTkRPEITA
OÁNONNmMFIFOREÅSIDU¢DEKAPlSINmFÃSSAW
DÄNmKHRjSIONYEºONPOTÎNOÆDTIWAÆTÏN
E¸DHDM¢VNOÆD
mMFIPÎLVNN¹O½K¡
mLL
AÆTÏWoLOXÎWTEF¸LHTAM¸HTEM¸
O½H
mKHRjSIOWON pure, unmixed

mMFIFOREÃWOW [dat. pl. mMFIFOREÅSI] two-handled jar for wine; amphora
DU¢DEKA twelve
YEºOWHON divine, excellent
PANjRGUROWON all of silver
POTÎNOÅ [n.] drink
TjLANTONOU [n.] talent [a standard weight]
TAM¸HHW [f.] housekeeper
542. NOTES
NmMFIFOREÅSIDU¢DEKAPlSIN: “in twelve amphoras all-told”
E¸DH: 3 sg. plpf. of OÁDA<= DH> cp. Section 491. DM¢VNmMFIPÎLVN:
both genitives in this line are partitive, going with TIW (cp. Section 18b).
The verb for these nominatives is to be carried over from the preceding line.
543. COMMENT
In his joy at being spared, the old priest gives Odysseus precious objects dear
to his heart. The bowl was likely a keepsake particularly admired for its artistic
ornamentation. The wine is obviously a very special treasure, because of its
remarkable flavor and fragrance— as we learn in the following lines.
238
Lesson 80
Odysseus’ humanity and respectful consideration, not expected from an enemy leader
on a punitive expedition, are an indication of high character; it is fitting that they
should be so well rewarded.
544. THE TROJAN WAR (PART TWO)

Unable to break through Troy’s enormous god-built walls, the Greeks surround the
city and keep it under blockade. There are occasional battles on the plain toward the
sea, and many raiding expeditions on nearby towns for food and to prevent their
assisting Troy. After ten years of such indecisive fighting, Agamemnon and the army
wish to give up and return home, but Odysseus inspires them with courage to carry
on. Achilles, greatest of Greek warriors, is insulted by Agamemnon and refuses to
fight or allow his army to aid the others. An attempt to settle the war by a single
combat between Menelaus and Paris fails, and violent battles go on for weeks.
Despite the brave efforts of many Greek heroes, and the momentary victory won by
Odysseus and Diomedes in a night attack on one enemy camp, the Greeks are driven
back to the sea by the noble Trojan leader Hector, who even sets fire to some of their
ships.
Achilles, on the death of his dear friend Patroclus, finally reenters the war and in a
fury of irresistible might drives the Trojans back within their walls, killing Hector and
many others. When two new armies, of the Amazons and Ethiopians, come to aid
Troy, Achilles slays their leaders and routs the host, but is himself slain by an arrow
from Paris’ bow. His armor is awarded to Odysseus, as bravest of the other Greeks,
and, by his shrewdness in strategy, the greatest threat to Troy. This honor is again
shown deserved when Odysseus, with Diomedes’ aid, enters Troy in disguise and
carries off from the temple a closely guarded sacred image of Athene, which had won
the city divine protection. He is also in command of the troops within the great
wooden horse by which Troy is finally tricked, entered, and destroyed. And it was he
who thought up this clever stratagem for winning the war. Only a few Trojans escape
with their lives, among them Aeneas, who finally sets up in Italy a new Troy later
identified by the Romans as the origin of Rome.
There are, in Homer and the other poets, countless details filling out this general plot,
and much vivid description and character portrayal. The story of Troy is one of the
most fully and ingeniously developed of all legends. It forms the basis for a large
proportion of the most famous writings of Greece, Rome, and the Middle Ages; and it
enters extensively into the work of earlier English authors, including Chaucer,
Spenser, and Shakespeare. Many modern poems and novels have also drawn on it in
interesting ways.
545. WRITE IN GREEK

1. If he had been a wiser man, he would have put (YHK the sweet but strong wine
into that splendid black mixing-bowl which was lying beside him, and would
have mixed seven measures of water with it.
2. In that great mountain we found a gigantic hollow cave, in which was concealed
a most splendid treasure of gold.
239
546. WORD STUDY

HEPTAGON (GVN¸H angle; a seven-sided geometrical figure); — CRATER (a
‘bowl-shaped’ cavity forming the mouth of a volcano); — TALENT (one’s inborn
‘amount of natural endowment’), TALENTED.
240
Lesson 81
547. MEMORIZE
mGNVRmGNOROW [adj.] manly, courageous
mPXV I hold back from, I refrain from
AÆT¸KA [adv.] at once
MP¸PLHMIMPLSVMPLHSA I fill (with)
PRXOMAI I come to, I come upon [+ dat., acc.]
YESPSIOWHON heavenly, divine
XVXEÃVXEÅA I pour; I heap up
548. TEXT
A Wine for the Gods

TÏND
ÔTEP¸NOIENMELIHDAOÁNONRUYRÎN
NDPAWMPLSAWÉDATOWmNkE½KOSIMTRA
XEÅ
ÑDMD
DEºAmPÏKRHTROWÑD¢DEI
YESPES¸HTÎT
qNOÈTOImPOSXSYAIF¸LONEN
TOÅFRONMPLSAWmSKÏNMGANNDKA¹A
KVRÃK¡AÆT¸KAGjRMOIÑÚSATOYUMÏWmGNVR
oNDR
PELEÃSESYAIMEGjLHNPIEIMNONmLKN
oGRIONOÈTED¸KAWEÌE»DÎTAOÈTEYMISTAW
mLKW [f.] prowess, strength

DPAWAOW [n.] cup, bowl
E½KOSI [indecl.] twenty
PIEºMAI : pf. mid. of PINNUMI I clothe with [+ acc.]
RUYRÎWÎN red
AVN [n. pl.] provisions
K¢RUKOWOU [m.] bag, sack
ÑDMW [f.] fragrance, scent
ÑD¢DEA plpf. with impf. sense of ÓZV: spread abroad [of an aroma]
549. NOTES
mNj here means “into, among” [= “over the extent of ”]
N…XEÅ
: “Having filled one cup [of wine] he would pour it into twenty
measures of water.”
qN with a past indicative verb gives the clause a contrary to fact meaning.
241
TOÅ goes with mSKÎNN with KVRÃK¡

oNDR
is the object of PELEÃSESYAI which is an inf. in indirect statement
after ÑÚSATO
550. COMMENT
From this description of the wine’s merits it becomes evident why Maron
kept it so well hidden and why Odysseus called it at line 69 “a drink fit for the gods.”
Note that the ancient method of diluting was to pour the wine into water, not
add water to the wine. The usual ratio was three parts of water to two of wine.
Maron’s concentrate therefore was especially potent.
Reflecting on the vast size of the sheep-pen as seen from the coast (lines 48-
50), Odysseus suspected the cave’s inhabitant might be a huge and burly fellow who
likes his wine strong, and the easiest way to whose friendship would be a gift of food
and a bag of wine—especially if this is of a quality he probably has never before
known.
PIEIMNON: this is a common metaphor in Homer and other ancient authors.
For instance, in the Old Testament, as Ecclesiasticus 17.2 “God clothed him with
strength,” Job 8.22 “thy enemies shall be clothed with confusion,” and similar
passages.
551. ILIAD AND ODYSSEY: ORAL TRADITION TO WRITTEN TEXT

In the thirteenth century BCE Greece was inhabited by speakers of an early form of
Greek called “Mycenaean” after the home of Agamemnon in the Iliad. The people of
this civilization (also called now “Achaean” after Homer’s name for Greeks) could
write. However, they used not the Greek alphabet you have learned but a syllabary.
Moreover, they used writing to keep official records, not to preserve stories and
poems, so far as we know, though such stories and poems certainly were passed on in
an oral form.
Archaeology has uncovered a rich and refined way of life centered at palaces in Pylos,
Argos, Mycenae, Tiryns, Thebes, Athens and elsewhere. For reasons about which we
can only conjecture, Mycenaean civilization collapsed around 1200 BCE. The
palaces, the nerve center of Mycenaean civilization, were destroyed and the sites
largely abandoned. Thus, inhabitants were displaced, and the population declined
steeply. Though a few areas continued to enjoy some prosperity thanks to unbroken
trade relations with the Levant, most of Greece went into economic recession and can
be described as backward, decentralized and disorganized, at least in comparison with
the hierarchical civilization of the Mycenaeans. Burial practices changed, as did
building and pottery styles. The period is called the Greek Dark Age. While we know
that people continued to speak Greek throughout this period, they lost the art of
writing it. Yet traditional tales were passed down orally, preserved by bards.
Archeological evidence suggests some renewal of prosperity by 1000 accompanied by
more contact with peoples of the eastern Mediterranean— in particular, the
Phoenicians, whose language was closely related to Hebrew. The Greeks borrowed the
242
Lesson 81
Phoenician alphabet in the eighth century, adapting their Semitic script to the Greek
language. Though it is not known exactly how this borrowing came about or for what
purpose, it did make possible the eventual preservation, in a fixed form, of the oral
epic tradition represented by the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is thought that these poems
were written down sometime after 750 BCE. Many scholars believe that they were
expanded, refined, and otherwise improved once in a written form.
552. WRITE IN GREEK

1. To refrain from shameful pleasures and endure trouble with a manly spirit is
better than heaping up gold or becoming king of many kingdoms.
2. Whenever I would come (¼KjNV) to this most holy temple, a heavenly peace
seemed to fill (aor.) my heart.
3. Who would have thought that we would halt near the cave of a man neither
revering right nor knowing truth?
553. WORD STUDY

OZONE (a blue gas with a pungent odor—it may be smelled in the air after a violent
thunderstorm, being formed from oxygen by the passage of electricity through the
atmosphere).
243
Lesson 82
554. MEMORIZE
oNTRONOU [n.] cave
oRNEWmRN¤N [no nom. sg.; acc.sgoRNA] [m., f.] lamb(s)
NDON [adv.] within, inside
KARPjLIMOWON swift, quick
P¸VNP¸ONOW [adj.] fat, rich
SHKÎWOÅ [m.] pen, fold
TURÎWOÅ [m.] cheese
555. TEXT
Inside the Cave

KARPAL¸MVWD
E»WoNTRONmFIKÎMEY
OÆDMINNDON
EÉROMENmLL
NÎMEUENOMÏNKjTAP¸ONAMLA
LYÎNTEWD
E»WoNTRONYHEÃMESYAKASTA
TARSO¹MNTUR¤NBRºYONSTE¸NONTODSHKO¹
mRN¤ND
R¸FVNNAºOND
ÑR¯oGGEAPjNTA
oGGOWoGGEOW [n.] vessel, pail

BR¸YVBR¸SVBR¸SA I am weighted down with a load of [+ gen.]
RIFOWOU [m.] kid
YHOMAIYHSOMAIYHHSjMHN I gaze at (in wonder), I behold
NA¸V I am brimming with [+ dat.]
NOMEÃV I tend (a flock)
NOMÎWOÅ pasture
ÑRÎWOÅ [m.] whey [the clear yellow liquid that separates off from curdled milk]
STE¸NOMAI I am filled with a throng of [+ gen.]
TARSÎWOÅ wicker-basket
556. NOTES
KjTA here = “in” [“down the length of ”]. When a preposition follows its object,
its pitch-mark is moved back to the first syllable (cp. Section 408b on anastrophe).
557. COMMENT
The Greeks peer into the cave, whose vastness is even more impressive now
that they see it close at hand. But no one seems to be within, or to answer their shouts
of greeting. So they go inside and explore.
244
Lesson 82
Odysseus learned that the Cyclops was afield with his flocks, not because he saw
him there from the cave but by his entry later, which indicated where he had been.
It is evident to the visitors that the inhabitant of the cave is a herdsman or
shepherd, and a very prosperous one at that, to judge from the abundance of food
stored up and the large increase for his flocks. The young are kept inside for
protection until they grow nimble and strong; the cheese is hung up on porous
baskets to drip dry. The enormous size and quantity of everything holds the men in
openmouthed wonder.
558. POETRY AND RHYTHM

You have probably already picked up some skill in following the verse-rhythm of
Homer’s lines. Here are some points to help you read the poem metrically with more
understanding and enjoyment:
1. Rhythm is a pattern cut in time. It puts sounds into an orderly plan, molds them
into an artistic design. It makes sounds follow one another in a flexible but
regular sequence, so that recognizably the same pattern recurs at fixed intervals.
Repetition yet variation; an intriguing blend of permanence and change; the
combined pleasure of the return of what is familiar and the constant surprise of
something new— these are the reasons why rhythmic sound possesses a natural
interest and appeal for everybody, why all men love music.
2. The poetic function of rhythm is threefold: to add to the poem as a whole the
charm and beauty of music; to interpret and emphasize the thought and deepen
our emotional response to it by stirring up just the right mood for reacting more
fully to the implications of what is being said; and to elevate the language above
the level of ordinary speech or prose, for intensified artistic effect.
3. Poetic technique. A great rhythmic artist— and Homer is one of the world’s
supreme masters of this intricate art—will choose and arrange his words to gain
all three of these effects in the highest degree, yet with complete ease and
without in the least changing what he wants to say. The intangible charm of this
rhythmic beauty, so perfectly fitted to the precise thought, is inevitably lost if
the poem is put into other words or into another language. That is one reason
why the poetry of a poem cannot be translated, but must be enjoyed in the
original or not at all; and one reason why you are learning Greek is to be able to
read Homer, the real Homer in all his original energy and life and melodic
beauty.
4. The type of rhythm in a poem depends on three factors: (1) whether the recurring
sound pattern is one of accent, tone, number of syllables in a line, time-length
(quantity) of individual syllables, similar consonant-groups, or some other
aspect of sound repeated in a regular cycle; (2) what is the formula for each such
pattern or ‘measure’; (3) how often this pattern is repeated, i.e., how many
measures to a line.
The rhythmic scheme used by Homer (and many other ancient poets, e.g., Vergil) is
the quantitative dactylic hexameter. Hence its pattern is determined by the quantity
of the syllables, the length of time required to pronounce them—i.e., a pattern of long
and short syllables, such as you already know; this pattern’s formula is long, short,
245
short, or its equivalent, known as a dactyl because it has one long and two short
sections like a finger; the pattern recurs six times each line, thus making it a six-
measure verse or hexameter (cp. Section 179).
The simple rules for reading the Homeric hexameter rhythmically will be given in the
next lesson.
559. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Let us then go quickly into the cave, to see the pens which have been built inside
for the ram and the fat sheep.
2. We did not believe the man who told us that his daughter ate only cheese for
nine days and still yearned for it.
3. O cruel woman, how did you have the heart to leave the children (dual) at the
door of a stranger’s house, where they would have perished if he had not
received them kindly?
560. WORD STUDY

BUTTER (BOÃTURON ‘cow-cheese’, i.e., made from cow’s milk, not goat’s, which
was more often used for drinking in ancient times than cow’s milk); — THEATER (a
‘place for gazing at’ a dramatic performance), THEATRICAL; — THEORY (a
‘beholding with the mind’s eye’ of some speculative or possible plan to be tested by
experiment; hence, a proposed law in science or philosophy not yet accepted by
everybody because not proved), THEORETICAL (hypothetical, probable but not
certain, speculative as opposed to practical), THEORIZE: THEOREM (an accepted
proposition in mathematics set up to be ‘gazed at’, thought over, and proved).
246
Lesson 83
561. MEMORIZE
A½NUMAI [pres. syst. only] I seize upon; I select
nLMURÎWÎN salty, briny
truly, indeed; also, an untranslatable interr. particle
introducing a question
L¸SSOMAI —, LISjMHN I entreat, I beg
JE¸NIONOU [n.] gift of hospitality, a present given by a host to a guest
POLÃW, —, POLÃ much, many [Alternative m. and n. forms of POLLÎWÎN]
562. TEXT
Hesitation
NY
MMNPR¢TISY
TAROIL¸SSONT
PESSI
TUR¤NA»NUMNOUW»NAIPjLINAÆTkRPEITA
KARPAL¸MVWP¹NAYONR¸FOUWTEKA¹oRNAW
SHK¤NJELjSANTAWPIPLEºNnLMURÏNÉDVR
mLL
G£OÆPIYÎMHNT
qNPOLÄKRDIONEN
ÓFR
AÆTÎNTE½DOIMIKA¹E½MOIJE¸NIADO¸H
OÆD
oR
MELL
TjROISIFANE¹WRATEINÏWSESYAI
JELAÃNVJELjVJLASSA I drive out of [+ acc. and gen.]

PIPLV I sail over, upon
RATEINÎWÎN delightful
RIFOWOU [m.] kid
PR¢TISTA [adv.] first of all, at the start
563. NOTES
ESSI instead of SI is sometimes used in the dat. pl.
TUR¤N is partitive. »NAI: pres. inf. of EÁMI(“I go”); the unstated subject of both
infinitives »NAIandPIPLEºNand of participles A»NUMNOUW and JELjSANTAW is
MAW
The DO¸H depends on ½DOIMI carried over in thought. To review the form, see
Sections 472 and 473.
247
564. COMMENT
Being soldiers hardened by long years of war and plundering of the enemy,
Odysseus’ men have no scruples about making the most of an opportunity and
carrying off a few ‘souvenirs.’ Odysseus resists the tempting suggestion, in the hope
that the stranger will freely offer some of his rich possessions as a token of friendly
hospitality, according to universal custom and good manners in the Homeric world in
regard to travelers. Besides, he is curious to see who lives in the vast cave.
Odysseus allows that it would have been better not to have awaited the stranger’s
return. It need not be interpreted to imply that they should have taken anything with
them in leaving—though in Homeric ethics that would not have been considered a
grave wrong under the circumstances.
Odysseus is characteristically eager to find out about things.
A somber foreshadowing of tragedy to come. But why the emphasis on
companions? What will happen to their leader?
565. READING HOMER RHYTHMICALLY

1. Quantity. The rhythm of Greek and Latin verse is not built on a pattern of
stressed and unstressed syllables (as in English poetry), but on one of long and
short syllables—on their quantity or time-length when naturally pronounced.
The rhythm of classical poetry, then, is built on the same principles as the
rhythm of music.
a. A syllable is long: (1) by nature, when it contains a long vowel or a
diphthong: e.g., AÆT, where both syllables are long (2) by position, when
its vowel (even though naturally short) is followed by two or more
consonants or by one of the double consonants ZJC E.g., NDON (first
syllable long), oNDRA (first syllable long), DSTE¸NONTO (first and third
syllables long by position, the second by nature), oC
b. A syllable is otherwise short — i.e., when it has a short vowel, alone or
followed by only one simple consonant: e.g., DEMIN
Note: Sometimes the poet treats a mute followed by a liquid as a single
consonant, so that the preceding vowel remains short (e.g., SXTLIOW,
where E is short); but ordinarily this combination makes the syllable long by
position (e.g., TLH, where Eis long).
c. Special: a long vowel or diphthong is often treated as though short when it
occurs in the last half of the foot and is followed by another vowel in the
same or following word. This is really half-elision. For examplemLL
G£
OÆ, where V is short.
A short vowel may be treated as long when it is in the first syllable of a foot,
since it is there strengthened by the metrical stress. A short vowel may be
treated as long for a different reason—because of a lost 8(digamma) whose
influence remains and combines with a second consonant to make the vowel
long by position in the regular way (e.gMÏNPOW, where the final
248
Lesson 83
syllable of MÏNis long because of the digamma with which POW once
began [8EPOW]).
d. Synizesis. Sometimes two adjacent vowels that would ordinarily be
pronounced separately have to be forced into one syllable to fit the meter.
This is done by pronouncing the first as y, combined with the second into
one long syllable. This is called synizesis (‘settling down together as one’).
E.g., YEOIDHOUTVW

2. Pattern. Each line has six measures or feet, corresponding to six bars in a phrase
of music. The time-value of each foot is four beats. A short syllable gets one
beat, a long syllable two.
Every foot begins with a long syllable; the second half of the foot may be either
two short syllables or another long, in either case taking the same total time to
pronounce: two beats.
a. The combination of a long syllable with two short (– ) is called a dactyl;

two longs (– –) make a spondee.
b. Any foot except the last may be either a dactyl or a spondee; the last foot is
generally a spondee, sometimes a half-dactyl with anceps, which is a space
for long or short (×), but never a full dactyl. When the fifth foot is a
spondee, the line is called a spondaic line, and the slow movement is quite
noticeable.
c. The first syllable of every foot is stressed, i.e., receives the rhythmic accent,
a swelling in volume. This is called the ictus (Latin for ‘stroke’).
d. Pattern of the dactylic hexameter in general:
– — /– — /– — /– — /– — / – ×

e. Rhythmic technique: regularity is secured in this pattern by the fact that

every line has twenty-four beats, broken up into six bars of four beats apiece
and each beginning with a perceptible ictus; variety is obtained by changing
the distribution and frequency of spondees in the basically dactylic scheme,
by letting the pauses in thought and phrasing fall in different sections of the
line, by altering the number of words in a verse, and by varying the
frequency and position in the line where the end of a word coincides with
the end of a foot. Homer uses practically every possible combination of all
these factors, to give his hexameters their unrivaled variety, life, and interest.
f. Practical hints for reading the hexameter: (1) Remember that every line, and
each new foot within the line, begins with a long, stressed syllable.
(2) Don’t hurry over long syllables, as though they were short, as we do in
English poetry. (3) Get the rhythm into your head, like the melody of a
song, by memorizing several lines according to exact meter and going over
them frequently, until the rhythmic pattern is fixed firmly in your mind and
flexible enough to fit any arrangement of long and short syllables as they
come up. With a little attentive practice and repetition, all will quickly
become natural and easy.
249
566. WRITE IN GREEK

1. My faithful comrade begged me to flee quickly back to the ships, but I wished
to know if the monstrous shepherd would revere Zeus, the friend of strangers,
and give us gifts of hospitality.
2. If we had selected some cheeses and sheep and had returned at once to the salty
sea, truly many of my friends would not have perished in that savage cave.
3. Most men seem to be much worse than they are, and many of them who injure
you (sg.) are trying to bring you some good. [Make “men” a partitive gen.]
567. WORD STUDY

LITANY (LIT for LIS, a series of ‘entreaties’ addressed to God in prayer); — POLY-
(prefix meaning ‘many-’ or ‘much-’) e.g., POLYPHONIC, POLYGAMY,
POLYSYLLABLE, POLYMATH (a person possessed of ‘many kinds of learning’,
POLYGON, etc.).
250
Lesson 84
In the last five lessons you have read thirty-two more lines of the Odyssey, and have
learned twenty-nine new words. Review and test your knowledge with this sample
examination.
I. Vocabulary (25%)
1. black: f. dat. sg. =
2. EÆERGVN =
3. mixing-bowl: acc. sg. =
4. may they fill (aor.) =
5. oPEXEW =
6. they entreated =
7. XEÅAI =
8. at once =
9. POLESSI =
10. fat: m. dat. pl. =
II. Text (50%)
A. Translate accurately:
1. ÔNMOID¤KE
2. PÎRENoGLAAD¤RA
3. OÆDTIWAÆTÏNDH
4. OÆDMINNDONEÉROMEN
5. oNKRDIONEN
B. State the precise form, and the person referred to:
1. in line 72, P¸NOIEN
2. in line 77, MOI
3. in line 64, ²KEI
4. in line 90, DO¸H
C. Answer briefly:
1. Where and how did Odysseus get the wine?
2. What was remarkable about it?
3. Why did he decide to take some with him to the cave?
251
III. Grammar (25%)

A. Translate only the words in italics:
1. He met a man not knowing justice.
2. I thought I would find a monster.
3. No one knew (OÁDA) it.
4. To refrain would not have been pleasant.
5. I wondered if they would give me a present.
B. Scan lines 76-79 (i.e., write out the Greek, without breathings or pitch-
marks, and indicate the quantity of each syllable and the foot-divisions).
252
Lesson 85
569. MEMORIZE
mPOSEÃV, —, mPOSSÃMHN [non-thematic 2 aor.] I rush away, I rush back (from)
NTOSYEN [adv.] within, inside
[prep. + gen] inside of
MENOWHON sitting, seated
EÂOW[also OW or VW] [conj.] while, until [+ ind. if purely factual;
+ purpose construction if anticipatory, like ÓFRA]
KA¸VKAÃSVKA I kindle, I burn
NMVNEMVNEºMA I assign, I drive my flock; [in mid.] I possess, I feed on
ÓBRIMOWHN heavy, mighty
ÉLHHW wood; forest
570. TEXT
A Terrifying Discovery
NYADPÅRKANTEWYÃSAMENDKA¹AÆTO¹
TUR¤NA»NÃMENOIFjGOMENMNOMNTMINNDON
MENOIEÂOWPLYENMVNFRED
ÓBRIMONoXYOW
ÉLHWmZALHW¾NAO¼POTIDÎRPIONE½H
NTOSYEND
oNTROIOBAL£NÑRUMAGDÏNYHKEN
MEºWDDE¸SANTEWmPESSÃMEY
WMUXÏNoNTROU
mZALOWHON dried up, dry

oXYOWEOW [n.] weight, load
YÃVYÃSVYÅSA I offer sacrifice
MUXÎWOÅ [m.] innermost part
ÑRUMAGDÎWOÅ [m.] clatter, din
POTIDÎRPIOWON useful for one’s evening meal
571. NOTES
YHKEN: to review the form, see Section 468.
W: a common shortened form of E»W
572. COMMENT
Curious to learn what sort of man lives in this cave and built the huge fold near its
entrance, and hoping to gain from him friendly gifts as well as information about
253
their route home, the Greeks decide to await his return, since it is now late afternoon
and he must soon be coming back.
Thinking he will not begrudge his tired and hungry guests a bit of cheese from
his vast supply, they prepare a lunch and eat it leisurely. But first they sacrifice a
portion of it to the gods, as a sort of prayer to win divine favor; they build a small fire
and cast into it some of the food, to be destroyed and thereby denied to themselves.
As evening falls, they hear a noisy commotion of bleating flocks outside. Then
suddenly the great doorway is filled with an enormous form, indistinct in the twilight.
And into the cave flies a huge bundle of logs, to fall with a terrifying crash onto the
ground near where the men are sitting. In a flash they realize an appalling fact: the
cave-dweller is not, as they had supposed, just a brawny native of the hills; he is a
colossal giant of incredible size and strength. Speechless with horror they rush to the
dark depths of the cave to elude notice and gather their wits for thinking out some
means of escape.
The Cyclops will burn the wood for warmth and light while he has his meal, not
for cooking, with which he doesn't bother.
573. ORAL COMPOSITION

In the late nineteen-twenties an American classicist named Milman Parry traveled to
Yugoslavia to study Serbo-Croatian epic poetry, which was still a vital oral tradition at
the time. Parry’s scholarship described the training and practice of an oral poet, the
performance and composition of the poetry, and the characteristics of the oral epic
style.
Both the audiences and the poets were illiterate. The oral poet did not memorize or
even rehearse a fixed script or text before his performance, but improvised as he sang.
He was able to compose in this manner because he had mastered an extensive and
traditional stock of stories, themes and formulaic phrases. His choice of a formula to
express a given idea depended on the space available within the line of verse. As Parry
put it in a famous definition of the formula: “an expression regularly used, under the
same metrical conditions, to express an essential idea” (The Making of Homeric Verse:
the Collected Papers of Milman Parry. ed. A. Parry, New York and Oxford 1987. p.
13). Thus, the oral poet did not need and did not seek alternative words for the same
idea, except to fit different metrical conditions. Originality in that sense was not a
goal or expectation, as it is for creative writers.
The various noun-epithet systems for people and things are the easiest examples of the
formulaic method to grasp. You have noticed that there are several epithets for
Odysseus. Odysseus can be inserted into different positions within a line and in
different cases. In the nominative case, Homer can chose from POLÃTLAWDºOW
b0DUSSEÃW or just DºOWb0DUSSEÃW, POLÃMHTIWb0DUSSEÃW, and PTOL¸PORYOW
b0DUSSEÃW, to name but a few; each of these has a different metrical shape, allowing
it to fit into a different part of the line. Aside from formulae in the nominative case,
Odysseus can be named in other cases as well— for example, b0DUSSÐ
MEGALTORI in the dative.
254
Lesson 85
Besides noun-epithet phrases, appropriate formulae exist for every recurring concept
or situation (called “themes”). The dawning of the sun in the morning, the sending of
a message, the reception of a guest, the taking of a meal or bath, the gathering of an
assembly are all themes with associated formulae that the poet used as he composed.
He could also, by analogy, modify traditional formulae to fit new themes or ideas.
Parry’s research established that for an oral poet such as Homer, the idea of an original
or fixed text was unfamiliar. Every time an oral poet told a story, he was singing a
somewhat different song. The tales of Odysseus’ homecoming were certainly
traditional, told many different times in different forms by different poets; Homer’s
version was undoubtedly many years in the making, and was told repeatedly by the
poet in varied ways before he fashioned it into the epic we read today.
574. WRITE IN GREEK

1. We kept entreating the cruel and monstrous stranger to respect the gods and not
to kill us with his mighty strength.
2. They rushed back into the cave and waited inside until they learned (PUY)
whether he was savage or a friend to strangers.
3. Seizing the heavy door-stone from under the door, he hurled it upward into the
sky with gigantic force.
575. WORD STUDY

CAUSTIC (‘burning’, e.g., an acid which corrodes or ‘burns away’ matter; or a
remark full of ‘burning’ sarcasm), CAUTERIZE (to sear over by burning or exposing
to a caustic acid); — ETHYL (the ‘wood’, i.e., substance, ‘of ether’; a very
inflammable and volatile chemical), ACETYLENE (a hot-burning gas containing the
‘substance of acetic acid’, a special carbon-radical molecule).
255
Lesson 86
577. MEMORIZE
mMLGV [pres. syst.] I milk
oRSHNENOW[m., f.] oRSENoRSENOW [n.] male, masculine
BAYÃWEºAÃ deep
LAÃNVLjVLASSA I drive
PIT¸YHMIPIYSVP¸YHKA I put on; I put in position
ÔSSOWHON as many as, as great as, as much as
[see TÎSSOWbelow]
TÎSSOWHON so many, so great, so much [often correlative
with ÔSSOW: so many…as…]
578. TEXT
Trapped!
AÆTkRÔG
E»WEÆRÄSPOWLASEP¸ONAMLA
PjNTAMjL
ÔSS
MELGETkD
oRSENALEºPEYÃRHFIN
mRNEIOÃWTETRjGOUWTEBAYE¸HWNTOYENAÆLW
AÆTkRPEIT
PYHKEYUREÏNMGANÇCÎS
mE¸RAW
ÓBRIMONOÆKqNTÎNGEDÃVKA¹E½KOS
oMAJAI
SYLA¹TETRjKUKLOImP
OÈDEOWÑXL¸SSEIAN
TÎSSHNL¸BATONPTRHNPYHKEYÃR×SIN
E½KOSI [indecl.]twenty
NTOYEN [prep. + gen.] within, inside (of )
L¸BATOWON towering, high
OÌDAWEOW [n.] ground, floor
ÑXL¸ZV—ÓXLISSA I raise, lift
TETRjKUKLOWON four-wheeled
TRjGOWOU [m.] he-goat
579. NOTES
PjNTAMAL
: a common idiom = “all” (intensified).
580. COMMENT
After throwing into the cave his great bundle of firewood, the giant separates
out the males of the flock and drives the rest inside. Then he enters himself, closing
up the cave’s mouth with an enormous slab of rock.
256
Lesson 86
The Cyclops easily lifts the huge stone and sets it in place —a mass so
heavy that no human means could have budged it. The comparison to twenty-two
wagons vividly evokes Polyphemus’ size and strength compared to a man’s. The size
of the door-stone will be important to Odysseus’ calculations for escape.
581. HOMER AND THE DIALECTS OF GREEK

Homer’s Greek contains a mixture of dialects from different regions of the Greek
world; for this reason, it is referred to as an “artificial” or “literary” dialect, since no
real group spoke Homeric Greek. However, Homeric Greek’s basis is Ionic, the
dialect spoken on Euboea and on Chios and other islands of the eastern Aegean, as
well as in Asia Minor. Attic Greek, the dialect of Athens and its environs, is a
subdivision of Ionic, but Attic forms are rare in Homer. The dialect spoken on the
northern islands such as Lesbos and on the northern mainland of Greece (Boeotia and
Thessaly) was called Aeolic, whose forms appear often in Homer (e.g., infinitives
ending in EMEN). Finally, there are forms from the Arcado-Cyprian dialect, which is
thought to have close links to the Mycenaean language of the second millennium.
Examples include words with initial PT, such as PTÎLEMOWand PTÎLIW
Some features and forms of the Homeric language are much older than others. This is
explainable in terms of the oral traditional nature of the poems. Formulaic phrases
often preserve the most ancient forms, suggesting that the poet inherited them from
his long tradition. On the other hand, Homer himself may have introduced some of
the later linguistic forms. In many cases, metrical convenience seems to explain the
choice of a particular dialectical variation; Homer has available to him a whole range
of metrical equivalents thanks to the dialectical richness he has inherited.
582. WRITE IN GREEK

1. If he had known we were within the cave, and had raised on high (ptc.) that
mighty rock and thrown it at us, who of us would not then have perished by
swift destruction? [for “at” use P¸+ acc.]
2. They drove all our rams and fat sheep into seven great hollow wagons, and fled
with them afar in a deep well-made ship to their own country.
3. Let us not flee like cowardly children, but let us stand here and fight for the sake
of our lives (CUX-).
583. WORD STUDY

BATHOS (a laughable sudden ‘drop to the depths’, from the sublime to the
ridiculous, in speaking or writing; startling anticlimax); — ELASTIC (spontaneously
‘driving back’ to a position from which the object has been forced—the real point in
elasticity being the return to original position, not stretchability); — EPITHET (a
descriptive modifier ‘put on’ to a person or thing, especially as a characteristic
regularly associated with it; e.g., Richard ‘Lion-hearted’, ‘Buffalo Bill’ Cody); —
CYCLE (a period in which things move around again to their starting-point, like a
wheel), BICYCLE (‘two-wheeled’), CYCLONE (violent revolving wind); —
TRAGIC, TRAGEDY (probably from the song sung at the sacrifice of a goat [°D
contraction formOIDsong or ode]).
257
Lesson 87
584. MEMORIZE
AÌTE [adv.]again; on the other hand
E»SORjVE»SÎCOMAIE½SIDON, etc. I see, I look at
MBRUONOU [n.] a young one [of animals]
KATAT¸YHMIKATAYSVKATjYHKA I put down
LEUKÎWÎN bright, white
MOºRAHW [f.] due measure; portion; fate
585. TEXT
Discovered
ZÎMENOWD
MELGENÓÐWKA¹MHKjDAWAÁGAW
PjNTAKATkMOºRANKA¹ÇP
MBRUONKENKjST×
AÆT¸KAD
MISUMNYRCAWLEUKOºOGjLAKTOW
PLEKTOºS
NTALjROISINmMHSjMENOWKATYHKEN
MISUD
AÌT
STHSENNoGGESINÓFRAO¼E½H
P¸NEINA»NUMN¡KA¸O¼POTIDÎRPIONE½H
AÆTkRPE¹DSPEÅSEPONHSjMENOWTkrRGA
KA¹TÎTEPÅRmNKAIEKA¹E½SIDENE½RETOD
MAW
oGGOWEOW [n.] vessel, pail

mMjVmMSVoMHSA I collect, I mass
mNAKA¸V I rekindle
GjLAAKTOW [n.] milk
MHKjWjDOW bleating
PLEKTÎWÎN woven, wicker
POTIDÎRPIOWON used for one’s evening meal
TjLAROWOU [m.] basket
586. NOTES
PjNTAKATkMOºRAN: a frequent idiom, = “everything just right.” KEN: aor.
of ¾HMI(Section 468)
YRCAW is aorist of TRFV, which here has the special meaning “curdle”.
STHSEN : aor. of ¾STHMI(Section 526)
SPEÅSE: another instance of an aor. with plpf. force: “had hastened toiling” =
“had quickly finished.”
p: recall the note on line 4.
MAW: pronounce (and scan) as two syllables by synizesis.
258
Lesson 87
587. COMMENT
Some of the milk (MISUMNis to be made into cheese, while some
MISUDis for immediate consumption as a beverage with dinner
(POTIDÎRPION). The giant obtains what milk he needs for his own meal, then sets
the mother animals to nourishing their young—the carefully guarded hope of his still
richer possessions in the future.
He makes the cheese, no doubt, in the ordinary ancient way: he stirs juice
from a wild fig-tree into the fresh milk, collects the curdled lumps resulting from this
mixing, and presses them into reed baskets to drip and solidify.
All the while the Greeks have been watching him in the dim shadows from
their refuge at the far end of the cave. But the giant, expecting no visitors and all
intent on his work, has not acknowledged their silent presence. As the darkness
increases, he relights the fire (the earlier one kindled by the Greeks for their sacrifice
having died out). In the bright blaze which floods the whole cave with light, he
suddenly discovers Odysseus and his men.
588. EXPLANATORY AND PURPOSE INFINITIVE

a. The infinitive is often used in Greek to explain the sense of another word, to fill
out its meaning. Some examples of this explanatory use of the infinitive:
PRlGMAXALEPÎNPOISAI
a thing difficult to do (not necessarily difficult to imagine, plan, etc.)
¾NAXVSºTONFAGEºN
that I may have bread to eat. (not necessarily to share, serve, etc.)
b. An explanatory infinitive, by answering the question “why?” may also express
purpose, as in English. Often the future infinitive is preferred for this, but the
present or aorist may also be used. This construction usually follows a verb
meaning ‘send, give, entrust, take, leave behind,’ and the like.
TOÄWPEMCEPEÃSESYAI He sent them to inquire.
589. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Having built a strong, deep pen for his rams and goats, everything just right, the
mighty shepherd drove his fat white flocks inside.
2. Have you (pl.) ever seen a larger or more splendid sheep than that one which
they are looking at, lying, with her young one, so white and beautiful upon the
black earth?
3. Since the wisest of men, and not even the wisest of boys, does not know
everything, we should no doubt obey (our) father and mother as wiser than
we (gen.).
259
590. WORD STUDY

EMBRYO (an animal in its earliest stage of development; the human organism up to
the third month after conception); — HYDRANGEA (‘water-vessel’: so named
because the flower-cluster is like ancient water-jars); — GALAXY (‘the Milky Way’, a
band of innumerable stars across the heavens; any cluster of millions of stars, e.g., an
island-universe; hence a group of brilliant or famous people, e.g., ‘a galaxy of famous
authors attended the ceremony.’).
260
Lesson 88
591. MEMORIZE
mLjOMAI—mLYHNmLjLHMAI I wander [pf. has pres. force]
TOR [n., indecl.] heart
KLEUYOWOU [f., but frequently n. in pl.] way, path, course
OÂOWHON such) as, (of ) what sort
PLVPLEÃSOMAIPLEÅSA I sail (over)
ÇGRÎWÎN fluid, watery
ÇPRor ÇPE¸R [prep. + gen. or acc.] over
FYÎGGOWOU [m.] voice
592. TEXT
Inquiry
«JEºNOIT¸NEWSTPÎYENPLEºY
ÇGRkKLEUYA
TIKATkPRJINMACID¸VWmLjLHSYE
OÂjTELHÐSTREWÇPE¹RpLATO¸T
mLÎVNTAI
CUXkWPARYMENOIKAKÏNmLLODAPOºSIFRONTEW
ªWFAY
MºND
AÌTEKATEKLjSYHF¸LONTOR
DEISjNTVNFYÎGGONTEBARÄNAÆTÎNTEPLVRON
mLLODAPÎWÎN foreign, of another land

BARÃWEºAÃ heavy
KATAKLjV, aor. pass. KATAKLjSYHN I shatter
LHISTRROW [m.] rover, pirate
MACID¸VW [adv.] at random
PARAT¸YHMI, aor. mid. ptc. PARYMENOW I put aside, I risk
PLVRONOU [n.] monster
PRJIWIOW [f.] business
593. NOTES
OÂjTE: as adv. = “even as” or “like.” mLÎVNTAI: Homeric verbs in jV
sometimes become ÎVby assimilation. When the Ais short, the second vowel is
often lengthened (here, Oto V). See also Section 627.
F¸LON here, as often elsewhere = “my (our, one’s) own.”
DEISjNTVN: the nearness of TOR has drawn the ptc. away from agreement
with MºN into a possessive genitive— which is, after all, the sense of MºNtoo.
261
594. COMMENT
Proper etiquette requires an extension of hospitality before the guests’
identity is requested. The Cyclops, living aloof from others of his race and on an
island far from human shores, is not used to visitors of any sort and is ignorant of the
laws of hospitality. He is puzzled why these puny humans should have come to his
cave, and how they found his island in the first place. They must be merchants driven
off their course, or roving pirates in search of some rich victim.
At the sound of the giant’s gruff, unfriendly voice thundering through the
cave, and in the presence of his overwhelming build, the Greeks naturally are struck
cold with fear, and their courage cracks.
We can hear in this line’s heavy spondees and strongly emphasized long vowels a
clear echo of the rolling thunder of that gigantic voice.
595. FORMS OF FHM¸

Memorize:
FHM¸FSVFSA I speak, I say, I tell, I claim
IMPF. ACTIVE AND MIDDLE (no difference in meaning; used according to
metrical convenience in Homer):
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. FN FjMEN FjMHN FjMEYA
2nd. pers. FWYA FjTE FjO FjSYE
3rd pers. F FjSANFjN FjTO FjNTO
596. WRITE IN GREEK

1. All strength fled from our limbs when with mighty voice he asked us why we
were wandering in swift ships over the deep paths of the fluid sea.
2. Send (sg.) seven or more strong and brave men to seize those wild oxen and to
make ready for us a great dinner there beside the river.
597. WORD STUDY

HYGROMETER (an instrument for measuring the wetness or humidity of the air); —
DIPHTHONG (‘double-sound’, a sound produced by combining two vowels into a
single syllable, or running them together as though but one); — BAROMETER
(instrument for measuring the weight or pressure of the atmosphere), BARITONE (‘the
heavy tone’, a voice between base and tenor); — HYPER- (a prefix meaning ‘over,
excessive’, e.g., ‘hyper-sensitive’, ‘hyperacidity’), HYPERBOLE (BOLa throwing, from
BjLLV, ‘an over-throwing’ or over-statement, an exagerration), HYPERBOLA (a
plane curve where the line is ‘thrown over’ upon itself in a broad arc of special pattern),
HYPERBATON (BATÎWÎNgoing, adj. from BA¸NV, hence ‘going over’ from
the normal word order to an unusual position for poetic effect, e.g., ‘our foes among’ for
‘among our foes’); — EUPHEMISM (‘speaking well’, an agreeable or less offensive
expression for something unpleasant, e.g., ‘he passed away’ instead of a blunt ‘he died’).
262
Lesson 89
598. MEMORIZE
b"GAMMNVNb"GAMMNONOW [m.] Agamemnon [king of Mycenae and
commander in chief of Greeks at Troy]
b"XAIO¸¤N Achaeans [a division of the Greeks;
also, Greeks in general]
LAºTMALA¸TMATOW [n.] gulf
O½KADE [adv.] homeward
PTÎLIWPTÎLIOW [f.] city
PROSEºPON [2 aor.]I addressed, I spoke to [+ acc.]
599. TEXT
Identification
mLLkKA¹¬WMINPESSINmMEIBÎMENOWPROSEIPON
MEºWTOI5RO¸HYENmPOPLAGXYNTEWb"XAIO¹
PANTO¸OIS
mNMOISINÇPRMGALAºTMAYALjSSHW
O½KADE¼MENOIoLLHNÒDÏNoLLAKLEUYA
LYOMENOÉTVPOU;EÄWYELEMHT¸SASYAI
LAO¹D
b"TREÚDEVb"GAMMNONOWEÆXÎMEY
EÁNAI
TOÅDNÅNGEMGISTONÇPOURjNIONKLOWST¸
TÎSSHNGkRDIPERSEPÎLINKA¹mP¢LESELAOÄW
POLLOÃW
mPOPLjZV I beat back; aor. pass. mPOPLjGXYHN I wander,

I am driven from my course
b"TREÚDHWEV son of Atreus [gen. ending special]
DIAPRYVDIAPRSVDIjPERSA I sack, I lay in ruins
¾EMAI I press on, I hasten eagerly
KLOWKLEOW [n.] renown; glory
MHT¸OMAIMHT¸SOMAIMHTISjMHN I plan, I contrive
ÇPOURjNIOWHON under heaven
600. NOTES
mLLkKA¹¬W = “nevertheless”. PROSEIPON : when a verb that begins with a
vowel takes the temporal augment, usually an original initial consonant has been lost.
Here, that consonant is the digamma (= PROS8EIPON
OÉTV=OÉTVW
263
601. COMMENT
Despite his terror, Odysseus gains control over his emotions and answers the
monster’s questions.
With that tact and astute psychology for which he had won fame among
Greeks and Trojans alike, Odysseus tries to win over the giant’s good will. He
shrewdly begins by referring to Troy, a magic name whose mention then, when news
of the great war was uppermost in men’s memories, would of itself arouse interest in
most audiences. Quickly Odysseus explains that he has arrived here on the Cyclops’
island by Zeus’ will, driven off his homeward course, not by set purpose of meddling
or attack. Then he returns to the basis on which he hopes for consideration: he and
his men are subjects of far-famed Agamemnon, ‘King of men’ and mighty conqueror
of Troy the impregnable, who is not someone to antagonize by harming his troops or
friends. Odysseus expects his fame as a hero and his status as an associate of
Agamemnon will further his claim on Polyphemus’ hospitality.
602. COGNATE ACCUSATIVE

Intransitive verbs may govern the accusative of nouns whose meaning is closely related
to that of the verb itself. This is called a cognate (‘related’) accusative, because both it
and its verb have the same or kindred meaning. Cp. English “He died a glorious
death,” “We ran a race,” where neither “death” nor “race” is a direct object of the
verb. Similarly in Greek:
MAKRNÒDÏNLYOMEN We have come a long journey.
SXTLIONMAXONTAIPÎLEMON They are fighting a cruel war.
603. WRITE IN GREEK

1. The Achaeans, followers of Agamemnon, fought most bravely around Troy,
that they might bring back home(ward) the wife of the king’s brother, who was
said (LEG) to be the most beautiful of all women then living on the earth.
2. We addressed the monstrous shepherd with honey-sweet words, trying to win
over his pitiless heart and save the lives of the Achaeans (dat.).
3. If you (pl.) should sail over the great gulf from one city to another, you would
learn that Zeus protects his friends and sends good winds to all who revere his
commands.
604. WORD STUDY

POLICE (‘city guard’), POLITY (system of government in a city or nation), POLICY
(administrative plan or program in governing; hence, any set principles of action in
business or private conduct), POLITIC (diplomatic, discreet, in conducting oneself
towards others), IMPOLITIC (indiscreet, injudicious, blundering), COSMOPOLITAN
(considering the whole world as one’s city, being at home everywhere; universal,
international).
264
Lesson 90
In Lessons 85-89, you have learned forty new words, read thirty-six more lines of the
Odyssey, and studied the use of the explanatory and purpose infinitive and cognate
accusative. Point your review by the aid of this quiz:
I. Vocabulary (45%)
1. we rushed away = 9. homeward =

2. wood: acc. sg. = 10. O¾×SI=
3. ÇCÎCE= 11. he wandered (impf.) =
4. they will drive = 12. ÇPE¸R=
5. gulf: dat. pl. = 13. let us address =
6. deep: f. acc. pl. = 14. he was putting down =
7. LEÃKOSI= 15. KANTEW=
8. may they sail (aor.) =
II. Text (40%)

1. EÂOWPLYENMVN=
2. In line 103, explain ÑXL¸SSEIAN.
3. DE¸SANTEWmPESSÃMEYA=
4. When did the Cyclops first perceive the Greeks?
5. In line 113, explain PLEºY’.
6. oRSENALEºPEYÃRHFIN=
7. What did the Cyclops do with the milk just collected?
8. In line 118, explain DEISjNTVN.
III. Grammar (25%)
Translate only the words in italics:
1. Twenty men could not have lifted it.
2. He seized the wine, to drink it.
3. Our hearts were broken with fear.
4. We went a difficult way around to the cave’s back.
5. Happiness is easier to desire than to find.
265
Lesson 91
606. MEMORIZE
A»DOMAIA»DSSOMAIA»DESSjMHN I venerate, I revere, I respect
¼KTAI¼KETjVN [m.] suppliants
¼KNOMAI¾JOMAI¼KÎMHN I approach, I come [+ acc.]
KIXjNVKIXSOMAIK¸XON I come (by chance), I reach
NHLEWW pitiless, ruthless
ÔPP× [adv.] where, in what direction
607. TEXT
Odysseus’ Appeal
MEºWD
AÌTEKIXANÎMENOITkSkGOÅNA
¼KÎMEY
E½TIPÎROIWJEINÐONKA¹oLLVW
DO¸HWDVT¸NHNTEJE¸NVNYMIWST¸N
mLL
A»DEºOFRISTEYEOÃW¼KTAIDTO¸E»MEN
;EÄWD
PITIMTVR¼KETjVNTEJE¸NVNTE
JE¸NIOWÖWJE¸NOISINpM
A»DO¸OISINÑPHDEº
ªWFjMHNÒDM
AÆT¸K
mME¸BETONHLÐYUM¯
A»DOºOWHON honorable, worthy to be held in reverence

DVT¸NHHW [f.] gift, present
PITIMTVROROW [m.] patron, protector
JEINÐONOU= JE¸NION [n.] gift given by a host to a guest
JE¸NIOWHON pertaining to guests or strangers
[epithet of Zeus, “Guardian of guests”]
ÑPHDV I go along with, I accompany (as guardian)
FRISTOWHON mightiest, noblest
608. NOTES
PÎROIWDO¸HW depend on the idea of “to find out” implied in the preceding
clause.
;EÄW is the subject of an implied ST¸
609. COMMENT
It is customary in the Homeric world for those in a vulnerable position to
seek protection from the powerful through supplication. The suppliant grasps the
knees or falls down before the person he is supplicating; he invokes the value of
reverence (A»D¢W, which requires forbearance and mercy towards the weak.
266
Lesson 91
Odysseus, then, proclaims himself a suppliant by approaching the giant’s knees in the
name of the whole company. He implores the Cyclops to treat his guests with that
kindness and that generosity in gifts of friendship which are expected from all in such
circumstances. He is asking nothing special; only proper hospitality. To molest or ill-
treat a suppliant would be the gravest moral wrong, a crime of the worst sort against
the gods. Odysseus’ appeal is to law and morality, enforced by the threat of otherwise
incurring divine anger. For Zeus himself takes special care of men traveling at the
mercy of others in a foreign land. He will personally avenge any harm or injustice
inflicted on them.
610. WRITE IN GREEK

1. The truly wise venerate the gods always and entreat them as suppliants, that
they may give them prosperity and a long and happy life.
2. Reaching a wide river which we had never seen, we asked the people living
around the city if they would quickly give us a small ship and a pair of oars.
3. Not to seek and love truth is a shameful disease of the soul, which may we all
avoid!
267
Lesson 92
611. MEMORIZE
A»G¸OXOWHON aegis-bearing
sSSON [adv.] near, close [often + gen. or dat.]
DÃNAMAIDUNSOMAIDUNHSjMHN I can, I am able [+ inf.]
,ÃKLVC,ÃKLVPOW [m.] Cyclops
SXEDÎN [adv.] close by, near
612. TEXT
A Brutal Reply
NPIÎWE»W«JEºN
THLÎYENE»LLOUYAW
ÔWMEYEOÄWKLEAIDEID¸MENmLASYAI
OÆGkR,ÃKLVPEW%IÏWA»GIÎXOUmLGOUSIN
OÆDYE¤NMAKjRVNPE¹POLÄFRTERO¸E»MEN
OÆD
qNG£%IÏWXYOWmLEUjMENOWPEFIDO¸MHN
OÈTESEÅOÈY
TjRVNE»MYUMÎWMEKELEÃOI
mLLjMOIE½F
ÔP×SXEW»£NEÆERGANA
POUP
SXATIWKA¹SXEDÎNÓFRADAE¸V
mLGV I take heed of [+ gen.]

DjVDASOMAIDjHN I know, I learn
SXATIW [f.] remotest part, edge [here = ‘far shore’]
XYOWEOW [n.] disfavor, enmity
THLÎYEN [adv.]from afar
FE¸DOMAIPEFIDSOMAIPEFIDÎMHN I restrain myself from, I spare [+ gen.]
FRTEROWHON stronger, mightier
613. NOTES
E»W: from E»M¸
DEID¸MEN: pf. inf. of DE¸DV
E»F
forE»P.SXEW: i.e., “left”.»£N: see Section 468.
DAE¸V: alternate 3 aor. subj. 1 sg. of DjV[= DAV].
614. COMMENT
Polyphemus addresses only Odysseus’ plea to revere the gods, ignoring
Odysseus’ declaration of his fame and status, which obviously will win Odysseus no
credit here. The Cyclops recognizes that Odysseus inhabits a different world when he
268
Lesson 92
says THLÎYENE»LLOUYAWbut it is clear that, until Polyphemus speaks here,

Odysseus still assumed, or at least hoped, that Agamemnon’s MGISTON
ÇPOURjNIONKLOWwould have reached the land of the Cyclopes.
The aegis was a goatskin shield, symbol of the divine power of Zeus.
This imperious demand to know the whereabouts of Odysseus’ ship and
crew is a further indication of bad will. It is assumed he would put this information to
evil purposes.
615. THE GODS IN HOMER

Homer’s Odysseus has a human genealogy, but many of the prominent heroes in the
Homeric poems have divine ancestry. Achilles’ mother Thetis, the sea-nymph, is a
goddess, and his paternal great-grandfather is Zeus. Ajax is a cousin of Achilles, with
the same great-grandfather on his father’s side. Agamemnon and Menelaus are also
descended from Zeus through the paternal line. As we see in the passage we are
reading from the Odyssey, the monster Polyphemus is a son of Poseidon. In other
cases, the close bond between a god and a hero is due to a temperamental affinity;
Athene loves Odysseus because he is clever, as she is.
Given the biological relationship between heroic mortals and gods, it is no surprise
that the gods are stirred to action by human death or suffering. When Achilles is
insulted by Agamemnon in the Iliad, his mother, then Zeus, then all the gods on
Olympus become involved in the ensuing events. Athene is moved by the suffering of
her favorite, Odysseus, to petition Zeus at the beginning of the Odyssey. In both of
Homer's epics, the gods constitute an audience for the story unfolding below, but
they intervene if their interests are threatened. Sometimes they actively take part, in
disguise, and sometimes they inspire a beloved mortal with bravery or cunning, or
sabotage his foe with delusion.
Athene plays the most active role of all the gods in the Odyssey as she monitors the
interests of her Odysseus. She guides Telemachus on his journey to gather news of his
missing father; she smoothes the way for Odysseus to be well-received by the
Phaeacians; she warns him of the dangers awaiting him in Ithaca and fights at his side
against the suitors; she personally resolves the final conflict with the suitors’ kinsmen
peacefully. In advancing the cause of Odysseus, Athene takes the side of justice and
morality. Such an alignment is consistent with Zeus' pronouncement at the start of
the poem, as he considers an instance of crime:
“Alas, how mortals blame the gods!
For they say evil things come from us. Rather they themselves
By their own criminal wickedness have grief beyond what they are given.”
I 32-34
The association between the gods and morality is also evident in the Cyclops episode,
where Polyphemus’ disregard of the gods (even if Poseidon is his father!) frees him to
eat his guests (Section 612) and call it hospitality (Section 683). As Odysseus has put
it earlier, a hospitable man is a god-fearing man (Section 508).
269
Later Greeks would reject Homer’s gods because of their immorality and silliness or
criticize Homer for portraying them so. Plato, for example, banned Homer’s epics
from his ideal educational curriculum. These critics had in mind the Iliad’s gods, who
are indeed less single-minded about justice. Sometimes they are violent, sometimes
childish and petty, and sometimes too carefree, even as they watch the suffering of
mortals below. Although the gods know that many will die on the battlefield at Troy
as a result of Achilles’ quarrel with Agamemnon, they are shown feasting happily on
Olympus as Hephaestus pours them drinks:
Inextinguishable laughter rose up among the blessed gods
As they watched Hephaestus puffing around the dining room.
I 599-600
616. WRITE IN GREEK

1. We could neither flee to our companions nor sail homeward, because the
Cyclops had come down near the sea and standing close by, savage and pitiless,
was throwing huge rocks towards our well-made ships. [“huge” = “largest”]
2. “Tell (sg.) me,” he said, “how you justly expect others to respect you, who
yourself do not wish with willing heart to revere aegis-bearing Zeus and the
blessed gods.”
3. Whenever we love those who love us, we do nothing great; but if (ever) we love
those who hate us, then we are noble and splendid.
617. WORD STUDY

AEGIS or EGIS (protecting power, as ‘under the aegis of a Government agency’); —
DYNAMIC (powerful, forceful), DYNAMO (a machine for converting mechanical
power of steam, waterfall, etc. into electrical energy), HETERODYNE (in radio, the
method by which a receiving tube sets up oscillations of ‘another force’ similar to
those coming from the transmitter), SUPERHETERODYNE; — CYCLOPEAN
(colossal, gigantic, as ‘cyclopean architecture’ built from massive stones).
270
Lesson 93
618. MEMORIZE
A»PÃWEºAÃ steep; utter
MjRPTVMjRCVMjRCA I seize
MHRÎWOÅ [m.] thigh
PEºRARPE¸RATOW [n.] end, boundary
1OSEIDjVN1OSEIDjVNOW [m.] Poseidon [brother of Zeus and god of the sea]
619. TEXT
Craft and Savagery

ªWFjTOPEIRjZVNMD
OÆLjYENE»DÎTAPOLLj
mLLjMINoCORRONPROSFHNDOL¸OIS
PESSI
NAMNMOIKATAJE1OSEIDjVNNOS¸XYVN
PRÏWPTR×SIBAL£NÇMWP¹PE¸RASIGA¸HW
oKR×PROSPELjSAWoNEMOWD
KPÎNTOUNEIKEN
AÆTkRG£SÄNTOºSDEÇPKFUGONA»PÄNÓLEYRON
ªWFjMHNÒDM
OÆDNmME¸BETONHLÐYUM¯
mLL
ÔG
mNAÚJAWTjROIS
P¹XEºRAW½ALLE
SÄNDDÃVMjRCAW¨WTESKÃLAKAWPOT¹GA¸×
KÎPT
KD
GKFALOWXAMjDIWEDEÅEDGAºAN
oKRHHW [f.] highest point; headland

mNAÚSSV—mNjÐJA I spring up
oCORRON [adv.] back again; in reply
DEÃV I moisten, I dampen
DÎLIOWHON crafty
GKFALOWOU [m.] brain
NOS¸XYVNONOW [m.] ‘earth-shaker’ [epithet of Poseidon]
PI…»jLLV I stretch out upon
KATjGNUMI—KATjJA I break in pieces, I wreck
KÎPTVKÎCVKÎCA I smash, I beat
PEIRjZV I try to get information
POT¸ [adv., prep.] down upon [=PRÎW]
PROSPELjZV—PROSPLASA I drive (something) into (something) [+ acc. and dat.]
PRÎSFHMI I address
SKÃLAJAKOW [m.] puppy, whelp
ÇMÎWÎN your [pl.]
ÇPEKFEÃGV, etc. I flee out from under, I escape
XAMjDIW [adv.] to the ground
271
620. NOTES
E»DÎTA: see OÁDAin Section 491.
NA should be scanned as a monosyllable.
SÄN: adv. = “together,” “at the same moment.”
621. COMMENT
Odysseus is too swift-witted to be trapped by the Cyclops’ question into
revealing anything that might jeopardize his companions back at the ship. Odysseus
does not really answer the Cyclops’ query at all. He does not say where he left his ship;
he tells an imaginary story from which the monster, if he is willing to believe it, may
think the ship destroyed and forget about it and its crew. This is, then, a dodge. It
conceals the truth from an enemy by sidetracking his investigation.
Odysseus’ lie about Poseidon has some dramatic irony in it: near the opening of
the poem Zeus had explained to Athene that it was problematic for him to free
Odysseus from Calypso’s isle, since Odysseus had blinded Poseidon’s son,
Polyphemus, and Poseidon therefore held a grudge against him. Odysseus, however,
is unaware of Polyphemus’ parentage at this point.
The giant does not answer, but lunges forward and works sudden death on
two of the companions nearest at hand.
622. HOMERIC DRESS

The Homeric poems contain the first references in literature to Greek clothing. Terms
such as PPLOWa woman’s dress) andX¸TVN(a man’s tunic), which will become
standard elements in the vocabulary of Greek dress, appear here for the first time.
While the poems cannot show us exactly what these garments looked like, they do
give a sense of the importance of the textile arts in Greek culture.
Everyone knows that Penelope spent a lot of time weaving as she attempted to delay
her marriage to one of her suitors. But weaving is a typical activity for the noble
women of the Homeric poems. Helen, in both the Iliad and Odyssey, is pictured
weaving. Andromache, the wife of Hector, weaves. King Alcinoos’ wife, Queen Arete,
weaves. So do the goddesses Circe, Calypso, and Athene— who was the patroness of
weaving. Although slave women also are assigned weaving tasks, clearly the textile
crafts have considerable prestige, and they are practiced with pride by the nobility.
Queen Arete, for example, weaves a signature type of cloth (Od. 7.234). Social
standing is reflected in the possession of abundant fine textiles, and clothing is used as
an item of exchange in cementing alliances, in the form of guest-gifts, right along with
talents of gold (e.g., Od. 8.390-441).
Unlike our garments today, clothing in ancient Greece was never tailored (cut, fitted,
and sewn from several pieces). Garments were, rather, rectangular pieces of fabric;
they were draped and often had multiple uses. The Homeric man’s X¸TVNis a short
garment, cinched with a belt. The cloak (XLAºNA) he wears over it is of thick wool
and can be used as a blanket as well. The cloak is fastened about the body with a
brooch; Odysseus’ golden brooch is engraved with a hound grasping a dappled fawn
272
Lesson 93
in its paws (19.226 ff.). More physically vigorous activities, such as boxing, wrestling,
and warfare, are done in a Z¤MA a sturdy loincloth.
The PPLOWor gown worn by Homeric women is long and is fastened across the
shoulders by ornamental brooches and around the waist with a belt. These are colored
and made of wool, and some are decorated with designs woven into the cloth itself.
Women wear a veil, called a KRDEMNONwithwhich they modestly cover their faces,
or rip off as a gesture of mourning. A Z¢NHor metal girdle cinches their waists.
623. WRITE IN GREEK

1. In order to avoid utter destruction, he told the monstrous shepherd that
Poseidon had seized his ship and thrown it on the rocks at the boundaries of the
land, afar.
2. According to the custom of men living at that time, whenever anyone prayed he
always raised his hands towards heaven, to show that mortals receive all good
things from the gods.
3. May he answer me nothing, but kill me at once, that I may not see the pains and
death of more of my dear comrades.
624. WORD STUDY

ENCEPHALITIS (brain fever, inflammation of the brain).
273
Lesson 94
625. MEMORIZE
mNDRÎMEOWHON human [used only of flesh]
DÎRPONOU [n.] supper
KRAKRE¤N [n. pl.] nom. sg. KRAWflesh, meat
J¸FOWJ¸FEOW [n.] sword
ÒPL¸ZV—ÔPLISSA I prepare
ÑSTONOU [n.] bone
626. TEXT
A Ghastly Meal
TOÄWDDIkMELEÐST¹TAM£NÒPL¸SSATODÎRPON
SYIED
¨WTELVNÑRES¸TROFOWOÆD
mPLEIPEN
GKATjTESjRKAWTEKA¹ÑSTAMUELÎENTA
MEºWDKLA¸ONTEWmNESXYOMEN%I¹XEºRAW
SXTLIARG
ÒRÎVNTEWmMHXAN¸HD
XEYUMÎN
AÆTkRPE¹,ÃKLVCMEGjLHNMPLSATONHDÄN
mNDRÎMEAKR
DVNKA¹P
oKRHTONGjLAP¸NVN
KEºT
NTOSY
oNTROIOTANUSSjMENOWDIkMLVN
oKRHTOWON undiluted
mMHXAN¸HHW [f.] helplessness
mNXV I hold up, I raise aloft
mPOLE¸PV I leave a remnant behind
GjLAAKTOW [n.] milk
GKATAVN [n. pl.] entrails
LVNONTOW [m.] lion
MELEÐST¸ [adv.] limb by limb
MUELÎEIWESSAEN full of marrow
NHDÃWÃOW [f.] belly
ÑRES¸TROFOWHON mountain-bred
TjMNV—TjMON I divide, I tear
TANÃVTANÃVTjNUSSA I stretch out
627. NOTES
ÒRÎVNTEW = ÒRjONTEWHomeric verbs in jVsometimes become ÎVby
assimilation. When the Ais short, the second vowel is often lengthened (here, Oto
V). Cp. Section 593.
P¸ is adverbial: “besides, on top of that” (=“to wash down”).
274
Lesson 94
628. COMMENT
Polyphemus tears his victims into pieces to prepare them for his meal. In
the Iliad the simile of the mountain-bred lion devouring freshly killed flocks is applied
to the hero Menelaus dominating the battlefield. Note that at this point Odysseus
identifies more with the vulnerable prey than with the predator.
The Greeks cry out in revulsion and dismay. Only in the gods, in Zeus,
lover of justice and protector of guests, do they find any hope or strength; of
themselves they are pitiably helpless. mMHXAN¸Happears only here in Homer; thus it
is called a hapax legomenon (“once said”). Yet, knowing Odysseus as we do, we expect
him to find a MXOW (“device”) for escape.
The Greeks watch Polyphemus drain off unmixed milk to complete his
meal, then lie down stretched out among his flocks. oKRHTONis elsewhere used only
of wine, the drink Odysseus will in fact use as part of his MXOW
629. FOOD IN THE HOMERIC WORLD

It is interesting to know details about the way of life of these Homeric people with
whom we are living in imagination throughout this course. Much can be learned
about their food and drink by collecting the evidence from both poems.
The main staple of the diet is meat, roasted over an open fire or baked in bags of skin
placed among the ashes; boiling is never mentioned. Beef, mutton, and pork are the
common meats, with wild venison or boar or goat as occasional luxuries. Bread and
cakes, made from wheat and barley, are the second major item, supplemented by soft
cheese and occasionally by some vegetable, mainly beans or peas (not, of course,
potatoes, corn, or tomatoes, which are New World crops). Onions are used as a relish;
olive oil and salt, for flavoring.
Of fresh fruits there is mention of pears, pomegranates, apples, figs, olives, and grapes.
Honey is very popular both in itself and as sweetening for other items. Fish is not
much liked, but is eaten in the absence of other food.
The chief drink is wine, liberally diluted with water and often flavored with honey or
spices. Wine is preferred aged, and is made in several varieties. Fresh spring-water,
milk (mostly of goats), and whey are also fairly common for drinking, but on a
secondary level to wine.
Usually there are two meals a day, a light one in the morning (oRISTON) and the
main meal (DEºPNON) toward mid-day, but the time of the main meal varies. If the
main meal is taken in the morning or at noon, a supper (DÎRPON) ordinarily follows
in the evening. Between meals and at intervals in the day’s work a bit of wine is the
customary refreshment.
630. WRITE IN GREEK

1. We wept when we saw the cruel Cyclops, sitting there in the cave among his
sheep, seize with pitiless heart two faithful companions to eat.
2. Looking at him prepare a supper of human flesh and bones, I wished to draw
my deadly sword from (PARk) my thigh and kill him.
275
3. Tell me where you (sg.) found your companions, so many and brave. You are a
happy king, O friend!
631. WORD STUDY

PANCREAS (a gland supplying the stomach juice for digesting fats and ‘all flesh’),
CREOSOTE (‘flesh-saver’, an oily liquid used as a wood preservative); — LEON,
LEO — OSTEOPATH (a doctor who seeks to cure certain diseases by treatment of
the bones, manipulation of the limbs, spine, and muscles).
276
Lesson 95
632. MEMORIZE
DºOWAON bright, glorious [f. usually keeps alpha through sg.]
PIMA¸OMAIPIMjSSOMAI I seek out; I feel, I touch
PIMASSjMHN
MEGALTVRMEGALTOROW [adj.] great-hearted, great, daring
ÔYI [adv.] where
ÑJÃWEºAÃ sharp, keen
STENjXV [pres. syst. only] I groan, I lament
633. TEXT
The Wiser Second Thought

TÏNMNG£BOÃLEUSAKATkMEGALTORAYUMÏN
sSSON»¢NJ¸FOWÑJÄRUSSjMENOWPARkMHROÅ
OÆTjMENAIPRÏWSTYOWÔYIFRNEWPARXOUSI
XE¸R
PIMASSjMENOWTEROWDMEYUMÏWRUKEN
AÆTOÅGjRKEKA¹oMMEWmPVLÎMEY
A»PÄNÓLEYRON
OÆGjRKENDUNjMESYAYURjVNÇCHLjVN
XERS¹NmP¢SASYAIL¸YONÓBRIMONÖNPROSYHKEN
ªWTÎTEMNSTENjXONTEWME¸NAMENb)¤DºAN
mPVYVmP¢SVoPVSA I push from

RÃKVRÃJVRUJA I hold back, I restrain
PARATOW [n.] liver
OÆTjV I stab, I pierce
PROST¸YHMIetc. I place in position
STYOWEOW [n.] breast, chest
634. NOTES
FRNEW here used in its literal sense: “midriff, diaphragm;” the usual meaning,
“mind, spirit,” is secondary, derived from the ancient opinion that the midriff, rather
than the brain and heart, is the seat of intelligence and feeling.
XOUSI = “overlaps, enfolds”— an apt description of the way in which the
diaphragm concavity encloses the upper surface of the liver.
XE¸R
is for XEIR¸, not XEºRA.
KA¹oMMEW: “we, too,” in addition to the just-devoured comrades. A»PÄN
ÓLEYRONis cognate accusative (Section 602).
277
KE…mPVLÎMEY
and OÆGjRKENDUNjMESYAKENwith the past ind.
expresses potential in contrary to fact suppositions, i.e., “we would have perished…”
b)¤ : The acc. sg.b)ÎAis often thus contracted to b)¤ .
635. COMMENT
Odysseus’ immediate plan typifies a warrior’s way of thinking: he sees a
chance of wounding the monster mortally. He will approach silently the slumbering
figure, run his hand lightly over the massive frame until he locates a soft and
vulnerable spot under the ribs, then plunge into the giant’s vitals his keen-edged
sword. One quick daring thrust, and they would be saved.
It occurs to Odysseus that in killing the Cyclops he and his companions
would be entombed alive, because of the heavy door-stone. The Odyssey often makes
this very point, that impulses must be checked or modified by calmer reason. Once
again, Odysseus’ clear thinking averts disaster.
636. FOLKTALES IN THE ODYSSEY

Folktales are traditional tales set in the indefinite past. They are vague about their
geographic setting as well, and involve human or even animal characters who
represent broad types; often they bear generic names or are unnamed.
The blinding of the giant Polyphemus is a widely known and popular folktale which
the Odyssey incorporates into its epic narrative. Many versions of this tale of a trickster
outwitting an ogre have been collected and studied by folklorists. Typically, a clever
man, sometimes accompanied by companions, comes upon some sort of ogre in his
isolated lair. Often the ogre is a giant and sometimes has only one eye. Because he is a
cannibal, he decides to keep the man/men in his dwelling to round out his dinner.
The trickster is able to blind the monster by means of a hot spit or boiling liquid. And
being a trickster, he is good with disguises; he covers himself with a sheepskin, behaves
like one of the sheep in the ogre’s herd, and exits from the dwelling with the sheep.
Often, after he has escaped, the trickster boasts to the ogre about his success.
The Odyssey omits one element that is found in many versions of this tale: the ogre
possesses a talking ring that he throws to the escaped trickster. Once the trickster puts
the ring on, it shouts, “Here I am!” over and over again, tipping off the blind monster
to the trickster’s whereabouts. Thus the trickster’s escape requires that he cut off his
finger, since the ring, once put on, cannot be removed. There are many possible
reasons for this element to be omitted from the Homeric version, including the
poem's emphasis on the technological backwardness of Cyclopean society (how would
Polyphemus have gotten a hold of such a marvelous ring?); and the poem’s preference
for keeping its hero’s body intact. Nevertheless, Polyphemus is able to do some harm
to Odysseus through his curse at the end of the episode.
Odysseus’ trick of calling himself “Nobody” is also similar to a ruse found in folktales
from around the world. In these tales a man, when asked by a supernatural being for
his name, identifies himself deceptively as ‘Myself.’ As the tale progresses, the man
injures the supernatural being, who calls out for help from his neighbors. When they
ask what is wrong, he shouts something like ‘Myself has hurt me,’ which response
278
Lesson 95
naturally leads his neighbors to assume that he has somehow caused his own
problems.
Homer’s Odyssey intertwines these two traditional folktales about a trickster outfoxing
a more powerful being into the story of Odysseus’ visit to the cave of Polyphemus.
The tales provide lively and timeless affirmation of the poem's celebration of brains
over brawn.
637. WRITE IN GREEK

1. If you (pl.) had been able to go close and feel the sharp rocks around the door
with your hands, perhaps you would have found some way out of the cave and
would not have remained there lamenting through the night. [For “go close
and” use the ptc. alone.]
2. Whenever anyone asked the great-hearted king if he had a sword, he always
drew it at once from beside his thigh and showed it to him, bright and keen.
3. Seeing the cruel deeds of the monstrous Cyclops, we wailed throughout the
cave, and feared lest he might eat (FAG) us all.
638. WORD STUDY

OXYGEN (the ‘acid-born, acid-making’ element, present in acids and giving them
their ‘sharp’ effect), OXYMORON (foolish; ‘sharp-stupid’, a figure of speech which
joins two mutually opposed ideas for emphasis, e.g., ‘a lawless law’, ‘O happy loss!’);
— HEPATITIS (inflammation of the liver), HEPARIN (an anticoagulant drug
derived from liver and lung tissue of animals); — STETHOSCOPE (an instrument
for ‘examining the chest’ by listening to heartbeat and breathing).
279
Lesson 96
In these lessons, you have memorized more vocabulary words and read forty-two
more lines of the Odyssey. Review carefully; then try this sample test:
I. Vocabulary (30%)
1. may they reach : aor. =
2. NHLAW=
3. boundary : dat. pl. =
4. ÔPLISSON=
5. city : acc. pl. =
6. A»PEISI=
7. we shall touch =
8. sSSON=
9. to respect : aor. inf. =
10. whenever we can : aor. subj. =
II. Syntax (30%): Translate only the words in italics:
1. I fear they will all perish a most cruel death.
2. We pushed the rock away with our hands.
3. If the storm had broken, we would have reached the island easily.
4. “Give me,” he cried, “more of these puny men to eat.”
5. When he had filled his huge belly, he slept.
III. Text (40%)
1. In line 130, explain A»DEºO.
2. Why did not Odysseus stab the giant as he slept?
3. In line 129, explain DO¸HW.
4. What motives did Odysseus use to appeal to the giant’s mercy?
5. In line 162, explain OÆTjMENAI.
6. In line 164, explain ÓLEYRON.
7. In line 167, explain b)¤.
8. How did Odysseus safeguard his men at the boat? Were his means justifiable?
280
Lesson 97
640. MEMORIZE
b"YNHHW [f.] Athene [a goddess, special patroness of Odysseus]
oC [adv.] back, back again
KLUTÎWÎN famous; excellent
T¸NVorT¸V I pay; [in mid.] I take vengeance upon, I punish
[fut.] TE¸SV or T¸SV
[aor.] TE¸SAorTºSA
641. TEXT
New Cruelty and a New Plot

MOWD
KA¹TÎTEPÅRmNKAIEKA¹MELGEKLUTkMLA
MBRUONKENKjST×
SÄND
ÔGEDAÌTEDÃVMjRCAWÒPL¸SSATODEºPNON
DEIPNSAWD
oNTROUJLASEP¸ONAMLA
HÐD¸VWmFEL£NYUREÏNMGANAÆTkRPEITA
qCPYHX
¦WE½TEFARTR×P¤M
PIYE¸H
POLLDO¸Z¡PRÏWÓROWTRPEP¸ONAMLA
,ÃKLVCAÆTkRG£LIPÎMHNKAKkBUSSODOMEÃVN
E½PVWTEISA¸MHNDO¸HDMOIEÌXOWb"YNH
mNAKA¸V I re-kindle
BUSSODOMEÃV I plan secretly
DEIPNVDEIPNSVDE¸PNHSA I take a meal
JELAÃNVEJELjVEJLASSA I drive out
EÌXOW [n.] prayed-for success; joyous triumph;
thing one can boast about
P¤MAATOW [n.] cover, lid
OºZOWOU [f.] whistling, calling
FARTRHHW [f.] quiver (for arrows)
642. NOTES
SÃN: adv. = “together, at once” (cp. line 149). DEºPNON: here, the “morning
meal.”
TE: not translatable here, used in Homer in introducing similes; recall note on
line 13. ¦WE½TE…: Polyphemus is so strong that he is able to replace the massive
stone as effortlessly as, for example, an archer would replace the lid on his quiver.
281
LIPÎMHN: The aor. mid. of this verb often has passive sense.
E½PVW: introduces an indirect question with the opt. (“I was wondering how I
might…”)
643. COMMENT
The repetition in partly identical, partly modified, form of several lines
from earlier passages of the story serves as an artful memory hookup of the present
action with what has gone before. We thus see the whole narrative more as a unit, and
better perceive the place in it of what is now re-enacted. This is an example of
formulaic composition.
By describing the dreadful death of two more Greeks in such a brief and
unemotional way, Homer suggests that no other course of action was to be expected
of him.
DEºPNON: This term designates the principal meal of the day, ordinarily taken in
the evening, but often at noon and sometimes, as here, before beginning the day’s work.
Once more the ease with which the giant handles the huge rock slab brings
home to us the immense strength at his command. The door-stone seems not to have
reached to the very top of the cave’s opening, but to have left some space for light and
ventilation. That is how both the Cyclops and the Greeks knew when morning had
arrived.
Foiled in their hopes of perhaps being able to escape when the giant opened
the cave’s mouth to let out his flocks, the Greeks are left behind as in a cage; they are
choice morsels reserved for coming ‘banquets.’ It is a hopeless situation. But
Odysseus, at least, does not give up, nor abandon hope. His sharp mind is busy with
new schemes for vengeance and escape, and he trusts in the aid of the gods.
644. ACCUSATIVE OF SPECIFICATION

In Greek, an accusative is often used to explain or specify in what respect the idea
contained in a verb, adjective, noun, or whole clause is true. This is called the
accusative of specification or respect. Thus:
BjLEMINXEºRA He struck him on the hand.
GUNKALÑFYALMOÃW The woman is fair-eyed. (= fair in respect to eyes)
PAºWMNS¤MAmRETNDmNR He is a boy in body, but as for valor
a man. (= a boy in respect to his body, a man in respect to valor)
645. WRITE IN GREEK

1. He left us there in the cave, planning how we might punish the Cyclops and go
back again to our ships; but how could we lift that mighty door-stone out of the
way?
2. The monstrous shepherd was cruel and savage, yet he well knew how to lead his
excellent flocks over the mountains, to some place where they might find food.
[For “knew how to” use OÁDAand inf.]
282
Lesson 97
3. Having drawn (aor.) my sharp sword easily from beside (my) thigh, I prepared
destruction for the ruthless Cyclops, if somehow I might be able to kill him.
646. WORD STUDY

ATHENAEUM (a common name for a literary club, academy, reading-room, etc.,
Athene being in ancient myth the patroness of learning).
283
Lesson 98
647. MEMORIZE
LAÚNEOWHON (of ) olive-wood
¼STÎWOÅ [m.] mast; loom [for weaving]
PAR¸STAMAIPARASTSOMAIPARjSTHN I stand by
XLVRÎWÎN greenish yellow, green
648. TEXT
Preparations for Attack

DEDMOIKATkYUMÏNmR¸STHFA¸NETOBOUL
,ÃKLVPOWGkRKEITOMGAÎPALONPARkSHK¯
XLVRÏNLAÚNEONTÏMNKTAMENÓFRAFORO¸H
AÆANYNTÏMNoMMEWÚSKOMENE»SORÎVNTEW
ÔSSONY
¼STÏNNHÏWEIKOSÎROIOMELA¸NHW
FORT¸DOWEÆRE¸HWT
KPERj MGALAºTMA
TÎSSONHNMKOWTÎSSONPjXOWE»SORjASYAI
TOÅMNÔSONT
ÓRGUIANG£NmPKOCAPARASTkW
KA¹PARYHX
TjROISINmPOJÅNAID
KLEUSA
mPOKÎPTVmPOKÎCVmPÎKOCA I cut off

mPOJÃNVmPOJUNVmPÎJUNA I shape down, I taper
AÆA¸NVaor. pass. AÆjNYHN I dry out
EIKÎSOROWON twenty-oared
¸SKV I judge to be
KPERjVKPERSVKPRHSA I traverse, I sail across
KTjMNV—KTAMON I cut out
ÓRGUIAHW [f.] fathom (the length of the outstretched arms)
PARAT¸YHMIPARAYSVPARjYHKA I set beside
PjXOWEOW [n.] thickness, bulk
ÎPALONOU [n.] club, staff
FORV I carry, I convey
FORT¸W¸DOW [f.] merchant-ship
649. NOTES
The subject of the sentence has shifted from ÎPALONto,ÃKLVC. This
change of subjects within a sentence is far more common in Greek than in Latin.
FORO¸H: contraction of FOREO¸H, an alternate 3rd sing. pres. opt. act., equivalent to
FOROI.
E»SORÎVNTEW: = E»SORjONTEW.See the notes in Sections 593 and 627.
284
Lesson 98
KPERj : = KPERjEI;in verbs in AVAoften prevails over an E orH

following it LAºTMA: i.e., the gulf of the sea
E»SORjASYAI: = E»SORjESYAI
TOÅMNÔSONT
ÓRGUIANG£NmPKOCA:TOÅOPjLOUTÎSONÔSH
ÓRGUIAG¸GNETAImPKOCA “I cut off so much (TÎSON of the club as (ÔSH a
fathom is.”
650. COMMENT
As he turns over in his mind several possible stratagems, Odysseus’ eye is
attracted by the huge stake of olive-wood leaning against the pen, obviously to dry out
for use as a walking stick and club. This suggests to him the most workable plan of all,
and he at once begins to set it in motion. Just what he intends to do neither his men
nor we yet learn until 192ff.
Once again a simile makes the whole description much more vivid.
651. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HOMERIC WORLD

Part 1: Political Organization
We have seen (Section 573) that the Homeric poems were the product of a long oral
tradition stretching back to the Mycenaean period of the second millennium, when
the inhabitants of Greece were governed from royal palaces; their society was
centralized politically, socially, and economically; it was organized hierarchically and
administered in a bureaucratic fashion (Section 551).
Yet the poems we have today present a world organized along different lines. The Iliad
and Odyssey depict a local, small-scale society. Its basic political unit is the PÎLIW, the
self-governing community anchored by a public gathering place called an mGOR, in
which deliberation and decision-making take place. Two deliberative bodies are
typical: a council (BOUL of the leading men (BASILEW, and an assembly (also
called mGORof the people (LAO¸orDMOWAny important community issue is
brought before these bodies; and while the people are not expected to speak out
themselves, the BASILEWare concerned to win them over and create a consensus in
order to legitimize communal actions. So, while the political system in the Homeric
poems is obviously not democratic, popular opinion is respected and censure avoided.
Such councils and assemblies are depicted in the Odyssey’s Ithaca, but even the Greek
army camped at Troy, far away from their various PÎLHEWgoverns itself through
these institutions.
Archeological research has uncovered many such PÎLHEW with central open spaces,
and has dated them to the period after 1000 BCE, especially 850-700. The same era
witnessed the beginning of colonization, the founding of new cities on the model of
the parent city. Another product of this era was the Homeric poems, linking the
political structure of the poems fairly closely with the late Dark Age.
285
652. WRITE IN GREEK

1. My comrades standing by thought that the tall green olive-wood tree was
similar to the great mast of a deep, black ship, so great was it in length to
look at.
2. “Lest another and more destructive war seize the suffering world, go yourselves,”
he said, “and teach men in every town and every land that they are all brothers
to one another. Therefore they must love each other and not fight. There is no
other way to peace.”
3. Whenever any plan seems best to me in my knowing heart, my comrades always
accept it, because they have faith in me.
653. WORD STUDY

CHLORINE (a greenish-yellow poisonous gas), CHLOROFORM (anaesthetic
compound of chlorine and formic acid), HYDROCHLORIC (an acid formed of
hydrogen and chlorine).
286
Lesson 99
654. MEMORIZE
mN¢GVmN¢JVoNVJAoNVGA [pf. has pres. sense; plpf. has impf. sense]
I command, I urge
MOXLÎWOÅ [m.] bar, stake
ÉPNOWOU [m.] sleep
655. TEXT
A Desperate Scheme
O¼D
ÒMALÏNPO¸HSANG¢D
YÎVSAPARASTkW
oKRONoFARDLAB£NPURjKTEONNPUR¹KHL¡
KA¹TÏMNEÌKATYHKAKATAKRÃCAWÇPÏKÎPR¡
AKATkSPE¸OUWKXUTOMEGjL
LIYAPOLL
AÆTkRTOÄWoLLOUWKLR¡PEPALSYAIoNVGON
ÔWTIWTOLMSEIENMO¹SÄNMOXLÏNmE¸RAW
TRºCAINÑFYALM¯ÔTETÏNGLUKÄWÉPNOW¼KjNOI
O¼D
LAXONTOÄWoNKEKA¹YELONAÆTÏWLSYAI
TSSAREWAÆTkRG£PMPTOWMETkTOºSINLGMHN
oFAR [adv.] quickly, briskly

LIYA [a strengthening adv.] very, in abundance
YOÎVYO¢SVYÎVSA I sharpen
KATAKRÃPTV. etc. I hide away
KLEOWHON blazing
KLROWOU [m.] lot
KÎPROWOU [f.] dung, filth
LAGXjNVLJOMAILjXON I draw the lot, I am assigned by lot
LGVLJV I choose, I collect, I count
non-thematic 2 aor. mid. LGMHN
ÒMALÎWÎN smooth
PjLLV—PPALON I shake, I cast; in mid: I draw lots
PMPTOWHON fifth
PURAKTV I harden (by fire), I temper
TSSAREWA four
TOLMjVTOLMSVTÎLMHSA I dare
TR¸BVTR¸CVTR¸CA I twist round, I grind, I rub
656. NOTES
SPE¸OUW : gen. sg. of SPEºOW, an alternate spelling of SPOW; see Section
514. KXUTO: plpf. of XV, with impf. force, = “lay scattered.” Take MEGjLA
adverbially (“high”).
287
TOLMSEIEN : depending on the idea ‘to see’ implicit in the preceding line.
TOÄW : the article used as a relative (“whom”) with antecedent O¼
LGMHN: translate this middle reflexively: “I chose myself ” or “I counted
myself ”
657. COMMENT
When his men have smoothed down the entire log, Odysseus sharpens the
tip and bakes it hard in the coals. Odysseus might have used his sword (J¸FOW, 161)
for this attack on the Cyclops, but he chooses to fashion instead this primitive
weapon, a type used by early man. As he hides it away he explains his plan. He decides
to determine who will share with him in this hazardous attempt by lot, the method
commonly regarded in Greek culture as the fairest.
The years-old heaps of refuse covering the floor “all down the cave,” from
mouth to interior, are yet another indication of the Cyclops’ uncivilized ways.
Odysseus is encouraged on finding the lot fall on just those men whose
strength, dexterity, and proven courage make them most desirable. He sees here
reason to trace the guiding hand of the gods.
658. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HOMERIC WORLD

Part 2: Social Organization
The basic social unit in the Homeric poems is the household, or OÁKOWThe
household includes the head and his various dependents. A Homeric PÎLIW contains
both modest and grand households, but typically the richest citizen (for Ithaca, that
would be Odysseus) would head the most extensive. The O½KOIof the paramount
BASILEWinclude not just relatives and slaves, but also retainers, refugees from other
PÎLHEW, who are given status and protection in their new community in exchange for
loyal service. The status of the preeminent BASILEÃWand his household can be
challenged, as the situation in Ithaca during Odysseus’ absence makes clear: the other
leading men consider themselves to be nearly his equals and potentially his successors.
The lesser households do not receive attention in the Homeric poems, but they
implicitly exist, since their heads sit in the assembly and follow the BASILEWto war
as their LAO¸It appears that achievement in war could be an avenue to social
advancement (see, for example, Odyssey 14. 199-234). Thus, class-boundaries are not
insurmountable; and Odysseus’ companions, though they are his social inferiors, are
also his dear friends F¸LOI).
Besides the elite and non-elite land-owning farmers, the Homeric poems show us a
class of professional artisans and specialists, such as bards, builders, seers, and doctors.
Some craftsmen— potters, smiths, leatherworkers— have an ambiguous status in
relation to households and communities. They probably worked for the O½KOIThe
hired worker, who did not have an ongoing tie to any OÁKOW, stood at the bottom of
the social ladder of all free men; slaves, in fact, who truly did “belong” to an OÁKOW,
were considered better off.
288
Lesson 99
Long-distance commerce is the province of foreigners. Homer says little about local
markets and exchange. However, the BASILEW regularly conduct raids in order to
acquire goods and slaves. Moreover, the poems describe much gift exchange between
the members of the elite; such exchange is a means of forging or cementing alliances.
A woman’s role is confined to the household, where she supervises the slaves in their
domestic work and does some herself: women are often shown weaving. Women in
both of the Homeric poems are admonished to stay out of men’s affairs (war, politics)
and concentrate on their domestic tasks (see Odyssey 1. 356-59; Iliad 6. 490-93). A
well-run household though, is critically important, as the story of Penelope's defense
of Odysseus’ household makes clear. Moreover, it is women who produce heirs.
Most scholars agree that, just as the political structure of the Homeric PÎLIWreflects
late Dark Age reality, so also does the Homeric society. In the case of society,
however, the evidence is not archeological but based on research on oral poetry.
Traditional singers use traditional material (stories, diction), but elaborate on them so
as to captivate and entertain the audience. Audiences are drawn to poems that are
meaningful to them and with which they can identify. Oral songs typically depict
dilemmas and conflicts familiar to the audience, though the characters and events may
belong explicitly to some heroic past. In this sense, traditional poetry is highly
adaptable and open to what is new. As Telemachus says:
People surely applaud more the newest song to meet their ears.....
Odyssey 1. 351-52
659. WRITE IN GREEK

1. I urged them to take the stake of green olive-wood and put it in the fire, that it
might be made ready for the deed which we were about to do.
2. Who of my comrades would dare with me to raise the heavy stake and with it
destroy that monstrous eye, when sleep should seize the cruel and pitiless
shepherd?
3. He who is swift to obey but hesitates to command is indeed noble in soul and
alone worthy to become king.
660. WORD STUDY

HYPNOTISM (artificially caused ‘sleep’ in which the mind becomes passive and
easily directed by another), HYPNOTIST; HYPNOTIC (producing sleepiness or a
state of hypnotism); — CLERIC (a religious official, churchman; so called from
Deuteronomy 18.2: “The Lord Himself shall be their lot [i.e., inheritance, riches]”),
CLERICAL (pertaining to clerics or the Church as a whole), CLERGY (by
mispronunciation of ‘clericy’: Churchmen as a group), CLERK (shortened form of
‘cleric’: ancient name for a Churchman, later for any learned person or official in
charge of records [e.g., City Clerk], now of anyone caring for business transactions);
— DIATRIBE (a verbal attack or tirade, ‘grinding through’ a person’s character or
actions).
289
Lesson 100
661. MEMORIZE
AÂMAA¾MATOW [n.] blood
ÓNOMAorOÈNOMAÑNÎMATOW [n.] name
TR¸W [adv.] thrice, three times
662. TEXT
The Enemy Returns

SPRIOWD
LYENKALL¸TRIXAMLANOMEÃVN
AÆT¸KAD
E»WEÆRÄSPOWLASEP¸ONAMLA
PjNTAMjL
OÆDTILEºPEBAYE¸HWNTOYENAÆLW
TIÑÐSjMENOWKA¹YEÏWªWKLEUSEN
AÆTkRPEIT
PYHKEYUREÏNMGANÇCÎS
mE¸RAW
ZÎMENOWD
MELGENÓÐWKA¹MHKjDAWAÁGAW
MBRUONKENKjST×
SÄND
ÔGEDAÌTEDÃVMjRCAWÒPL¸SSATODÎRPON
NTOYEN [prep. + gen.] within, inside (of )

SPRIOWHON at evening
KALL¸YRIJKALL¸TRIXOW [adj.] with fair wool, fleecy [epithet of sheep and horses]
MHKjWjDOW [adj.] bleating [epithet of goats]
NOMEÃV I tend or drive (a flock)
663. NOTES
MjLA: recall note on line 99 in Section 579.
KA¹: KA¹here marks and emphasizes the distinction between alternatives.
PYHKE : Section 577
KEN : see note on line 106 in Section 586
664. COMMENT
The Greeks watch the giant drive in his flocks and once more shut behind
him that mighty barrier against all escape.
Odysseus speculates as to whether Polyphemus has some reason to drive in
all the male animals, whereas before he had left them in the yard (Section 578). On
the other hand, perhaps some god has so moved him. In any case, the variation in
routine contributes to favorable circumstances for the ultimate fulfillment of
Odysseus’ plan.
290
Lesson 100
665. THE GEOMETRIC STYLE

After the collapse of the rich and refined Mycenaean palace civilization (Section 551),
life did go on, and practical products for daily living were still produced by the
survivors. Yet these products were inferior technically and aesthetically to their
Myceanean counterparts, and are called by scholars Submycenaean. In the eleventh
century, pottery began to be produced at Athens using more advanced technology.
Some improvement in design is evident, as well, as vases’ shapes are accentuated and
complemented by simple bands of paint, or with concentric semicircles. Occasionally,
small figures of horses appear on these pots, but the prevalence of a geometric pattern
is the reason that the style is called Protogeometric (1050 BCE initial date). The style
evolved over time, phasing out the circular motifs for the rectilinear meander pattern
that is still commonly identified with Greek decorative art. Vases became more fully
covered with geometric designs, with animals being worked into the decorative bands
of paint. Scholars distinguish this stage of design with a different label: Geometric,
divided into subclasses Early (900 BCE), Middle (850 BCE), and Late (760 BCE),
each with its own variations of the Geometric style.
Figural representation, which had disappeared during the Dark Age, increased in
popularity and complexity in the second half of the ninth century; from the mid-
eighth century—about the date assigned to Homer by scholars— jewelry with figure
scenes engraved or in relief begin to appear in the archeological record, along with
bronze figurines of men, animals and birds. Pottery was painted with multiple figure
designs, showing funerary scenes and narrative scenes from mythology or epic.
Chariot scenes and battle scenes were especially common. All figures on geometric
pottery were painted so as to emphasize the geometrical forms underlying the bodily
structure and to complement the surrounding geometric design. Geometric art has
been likened to epic style: geometric design relies on stock motifs and ornamental
formulas, and epic poems are constructed from stock formulas and traditional scenes.
As we have noted, both art forms belong to the eighth century; perhaps, it is thought,
their similarities reflect the aesthetics of their period.
As the eighth century came to a close, the Geometric style gave way to the
Orientalizing style (700-625 BCE), named for its debt to contemporary Near Eastern
styles. Geometric patterns were increasingly replaced by floral and animal motifs; the
human figure was drawn with increasing naturalism and narrative scenes were
designed with greater complexity.
666. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Perhaps some god ordered him to drive those excellent flocks this night into the
high cave and not leave them where we had seen them near the sea.
2. He did not know, foolish one, what would happen to him when sweet sleep
came and seized him in body and limbs. [“came and” = “coming should”]
3. Seeing his wild eyes and the blood on his hands, we thrice inquired of the
stranger what was his name and country; but thrice he answered us nothing.
291
667. WORD STUDY

ANEMIA, ANEMIC (‘bloodlessness’, subnormal amount of red corpuscles or
hemoglobin); — HEMO- (combining form meaning ‘blood-’ as in HEMOCYTE,
HEMOPHILIA, HEMORRHAGE, HEMORRHOID);— ONOMATOPOEIA
(‘name-making’, making the name imitate the sound of the thing designated, e.g.,
splash, sizzle, murmur); — SYNONYM (‘with-name’, a word with the same meaning
as another, going with it as name for the same thing, e.g., begin and commence),
ANONYMOUS (‘nameless’, of unknown authorship), METONYMY (a figure of
speech in which a thing is ‘named after’ one of its parts or prominent attributes; e.g.,
“the ship was lost with all hands,” i.e., all members of the crew; or “the crown” as
meaning the royal government); — TRI- (prefix meaning ‘thrice’, ‘three’, as in
TRISYLLABLE, TRICYCLE, TRIMETER, etc.), TRIAD (a group of three),
TRILOGY (three literary works forming a unit and dealing with aspects of the same
subject), TRIGONOMETRY (the mathematics of the triangle and its laws and
measurement).
292
Lesson 101
668. MEMORIZE
AÌ [adv.] again; but now
LEV—LHSA I pity, I have mercy on
PROSAUDjV I address
669. TEXT
A Wily Gift
KA¹TÎT
G£,ÃKLVPAPROSHÃDVNoGXIPARASTjW
KISSÃBIONMETkXERS¹NXVNMLANOWO½NOIO
,ÃKLVCTP¸EOÁNONPE¹FjGEWmNDRÎMEAKRA
ÓFR
E»DWOÂÎNTIPOTÏNTÎDENHÅWKEKEÃYEI
METRHSO¹D
AÌLOIBNFRONE½M
LESAW
O½KADEPMCEIAWSÄDMA¸NEAIOÆKT
mNEKT¤W
SXTLIEP¤WKNT¸WSEKA¹ÉSTERONoLLOW¾KOITO
mNYR¢PVNPOLVNPE¹OÆKATkMOºRANREJAW
mNEKT¤W [adv.] endurably

KISSÃBIONOU [n.] drinking bowl
LOIBW [f.] libation
MA¸NOMAI I rage, I act like a mad man
T [impt.] here! come!
ÉSTERON [adv.] later
670. NOTES
KRA : scan as monosyllable.
E»DW: pf. subj. of OÁDA(Section 491).KEKEÃYEI: plpf. of KEÃYV(with
impf. sense).
LOIBN: a LOIBis an offering to a god. E» in context = “in the hope that…”
POLVN= POLL¤N: = “however many there be, anywhere in the world.”
671. COMMENT
Maron’s precious wine was brought along (60-79) as a friendly gift to the
unknown inhabitant of the cave, though Odysseus did have a premonition that the
wine might be useful against a bully (77-79). Now it becomes part of a deadly plot
against the monster. Odysseus ironically flatters Polyphemus into accepting it by
293
saying he brought it as a libation of gratitude (such as is offered to a god), if only he

had treated them hospitably.
. Odysseus sees Polyphemus as insane because he acts against his own self-
interest: his inhospitality cuts him off from profitable interactions with men.
672. HERODOTUS, HISTORIAN WITH A SENSE OF HUMOR

The History of Herodotus is one of the world’s best-loved books. Its delightful
simplicity and directness of style, the genial humanism which pervades its thought,
the buoyant eagerness and enthusiasm and sense of wonder with which events are
told, together with the interesting nature of its varied contents and the author’s
wisdom and good-natured sense of humor combine to make Herodotus’ book a most
enjoyable sort of history. He is a master storyteller and has a sure eye for curious
details and items of special human interest.
Herodotus, “The Father of History,” lived about 480-425 BCE. Born at
Halicarnassus, a prominent Greek city in Asia Minor, he traveled widely as a young
man all over the Mediterranean world. Impressed by the recent defeat of the mighty,
far-flung, monarchical Persian Empire by an alliance of Greek city-states through
sheer bravery and love of freedom, he decided to tell the whole story as an inspiration
for all time. In charmingly simple and graceful prose (very close to Homeric forms,
and full of Homer’s spirit), he wrote down a detailed account of the civilizations,
customs, and interesting sights of Egypt, Lydia, Persia, Scythia, Babylon, Libya,
Thrace and the story of their conquest and fusion into one vast Empire by the Persian
kings. He then tells how all the resources of this powerful empire were twice massed
against Greece and twice hurled back by the heroic valor and brilliant strategy of the
small Greek forces in the famous battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and
Plataea. It is a story known over the world.
Into this broad epic narrative, Herodotus has woven many colorful episodes,
anecdotes, personal reflections, and entertaining stories, drawn from various
informants and documents as well as local oral traditions. It is the earliest historical
prose narrative we possess. The long narrative is given variety, interest, and a
delightfully human tone by interspersed witty remarks, ‘whoppers’, fish-stories, and
amusing descriptions.
673. WRITE IN GREEK

1. I stood near and with cunning addressed him as a god, bearing in my hands a
splendid gift of the heavenly wine which that excellent man gave me at Apollo’s
temple.
2. This seemed to me the best plan: to conceal our ship beside the river and to
approach the cave in the mountain while it was still dark night.
3. He was brave of (acc.) soul and mighty of strength, but kindly and friendly
towards (those) doing worthy things.
294
Lesson 101
674. WORD STUDY

ALMS (by mispronunciation of Old English aelmesse, derived from LEHMOSÃNH
‘pity-gift’, alms), KYRIE ELEISON (‘Lord, have mercy!’, a prayer in the Mass, taken
over from the Greek liturgy of the Eastern Church); — HYSTERON PROTERON
(a figure of speech which puts ‘the later thing first’, inverting the logical order to
emphasize the more important part of the thought, e.g., Vergil’s ‘Let us die and
plunge into the midst of the fight!’).
295
Lesson 102
In these lessons, you have memorized seventeen more vocabulary words, have read
forty-six lines of Homer, and have studied the use of the accusative of specification.
Review all this carefully; then try this sample examination:
I. Vocabulary (20%)
1. they paid =
2. standing by (aor. masc. sg. dat.) =
3. mN¢GEA=
4. mast: dat. pl. =
5. oC=
II. Text (65%)
1. In line 211, explain PMCEIAW
2. In line 206, identify PROSHÃDVN.
3. TranslateP¸EOÁNON.
4. By the use of what simile does Homer show how easily the Cyclops handled the
door-stone?
5. In line 185, explain E»SORjASYAI
6. Translate LASEP¸ONAMLA.
7. How large was Polyphemus’s new staff?
8. In line 185, explain MKOW.
9. How many men were to thrust the pole into Polyphemus’s eye? How were they
chosen?
10. In line 175, identify and explain PIYE¸H.
11. Translate TÏNGLUKÄWÉPNOW¾KANE.
12. What was unusual about Polyphemus’s actions when he returned to the cave?
III. Syntax (15%) Translate the words in italics and identify the construction they
exemplify:
1. The giant was a marvel to look at.
2. I was wondering if somehow I might punish him.
3. This savage monster was brutal of voice and terrifying in strength.
296
Lesson 103
676. MEMORIZE
A»N¤W [adv.] awfully, greatly
oROURAHW [f.] soil, earth
AÌTIW [adv.] back, again
TEÎWÎN your [sg.]
677. TEXT
Tricked!
ªWFjMHNÒDDKTOKA¹KPIENSATOD
A»N¤W
DÄPOTÏNP¸NVNKA¸M
TEEDEÃTERONAÌTIW
DÎWMOITIPRÎFRVNKA¸MOITEÏNOÈNOMAE»P
AÆT¸KANÅN¾NATOID¤JE¸NION·KESÄXA¸R×W
KA¹GkR,UKL¢PESSIFREIZE¸DVROWoROURA
OÁNONRISTjFULONKA¸SFIN%IÏWÓMBROWmJEI
mLLkTÎD
mMBROS¸HWKA¹NKTARÎWSTINmPORR¢J
ªWFAT
AÆTjRO¼AÌTIWG£PÎRONA½YOPAOÁNON
TR¹WMNDVKAFRVNTR¹WD
KPIENmFRAD¸×SIN
AÁYOCOPOW glowing, sparkling

mMBROS¸HHW [f.] ambrosia [the food of the gods]
mPORR¢J¤GOW [f.] sample, bit
mFRAD¸HHW [f.] folly, recklessness
KP¸NV, etc. I drink off
RISTjFULOWHON made from rich-clustering grapes [epithet of wine]
ZE¸DVROWON grain-giving, fruitful [epithet of the earth]
678. NOTES
DKTO : alternate 3 sg. impf. ind. of DXOMAI(= DXETO)
DÎW : See Sections 472 and 473.
D¤: 1 sg. 2 aor. subj. ofD¸DVMI, contracted form (Section 473).
·KESÄXA¸R×W: relative clause of purpose: “in which you may…”
679. COMMENT
Polyphemus drinks the wine unmixed, just as he has the milk (158); Greeks
would prefer to dilute their wine with water.
297
The giant’s eagerness for more of Maron’s wondrous wine, and his
admission of its superiority over all he had before known or thought possible on earth,
recalls the first account of the wine’s merits, as a drink fit for the gods (lines 69-75).
In the Homeric world, a stranger’s name was not asked at first meeting, but
only later (perhaps days later), after proper hospitality had been proffered. However,
in one respect Polyphemus is adhering to etiquette, for the giving of a JE¸NION should
be preceded by an exchange of names.
Odysseus leads the Cyclops on to one draft after another of this potent
drink (we recall it should be diluted twenty to one), with the idea of dulling his senses
and slowing up his reactions, to make him an easier prey to the coming attack. The
enemy’s mighty strength is thus disorganized and confused by his ‘puny’ foe’s keen-
witted tactics. The sides are now more fairly matched, and the hope of victory grows
brighter.
680. THE BIRTH OF TRAGEDY IN ATHENS

Aristotle in his Poetics states that tragedy originated in the choral hymns sung to the
god Dionysus. This type of hymn, called the dithyramb, included verses for leaders
(exarchontes), to which other singers would reply, while acting out in symbolic dance,
sometimes with masks, the subject matter of the songs. Yet, there is no solid evidence
to shed light on the early development of the genre from such origins at Athens until
the plays of Aeschylus (525-456). Since Aeschylus dedicates a larger share of his
dramas to the choral odes than do his successors, Sophocles and Euripides, it is
generally agreed that tragedy before him must have gradually developed from a
primarily choral performance into one which alternated choruses with lines spoken by
actors. Aeschylus was apparently the first to present two actors, who impersonated the
characters involved and engaged in dialogue among themselves and with the chorus.
He thereby became the creator of tragedy in the full sense.
A bit later, Sophocles raised the dramatic art to perfection, introducing a third actor,
improving the staging technique, and organizing the plot into a complete logical unity
of actions springing naturally from the very characters of the persons involved.
Euripides, his contemporary, was powerfully dramatic in his intensely vivid
presentation of controversial topics. There were numerous other outstanding tragic
poets, but these are the great three.
Although tragedy was performed elsewhere in Greece, it is from Athens and the
surrounding district, Attica, that we have almost all our evidence about it. At some
point in the sixth century, drama, including both tragedy and comedy, began to be
performed in the state sponsored City Dionysia, a festival in honor of Dionysus.
These yearly spring festivals also featured performances of dithyrambic odes, and
sacrifices, libations, and processions. Three tragedians each produced three tragedies,
and one of the three poets was awarded first prize by a panel of ten judges chosen for
the occasion to represent the people of Athens.
Greek tragedy, which often takes its plots and characters from the Trojan War legend,
has exerted obvious influence over later drama, inspiring modern rewritings of the
myths popular in antiquity.
298
Lesson 103
681. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Whenever we gave the Cyclops that strong dark wine, he took it eagerly and
quickly drank it all.
2. Greatly pleased with my gift, he asked three times if I would give him the sweet
wine again and tell him my name and from what place I had come.
3. Nature is always laboring for our sake; the soil, the sun, the rain produce many
foods which we may eat, and many other beautiful things exist (PEL) in which
we may rejoice.
299
Lesson 104
682. MEMORIZE
MEIL¸XIOWHON pleasing, winning
0ÌTIW0ÈTIOW Nobody
PAXÃWEºAÃ thick, stout
PRÎSYEN [adv.] first, before, in front of
683. TEXT
Wile vs. Deceit

AÆTkRPE¹,ÃKLVPAPER¹FRNAWLUYENOÁNOW
KA¹TÎTEDMINPESSIPROSHÃDVNMEILIX¸OISI
,ÃKLVCE»RVTwWM
ÓNOMAKLUTÎNAÆTkRG¢TOI
JERVSÄDMOIDÏWJE¸NION¨WPERÇPSTHW
0ÌTIWMO¸G
ÓNOMA0ÌTINDMEKIKLSKOUSI
MTHRDPATRD
oLLOIPjNTEWTAºROI
ªWFjMHNÒDM
AÆT¸K
mME¸BETONHLÐYUM¯
0ÌTING£PÃMATONDOMAIMETkOÂS
TjROISI
TOÄWD
oLLOUWPRÎSYENTÏDTOIJEINÐONSTAI
E»RVTjV I ask [+ double acc.]

JE¸RVJERV I speak out, I tell
KIKLSKV I call (by name)
JEINÐONOU = JE¸NIONOU
PÃMATOWHON last
ÇF¸STAMAIÇPOSTSOMAIÇPÎSTHN I promise
684. NOTES
PERI…LUYEN,ÃKLVPAFRNAW = “surrounded the Cyclops’ senses;”
FRNAWis an acc. of specification (Section 644).
DÏW : Section 473
METk : “among” or “in the number of ”
685. COMMENT
Odysseus makes very clever use of the Cyclops’ inebriated state to improve
his strategic position. His friendly, almost jovial tone, capitalizing on the giant’s
cheerful mood, lends persuasiveness to his words. His insertion of a renewed request
for the promised gift before proceeding to tell his name comes at the right
psychological moment, for the half-stupefied monster will be more ready to agree
300
Lesson 104
now, in order to get the desired information. And in giving the accusative also of his
pretended name, Odysseus makes it sound more plausible, since it no longer appears
to be merely the negative indefinite pronoun (whose accusative would beOÈTINA)
but a real name quite possible in Greek usage.
The protective deception works perfectly as planned. But here Polyphemus
reveals his promise to be only a cynical jest. Though he is obviously violating the rules
of hospitality when he eats his guests, yet his sarcasm enables him to designate his
behavior as proper.
686. GREEK COMEDY

The word ‘comedy’ is from the Greek KVM¡D¸A, or ‘K¤MOWsong.’ A K¤MOW is a
procession of people carousing, singing and merry-making. Such a procession was
part of the yearly Athenian festival called the City Dionysia. At some point, the
K¤MOW apparently took on a dramatic form, though there is inadequate evidence to
explain how and when.
Greek comedy reached its artistic peak in Aristophanes (c. 448-380), whose plays
combined brilliant stage effects (with choruses dressed up as clouds, birds, frogs, etc.)
with clever situation and story, flashing wit, fierce satire of contemporary political or
intellectual figures, fantasy, imaginative flights, puns, and ingenious parody. The
comic hero in Aristophanes’ plays typically feels oppressed by and dissatisfied with his
(or her) situation at the start of the play; he concocts a fantastic scheme which aims at
establishing, at least for himself, a peaceful and just utopia abundant in food, wine
and sex. And the comic hero generally (with Clouds as an exception) succeeds: the
comedies end on a festive note. But there is much serious and salutary criticism of
personal and civic defects, too, and a vigorous intellectual point in his plays. It is
comedy of a unique and very interesting sort.
Later comic writers, of whom Menander (342-292) is the most famous, abandoned
satire and open criticism of public figures, for quieter themes concerned with the
foibles, romances, and escapades of common people. There is much in common here
with modern comedy, which has been deeply influenced by Greek technique and its
Roman counterpart.
687. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Would you (sg.) have given your true name to the monstrous Cyclops, knowing
his pitiless heart and what he did before to every mortal whom he could seize?
2. The stranger was stout and strong of body and winning in speech (pl.), but
none of us knew if he were loyal or why he had come.
3. With winning words I kept requesting the pitiless stranger to pity us, but
ruthless of heart he replied nothing.
688. WORD STUDY

PACHYDERM (DRMA skin; a ‘thick-skinned’ animal, e.g., an elephant or
hippopotamus), PACHYDERMOUS.
301
Lesson 105
688. MEMORIZE
pPTVpCOMAIpCA I fasten; [in mid.] I lay hold of; I catch fire
DA¸MVNDA¸MONOW [m., f.] a divinity, a superhuman power
thus he spoke [3 sg. impf. of M¸ ]
KSEÃV—KSSÃMHN [non-thematic 2 aor.] I rush out of, I pour out of [intr.]
TjXA [adv.] quickly, soon
689. TEXT
Final Preparations
KA¹mNAKLINYE¹WPSENÉPTIOWAÆTkRPEITA
KEºT
mPODOXM¢SAWPAXÄNAÆXNAKkDDMINÉPNOW
REIPANDAMjTVRFjRUGOWD
JSSUTOOÁNOW
CVMO¸T
mNDRÎMEOIÒD
REÃGETOO»NOBARE¸VN
KA¹TÎT
G£TÏNMOXLÏNÇPÏSPODOÅLASAPOLLW
EÂOWYERMA¸NOITOPESSIDPjNTAWTA¸ROUW
YjRSUNONMT¸WMOIÇPODDE¸SAWmNADÃH
mLL
ÔTEDTjX
ÒMOXLÏWLjÐNOWNPUR¹MLLEN
pCASYAIXLVRÎWPER¢NDIEFA¸NETOD
A»N¤W
KA¹TÎT
G£NoSSONFRONKPURÎWmMF¹D
TAºROI
¾STANT
AÆTkRYjRSOWNPNEUSENMGADA¸MVN
mNADÃV—mNjDUN I draw back, I flinch

mNAKL¸NVaor. pass. mNAKL¸NYHN I lean back
mPODOXMÎV—mPODÎXMVSA I turn (something) aside, I cause (something) to droop
AÆXNNOW [m.] neck
DIAFA¸NOMAI I appear through, I glow
MPNV—MPNEUSA I breathe into
REÃGOMAI I belch outI disgorge, I vomit
YjRSOWEOW [n.] courage, boldness
YARSÃNV—YjRSUNA I encourage
YERMA¸NV I heat
O»NOBARE¸V I am heavy with wine, I am drunk
PANDAMjTVROROW all-subduing [epithet of sleep]
SPODÎWOÅ [f.] embers, hot ashes
ÇPODE¸DVetc. I grow fearful
ÉPTIOWHON on the back, face up
FjRUJUGOW [f.] throat
CVMÎWOÅ [m.] particle, scrap
302
Lesson 105
690. NOTES
KkD = KATk (a common shortened form before D).
TÏNMOXLÏN: TÏN here is demonstrative (“that [already mentioned] stake”);
ÇPÏ: here refers not, as is usual with gen. to motion “from under”, but “to a point
under” the embers.
EÂOW= OW
ÇPODDE¸SAW=ÇPODE¸SAW: the second Dstands for an original digamma
(ÇPOD8E¸SAW); mNADÃH: opt. (see Section 306); MOI: ethical dat., conveying that
their flinching would be to Odysseus’ disadvantage (Section 18).
691. COMMENT
The poet gives a graphic description of Polyphemus’ drunken stupor.
Odysseus has previously tempered the stake in the fire (189), but its tip is
still green. Here he again heats it, inserting it under the embers until it glows and is on
the verge of catching fire.
As he prepares the weapon of attack, Odysseus exhorts his companions to
be brave; in addition, they are inspired with courage by some divine power. Both of
these are elements in battle scenes in the Iliad, suggesting that the poet, or Odysseus
himself, is evoking such scenes of heroic valor as he describes the assault on
Polyphemus.
692. GREEK PHILOSOPHY

Ancient Greece gave birth to the discipline of philosophy as it has been practiced in
the west. In the sixth and fifth centuries, thinkers now called pre-Socratics speculated
about fundamental principles and substances that might explain the world as people
experienced it. Their focus was often on the nature and origins of the material world,
but they also attempted to explain the development of society.
The sophists (fifth century) are best remembered as the pioneers of the systematic
study of persuasive argument. But they taught and lectured on a variety of topics,
including political philosophy, mathematics, geography, and anthropology, as they
traveled from city to city.
Plato (429-347 BCE) of Athens wrote dialogues remarkable for their style and
dramatic vividness. In most of these, Socrates (469-399 BCE) is a participant,
exposing the ignorance of his over-confident interlocutors. Socrates usually guides the
conversation toward a definition of some moral excellence, such as justice or courage.
Implicit in Plato’s emphasis on definition is the existence of an ideal form of the
object defined: an example of a courageous or just act does not suffice as a definition
of courage. Plato in his middle and late dialogues brings out explicitly that knowledge
is aimed not at particular instances but at abstract Forms, which are eternal and
unchanging.
This Theory of Forms had implications for moral philosophy. Plato’s theory argues
for the objectivity of moral values such as justice and truth; in this, he goes against the
303
general drift of sophistic thought, which, with its emphasis on argumentation, Plato
regarded as morally relativistic.
Plato’s Theory of Forms also had political ramifications. States cannot be well
governed unless they are ruled in accordance with these objective, unchanging moral
absolutes; in such a state, decisions are not reached through open debate or based on
the majority preference; rather, those who are entrusted with governing need to be
specially selected and trained to know the ideal Forms. Plato thus diverges not only
from sophistic thought, according to which “Man is the measure of all things”
(Protagoras), but from the principles of democracy, the political system of Plato’s own
Athens.
Plato’s influence on his pupil Aristotle (384-322 BCE) is clear throughout Aristotle’s
wide-ranging writings. Yet Aristotle’s interests obviously differed from Plato’s. For
example, Aristotle conducted groundbreaking biological research; it was unsurpassed
in sophistication until the Renaissance, and was still admired by Charles Darwin in
the nineteenth century. His contributions to fields within what we would now call
philosophy included works in logic, ethics, metaphysics, and political philosophy.
Although Aristotle wrote on so many subjects, his thinking was integrated and
systematic, so that it is possible to venture a generalization about the direction of his
arguments. Aristotle tends to claim a middle ground between Plato’s absolutism and
sophistic relativism. In ethics, for example, Aristotle both recognizes the reality of
extenuating circumstances in reaching a moral decision, and yet holds that for any set
of circumstances there is an objectively determinable right choice that will correspond
to an absolute value. In political philosophy, he is critical of the authoritarian state
proposed by Plato, yet rejects democracy as well. Aristotle believes that the state
should ideally promote the happiness and welfare of its citizens, and that cooperative
activity is necessary for the fullest extent of human happiness. Participation in
government is the fundamental cooperative activity. However, since, in Aristotle’s
view, there are people without the capacity to contribute to political life (women,
slaves, and manual laborers), not all people should be given citizenship.
Philosophy in the Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE) acquired a more practical
orientation. The chief aim of the study of philosophy was happiness, often defined in
negative terms as freedom from fear, pain, or anxiety. Even discussions in the fields of
epistemology or logic were made to tie in to moral philosophy. Whereas Alexandria in
Egypt developed into the cultural center of the Greek world, Athens remained the
center for philosophical study. There, several distinct schools of philosophy formed
and competed to attract students: the Stoics, Epicureans, Skeptics and Peripatetics
(Aristotelians).
693. WRITE IN GREEK

1. We quickly seized the stout stake and put it in the fire until, about to catch fire,
it should be able to destroy his big eye.
2. Some divinity surely supplied spirit to my companions, lest they fear his mighty
strength and leave me alone to fight with so great a man.
304
Lesson 105
3. Shall we then love and reverence our neighbor if he is wise, but not if he is
foolish; if he is of this country, but not if he is of another; if he is white of body,
but not if he is black? That would not be just.
694. WORD STUDY

DEMON (an evil superhuman power, a devil), PANDEMONIUM (disorderly
uproar as though due to a ‘gathering of all the demons’); — DIAPHANOUS
(‘showing through,’ transparent).
305
Lesson 106
695. MEMORIZE
mTMW [f.] breath; vapor; blast
BLFARONOU [n.] eyelid
DÎRUDOÃRATOWorDOURÎW [n.] beam, plank; spear
ÑFRÃWÑFRÃOW [f.] eyebrow
696. TEXT
Assault!
O¼MNMOXLÏNLÎNTEWLjÐNONÑJÄNP
oKR¡
ÑFYALM¯NREISANG£D
FÃPERYENREISYE¹W
D¸NEON¦WÔTETIWTRUPwDÎRUNÐONmNR
TRUPjN¡O¼DT
NERYENÇPOSSE¸OUSIN¼MjNTI
nCjMENOIKjTERYETÏDTRXEIMMENWA»E¸
ªWTOÅNÑFYALM¯PURIKEAMOXLÏNLÎNTEW
DINOMENTÏND
AÂMAPER¸RREEYERMÏNÎNTA
PjNTADO¼BLFAR
mMF¹KA¹ÑFRÃAWEÍSENmTM
GLNHWKAIOMNHWSFARAGEÅNTODO¼PUR¹¸ZAI
GLNHHW [f.] eyeball

DINV I twirl, I twist about
KjTERYE [adv.] on either side
MMENW [adv.] continuously
NERE¸DV—NREISA I press into, I thrust into
NERYEN [adv.] beneath, below
RE¸DVaor. pass. [with act. sense] RE¸SYHN I press, I lean upon
EÉVEÉSVEÍSA I singe
FÃPERYEN [adv.] from above
YERMÎWÎN warm, hot
¼MjWjNTOW [m.] leather strap, thong
NÐOWHON of, or for, a ship
PERIRRV I flow about
PURIKHWEW fire-sharpened
¸ZAHW [f.] root
SFARAGOMAI I crackle, I burst open
TRXV—DRjMON I run
TRÃPANONOU [n.] drill
TRUPjV I drill
ÇPOSSE¸V I make spin
306
Lesson 106
697. NOTES
TRUPw : 3rd sg. subj., contraction of TRUPj×.
TÏN…YERMÏNÎNTArefers to the MOXLÎW ÎNTA: see Section 190.
¸ZAI : supply an understoodGLNHW(“the roots of the eyeball”).
698. COMMENT
Odysseus hands the glowing stake to his chosen helpers, then stands behind
and above them. As soon as they drive the point into the eye of the Cyclops, who is
supine, Odysseus throws himself on the upper end and with his hands twists it
around, now one way now another. A simile compares the process to a ship-builder’s
use of a drill, though in that case it is the helpers who twirl the drill by pulling
alternately from different sides on a thong wrapped around the drill-shaft.
Homer does not shrink from including all the gory details.
699. GREEK MEDICAL WRITING

Greek medicine included diverse and not always harmonious strains. Some of the
surviving medical writings stress and demonstrate clinical observation and meticulous
recording of symptoms as the only path towards effective medical practice. Others
attempt to outline theories that would explain the functioning of the human body
and its malfunctioning in disease but which owe little or nothing to clinical
observation. Greek doctors were the trailblazers in surgery, anatomy, dentistry,
dietetics, the descriptive study of the nervous and digestive systems, the structural
analysis of the heart, brain, and other organs. They discovered many fundamental
facts of physiology—e.g., that the body also breathes through the pores of the skin,
that the physical seat of sensation is not the heart or diaphragm but the brain, that the
pulsing of the arteries is caused by action of the heart.
The greatest figure in all this development was Hippocrates, “The Father of
Medicine,” who established a famous medical school at Cos about 425 BCE. The
large corpus of medical essays bearing his name was in fact produced by numerous
authors at different times, yet it constitutes the chief evidence for Greek evidence. The
essays reflect a variety of viewpoints, and reveal the controversies dividing the medical
field. Included are case histories, seen as the foundation for diagnostics and prognosis.
Many of the treatises explain health and disease by analogy with physics and natural
phenomena, such as balance and the four elements; the theory of the four humors
(fluids) would dominate medical theory for many centuries. Some of the writings had
a therapeutic focus, giving advice on diet, environment and life-style. Some therapies
are drug based; and surgical approaches are also discussed in treatises on fractures,
hemorrhoids, and wounds. Five hundred years later, Galen (129-216? CE) collected
all ancient medical knowledge into a great twenty-two-volume encyclopedia, one of
the most influential of ancient books.
It was the translation and wide distribution of the complete works of Hippocrates and
Galen which inspired and guided much of the brilliant work of the founders of
modern medicine from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. New discoveries, the
307
invention of the microscope and X-ray, recent diagnostic devices, and a staggering
amount of collaborative research have advanced medical science far beyond Greek
bounds and corrected many ancient errors. But it is on Greek foundations that all this
vast structure still stands.
700. WRITE IN GREEK

1. He said that the vapor of the burning eye quickly destroyed also all his eyelid
and eyebrow.
2. Blood seemed to hide the end (oKRON) of the olive-wood beam, and it flowed
upon the ground, as when dark wine pours out of a bag.
3. The cruel Cyclops himself then learned what all the best and wisest men always
knew: one who does wrong must suffer. [Use XR , with subject— “one who
does wrong” —expressed by aor. ptc. alone.]
701. WORD STUDY

BLEPHARITIS (inflammation of the eyelids), BLEPHAROSPASM (spasmodic
winking); — RHIZO- (a combining form meaning ‘root’); — THERM (a unit of
heat), THERMAL (having to do with heat), THERMOMETER, THERMOSTAT
(instruments for measuring and regulating heat), THERMOS BOTTLE (trade name
for a vacuum container to retain or exclude heat for liquids and foods).
308
Lesson 107
702. MEMORIZE
»jXV [pres. syst. only] I shout; I hiss; I resound
¬DE [adv.] thus, so
O»M¢ZVO»M¢JOMAIO½MVJA I cry out in pain
703. TEXT
Gigantic Agony
¦WD
ÔT
mNRXALKEÄWPLEKUNMGANSKPARNON
E»NÉDATICUXR¯BjPT×MEGjLA»jXONTA
FARMjSSVNTÏGkRAÌTESIDROUGEKRjTOWST¸N
ªWTOÅS¸Z
ÑFYALMÏWLAÐN¡PER¹MOXL¯
SMERDALONDMG
²MVJENPER¹D
½AXEPTRH
MEºWDDE¸SANTEWmPESSÃMEY
AÆTkRÒMOXLÏN
JRUS
ÑFYALMOºOPEFURMNONA¾MATIPOLL¯
BjPTV I dip, I plunge into (water)

JERÃV—JRUSA I pull out of
PLEKUWEOW [m. acc. sg. UN] axe-head
S¸DHROWOU [m.] iron
S¸ZV I sizzle
SKPARNONOU [n.] adze
SMERDALOWHON dreadful, terrifying
FARMjSSV I temper, I harden
FÃRV—FÃRSA—PFURMAI I mix with
XALKEÃWOW [m.] smith, metal-worker
CUXRÎWÎN cold
704. COMMENT
Again a simile likens these fantastic events to familiar things of daily life.
Here it is the sharp hissing sound of hot metal suddenly plunged into water which
helps Homer’s audience hear more distinctly the hiss of the hot MOXLÎW as it sinks
into Polyphemus’ eye. Like the preceding simile of the shipbuilder using his drill, this
reference to the smith at work constitutes a little picture in itself. This technology for
tempering iron was introduced into Greece in the ninth century, which is later than
the heroic era in which Odysseus’ narrative is set; this is the sort of evidence that helps
scholars to date the composition of the poem.
What an ear-shattering, thunderous scream the giant must have uttered in
his pain! No wonder the Greeks fled for safety from the freed stake and his flailing
hands.
309
705. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Whenever he cried out in pain, the whole cave resounded round about and we
greatly feared destruction.
2. Seizing my spear, I hurled it with all my strength, but it missed the man, for
some divinity was protecting him.
3. As bread and wine are food for the body, and we have need of them in order to
live; so truth and justice are food of the soul, and we have need of them too in
order to live a worthy life as human beings.
310
Lesson 108
In the last five lessons, you have memorized twenty-one new vocabulary words and
read forty-five lines of Homer. Test your review with this sample examination.
I. Vocabulary (35%)
1. name: dat. pl. =
2. pCAI=
3. before =
4. vapor: gen. pl. =
5. TjXA=
6. thick: n. pl. acc. =
7. ÑFRÃVN=
II. Text (65%)
1. Translate SATOD
A»N¤W
2. In 1. 215, identify TEE.
3. In 1. 219, explain SFIN .
4. In 1. 222, explain mFRAD¸×SIN.
5. In 1. 224, identify PROSHÃDVN
6. Translate DÎWMOIJE¸NION .
7. In 1. 234, identify REI.
8. In 1. 238, explain mNADÃH.
9. Translate MOXLÏWMLLENpCASYAI.
10. In 1. 256, explain SMERDALON.
11. With what simile does Homer describe the wounding of Cyclops’ eye?
12. To what does he liken the sound of the burning eyeball?
311
Lesson 109
708. MEMORIZE
oLLOYEN [adv.] from elsewhere
BOjVBOSVBÎHSA I shout, I roar
1OLÃFHMOWOU [m.] Polyphemus, a Cyclops [son of Poseidon]
¸PTV¸CVºCA I hurl
709. TEXT
Clamor in the Night

TÏNMNPEIT
RRICENmPÏOXERS¹NmLÃVN
AÆTkRÒ,ÃKLVPAWMEGjL
PUENO¾jMINmMF¹W
²KEONNSPESSIDI
oKRIAWNEMOSSAW
O¼DBOWmÚONTEWFO¸TVNoLLOYENoLLOW
¼STjMENOID
E½RONTOPER¹SPOWÔTTIKDOI
T¸PTETÎSON1OLÃFHM
mRHMNOW¬D
BÎHSAW
NÃKTADI
mMBROS¸HNKA¹m!PNOUWoMMET¸YHSYA
MT¸WSEUMLABROT¤NmKONTOWLAÃNEI
MT¸WS
AÆTÏNKTE¸NEIDÎL¡B¸HFI
mKVNONTOW [m. adj.] unwilling

mÚV I hear the sound of [+ gen.]
oKRIWIOW [f.] hilltop, height
mLÃV I thrash about in pain
mMBRÎSIOWHON fragrant
mMF¸W same as mMF¸
mRHMNOWHON distressed, harmed
oPNOWON sleepless
BOW [f.] shouting, cry
NEMÎEIWESSAEN windy, windswept
PÃV I call upon
KDV I trouble, I ail
T¸PTE [interr. adv.] what? why? [ = T¸POTE]
710. NOTES
TÏN: that is, TÏNMOXLÎN
XERS¹N should be taken with RRICENrather than with mLÃVN.
SPESSI: dat. pl. of SPOW
oLLOYENoLLOW: idiomatic for “from all directions” [lit. “one from one place,
another from elsewhere”]
312
Lesson 109
T¸YHSYA: 2 sg. pres. ind. ofT¸YHMI.

M= “surely no(t)…”, Latin num.
711. COMMENT
The Cyclops flails about blindly. The other Cyclopes appear also to have
been of an unsociable nature and to have lived for the most part alone, each in some
cave in the cliff or hills throughout the island.
The Cyclopes are bewildered by this blood-chilling scream echoing
through the night and run to investigate. Polyphemus (‘Far-Famed’: it is here that we
first learn his name) must be suffering violence, an attack on his life or possessions.
Yet who would dare assault so mighty and fierce a monster as he?
712. GREEK SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

The Greeks were pioneers in mathematics and the sciences. Their intellectual energy
led them to seek out the causes of natural phenomena and the laws governing the
external world. Though handicapped by lack of modern equipment, these scientists
carried on experiments and complicated research investigations which laid the
groundwork of several sciences and established many of the basic facts, principles,
laws, and techniques which modern science builds on and incorporates.
Advanced mathematics did not originate with the Greeks, for Mesopotamians worked
on problems in algebra and basic geometry. It is not certain whether this knowledge
reached the Greek world; the Greeks themselves did not claim to have invented
geometry, but to have learned it from the Egyptians. The Greeks, however, made
fundamental advances in several branches of mathematics, including trigonometry
(for use in astronomy) and conic sections; they developed geometry considerably, and
devised the first algebraic notation.
In geography, they carried out daring explorations, early circumnavigated Africa,
worked out with only slight error the shape, diameter, and circumference of the earth,
and perfected cartography to a high level of accuracy and scientific technique.
Geological phenomena were correctly explained as results of stresses, weathering, and
the formative action of water, while Xenophanes (b. ?570 BCE) showed that shell-
fossils were deposits from a prehistoric flood.
Physics and chemistry got their start from Greek experimentation and theory.
Pythagoras (b. ?550 BCE) discovered basic laws of sound and musical harmonics;
Aristotle developed this field and studied the nature of light and heat; Democritus
(b. ?460 BCE) and Leucippus (5th century BCE) first proposed an atomic theory of
the composition of matter, though not understanding the construction and laws of
the invisible atoms themselves. Archimedes (287-211 BCE) was the great pioneer in
mechanics, discovering the central laws of hydrostatics, building machines of war, and
greatly improving the construction of cranes, pulleys, suction-screws for hoisting
water, etc. The principles of the steam engine, waterpower, and jet propulsion were
first demonstrated by Heron of Alexandria (1st century CE), but not then applied to
practical uses.
313
Theophrastus’ (371-287 BCE) book on plants is still an authority in its field.

Aristotle’s (384-322 BCE) work in biology and zoology was epoch-making in its
thoroughness, accuracy, and acute methodology. Galen’s (129-216 CE) experiments
using vivisection contributed to the fields of anatomy and physiology; his work on the
spinal chord made connections between vital functions and particular nerves. The
extensive, interesting advances in astronomy and medicine made by Greek scientists
are described in other lessons.
It is significant that there is no Greek equivalent for “scientist”, though there were
specific words for mathematicians, botanists, meteorologists, physiologists, and other
specialists in the sciences. Science itself was called PISTMHby Aristotle. But the
term used of the scientists described above was FILÎSOFOW, a “lover of knowledge” or
“learned man.” FILÎSOFOWalso was applied to men with no interest in what we call
science, such as the philosopher Socrates and the rhetorician and educator Isocrates.
Commonly, however, the interests of a FILÎSOFOWspanned the modern chasm
separating science and the humanities, and science and the social sciences.
Democritus, for example, besides outlining an atomic theory, also wrote on ethics,
music, and anthropology.
713. WRITE IN GREEK

1. We saw monstrous Polyphemus, crying out in pain, take the cruel stake out of
his eye and hurl it with mighty hand far away into the cave.
2. For many foolish men money is (their) soul and life.
3. “From what place have you come, strangers?” he shouted, “from Troy, or the
land of the Achaeans, or elsewhere?”
314
Lesson 110
714. MEMORIZE
mMÃMVNmMÃMONOW [adj.] blameless, excellent
BIjZV I constrain, I use violence against
STE¸XV—ST¸XON I go, I proceed
715. TEXT
The Ruse Succeeds

TOÄWD
AÌT
JoNTROUPROSFHKRATERÏW1OLÃFHMOW
«F¸LOI0ÌT¸WMEKTE¸NEIDÎL¡OÆDB¸HFIN
O¼D
mPAMEIBÎMENOIPEAPTERÎENT
mGÎREUON
E»MNDMT¸WSEBIjZETAIOÁONÎNTA
NOÅSÎNG
OÈPVWSTI%IÏWMEGjLOUmLASYAI
mLLkSÃG
EÈXEOPATR¹1OSEIDjVNIoNAKTI
ªWoR
FANmPIÎNTEWMÏND
GLASSEF¸LONKR
¦WÓNOM
JAPjTHSENMÏNKA¹MTIWmMÃMVN
mGOREÃV I speak
mPAME¸BOMAI I answer, I reply
mPI¢NOÅSAÎN going away [ptc. from oPEIMI]
GELjVGELjSOMAIGLASSA I laugh, I rejoice
JAPATjVJAPATSVJAPjTHSA I trick, I beguile
MTIWIOW [f.] scheme, cunning
716. NOTES
STI = it is possible (+ inf.). In this meaning, the pitch-mark is on the first
syllable. Be alert to this clue.
FAN: see Section 595.
717. COMMENT
A cleverly designed passage, about which the whole Cyclops episode turns.
Polyphemus’ words, shouted through the opening above the door-stone and across
the great sheep fold outside, have been made ingeniously ambiguous. The distraught
giant means to convey that this puny human Nobody is murdering him by craft; there
is no force about it. He, Polyphemus, remains far mightier in strength; but the wily
stranger has caught him off guard by a trick.
The Cyclopes, thinking Polyphemus means to reject all three implications of their
question (266-7), and misunderstanding 0ÌTIWas a mere indefinite pronoun OÈTIW
315
(as is shown by their MTIW in 271, an intended equivalent with altered negative to
suit the changed sentence structure), consequently take OÆDin the wrong sense
too— as a simple “nor” following an introductory OÆ, instead of as “not” contrasting
B¸HFINwith DÎL¡. They think, then, that Polyphemus must have gone mad, and
cried out because of some wild, insane imagining. They hurry off to their beds with-
out more ado, not caring to mingle with a monster unsociable enough before and now
violently crazy besides. There is, moreover, nothing they can do; madness is a disease
from Zeus, and only a god can cure it. Let Poseidon himself come to his son’s aid.
Odysseus’ carefully thought-out plan has worked perfectly in all details and
he is happy. The savage is punished, made unable to seize any more of the group for
food, yet left alive and strong enough to lift away the great stone from the door, as he
must decide to do sooner or later. In the MTIWof line 275 is a further bit of
wordplay, as we cannot miss its relation to 0ÌTIWand the thrice-repeated MTIW in
the Cyclopes’ words.
718. GREEK ASTRONOMY

In the clear, bright skies of Greece in ancient times the serene beauty of the stars, and
their mystery, is more than usually impressive. Greek imagination was quick to
discover in the sparkling panorama of the heavens meaning, life and pattern. Greek
shepherds sitting through the night on the hills discovered in the maze of stars the
seeming outlines of figures of men, animals, and things which form the constellations:
the Great Bear, Andromeda, the Pleiades, and all the others. It was Greeks who wove
around these figures in the sky those famous myths and stories whose poetic charm
has lived on down the ages in literature and in the star-lore of the common people.
Similarly, the scientific and philosophical study of celestial phenomena made by
Greek thinkers lies at the roots of modern astronomy. For strict scientific method and
creative pioneering in reasoning out the nature and laws of the heavenly bodies,
modern astronomers pay their great Greek predecessors the highest credit and respect.
Lacking telescopes and other technical instruments, Greek astronomers still managed
by sheer mathematics and accurate observation to discover most of the things
knowable even now without special equipment.
As early as 585 BCE., Thales correctly predicted eclipses of the sun by working out
the laws for such events on the basis of Babylonian records of earlier eclipses’ dates. A
century later, Anaxagoras gave the true scientific explanation of eclipses in terms of
the position of the sun, moon, and earth in relation to each other. He also knew that
it was rotary motion that separated the primeval mass of flaming matter into present
star-systems. Aristotle and later observers proved the earth was a sphere by geometrical
reasoning from the curved edge of the earth’s shadow in a lunar eclipse and the shift in
position of the fixed stars if seen from different latitudes.
Plato’s pupil Heraclides (4th century BCE) correctly argued that the earth revolves on
its axis and the planets move around the sun. Aristarchus of Samos (3rd century BCE)
developed this concept into a complete heliocentric theory almost the same as that of
Copernicus, who in fact got the idea and the start in his own investigations from
reading about this theory in an old book. Plato’s associate Eudoxus (390-340 BCE)
tried to explain the baffling motions of the sun, moon, planets, and stars by a
316
Lesson 110
complicated geometrical pattern of concentric spherical orbits. Aristotle considered

these spheres not as paths of motion but as fifty-six material globes turning around
and through one another and carrying with them the heavenly bodies imbedded in
their surface. (This theory was not displaced until Galileo and Kepler in the sixteenth
century. It is the basis of many familiar ideas in literature, such as the “music of the
spheres.”)
About 225 BCE, Eratosthenes measured the earth’s circumference with remarkably
little margin of error. In the next century, Hipparchus, one of history’s greatest
scientific geniuses, immensely advanced astronomical knowledge in many fields.
Besides numerous recondite achievements, he measured the distance of the sun and
moon, computed the length of the solar year within five minutes of the modern
estimate, determined the actual time-lapse of the moon’s revolution around the earth
(only one second off!), discovered the very subtle law of the ‘precession of the
equinoxes’, and drew up a wonderfully accurate catalogue of the position of over a
thousand fixed stars in relation to the ecliptic.
The last great ancient astronomer, Ptolemy, gathered up in his famous book the
Almagest (c. 150 CE) all earlier Greek astronomical learning, adding much of his own.
This was the standard textbook of astronomy for the next 1,400 years and has exerted
much influence in literature and philosophy. Four centuries before Ptolemy, Aratus
had summed up the whole contemporary astronomical theory in a learned didactic
poem written in Homeric dialect, which Cicero later translated into Latin verse.
Popular interest in astronomy was very widespread in the Greek world.
Even today, when an astronomer refers to a particular star he does so in Greek terms,
by naming its constellation (in Latinized form) and that letter of the Greek alphabet
by which it is designated and set apart from other stars in the same group. Vega, e.g.,
is A Lyrae; Pollux is BGeminorum, etc. Greek astronomy forms a permanent part of
our own.
719. WRITE IN GREEK

1. A cruel fate would have constrained me to hide for nine days in that deadly cave
with the pitiless Cyclops, if Zeus had not pitied me and saved me from utter
destruction.
2. Seeing the admirable man, the brother of my dearest companion, proceeding
alone down the road, I shouted and urged him to wait until I reached where he
was.
3. Peace is the fruit not of force but of justice, and the world will never have it
while men hate or wrong one another.
317
Lesson 111
720. MEMORIZE
GGÃYEN [adv.] from close at hand, near
PETjNNUMI—PTASSA I spread out
ÇFA¸NVÇFANVÉFHNA I weave; I devise
721. TEXT
A Perilous Situation
,ÃKLVCDSTENjXVNTEKA¹¥D¸NVNÑDÃN×SI
XERS¹CHLAFÎVNmPÏMNL¸YONEÂLEYURjVN
AÆTÏWD
E»N¹YÃR×SIKAYZETOXEºREPETjSSAW
E½TINjPOUMET
ÓESSILjBOISTE¸XONTAYÃRAZE
OÉTVGjRPOÃM
LPET
N¹FRES¹NPIONEÁNAI
AÆTkRG£BOÃLEUONÔPVWÓX
oRISTAGNOITO
E½TIN
TA¸ROISINYANjTOULÃSIND
MO¹AÆT¯
EÇRO¸MHNPjNTAWDDÎLOUWKA¹MTINÉFAINON
¨WTEPER¹CUXWMGAGkRKAKÏNGGÃYENEN
KAYZOMAI I sit down

LÃSIWIOW [f.] means of escape from, release from
MTIWIOW [f.] scheme, cunning
ÑDÃNHHW [f.] pain, torment
ÓXA the very [intensifying adv.]
CHLAFjV I grope about
¥D¸NV I am in agony, I writhe with anguish
722. NOTES
CHLAFÎVN: = CHLAFjVNby assimilation; see Section 627, note on line 156.
E»N¸ : lengthened alternative form for N. Cp. E»Wfor W; XEºRE: see Section 459.
ÓESSI: see Section 514; YURjZE: recall Section 422 a.
OÉTVgoes withNPION.
¨WTEPER¹CUXW: “as is usual in matters of life and death”
723. COMMENT
The Cyclops, unable to see where the little men are, hopes to trap them
going out the cave’s mouth alongside his sheep. Odysseus tries to explain
Polyphemus’ tactic as the result of his underestimation of Odysseus’ intelligence.
318
Lesson 111
Odysseus, now that the door-stone has been removed, as foreseen, once
more revolves in his mind all possible procedures until he is sure which is best. As
always, he is guided by prudence and clear thinking, not hasty or reckless impulse. It
is no accident that Homer characterized him in the very first line as POLÃTROPOW,
“resourceful, of many turns of thought.”
724. GREEK MILITARY TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

In military tactics, Greek imaginative power and originality were much in evidence.
New weapons, stratagems, defense measures, and improvements on the old. were
constantly being thought up. A famous instance is the phalanx battle formation.
Epaminondas of Thebes, a brilliant general of the fourth century BCE, overcame far
larger armies than his own by massing a solid column of spearmen fifty lines deep,
with which he was able to break through and encircle the opposing forces. Philip of
Macedon (382-336 BCE) took over this tactic and made it more flexible in maneuver.
He arranged ten to sixteen lines of men in close formation, their long spears (up to
twenty feet or more) resting on the shoulders of the men in front, so that five or six
rows of spear points projected beyond the front rank, to form a terrifying and almost
impenetrable barrier. Strict discipline and intensive drill enabled the whole mass to
move as a unit. Its combined weight could ram it through almost any opposition.
Supplies and replacements flowed easily from ranks deeper in, to maintain a solid
fighting front.
It was largely by means of the phalanx that Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) swept
from victory to victory until in a few years he had military control of the whole eastern
Mediterranean world and beyond into Mesopotamia and India. The principles of
phalanx warfare were later embodied and improved on in the Roman legion, before
which all other military formations generally fell apart in defeat.
725. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Lying in the dark cave, we saw him from close at hand lift the heavy stone from
the door (pl.) and sit down where he hoped to seize us going past.
2. Those who die for the sake of (their) country will have great glory among
mortals as most brave.
3. Whenever Polyphemus slept, he spread out his gigantic limbs among the
sleeping flocks from one end of the cave to the other.
726. WORD STUDY

ANODYNE (‘non-pain’, a soothing medicine to relieve pain).
319
Lesson 112
727. MEMORIZE
mKVNOUSA [adj., m. and f.] in silence, silent(ly)
ÉSTATOWHON last
728. TEXT
The Plan for Escape

DEDMOIKATkYUMÏNmR¸STHFA¸NETOBOUL
oRSENEWO½IEWSANTREFEWDASÃMALLOI
KALO¸TEMEGjLOITE»ODNEFWEÁROWXONTEW
TOÄWmKVNSUNERGONSTREFESSILÃGOISI
TS
PI,ÃKLVCEÍDEPLVRmYEM¸STIAE»D¢W
SÃNTREIWA»NÃMENOWÒMNNMS¡oNDRAFRESKE
T£D
TRVKjTERYEN½THNS¢ONTEWTA¸ROUW
mYEM¸STIOWHON lawless
DASÃMALLOWHON with thick fleece
EÁROWEOW [n.] wool
KjTERYEN [adv.] on both sides
STREFWW well-twisted, well-plaited
TREFWW well-fed, fat
»ODNEFWW dark as violet
LÃGOWOU [f.] willow-twig, withe
PLVRVROW [n.] monster
SUNRGV I bind together
SÃNTREIW three-together, three at a time
729. NOTES
O½IEW: = ÓIEWnom. pl. of ÓIWThe initial OI reflects metrical thesis, the
lengthening of the first sylllable of each foot of the hexameter.
mYEM¸STIAE»D¢W: i.e., acknowledging no law. On E»D¢Wsee Section 491 and
cp. line 53.
SÃNTREIWA»NÃMENOW= “taking them three at a time”
T£D
TRV: nom. dual (Section 459); Dis correlative to MNin 290;½THN:
impf. ind. act. 3 dual ofEÁMI, I go.S¢ONTEW: from the verb S¢V, a variation of
S¢ZV
320
Lesson 112
730. COMMENT
Odysseus, in thinking over various methods of escape, sees that it would be
too risky to try to run out through the cave’s mouth ahead of or after the flocks, and
that if the men attempted to walk or crawl out among the animals they might be
discovered by touch, or, more likely, crushed to death in the press of heavy beasts
crowding through the door en masse. The safest plan, then, is this one of going out
under the sheep, protected both from crushing and from discovery by the animals on
either side.
We see now quite clearly how the Cyclops’ unusual procedure of bringing
in the rams too this night was indeed providential, in answer to the men’s prayer for
escape (see lines 199-200). The dark purple-black wool of the sheep would be
considered especially valuable in ancient markets; it is, therefore, a sign of
Polyphemus’ wealth.
Odysseus straps the rams together into groups of three; each trio will carry
one man, who will be lashed to the underbelly of the middle ram, though this is not
made explicit until line 304, in Section 743. The length and fullness of the wool is
crucial, as it will hide the thin withes from detection.
731. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Though the last released, I arrived first at the ships and myself told what we had
seen and how half of my companions had perished in that deadly cave.
2. I saw my mother go silently to the door, to see if the children were still sleeping.
3. Taking the olive-wood stake, we made (it) sharp, so that it might be for us like a
spear with which we could fight.
732. WORD STUDY

IODINE (a dark violet-colored chemical antiseptic, the brownish tint of the drug
store product being due to the addition of other components).
321
Lesson 113
734. MEMORIZE
GASTRGASTROWorGASTRÎW [f.] belly
N¤TONOU [n.] back
F¢WFVTÎW [m.] man
735. TEXT
In Readiness
TREºWDKASTONF¤T
ÓÐEWFRONAÆTkRG¢GE
mRNEIÏWGkRHNMLVNÓX
oRISTOWnPjNTVN
TOÅKATkN¤TALAB¢NLAS¸HNÇPÏGASTR
LUSYE¹W
KE¸MHNAÆTkRXERS¹Nm¢TOUYESPES¸OIO
NVLEMVWSTREFYE¹WXÎMHNTETLHÎTIYUM¯
ªWTÎTEMNSTENjXONTEWME¸NAMENb)¤DºAN
oVTOWOU [m.] wool

E»LÃVaor. pass. LÃSYHN I curl up
LjSIOWHON shaggy, woolly
NVLEMVW [adv.] steadily, firmly
ÓXA [adv.] by far
STRFVaor. pass.STRFYHN I turn, I turn (face) upwards
TREºWTR¸A three
736. NOTES
mRNEIÏWGkRHN…: understand this entire line parenthetically (“for there was
a ram…”)
TOÅ: refers to the mRNEIÏWin the previous line; KATk…LAMBjNV= “grasp.”
XÎMHN: middle (“I held myself on”); TETLHÎTI: formed from TETLH¢W
UºAÎW: pf. part. ofTLjV, idiomatic for “steadfast, persevering.”
737. COMMENT
After tying his men into place under the middle sheep of each group,
Odysseus has to find some other means of escape himself. Since his friends cannot
fasten him on in the same way, he decides to cling by his own hands beneath the
largest of the sheep, the giant ram who is evidently king of the flock. He curls up
(LUSYE¹Wunder its woolly belly. The wool is long enough to give a good hold and to
cover over Odysseus’ hands, concealing them from detection.
322
Lesson 113
738. KOINE GREEK AND ITS LITERATURE

Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Persian Empire in the fourth century BCE
spread Greek culture and language throughout the Mediterranean world. His
Macedonian Empire extended as far as the borders of India; its official language was
based on the Attic dialect and is known now as Hellenistic Koine or simply Koine.
The most significant and well known of texts written in Koine are the Greek
translation of the Hebrew Torah (Pentateuch) called the Septuagint, and the New
Testament.
One of the principal cities of the Hellenistic Greek world was Alexandria in Egypt,
which with its Museum and Library was, in the third century BCE, developing into a
cultural center. The Greek ruler of Egypt, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, requested for the
Library a Greek translation of the Torah. Seventy-two learned Jewish scholars were
sent from Jerusalem to put together what is now called the Septuagint (“seventy” in
Latin). Over the next century or so, the rest of the Hebrew Bible and various
Apocryphal books were also put into Greek. Although it was commissioned for
inclusion in the Library, the Septuagint served the needs of Jews who had migrated to
Egypt and other areas of the Greek world and were now speakers of Greek. Alexandria
was one city with a large population of Hellenized Jews, and here as in other cities
Jews now read and heard their sacred text in Greek. Jewish literature in Greek was also
produced in other cities; several genres were represented, including history, epic,
philosophy, and the novel, a popular literary form in the Hellenistic period.
Early Christians, who were predominantly Greek speaking, also used the Septuagint
as their Bible; it was, therefore, the Bible for the writers of the New Testament. To
this day, the Septuagint is the version of the Old Testament used in the Greek
Orthodox Church.
The Holy Scripture of the early Christians was the Septuagint, which they interpreted
allegorically. In addition, writings in Greek by Christians were being produced in
profusion. The authority and authenticity of these writings were not universally
accepted, however; theological controversies emerged early on. Some effort was made
to establish a canonical set of texts that related the authentic and original story of
Jesus, but none was supported by a consensus of churches.
It was a Greek theologian named Irenaeus who, after 180 CE, guided the selection of
writings that were deemed to have been in use in the churches from the beginning.
The four gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were combined with the letters
of the apostle Paul to constitute the New Testament, a Christian Bible to correspond
to the pre-Christian Old Testament.
Other Christian writings in Koine include the works of the apologists, who wrote in
defense of their faith against pagan attacks. Justin Martyr, who lived from 100-165
CE, was one such Christian apologist. He was certainly much influenced by classical
Greek philosophy, including Plato; he argued that pagan philosophers presaged
Christian truth. Clement of Alexandria (late second century), also well schooled in the
classical tradition, continued to develop the link between Christian theology and
Platonic philosophy. Origen (184-253), also of Alexandria and later of Judaea,
323
likewise showed the influence of Plato. He was the most influential writer of the early
Christian church, laying the foundations of early Christian theology.
739. WRITE IN GREEK

1. The Cyclops, having filled his monstrous belly with the strong wine, fell silently
upon his back and slept, not knowing destruction was coming to him that very
night.
2. A man’s dearest possession, the wise man said, is not life but his immortal soul;
for life passes, but the soul shall never die, neither can it be destroyed.
3. Whenever bright dawn, the early-born, appears over the lofty mountains, all the
flocks rush out of the cave seeking food and water among the trees by the river.
740. WORD STUDY

GASTRIC (pertaining to the stomach, e.g., ‘gastric juices’ in digestion); —
STROPHE (a group of lines to be sung by a dramatic chorus while ‘turning’ in dance
from center of stage to one side; hence, in poetry, a group of lines, stanza).
324
Lesson 114
In these lessons, you have memorized fifteen new vocabulary words and have read
thirty-nine lines of the Odyssey. Make sure that you have really mastered the new
vocabulary and are able to account for every form in the text of Homer. Then try this
sample test:
I. Vocabulary (45%)
1. ST¸XOIEN=
2. we shall devise =
3. mKEOÃS×SI=
4. belly: acc. pl. =
5. F¤TAW=
6. back: gen. pl. =
7. Polyphemus: dat. sg. =
8. PETjSSAI=
9. oLLOYEN=
10. let us shout (aor.) =
11. B¸AZE=
12. to be about to hurl =
13. ¬DE=
14. from close at hand =
15. mMÃMOSI=
II. Text (55%)
1. Translate FO¸TVNoLLOYENoLLOW.
2. In line 263, explain KDOI.
3. In line 267, identify B¸HFI.
4. Compare the sentiments expessed in lines 271-273 with the boasts of
Polyphemus to Odysseus at their first meeting (lines 134-139). How do
you explain the discrepancy?
5. In line 278, identify XEºRE.
6. Translate OÉTVM
LPETONPIONEÁNAI
7. Scan line 278.
8. In line 281, explain GNOITO.
9. In line 290, identify FRESKE.
10. Why didn’t the other Cyclopes assist Polyphemus?
11. Describe the scheme by which Odysseus hoped to save his men and himself.
325
Lesson 115
742. MEMORIZE
YLUWYLEIAYLUorYLUWYLU female
PUKINÎWÎN thick; close; shrewd
TE¸RV [pres. syst. only] I wear out; I distress
743. TEXT
A Tense Moment
MOWD
KA¹TÎT
PEITANOMÎND
JSSUTOoRSENAMLA
YLEIAIDMMHKONmNMELKTOIPER¹SHKOÃW
OÈYATAGkRSFARAGEÅNTOoNAJD
ÑDÃN×SIKAKSI
TEIRÎMENOWPjNTVNÑÚVNPEMA¸ETON¤TA
ÑRY¤NSTAÎTVNTÏDNPIOWOÆKNÎHSEN
¨WO¼ÇP
E»ROPÎKVNÑÚVNSTRNOISIDDENTO
ÉSTATOWmRNEIÏWMLVNSTEIXEYÃRAZE
LjXN¡STEINÎMENOWKA¹MO¹PUKINkFRONONTI
mNMELKTOWON unmilked
E»ROPÎKOWON woolly-fleeced
STA¢WUºAÎW standing [nom. pf. ptc. act. of¾STHMI]
LjXNOWOU [m.] hair, wool
MHKjOMAI [irreg. plpf. with impf. endings and meaning: MMHKON] I bleat
ÑDÃNHHW [f.] pain, torment
NOMÎWOÅ [m.] pasture
OÌYARATOW [n.] udder
STE¸NOMAI I am burdened, I am straitened
STRNONOU [n.] breast
SFARAGOMAI I am full to bursting
744. NOTES
SFARAGEÅNTO: the meaning here is different from 251.
¨W= ÔTI(“that”); the accent is from the enclitic O¼DDENTOis plpf. m.-p. of
DV.
745. COMMENT
At dawn, the Cyclops would normally (KATkMOºRAN milk the females;
now, with their master in pain and unable to milk them, they will experience
discomfort, too.
326
Lesson 115
The giant’s hands pass searchingly over the backs of all the rams as they
exit. The simple Cyclops does not perceive the trick; the upright, natural position of
the rams averted all suspicion. Polyphemus’ advantage in brute strength has been
more than matched by Odysseus’ strategic genius.
Odysseus’ ordeal is not so quickly over. His peril is graver, in fact, because
he is less well protected and his animal, in going out last, will draw the giant’s
undivided attention. The ram’s slow pace, too, exposes Odysseus to greater danger.
746. GREEK’S FAMILY HISTORY

The Greek language is closely related to our own. In the family of languages, Greek
and English are, as it were, cousins. They had a common origin in the distant past,
and still retain under the surface many similar family traits.
The myriad languages of the world fall into several great groups, including Indo-
European, Afro-Asiatic, Uralic, Sino-Tibetan, and Malayo-Polynesian, among others.
Each of these language groups has numerous subdivisions. It is the Indo-European
group to which both Greek and English belong.
Indo-European is the name given by historical linguists to a language or group of
related dialects spoken by a people who lived about 6,000 years ago in a part of
Europe or Asia, most likely around the Black Sea. Later, as this people migrated and
dispersed to different and distant regions of India, Europe, and Asia Minor, the
dialects changed, and developed eventually into distinct languages not understood
outside their own localities. Related languages thus grew up, each distinct in many
ways (pronunciation, inflection-endings, new words and meanings, etc.), yet all
preserving the basic traits of their identical mother-tongue, Indo-European, in
grammar and vocabulary.
These languages themselves developed as time went on, and many produced new
groups of descended languages. Of the early sister-languages of Indo-European,
Tocharian died out after its people moved to western China; primitive Albanian and
Armenian survive without subfamilies; old Indo-Iranian developed into ancient
Sanskrit, Pali, the Prakrit group, and eventually many of the modern languages of
India; it also developed into Avestan and Old Persian, from which are descended,
among others, Farsi and Kurdish; Balto-Slavic became in time Lithuanian, Latvian,
Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Russian, and other Slavic languages. Primitive Celtic
developed into Gaelic, Welsh, Breton, Manx (on the Isle of Man, off England); old
Germanic separated into many groups, from which came, among others, Old High
German, Anglo-Saxon, and Scandinavian, with their modern descendants: German,
English, Dutch, Flemish, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and Icelandic. Primitive
Greek proved more stable, not breaking up into several languages, but only into partly
differing dialects, the most important being Homeric (or Epic), Ionic, Aeolic, Doric,
Attic, and Koine, which developed into Modern Greek. The early Italic speech,
finally, divided into Oscan, Umbrian, and Latin, and from Medieval Latin arose
Provencal, Italian, Spanish, French, Portuguese, and Romanian.
327
747. WRITE IN GREEK

1. The female sheep of the flock remained within, distressed, but all the males
rushed out in a mass when they saw rosy-fingered Dawn had arrived. [“in a
mass” = “closely, thickly”]
2. To know one another and to respect others’ rights is the path for mortals into justice
and peace.
3. Foolish in mind and cruel of heart, the mighty Cyclops hoped to seize and
destroy us when we should try to flee out of the cave.
328
Lesson 116
748. MEMORIZE
DAMjZVDAMjVDjMASSA I tame, I overpower
LUGRÎWÎN miserable, wretched
STAYMÎWOÅ [m.] doorpost; farmyard
749. TEXT
Strange Behavior
TÏND
PIMASSjMENOWPROSFHKRATERÏW1OLÃFHMOW
KRIPPONT¸MOI¬DEDIkSPOWSSUOMLVN
ÉSTATOWOÈTIPjROWGELELEIMMNOWRXEAIO»¤N
mLLkPOLÄPR¤TOWNMEAITREN
oNYEAPO¸HW
MAKRkBIBjWPR¤TOWDOkWPOTAM¤NmFIKjNEIW
PR¤TOWDSTAYMÎNDELILA¸EAImPONESYAI
SPRIOWNÅNAÌTEPANÃSTATOWSÃG
oNAKTOW
ÑFYALMÏNPOYEIWTÏNmNRKAKÏWJALjVSE
SÄNLUGROºS
TjROISIDAMASSjMENOWFRNAWO½N¡
0ÌTIWÖNOÈP¢FHMIPEFUGMNONMMENÓLEYRON
oNYOWEOW [n.] flower, bud

mFIKjNV I arrive at
mPONOMAI I come back
BIBjWlSAjN striding along [nom. pres. ptc. act. sg. of BIBjV,
parallel form of BA¸NV]
JALAÎVJALASVJALjVSA I blind, I put (an eye) out
SPRIOWHON at evening
KRIÎWOÅ [m.] ram
PANÃSTATOWHON last of all
PjROW [adv.] before, formerly
PPVNONOW [only in voc.] gentle, “softy””
PO¸HHW [f.] grass
OW [f.] stream, waters
SEÃV—SSÃMHN [non-thematic aorist] I move forward
TRHNEINAEN [m. and n. gen. TRENOW]tender
750. NOTES
MOI: weak dat. of reference, = “I say,” “I pray.”
LLEIMMNOW is pf. m.-p. ptc. of LE¸PV, = lagging behind. O»¤N(fused form of
ÑÚVN ) is a gen. of separation (cp. Section 18).
MAKRk is an adverb with BIBjW
329
PFUGMAI is pf. mid. of FEÃGV. Here, the ptc. joined with pres. inf.
functions the same as would the pf. inf. (PEFÃXYAI) alone.
751. COMMENT
This speech is certainly the first (and only) instance of anything done
or said by Polyphemus possessing pathos. The gentle tenderness of the Cyclops’
words to the pet ram, his favorite among all his numerous flock, reveals an unexpected
aspect of his character; yet that the monster's friend is an animal also underlines his
social isolation.
A description of the proud bearing and spirited energy of the majestic
leader of the flock. MAKRkBIBjWis used formulaically of the proud strides of
dominant warriors in the Iliad.
Polyphemus, puzzled by the ram’s unusual conduct, tries to persuade
himself that the noble beast is acting thus out of some sense of his master’s loss, some
sympathetic understanding of his pain.
The Cyclops claims that he will get revenge.
752. WORDS IN DISGUISE

As you saw in Section 746, there are many words in English that are identical in
origin with those for the same thing in other Indo-European languages. You don’t
recognize the similarity because they have been camouflaged; their surface appearance
in English is misleading and conceals their real nature. But it is easy to penetrate the
disguise if you know the formula.
The changes in pronunciation which words undergo in the course of time and in the
development of new languages out of old generally follow regular rules. One of the
most important of these, and certainly the most famous, is Grimm’s Law for mute-
changes in the Germanic family of Indo-European. This phenomenon consists in
original ‘voiced’ stops or mutes (b, d, g) becoming ‘voiceless’ (p, t, k, respectively).
Conversely, p, t, k become b, d, g, by Verner’s Law. However, when beginning a word
or following an accented vowel, p, t, k become instead f, th, h, and when following f, s,
or h, remain unchanged. Other factors may cause irregularities or a second change
after the first, but the above rules work in most cases.
Not all words, of course, for a given thing in the various related languages have the
same origin in a common Indo-European root, and some similarities are only
apparent or accidental, not real. There are, besides, special laws for other consonants,
and for vowels.
Here are some interesting examples of true ‘cognate’ words (in German, v is
pronounced f ):
GREEK LATIN POLISH GERMAN ENGLISH
PATR pater Vater father
TREºW três trzy drei* three
BjKTRON bac-ulum bok peg
330
Lesson 116
8¸DON video widziec wit

PLRHW ple-nus pelny voll full
KOLVNÎW culmen, collis (kalnas)** holm, hill
NUKTÎW noct-is noc Nacht ni(g)ht
*Second change, from th to d
**Lithuanian word
753. WRITE IN GREEK

1. Whenever the flocks proceeded from the cave to the river, or back again to the
farmyard, this great ram always went first of all.
2. “Let us all pray together,” he said, “to Zeus, that he may tame the Cyclops’
pitiless heart and save us from utter destruction.”
3. Two men sat beside the door-post of a wretched house, asking bread for
themselves and their wives and children.
754. WORD STUDY

ADAMANT (a very hard mineral, ‘untamable’ by cutting instruments),
ADAMANTINE (indestructible, impenetrable, all-resisting, like adamant); —
ANTHO- (a prefix meaning ‘flower’), ANTHOLOGY (a ‘gathering of flowers’ or
select passages of literature, etc. from various sources); — HESPERUS (the evening
star).
331
Lesson 117
755. MEMORIZE
MNOWMNEOW [n.] might; courage; wrath
T¤ [adv., often used with conjunctive force] therefore; in that case
756. TEXT
Frustration and Success

E»DÒMOFRONOIWPOTIFVNEIWTEGNOIO
E»PEºNÔPP×KEºNOWMÏNMNOWLASKjZEI
T¤KO¼GKFALÎWGEDIkSPOWoLLUDIWoLL×
YEINOMNOUA¸OITOPRÏWOÈDEÐKkDDT
MÏNKR
LVFSEIEKAK¤NTjMOIOÆTIDANÏWPÎREN0ÌTIW
ªWE»P£NTÏNKRIÏNmPÏOPMPEYÃRAZE
LYÎNTEWD
BAIÏNmPÏSPE¸OUWTEKA¹AÆLW
PR¤TOWÇP
mRNEIOÅLUÎMHNÇPLUSAD
TA¸ROUW
oLLUDIWoLL× [advs.] = in different directions, here and there [idiomatic]

GKFALOWOU [m.] brain
BAIÎWÎN little; [as adv.] = a little ways
LASKjZV I hide from [+ acc.]
YE¸NV I strike down
KRIÎWOÅ [m.] ram
LVFjVLVFSVL¢FHSA I find relief from [+ gen]
ÒMOFRONV I share understanding, I sympathize
OÌDAWEOW [n.] floor, ground
OÆTIDANÎWÎN worthless
POTIFVNEIWESSAEN endowed with speech
A¸VA¸SVAºSA I smash to pieces
ÇPOLÃV loose from under, I unloose
757. NOTES
E» : recall Section 106.
E»PEºN : see Section 588.
YEINOMNOU agrees in sense with O¼, which is a dat. of possession (cp. Section
504) and hence equivalent to a genitive.
KjD[= KATj] is used here as an adv., simply to intensify the general thought;
translate “in full.”
332
Lesson 117
LYÎNTEW…LUÎMHN : the idea starts out as plural, then shifts in subject to
singular, grammar giving way to vividness.
SPE¸OUW : alternative gen. sg. of SPOW
758. COMMENT
The futility of Polyphemus’ wishful thinking is almost pathetic. It
emphasizes how ineffective the blinded giant is in coping with this ‘puny’ enemy
whom he still views with contempt. It stresses also the unbridgeable chasm between
him and his beast, his only approximation to a friend.
The Cyclops would of course rely on violence in taking vengeance on his
tiny but crafty attackers. Note the pun in his use of the adjective OÆTIDANÏWto
describe 0ÌTIW
The Cyclops sends his favorite ram out the door and, unwittingly, the
Greeks as well. Their leader’s cunning has snatched them from death’s jaw.
759. MORE WORDS IN DISGUISE

Section 752 showed how the consonants of a word may change in passing from the
IndoEuropean original into the various descended languages. It is interesting to know
that an n, m, or w sound ordinarily does not change, and that an aspirated mute (bh,
gh, dh) reacts differently from a simple b, g, or d– in English, losing the h sound
instead of changing by Grimm’s Law; in Greek and Latin, either shifting into another
consonant or losing the h.
The following chart will reveal some perhaps unsuspected word-relationships.
INDO-EUR. GREEK LATIN POLISH GERMAN ENGLISH
nome ÓNOMA nomen Name name
(e)me M me mnie mi-ch me
newos N8OW novus nowy neu new
v(o)ik 8OÁKOW vicus wies War-wich
swadus DÃW suavis slodki süss sweet
[for S8ADÃW] [for swadwis]
bher- FRV fero bier-ac ge-bären bear
dh(w)or YÃRA for-is dwor Tür door
meg(h) MGAW mag[n]us moc Ich mag I may
760. WRITE IN GREEK

1. We have been released, my men, from the Cyclops’ deadly might! Therefore
Zeus and Athene saved us, as we prayed.
2. When dawn appears, the sky is filled to overflowing with light. It is the
beginning of another day, bringing to mortals both good things and bad.
3. Lying silently under the splendid rams, my companions awaited me, until
having loosed myself I should approach and release them all.
333
Lesson 118
761. MEMORIZE
GOjVGOSOMAIGÎHSA I weep (for) [+ acc.], I mourn
L¸HN [adv.] exceedingly; KA¹L¸HN [adv.] truly
762. TEXT
Joyous Departure
KARPAL¸MVWDTkMLATANAÃPODAP¸ONADHM¯
POLLkPERITROPONTEWLAÃNOMENÓFR
P¹NA
¼KÎMEY
mSPjSIOIDF¸LOIS
TjROISIFjNHMEN
OÀFÃGOMENYjNATONTOÄWDSTENjXONTOGO¤NTEW
mLL
G£OÆKE½VNmNkD
ÑFRÃSINEÅONKjST¡
KLA¸EINmLL
KLEUSAYO¤WKALL¸TRIXAMLA
PÎLL
NNHÛBALÎNTAWPIPLEºNnLMURÏNÉDVR
O¼D
AÁC
JWD
mNANEÃV I shake my head “no”, [literally “I nod up”];

I make a forbidding gesture
mSPjSIOWHON welcome
DHMÎWOÅ [m.] fat
PIPLV I sail over
KALL¸YRIJTRIXOW fair-fleeced or -maned [epithet of sheep and horses]
PERITROPV I turn about [trans.], I round up
TANAÃPOUWPODOW long-legged
763. NOTES
POLLk : used adverbially, = “time and again, often.”
mNkD
ÑFRÃSINEÅONKjST¡ : explains mLL
G£OÆKE½VN…KLA¸EIN
BALÎNTAW : the understood subject is the companions, and MLAthe object.
764. COMMENT
The companions had lobbied Odysseus to steal the Cyclops’ cheeses and
flocks and sail away (85-90); Odysseus, curious about the stranger and hopeful of
enrichment, had not been persuaded. Though he gives himself credit for his clever
rescue of himself and his companions, it is also important to remember that he has
admitted (89-91) that he erred in getting them into the danger in the first place. Now
he does not hesitate to drive off the Cyclops’ prize sheep. It is not easy, though, to
334
Lesson 118
keep the flock in hand, for they are constantly veering off by force of habit toward
their usual grazing area among the hills some distance from the sea.
The men at the ships are happy to see their leader and his companions
return, for their prolonged absence (a day and a half ) on what was expected to be a
mere visit of curiosity and information-gathering had raised anxiety over what had
happened to them. How well founded their fears were they painfully discover on
noting that six of the party are missing and, far more, on hearing the account of their
horrible end. Odysseus, though fully sharing their grief, does not (as they) lose sight of
the deadly peril for all if there is the least delay in setting out to sea. The giant may
hear the sheep in this unaccustomed place, suspect that the men have somehow
escaped and are driving off his flocks, and with a few great bounds be upon them in
raging fury. As usual, Odysseus does not allow his emotions to cloud over his clear
perception of what must be done.
765. WORD-WELDING IN GREEK

Like other languages, Greek has regular ways of building up new forms of words from
basic parts by joining the root of the word with prefixes and suffixes of standardized
meaning (cp. English true, tru-1y, tru-th, tru-th ful-ness, un-truth).
If you know what the regular force of these parts are, and recognize them in a word, it
becomes easy to reason out the meaning of many words when you first meet them,
without having to look them up in a dictionary. It gives you a more personal grasp on
the principles of the language.
Here are a few hints on word-formation in Greek:
1. AVEVEUV= to be or to do what is indicated by the root of the word (e.g.,
BOjVFILVBOULEÃV).
2. OV= to cause to be (e.g., YOÎV I make sharp).
3. AZVIZV to perform the action (e.g., BIjZVI use force, BAPT¸ZV
I perform a dipping).
4. AIOWIOWOWEIW= characterized by, like (e.g., D¸KAIOWPEL¢RIOW
¼ERÎWNEMÎEIW).
5. KOWITIKOW= able to, connected with (e.g., FUSIKÎWPOLITIKÎWMAYHMA
TIKÎW).
6. IHHMHTIWSIWTHWf.OWn. = the general notion of a thing, its
abstract noun, (e.g., mLHYE¸HD¸KHFMHP¸STIWPO¸HSIWFILÎTHW
KjLLOWDHMOKRAT¸H).
7. THW(m.), THREUWTVR= the doer, the person concerned (e.g., POIHTW
makerSVTRsaviorGTVR leader).
8. MA= the product, result (e.g., PO¸HMAthing madeNÎHMAthought).
9. The principles already seen: alpha privative, special adverbial case endings DE
YENFIN, prepositional compounds.
335
766. WRITE IN GREEK

1. When I told my companions at the ship how our friends had perished by the
pitiless Cyclops’ hands, they mourned exceedingly, but also feared greatly for
themselves.
2. I, too, could become cruel in heart and wicked. May (it) never happen!
3. Who would have supposed any mortal able to escape alive from that cave of
death?
336
Lesson 119
767. MEMORIZE
GEGVNVGEGVNSV [pf. with pres. meaning] I shout, I make myself heard
GEG¢NHSAGGVNA
SYV [pres. syst. only] I eat, I devour
768. TEXT
Parting Scorn
mLL
ÔTETÎSSONmPNÔSSONTEGGVNEBOSAW
KA¹TÎT
G£,ÃKLVPAPROSHÃDVNKERTOM¸OISI
“,ÃKLVCOÆKoR
MELLEWmNjLKIDOWmNDRÏWTA¸ROUW
DMENAINSPÐGLAFUR¯KRATERFIB¸HFI
KA¹L¸HNSG
MELLEKIXSESYAIKAKkRGA
SXTLI
PE¹JE¸NOUWOÆXpZEOS¯N¹O½K¡
SYMENAIT¤SE;EÄWTE¸SATOKA¹YEO¹oLLOI”
oNALKIWIDOW cowardly, spiritless

KERTÎMIAVN [n.] taunts, mockery [pl. only]
769. NOTES
TÎSSON…ÔSSON : “as far…as;” mPN : the unexpressed subject is either
,ÃKLVCorNHÅW
GGVNE has for implied subject the indefinite TIW. The aor. is generalizing, =
pres.
OÆK goes with mNjLKIDOW: “It was no coward’s companions…”
RGA is nom., subject of MELLE.
OÆXpZEO+ inf. : “you did not scruple to…”
770. COMMENT
Once out of Polyphemus’ reach, yet still within earshot, Odysseus exults
over his victory and upbraids the Cyclops again for his inhospitality. Such KERTÎMIA
are typically uttered by victorious warriors in the Iliad to their defeated foes, dead
or alive.
Polyphemus had scorned the gods (134-139) when Odysseus supplicated
him for hospitality in the name of Zeus (127-132). Odysseus’ taunts take their shape
from that exchange: Odysseus is the agent of Zeus JE¸NIOW, or Zeus as the overseer and
protector of the stranger’s claim to protection, which Polyphemus did not respect.
337
771. VOWEL SHIFT IN GREEK ROOTS

As you saw in Section 765, Greek, like other languages, often forms different related
words from a common root. It sometimes happens that the vowel of this basic root
undergoes change in the various offshoot words. This is called Ablaut or Vowel
Gradation. It occurs in English too, as in the related words sing, sang, sung, song.
In Greek, vowel shift within the root consists in the lengthening, shortening, or entire
omission of the vowel, or the substitution in its place of a weaker vowel. Here are
some interesting examples: LEÃSOMAIE»LLOUYALUYENLYONLE¸PV
L¸PONLLOIPA(pf.); FRVFORVD¸FROW(chariot, carrier), FARTRH
(arrow-carrier, quiver); D¤RONDÎTETRPVPOLÃTROPOWFRNFRON
VFHM¸FATOFVN
Awareness of this law of vowel change will help you realize the relationship of many
words, and facilitate remembering their meanings. Be on the lookout for other
examples among the words you read in Greek.
772. WRITE IN GREEK

1. As cruel Polyphemus discovered, whoever does evil deeds will himself sometime
suffer; for there is justice in the world.
2. We tried to make ourselves heard from the river to our companions eating in
the house, but we could not, for we were very far away.
3. Many things have I learned (aor.), but with none was I ever so pleased as with
this account about the Cyclops and the Greeks, and how by craftiness and
courage and the will of the gods they escaped alive from his cave.
338
Lesson 120
In the last five lessons, you have memorized twelve new words and read forty-three
more lines of Homer. Make sure that you have mastered everything; then check your
knowledge with this test:
I. Vocabulary (40%)
1. might: acc. sg. =
2. KA¹L¸HN =
3. in that case =
4. GEG¢NHW =
5. they will weep =
6. YLEÐ =
7. shrewd: m. dat. sg. =
8. DAMw=
9. last: n. dat. pl. =
10. GOSEIE
II. Text (60%)
1. Scan line 304.
2. In line 304, identify DDENTO.
3. In line 299, explain NOMÎND
.
4. Translate DjMASSEFRNAO½N¡.
5. In line 319, explain O¼.
6. Translate PR¤TOWÇP
mRNEIOÅLUÎMHN.
7. In line 321, what part of speech is Tj ?
8. In line 328, to what or whom does TOÄW refer?
9. In line 329, identify E½VN .
10. In line 339, what case is SXTL
and to whom does it refer?
11. What moral does Odysseus draw from this whole adventure?
12. Polyphemus’ address to the ram is considered remarkable.
What does it show of the character of the giant?
774. ADVENTURES CALLING!

As the ship sails away from the Cyclops’ island, Polyphemus, infuriated by Odysseus’
taunts, twice hurls an enormous rock, nearly sinking the ship with a mighty upsurge
of waves. Odysseus boldly shouts back his true name, the giant replying with a prayer
that his tormentors may be destroyed, or at least suffer prolonged woe on their
339
homeward journey. The Cyclops episode thus ends on a note of dread foreboding, a
fear that the gods may answer Polyphemus’ prayer.
What lies before you is a story of many and varied new adventures, of thrilling events
in far-off mysterious places, of joys and sorrows and gripping fears, of almost total
disaster. There are interesting things awaiting you when you continue with Homer
and the Odyssey!
340
Honor Work
Supplementary Text For Sight Reading
The Close of the Cyclops Story
Near Disaster
ªWFjMHNÒD
PEITAXOL¢SATOKHRÎYIMlLLON
KED
mPORRJAWKORUFNÓREOWMEGjLOIO
KkDD
BALEPROPjROIYENEÏWKUANOPRROIO
KLÃSYHDYjLASSAKATERXOMNHWÇPÏPTRHW
TND
qCPEIRÎNDEPALIRRÎYIONFREKÅMA
PLHMUR¹WKPÎNTOIOYMVSEDXRSON¼KSYAI
AÆTkRG£XE¸RESSILAB£NPERIMKEAKONTÏN
«SAPARJTjROISID
POTRÃNAWKLEUSA
MBALEINK¢P×S
¾N
ÇPKKAKÎTHTAFÃGOIMEN
KRAT¹KATANNEÃVNO¼DPROPESÎNTEWRESSON
A Bold Revelation
mLL
ÔTEDD¹WTÎSSONpLAPRSSONTEWmPMEN
KA¹TÎTED,ÃKLVPAPROSHÃDVNmMF¹D
TAºROI
MEILIX¸OIS
PESSINRTUONoLLOYENoLLOW
“SXTLIET¸PT
YLEIWREYIZMENoGRIONoNDRA
ÖWKA¹NÅNPÎNTONDEBAL£NBLOWGAGENA
AÌTIWWPEIRONKA¹DFjMENAÆTÎY
ÑLSYAI
E»DFYEGJAMNOUTEUAÆDSANTOWoKOUSE
SÃNKENoRAJ
MVNKEFALkWKA¹NÐADOÅRA
MARMjR¡ÑKRIÎENTIBAL¢NTÎSSONGkR¾HSIN”
ªWFjSANmLL
OÆPEºYONMÏNMEGALTORAYUMÎN
mLLjMINoCORRONPROSFHNKEKOTHÎTIYUM¯
“,ÃKLVCA½KNT¸WSEKATAYNHT¤NmNYR¢PVN
ÑFYALMOÅE½RHTAImEIKEL¸HNmLAVTÃN
FjSYAIb00DUSSAPTOLIPÎRYIONJALA¤SAI
U¼ÏN-ARTEVb*YjK×NIO»K¸
XONTA”
Vocabulary for lines 1- 25

mEIKLIOWHON unseemly
mKOÃVmKOÃSOMAIoKOUSA I hear the sound of [+ gen.]
mLAVTÃWÃOW [f.] blinding
mPORRGNUMIRRJVRRHJA I break off
341
mRASSVmRjJVoRAJA I smash, I crush

AÆDjVAÆDSVoUDHSA I speak
AÆTÎYI [adv.] then and there
oCORRON [adv.] right back, again
BLOWEOW [n.] missile
MBjLLVetc. I cast myself on
JALAÎVALA¢SVALjVSA I blind
POTRÃNVOTRUNVÎTRUNA I urge on
REY¸ZV I provoke, I anger
RSSV I ply the oars, I row
RHTÃV I hold back, I seek to restrain [trans.]
PEIROWOU [f.] land, shore
YEMÎV—YMVSA I force [obj. isNA, understood from context]
¾HSI 3 sg. pres. ind. of ¾HMI
b*YjKHHW [f.] Ithaca
KAKÎTHWHTOW [f.] evil, danger, misery
KjRHKRATÎW [n.]
KATANEÃV I nod, I nod (assent)
KATAYNHTÎWÎN mortal [= YNHTÎWÎN]
KEKOTH¢WUºAÎW [pf. ptc. of KOTV]angry
KEFALW [f.] head
KLÃZVaor. pass. KLÃSYHN I surge up
KONTÎWOÅ [m.] pole
KORUFW [f.] peak, top
KUANÎPRVROWON dark-prowed
KÅMAATOW [n.] wave
K¢PHHW [f.] oar
-ARTHWEV [m.] [special gen.] Laertes [father of Odysseus]
MjLLON [adv.] all the more
MjRMAROWOU [m.] granite, quartz, marble
NIOWON for ships
b0DUSSEÃWOW [m.] Odysseus
O»K¸ONOU [n.] home, abode [only in pl.]
ÑKRIÎEIWESSAEN jagged
PALIRRÎYIOWON backward-washing
PARJ [adv.] off, away
PERIMHXWW long
PLHMUR¸W¸DOW [f.] flood-tide, swell
PRSSV I traverse, I go across
PROPjROIYEN [adv., prep. + gen.] in front of, before
PROP¸PTVetc. I fall to, I bend forward
PTOLIPÎRYIOWON sacker of cities [epithet of Odysseus]
T¸PTE=T¸POTE <interrogative adv.] why?
ÇP
K…FEÃGV I flee from under, I escape
FjSYAI inf. [here, = impt.] of FHM¸
FYGGOMAIFYGJOMAIFYEGJjMHN I make a noise
XRSOWOU [f.] land
XOLÎOMAIKEXOL¢SOMAIXOLVSjMHN I am enraged
¥YV§SV«SA I push
342
Honor Work
A Prophecy Fulfilled
ªWFjMHNÒDM
O»M¢JAWME¸BETOMÃY¡
“©PÎPOIMjLADMEPALA¸FATAYSFAY
¼KjNEI
SKETIWNYjDEMjNTIWmNR!WTEMGAWTE
5LEMOW&ÆRUM¸DHWÖWMANTOSÃN×KKASTO
KA¹MANTEUÎMENOWKATEGRA,UKL¢PESSIN
ÔWMOIFHTjDEPjNTATELEUTSESYAIÑP¸SSV
XEIR¤NJb0DUSOWnMARTSESYAIÑPVPW
mLL
A»E¸TINAF¤TAMGANKA¹KALÏNDGMHN
NYjD
LEÃSESYAIMEGjLHNPIEIMNONmLKN
NÅNDM
£NÑL¸GOWTEKA¹OÆTIDANÏWKA¹oKIKUW
ÑFYALMOÅmLjVSENPE¸M
DAMjSSATOO½N¡
mLL
oGEDEÅR
b0DUSEÅ¾NATOIPkRJE¸NIAYE¸V
POMPNT
ÑTRÃNVDÎMENAIKLUTÏNNNOS¸GAION
TOÅGkRG£PjÐWE»M¸PATRD
MÏWEÈXETAIEÁNAI
AÆTÏWD
A½K
YL×S
»SETAIOÆDTIWoLLOW
OÈTEYE¤NMAKjRVNOÈTEYNHT¤NmNYR¢PVN”
ªWFAT
AÆTkRG¢MINmMEIBÎMENOWPROSEIPON
A¿GkRDCUXWTEKA¹A»¤NÎWSEDUNA¸MHN
EÌNINPOISAWPMCAIDÎMONd"ÐDOWE½SV
¦WOÆKÑFYALMÎNG
»SETAIOÆD
NOS¸XYVN”
Polyphemus’ Prayer for Vengeance

ªWFjMHNÒD
PEITA1OSEIDjVNIoNAKTI
EÈXETOXEºR
ÑRGVNE»WOÆRANÏNmSTERÎENTA
“KLÅYI1OSE¸DAONGAIOXEKUANOXAºTA
E»TEÎNGESÎWE»MIPATRD
MÏWEÈXEAIEÁNAI
DÏWMb0DUSSAPTOLIPÎRYIONO½KAD
¼KSYAI
mLL
E½O¼MOºR
ST¹F¸LOUWT
»DEINKA¹¼KSYAI
OÁKONKT¸MENONKA¹NWPATR¸DAGAºAN
ÑCKAK¤WLYOIÑLSAWoPOPjNTAWTA¸ROUW
NHÏWP
mLLOTR¸HWEÉROID
NPMATAO½K¡”
ªWFAT
EÆXÎMENOWTOÅD
KLUEKUANOXA¸THW
AÆTkRÔG
JAÅTIWPOLÄME¸ZONALlANmE¸RAW
K
PIDINSAWPREISEDÁN
mPLEYRON
KkDD
BALENMETÎPISYENEÏWKUANOPRROIO
TUTYÎNDEÃHSEND
O»ÐONoKRON¼KSYAI
KLÃSYHDYjLASSAKATERXOMNHWÇPÏPTRHW
TNDPRÎSVFREKÅMAYMVSEDXRSON¼KSYAI
343
Vocabulary for lines 26-61

oGE [impt. of oGV; idiom] come!
b"ÚDHWd"ÐDOW [m.] Hades [god of underworld]
A»¢N¤NOW [m.] existence, being
oKIKUW—oKIKU feeble
mLAÎVmLO¢SVmLÎVSA I take away the sight of [+ gen.]
mLKW [f.] strength
mLLÎTRIOWHON foreign, another’s
mPLEYROWON incalculable, stupendous
mSTERÎEIWESSAEN starry
GAIOXOWOU [m.] earth-holder [Epithet of Poseidon]
DEÅRO [adv.] hither, here
DEÃVDEUSOMAIDEÃHSA I just fail (to do something) [+ inf.]
DÎMENAI 2 aor inf. of D¸DVMI
DÎMOWOU [m.] abode, house; realm
DGMHN 1 sg. plpf. of DXOMAI(here= I [had] expected)
E½SV [+ acc.] into, to
NYjDE [adv.] here
NNOS¸GAIOWOU [m.] earth-shaker [epithet of Poseidon]
NOS¸XYVNONOW [m.] earth-shaker [epithet of Poseidon]
JAÅTIW [adv.] again, once more
PERE¸DVERE¸SVREISA I exert
PIDINV—D¸NHSA I whirl around
PIEIMNOWHON [ pf. pass. ptc. of PINNUMI+ acc. of specification] arrayed in
SKE 3 sg. iterative of E»M¸
TEÎN [adv.] in truth, indeed
KT¸MENOWHON well-built
EÌNIWIOW [adj., + gen.] deprived of
ÃW—Ã goodly, admirable
YEMÎV—YMVSA I cause [+ inf.]
YSFATONOU divine decree, oracle
»jOMAI»SOMAI»HSjMHN I heal
½W»NÎW [f.] strength, might
KA¸NUMAI pf. with pres. sense:KKASMAI I excel
KATAGHRjV I grow old
KLÅYI [2 aor. impt. of KLÃV] hear me!
KLÃZV aor. pass. KLÃSYHNI surge up
KLÃV I hear [+ gen.]
KUANÎPR¡ROWON dark-prowed
KUANOXA¸THW [voc. TA] dark-haired [epithet of Poseidon]
KÅMAATOW [n.] wave, billow
LlAWLlOWacc. LlAN [m.] rock
MANTEÃOMAI I act as a prophet
MjNTIWIOW [m.] seer, prophet
MANTOSÃNHHW [f.] gift of prophecy
METÎPISYE [prep. + gen.] behind
MÅYOWOU [m.] word, story, speech
O»ÐONOU [n.] steering-oar, rudder
ÑP¸SSV [adv.] afterwards, later
ÑPVPW [f.] sight, vision
ÑRGV I stretch forth (a hand or hands)
ÑTRÃNV I urge on
OÆTIDANÎWÎN worthless, of no account
ÑC [adv.] after long delay, late
PALA¸FATOWON spoken of old, ancient
PAR…YE¸V alternate 1st pers. sg.2 aor. subj. of PARAT¸YHMI<cp. Section 472] I offer
344
Honor Work
PMAATOW [n.] bane, woe

POMPW [f.] conduct, escort, guidance
PRÎSV [adv.] forward
PTOL¸PORYOWON sacker of cities [epithet only of Odysseus in the Odyssey]
TELEUTjOMAITELEUTSOMAI I come to pass
5LEMOW&ÆRUM¸DHW Telemus, son of Eurymis
TUTYÎWÎN little
XRSOWOU [f.] land [here = the small island]
§PÎPOI Alas! Ah me!
The Fleet Reassembles and Sails Off

mLL
ÔTEDTNNSONmFIKÎMEY
NYAPERoLLAI
NEW!SSELMOIMNONnYRÎAImMF¹D
TAºROI
E¾AT
ÑDURÎMENOIMAWPOTIDGMENOIA»E¸
NAMNNY
LYÎNTEWKLSAMENNCAMjYOISIN
KDKA¹AÆTO¹BMENP¹HGMºNIYALjSSHW
MLAD,ÃKLVPOWGLAFURWKNHÏWLÎNTEW
DASSjMEY
¦WMT¸WMOImTEMBÎMENOWK¸OI½SHW
mRNEIÏND
MO¹O½¡KNMIDEWTAºROI
MLVNDAIOMNVNDÎSANJOXATÏND
P¹YIN¹
;HN¹KELAINEFÐ,RON¸D×ÖWPlSINmNjSSEI
JAWMHR¸
KAIONÒD
OÆKMPjZETO¼R¤N
mLL
ÔGEMERMRIZENÔPVWmPOLO¸ATOPlSAI
NEW!SSELMOIKA¹MO¹R¸HREWTAºROI
ªWTÎTEMNPRÎPANMARWLIONKATADÃNTA
MEYADAINÃMENOIKRAT
oSPETAKA¹MYUDÃ
MOWD
LIOWKATDUKA¹P¹KNFAWLYE
DTÎTEKOIMYHMENP¹HGMºNIYALjSSHW
MOWD
DTÎT
G£NTjROISINPOTRÃNAWKLEUSA
AÆTOÃWT
mMBA¸NEINmNjTEPRUMNSIALÅSAI
O¼D
AÁC
JWD
NYENDPROTRVPLOMENmKAXMENOITOR
oSMENOIKYANjTOIOF¸LOUWÑLSANTEWTA¸ROUW
Vocabulary for lines 62-85

mYRÎOWHON in a group, together
mKAXMENOWHON [pf. ptc. of mXV] aching, weighed down
mMBA¸NV [= mNABA¸NV] I embark
mNjSSV I lord over, I am king over [+ dat.]
mPOLO¸ATO recall Section 385 h
oSMENOWHON glad (to be) [aor. ptc. of DOMAI]
oSPETOWON abundant, copious
mTMBV I unjustly deprive of [+ gen.]
345
DA¸NUMAI I banquet, I feast

DA¸V I divide into shares
DATOMAIDjSOMAIDASSjMHN I divide, I appoint shares
E¾ATO 3 pl. impf. [= ATO] of MAI
MPjZOMAI I take heed of [+ gen.]
JOXA [adv.] pre-eminently, most
POTRÃNVOTRUNVÎTRUNA I urge on
KNMIWIDOW equipped with sturdy leg-guards [epithet of Achaeans and
of the companions]
!SSELMOWON equipped with sturdy rowing-benches [epithet of ships]
MAI I sit, I remain (doing something)
Y¸WYINÎW beach, shore
¼R¤N = ¼ER¤N
ÁSOWHON equal [MO¸RHW is to be understood]
KATADÃVDÃSVDUN I go down, I set
KELAINEFWW god of the black cloud [epithet or name of Zeus]
KLLV—KLSA I beach, I land
K¸V I go
KNFAWAOW [n.] darkness
KOIMjOMAIKOIMSOMAIKOIMYHN I sleep, I lie down to rest
,RON¸DHWdat. ID× [m.] son of Kronos [Zeus]
KUANOXA¸THW dark-haired [epithet of Poseidon]
MYU [indecl. n.] wine
MERMHR¸ZV I ponder, I contrive
MHR¸ONOU [n.] thigh, ham
NSOWOU [f.] island
ÑDÃROMAI I am sorrowful, I am sad
POTIDGMENOWHON <aor. ptc. of POTIDXOMAI] awaiting apprehensively
PRÎPAWPASAPAN entire, whole
PROTRV [adv.] onward
PRUMNSIONOU [n.] mooring cables [holding the ship to something firm on shore]
ZV here in technical religious sense, “I offer up, I sacrifice”
HGM¸WºNOW [f.] surf, breakers
CjMAYOWOU [f.] sand
346
Appendix A
Summary of Grammar
DECLENSION ENDINGS
1st DECL. 2nd DECL. 3rd DECL.

BI GAI YE DVR mNAKT PE
N H A OW ON ---- ----
G HW HW OUOIO OUOIO OW OW
D -× -× ¡ ¡ I I
A HN AN ON ON AN ----
N AI AI OI A EW A
G AVN AVN VN VN VN VN
D ×SI ×SI OISI OISI ESSI ESSI
A AW AW OUW A AW A
GEND. all f. m.; a few f. all n. m., f., n.

(cp. Lesson 27)
ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE TYPES

1. 1st and 2nd decl. OWHON
2. 1st and 3rd decl. VNOUSAON(m./n. gen.ONTOW UWEIAU(m./n. gen.EOW)
AWASAAN(m./n. gen.ANTOW VWUIAOWm./n. OTOW
EIWESSAEISAEN(m./n. gen. ENTOW)
3. 3rd decl. only HWEW(gen. EOW VNON(gen.ONOW
4. Single termination (e.g., MjKAR
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
1. Adj. in OW w. last syllable of stem long: add to stem OTEROWOTATOW
2. Adj. in OW w. last syllable of stem short: add to stem VTEROWVTATOW
3. Adj. in VN: add to stem ESTEROWESTATOW
4. Adj. in HWsome in UW: add to stem TEROWTATOW
IRREGULAR COMPARISON
mGAYÎW mRE¸VN oRISTOW

KALÎW KALL¸VN KjLLISTOW
MGAW ME¸ZVN MGISTOW
POLLÎW PLE¸VN PLEºSTOW
F¸LOW F¸LTEROW F¸LTATOW
TAXÃW YjSSVN TjXISTOW
VOCATIVE
Same as nom. except: 1. 2nd decl. m. sg. EF¸LE) 3. 3rd decl. long vowel of nom. shortens
2. 3rd decl.EUWIW if it also does in gen. (PjTER)
dropW(ZEÅPÎLI) 4. Special: YEÎWGÅNAI
347
SPECIAL CASE ENDINGS

1. DEadded to acc. = place to which O»KÎNDEDEblends withWintoZEYURjZE
2. YENadded to gen minus WorU= place from which OÆRANÎYEN
3. FINadded to gen. minus WorU = by, at, from, with, on, inB¸HFIYÃRHFI
4. DUAL: 2nd decl. V3rd decl.EXEºREM¤
VERB ENDINGS: ACTIVE AND AORIST PASSIVE
PRES. FUT. 1 AOR. 2 AOR. 3 AOR. PF. ACT. AOR. PASS.

SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM
LU LUS LUS ID BH LELUK LUY
IND.
V V A
EIW EIW AW
EI EI EN
OMEN OMEN AMEN
ETE ETE ATE
OUSIN OUSIN ASIN
(impf.) (plpf.)
ON A ON N EAH HN
EW AW EW W HW HW
EN EN EN EI H
OMEN AMEN OMEN MEN EMEN HMEN
ETE ATE ETE TE ETE HTE
ON AN ON SAN ESAN HSAN
SUBJ.
V V V V V V
×W ×W ×W ×W ×W ×W
× × × × × ×
VMEN VMEN VMEN VMEN VMEN VMEN
HTE HTE HTE HTE HTE HTE
VSIN VSIN VSIN VSIN VSIN VSIN
OPT.
OIMI AIMI OIMI AIHN* OIMI EIHN
OIW EIAW OIW AIHW OIW EIHW
OI EIEN OI AIH OI EIH
OIMEN AIMEN OIMEN AIMEN OIMEN EIMEN
OITE AITE OITE AITE OITE EITE
OIEN EIAN OIEN AIEN OIEN EIEN
IMPT.
E ON E YI E HYI
ETE ATE ETE TE ETE HTE
INF.
EIN EIN AI EEIN NAI ENAI HNAI
EMEN EMEN EMEN EMENAI HMENAI
EMENAI EMENAI EMENAI
PTC.
B GN* VW EIW
VN VN AW VN AW OUW UIA EISA
OUSA OUSA ASA OUSA ASA OUSA OW EN
N ON AN ON AN ON
*Incorporating the stem vowel (See Lesson 43)
Note: the Subj. 3 sg. ending is sometimes ×SI, the 2 sg. sometimes HSYA
348
Appendix A
VERB ENDINGS: MIDDLE AND PASSIVE
PRES. FUT. 1 AOR. 2 AOR. PF. M-P

SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM
LU LUS LUS ID LELU
IND.
OMAI OMAI MAI
EAI EAI SAI
ETAI ETAI TAI
OMEYA OMEYA MEYA
ESYE ESYE SYE
ONTAI ONTAI ATAINTAI
(impf.) (plpf.)
OMHN AMHN OMHN MHN
EO AO EO SO
ETO ATO ETO TO
OMEYA AMEYA OMEYA MEYA
ESYE ASYE ESYE SYE
ONTO ANTO ONTO ATONTO
SUBJ.
VMAI VMAI VMAI
HAI HAI HAI
HTAI HTAI HTAI
VMEYA VMEYA VMEYA
HSYE HSYE HSYE
VNTAI VNTAI VNTAI
OPT.
OIMHN AIMHN OIMHN
OIO AIO OIO
OITO AITO OITO
OIMEYA AIMEYA OIMEYA
OISYE AISYE OISYE
OIATO AIATO OIATO
OINTO AINTO OINTO
IMPT.
EOEU AI EOEU SO
ESYE ASYE ESYE SYE
INF.
ESYAI ESYAI ASYAI ESYAI SYAI
PTC.
OMENOW OMENOW AMENOW OMENOW MENOW
H H H H H
ON ON ON ON ON
Notes:
1. In the 1 pl., MESYAmay be used for MEYA
2. The Subj. 2 sg. HAImay contract to×
349
SPECIAL VERB FORMS
E»M¸ OÁDA
I am I know
IND. PRES. [PF. ENDINGS]
E»M¸ E»MN OÁDA ½DMEN
SS¸EÁW ST OÁSYA ½STE
ST¸N E»S¸N OÁDE ½SASI
IND. IMPF. [PLPF. ENDINGS]
A MEN DEA ½DMEN
SYA TE DHW ½STE
ENNHN SANSAN DH ½SAN
IND. FUT.
SSOMAI SSOMEYA E»DSV, etc.
SSEAI SSESYE
SSETAISTAI SSONTAI
SUBJ. PRES. [PF. ENDINGS]
« «MEN <E»D¤ E½DOMEN
W TE E»DW E½DETE
«SIN E»D E»D¤SI>
OPT. PRES.
E½HN EÁMEN <E»DE¸HN E»DEºMEN
E½HW EÁTE E»DE¸HW E»DEºTE
E½H EÁEN E»DE¸H E»DEºEN>
IMPT. PRES.
<½SYI STE> ½SYI ½STE
INF. PRES.
EÁNAIMMENAI ½DMENAI
INF. FUT.
SESYAI <E»DHSMEN>
PTC. PRES.
¢NOÅSAÎN E»D¢WUºAÎW
PTC. FUT.
SÎMENOWHON
350
Appendix A
MIVERBS:FORMS USED IN THIS TEXT (for more complete paradigms, see Lesson 65.)
¾HMI D¸DVMI T¸YHMI

I send forth I give I put
IND. PRES.
-- --
<T¸YHSYA>
-- --
IND. IMPF.
¾EIN¾HN
¾EIW
¾EI T¸YEI
2 AOR. IND.

<DÎSAN> YSAN
SUBJ. 2 AOR.
<D¤>

D¢×
OPT. 2 AOR.
DO¸HN DOºMEN YE¸HN YEºMEN
DO¸HW DOºTE YE¸HW YEºTE
DO¸H DOºEN YE¸H YEºEN
IMPT. 2 AOR.
DÎW DÎTE
PTC. 2 AOR.
MID.
<YMENOWHON>
FHM¸
I speak
IND. IMPF.
MID.
ACT.
FN FjMEN FjMHN FjMEYA
FWYA FjTE FjO FjSYE
F FjSANFjN FjTO FjNTO
351
PRONOUNS
I. Relative ÔWÒÔTÎ who, which, that
Intensive AÆTÎWÎ who,which, that
Demonstrative KEºNOWHO that (one)
ÒTÎ that (one), the
ÔDEDETÎDE this (one)
For complete paradigms, see Lessons 14 and 15.
Paradigm of ÒTÎ that (one), the
Ò TÎ
TOÅTOºO TW TOÅTOºO
T¯ T T¯
TÎN TN TÎ
O¼TO¸ A¼TA¸ Tj

T¤N TjVN T¤N
TOºSITOºW TSITW TOºSITOºW
TOÃW TjW Tj
Use: 1. Demonstrative when modifying a noun.

2. Relative when following a definite antecedent.
3. Third person personal pronoun when standing
in place of a noun already mentioned.
II. Interrogative T¸WT¸ who? which? what?

Indefinite TIWTI some(one), some(thing), any, a certain
Paradigms
T¸W T¸ TIW TI
TEÅ TEÅ TEÅ TEÅ
T¯T¡ T¯T¡ T¡TE¡ T¡TE¡
T¸NA T¸ TINA TI
T¸NEW T¸NA TINEW TINA

TVN TVN TEVN TEVN
TOISI TOISI TEOISI TEOISI
T¸NAW T¸NA TINEW TINA
Notes:
1. For the use of the indefinite and interrogative pronouns
and adjectives, see Lesson 31.
2. For the declension of the indefinite relative and the indirect
interrogative pronouns/adjectives, see Lesson 31.
III. Personal
Paradigms
1st person I 2nd person you 3rd person he, she, it

G¢N MEºWoMMEW SÃ ÇMEºW
MEUMEºO MVN SEÅSEºO ÇMVN O SFEVN
MO¸MOI MºNoMMIN SO¸TOI ÇMºN O¼ SF¸NSFISI
MME MAWoMME S ÇMAW MIN SFEAW
For use of the personal pronouns and more complete paradigms, see Lessons 32, 33, and 34.
352
Appendix A
PREPOSITIONS
+ Genitive + Dative + Accusative

oGXI near oGXI5RO¸HW
pMA at same time pMANUKT¸
together with pMATA¸ROIW
mMF¸ on both sides mMF¹O½K¡ on both sides mMF¹OÁKON
around mMF¹NH¯ around mMF¹NHÎN
concerning mMF¹D¢ROIW concerning mMF¹D¤RA
mNj on(to) mNkNE¤N on [at rest] mNkNH¸ on(to) mNkNA
over mNkGAºAN
mPjNEUYE away from mPjNEUYEO½KOU
apart from mPjNEUYEPÎNOU
far from mPjNEUYEF¸LVN
mPÎ away from mPÏPTRHW
from mPÏCUXW
through DIkPÅR
DIj through DIkPURÎW
among [motion] DIk
TA¸ROUW
on account of DIkXRUSÎN
GGÃW near GGÄWYALjSSHW
E¾NEKA on account of E¾NEKAPOLMOU
for the sake of E¾NEKASEÅ
E»W into E»WGAºAN
to E»WYjLASSAN
KJ out of KPTRHW
from JmRXW
N in NCUX
on NPTR×SI
among NF¸LOIW
P¸ upon P¹PTRHW on P¹PTR× to(wards) P¹PTRAW
at, beside P¹YALjSS× after [in search] P¹DÎJAN
KATj down from KATkPTRHW down (along) KATkPOTAMÎN
according to KATkD¸KHN
throughout KATkGAºAN
METj among METkDENDROISI into the midst METkJE¸NOUW
with METkmGjP× after METkPÎLEMON
PARj from PARkF¸LVN at, beside PARkPOTAM¯ to PARkYjLASSAN
along(side) PARkPOTAMÎN
PER¸ about PER¹BOULW about PER¹S¢MATI about PER¹S¤MA
excelling PER¹PjNTVN for PER¹D¢ROIW for PER¹D¤RA
PRÎW from PRÏWoNAKTOW on PRÏWGA¸× to(ward) PRÏWYjLASSAN
at PRÏWYALjSS×
SÃN with SÄNSOFOºSI
ÇPR over ÇPRYÃRHW over ÇPRPÎNTON
under [motion to] ÇPÏ
ÇPÎ from under ÇPÏPTRHW under [at rest] ÇPÏPTR×
PTRHN
by [agent] ÇPÏCUXW
Position of preposition:
1. Ordinarily, before its object or object's modifier (PRÎWMESÄNPOLLOºWTA¸ROIW)
2. For poetic purposes, after its object, or between modifier and object (XEIRÏWoPOPOLLOºWSÄNTA¸ROIW)
3. In compound words, directly joined (PROSFRV)
4. As adverb (mMF¸APjNTEWSTHSAN).
353
VARIA
NU MOVABLE
Nmay be added before a vowel, at end at end of a sentence, occasionally before a consonant, to the
final SIof the 3rd pl. or dat. pl. and to the final Eof the 3rd. sg.; also in a few other words ending
in SIor E
ELISION
For easier pronunciation, a short final vowel (except U), and sometimes a final AIor
OImay drop out before an initial vowel or diphthong and in compounds (mP
mRXWPjRHN).
Elision does not occur in the dat. pl. of the 3rd decl., or in PER¸PRÎÔTITIor in words which
take Nmovable.
When elision brings PTor Kbefore a rough breathing, they change to FYX
mFAIRV
DISTINCTION OF OÆandM
OÆnegates statements of concrete fact, Mstatements of possibility, condition, general, wish,
suppositions.
ADVERBS
Formation
1. By adding VW to neuter stem (KAL¤WTAXVW)
2. Simple n. acc., sg. or pl. (PR¤TON)
3. Special (NÅNTÎTEetc.)
4. Prepositions used adverbially
Comparison
1. n. acc. sg. of the comp. adj. (YlSSON)
2. n. acc. pl. of the supl. adj. (TjXISTA)
DEPONENT VERBS
Have mid. or pass. endings only, but w. active force (MjXOMAI)
The mid. of deponent and of many act. verbs often is intransitive (TRPOMAII turn).
MIVERBS
Irregular only in pres. and 2 aor. systems, where they lack the thematic vowel and have some special
endings.
Subj. mid. retains the usual long thematic vowel, which absorbs the final A or Eof the stem and
contracts with finalOtoV
AUGMENT IN PAST INDICATIVE

1. Stems beginning w. consonant(s) prefix (e.g., aor. LÃSA becomesLUSA). Initial Roften
doubles (RREE).
2. Stems beginning w. a short vowel or a diphthong that is not the reduplication lengthen the
initial vowel (e.g., O½KEONbecomes ²KEONInitial Elengthens to H usually; but E lengthens to
EIin the following verbs: XVjVPOMAILKVRPVRPÃZVLON
3. Stems beginning w. a long vowel (e.g., SjMHN) or a vowel-reduplication (e.g., GNVSMAI)
take no augment.
354
Appendix A
CONSONANT CHANGES
In dat. pl. :
KGX+S = J
PBF+S=C
TDYNdrop beforeSWhen both NTdrop, the preceding Elengthens to EI
O lengthens toOU
In pf. mid. of consonant stems, principal part ending in
M+S=C G+S=J S+S=S
M+ T=PT G+T=KT S+T=ST
M+ SY=FY G+SY=XY S+SY=SY
M+NT=FAT G+NT=XAT S+NT=YAT
VOWEL CONTRACTIONS
1. AE becomesAAEIbecomes
2. AOAVAOUbecome V
3. EEEEIbecomeEI
4. EOEOUbecome EUOU
5. OEOObecome OU
REDUPLICATION IN PF. STEM

1. Stems beginning w. single consonant prefix initial consonant and E
(e.g., LUbecomes LLUK).
2. Stems beginning w. two consonants simply prefix E(e.g., STLLbecomesSTALK).
3. Stems beginning w. short vowel or w. diphthong lengthen initial vowel (e.g., nMARTjN
becomes MjRTHKA¼RbecomesRHK).
4. Stems beginning w. mute plus liquid (PBFKGXTDYplus LMN
orR) prefix the mute with E(e.g., GRjFbecomes GGRAF).
a. but initial GN follows rule 2, above.
b. Initial FXYbecome PKTin reduplicating(e.g., FILEbecomesPEF¸LHK
5. Some reduplications are irregular.
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN

1. NOMINATIVE: case of subject of a finite verb.
2. GENITIVE: possession, partitive (whole), contents, material, separation;
w. certain verbs, adjectives, prepositions.
3. DATIVE: indirect object, reference, possession; instrumental (means, manner); locative (where,
when); w. certain verbs, adjectives, prepositions.
4. ACCUSATIVE: case of object of action, motion, thought (direct object, place to which, subject
of infinitive in indirect discourse, w. certain prepositions). Special uses: a) cognate, governed by
intransitive verb of related meaning, e.g., MAKRNÒDÏNLYOMENWe came a long journey. b)
specification, specifying in what respect the idea contained in an accompanying word is true,
e.g., NÎONSYLÎWNoble in mind.
5. VOCATIVE: case of direct address.
355
SYNTAX OF THE VERB BY MOODS

1. INDICATIVE (tenses indicate time, as well as aspect of action):
a. Statements of fact: past, present, future time; simple, continuous, completed aspect. Nega-
tive OÆ.
RXETAI He comes. (He is coming.)
RXETO He was coming.
LYEN He came.
¢RATAI He has been seen.
OÆLJV I shall not say.
b. Past and present contrary-to-fact: impf. or aor. ind. in both clauses, oN orKEN in
conclusion (apodosis). Negative M in if- clause (protasis),OÆ in conclusion (apodosis).
E»MTÎDEP¸NENOÆKqNYjNEN
If he had not drunk this, he would not have died.
2. SUBJUNCTIVE (tenses indicate aspect, not time):

a. Hortatory: requested or proposed actions referring to the speaker himself; in first person,
sg. or pl. Negative M
MTDEMNVMENTAºROImLLkFÃGVMEN
Let us not remain here, comrades, but let us flee.
b. Present purpose: to express intended action, after primary main verb; introduced by ¾NA
¦WÔPVWÓFRANegative ¾NAMsometimes M alone.
PEÃYOMAI¾NAGIG¢NSKVMEN
I inquire in order that we may know.
PEÃYOMAIÓFRAMNPIOW«
I inquire in order that I may not be foolish.
c. Vivid future (future general) construction: to express a probable future supposition; often
with oN orKENNegative M
E»KENLY×DJOMA¸MINPRÎFRVN
If he comes, I shall receive him eagerly.
d. Present general: to indicate repeated occurrence in the present; may take oN orKEN
Negative M
ÔTEqNBOÃLHTAIP¹YjLASSANRXETAI
Whenever he wishes, he goes to the sea.
N.B. The main verb is regularly pres. ind., negative OÆ
3. OPTATIVE (tenses indicate aspect, not time):

a. Wishes: to express possible and impossible wishes (often equivalent to a polite imperative);
may be introduced by E»E½YEE»GjR(“if only,” “would that”), especially if an impossible
wish.
POLLjGEMANYjNOIMI
At least, may I learn many things!
E½YEMXALEPÏNE½H
If only it were not difficult!
b. Past purpose: to express intended action after secondary main verb; introduced by ¾NA¦W
ÔPVWÓFRANegative ¾NAMsometimes M alone.
YjNEAÆTÏWÓFRAS¢ZOIMAW
He himself died in order to save us.
YjNEAÆTÏW¾NAMmPOLO¸MEYA
He himself died in order that we might not perish.
356
Appendix A
c. Future contrary to fact (should-would) construction: to indicate a less likely future

supposition and its assumed consequence; both clauses may take oN orKENNegative of
supposition (protasis) is M, of conclusion (apodosis) isOÆ
N.B. The apodosis may sometimes be more definite, using an impt. or
hortatory subj.
d. Potential: to express an opinion as to what might, could, or would happen if certain
unstated circumstances should prevail; usually takes oN orKENNegative OÆ(This
construction is equal to the apodosis of a should-would construction.)
MBTEKTE¸NEIEGjRKENÇMAWPjNTAW
Do not go, for he might kill all of you!
e. Expectation: a potential optative with special force, indicating what one desires or expects
to happen under assumed circumstances, and equivalent to English “can, will” rather than
“could, would, might.” Same rule as potential optative.
EÉRVMNTINAÖWqNMºNÒDÏNFA¸NOI
Let's find someone who can show us the way.
f. Past general: to indicate repeated occurrence in the past. Negative M
ÔTEBOÃLOITOP¹YjLASSANRXETO
Whenever he wished, he came to the sea.
N.B. The main verb is ordinarily impf. ind., rarely aor.; negative OÆ
g. Indirect questions: the verb within a question depending on a secondary main verb of
asking, knowing, etc., ordinarily shifts from the ind. (or subj.) of the direct question into
the corresponding tense of the opt., though it may stay unchanged. Negative as in direct
question form.
RETOT¸WMAWPMCEIENPMCEN
She asked who sent us.
4. IMPERATIVE (tenses indicate aspect, not time):

a. Commands: to express what one desires or orders another to do.
Negative M
MEÉDETEMANYjNEINGEPEIRjETE
Don't sleep; at least try to learn!
5. INFINITIVE (tenses indicate aspect, except in indirect discourse, where time

is indicated):
a. Complementary: after certain verbs (wishing, planning, attempting, etc.)
to complete the sense. Negative M
SOFO¹MANYjNEINPEIRjOUSIN
The wise attempt to learn.
b. Explanatory: to explain the sense of another word and fill out its meaning. Negative M
XALEPÏNMNRDEINA»SXRÏNDMRJAI
To act is indeed difficult, but not to act is shameful.
c. Purpose: to explain why an action is done; usually follows a verb meaning “send.” Negative
M
PMCESFAWÉDVRZHTEIN
She sent them to seek water.
d. As noun: subject or object of another verb. Negative M
FAGMENAIKA¹mNjGKHST¹KA¹DON
Eating (to eat) is both a necessity and a pleasure.
357
e. As imperative: to express command. Negative M

TkGIGN¢SKEIWLGEIN
Say what you know!
f. Indirect discourse: to express an action depending on a main verb of saying, thinking,
perceiving, etc. Subject is in accusative case; tenses are in relation to the main verb (pres.
inf. for action contemporaneous with main verb; aor. inf. for action prior to main verb;
future for action subsequent to main verb). Negative OÆ
FHPATRAÏNXRMATAPOTESXYEINPOLLjNÅNDOÆKXEINOÆDAÁCA
SXSEIN
He said that his father once had many possessions, but that he did not now have nor would
quickly have many.
6. PARTICIPLE (tenses indicate time):

a. Circumstantial: to indicate cause, condition, manner, or circumstances attending the action
of the main verb. Negative OÆif fact, otherwise M
EÉDVNP¹GAºANPSEKA¹mPÎLETO
While sleeping, he fell to the ground and was killed.
b. Adjectival: modifying a noun or pronoun. Negative OÆ
TÏNMNFEÃGONTAÒRjVoNAKTADDI¢KONTA
I see that man fleeing, but I seeing the king in pursuit (pursuing).
SYNTAX OF THE VERB BY CONSTRUCTIONS

1. CIRCUMSTANTIAL: ptc. indicates the circumstances under which the main action takes
place. Negative OÆif fact, otherwise M
MAXEÎMENOWYjNEN
While fighting, he died.
2. COMMANDS: expressed by impt., inf., opt. when less forceful. Negative M
TkGIGN¢SKEIWLGELGEIWLGOIW
Say what you know!
3. CONTRARY-TO-FACT IN PAST: impf. or aor. ind. in both clauses, oN orKEN in

conclusion (apodosis). Negative M in if- clause (protasis),OÆ in conclusion (apodosis).
E»MTÎDEP¸NENOÆKqNYjNEN
If he had not drunk this, he would not have died.
4. EXPECTATION: indicating what one desires or expects to happen under assumed

circumstances, and equivalent to English “can, will” rather than “could, would, might.”
Optative, usually with oN orKENNegative OÆ
EÉRVMNTINAÖWqNMºNÒDÏNFA¸NOI
Let's find someone who can show us the way.
5. EXPLANATORY: inf. explaining sense of another word. Negative M Also, by PE¸ orÔTI
with ind. Negative OÆ
XALEPÏNNOSAI
It is difficult to perceive (To perceive is difficult.)
ÔTISEFIL¤LUYON
Because I love you, I came.
358
Appendix A
6. FACT: ind. and proper tense to indicate both time and aspect of action. Negative OÆ
RXETAI
He comes. (He is coming.)
RXETO
He was coming.
LYEN
He came.
OÆLJV
I shall not say.
7. FUTURE SUPPOSITIONS
a. Vivid future (future general) construction: to express a probable future supposition; subj.,
often with oN orKENMain verb in fut. ind. or impt. Negative of subj. and impt. is M, of
ind. OÆ
E½KENLY×DJOMA¸MIN
If he comes, I shall receive him.
E»DMXRUSÏNX×PÎREO¼SÃ
If, however, he has no gold, give him (some gold).
b. Future contrary to fact (should-would) construction: to indicate a less likely future
supposition and its assumed consequence; optative in both supposition (protasis) and
conclusion (apodosis), and both clauses may take oN orKENNegative of protasis is M, of
apodosis isOÆ
E»MLYOIWOÆKqNYLOIMIRXESYAIAÆTÎW
If you should not go, I would not wish to go myself.
8. GENERAL (repeated occurrence)

a. Present: subj., may take oN orKENNegative MMain verb is regularly pres. ind., nega-
tive OÆ
ÔTEqNBOÃLHTAIP¹YjLASSANRXETAI
Whenever she wishes, she goes to the sea.
b. Past: opt. Negative M Main verb is ordinarily impf. ind. rarely aor.; negative OÆ
ÔTEBOÃLOITOP¹YjLASSANRXETO
Whenever she wished, she went (would go) to the sea.
9. HORTATORY: subj., first person (sg. or pl.) only. Negative M

MTDEMNVMENTAºROImLLkFÃGVMEN
Let us not remain here, comrades, but let us flee.
10. INDIRECT DISCOURSE: after a main verb of saying, thinking, perceiving, etc. Verb is inf.,
with subject in acc. case; tenses are in relation to the main verb (pres. inf. for action
contemporaneous with main verb; aor. inf. for action prior to main verb; future for action
subsequent to main verb). Negative OÆ
FHSFAWDJASYAITjDED¤RAmPÏoNAKTOW
He said that they had received these gifts from the king.
359
11. INDIRECT QUESTIONS: after primary tense main verb of asking, wondering, etc., the verb
within the subordinate clause (the question itself ) remains unchanged in mood.; however, the
verb within a question depending on a secondary main verb ordinarily shifts from the ind. (or
subj.) of the direct question into the corresponding tense of the opt., though it may stay
unchanged. Negative as in direct question form.
E½RETAIT¸WMAWPMCEN
He asks who sent us.
RETOT¸WMAWPMCEIENPMCEN
He asked who sent us.
12. POTENTIAL: to express an opinion as to what might, could, or would happen if certain
unstated circumstances should prevail; usually takes oN orKENNegative OÆ(This
construction is equal to the apodosis of a should-would construction.)
MBTEKTE¸NEIEGjRKENÇMAWPjNTAW
Don't go, for he might kill you all!
13. PURPOSE (introduced by¾NA¦WÔPVWÓFRANegative¾NAMsometimes M alone)

a. Present purpose: to express intended action, after primary main verb; verb in subj., intro-
duced by¾NA¦WÔPVWÓFRANegative¾NAMsometimes M alone.
PEÃYOMAI¾NAGIGN¢SKVMEN
I inquire in order that we may know.
PEÃYOMAIÓFRAMNPIOW«
I inquire in order that I may not be foolish.
b. Past purpose: to express intended action after secondary main verb; verb in opt., introduced
by¾NA¦WÔPVWÓFRANegative ¾NAMsometimes M alone.
YjNEAÆTÏWÓFRAS¢ZOIMAW
He himself died in order to save us.
YjNEAÆTÏW¾NAMmPOLO¸MEYA
He himself died in order that we might not perish.
14. SHOULD-WOULD: see above, 7b.
15. WISHES, both possible and impossible of fulfillment: opt.; may be introduced by E»E½YEE»:
GjR(“if only,” “would that”), especially if an impossible wish.
POLLjGEMANYjNOIMI
At least, may I learn many things!
E½YEMXALEPÏNE½H
If only it were not difficult!
360
Appendix B
Appendix B (Vocabulary by Lesson)
19. (Lesson 6) D [adv.] clearly, indeed

NÅN [adv.] now, at the present time
mPÎ [prep. + gen.] away from, from
OÉTVW [adv.] thus, in this way, so
GkR [conj.; never first word] for
FVNW [f.] voice, sound
K (J before vowels)
[prep. + gen.] out of
42. (Lesson 10)
N [prep. + dat.] in, on, among
P¸ [prep. + gen.] upon AÁCA [adv.] quickly, suddenly
[prep. +dat.] on, at, beside E» [conj.] if
[prep. + acc.] to, towards; after E»W [prep. + acc.] into, to
[in search or attack] KATj [prep. + gen.] down from
KA¸ [conj.] and; even, also [prep. + acc.] down (along);
SÃN [prep. + dat.] with throughout; according to
ÇPÎ [prep. + gen.] from under; LGV I say, I tell; I call
under the influence of, = by PÎTE ever, (at) some time, once
[personal or impersonal agent] PRÎW [prep. + gen.] from
[prep. + dat. ] under [at rest] [prep. + dat.] on, at
[prep. + acc.] under [motion to] [prep. + acc.] to, towards
F¸LHHW [f. adj.] dear (to), friendly (to)
25. (Lesson 7)
[+ dat.]
mLHYE¸HHW [f.] truth
mRETW [f.] manliness, virtue 47. (Lesson 11)
B¸HHW [f.] force oNYRVPOWOU [m.] man, human being
D¸KHHW [f.] justice; custom YEÎWOÅ [m., f.] god, goddess
E»RNHHW [f.] peace »HTRÎWOÅ [m.] physician
KALW [f. adj.] beautiful, noble LÎGOWOU [m.] word; account
PTRHHW [f.] rock MOÅNOWHON alone, only
CUXW [f.] soul; life NPIOWHON simple; foolish
SOFÎWÎN wise
31. (Lesson 8)
ÇCHLÎWÎN high
mLLj [conj.] but F¸LOWOU [m. adj. as noun] friend
GAºAHW [f.] earth, land
DÎJAHW [f.] opinion; glory 54. (Lesson 12)
DEºAHW [f. adj.] sweet, pleasant B¸OWOU [m.] life
YjLASSAHW [f.] sea DNDREONOU [n.] tree
MN…D [correlative particles marking D¸KAIOWHON just, honorable
contrast] indeed…but; on the E¾NEKA [prep. +. gen.] on account of,
one hand…on the other; D for the sake of
[alone] but, however; and
YjNATOWOU [m.] death
OÆ [OÆK before smooth breathing,
KAKÎWÎN cowardly, bad, evil
OÆX before rough breathing]
not, no ÒMOºOWHON like to, similar to
OÈTE and not, nor [following a PTÎLEMOWOU [m.] war
negative clause] XRUSÎWOÅ [m.] gold
OÈTE…OÈTE neither…nor
62. (Lesson 13)
36. (Lesson 9) D¤RONOU [n.] gift
mGAYW [f. adj.] good, brave RGONOU [n.] work, deed
A»E¸ [adv.] ever, always, forever SYLÎWÎN noble, excellent
mNjGKHHW [f.] necessity, need YUMÎWOÅ [m.] heart, spirit
mRXW [f.] beginning JEºNOWOU [m.] guest, stranger
361
ÑL¸GOW H ON small, few PARXV I supply

SXTLIOW H ON cruel, pitiless; reckless ZV I do
T [postpositive conj.] and
T…T both…and; 107. (Lesson 19)
T…KA¸ both…and
mDIKV I (do) wrong, I injure
71. (Lesson 14) DI¢KV I pursue
SY¸V I eat
GGÃW [adv.; prep. + gen.] near ¼KjNV [pres. syst. only] I come
TEROW H ON (the) other KELEÃV I command [+ acc., dat., inf.]
MTEROW H ON our POIV I make, I produce, I do
KARPÎW OÅ [m.] fruit FOITjV I roam (back and forth)
ÑFYALMÎW OÅ [m.] eye
POLLÎW ÎN much; many 115. (Lesson 20)
PÎNOW OU [m.] toil, trouble
POTAMÎW OÅ [m.] river YLV I wish
Z¢V I live
79. (Lesson 15) D [conj.] and
NOV I think, I perceive
BROTÎW ÎN mortal, human NOM¸ZV I consider, I think, I believe
ÎW ÎN own; his, her PARj [prep. + gen.] from;
YHSAURÎW OÅ [m.] treasure [prep. + dat.] at, beside;
YNHTÎW ÎN mortal [prep. + acc.]to, along
KRATERÎW ÎN strong FEÃGV I flee, I escape
NÎOW OU [m.] mind
NOÅSOW OU [f.] disease 124. (Lesson 21)
PONHRÎW ÎN worthless, base, wicked
XALEPÎW ÎN difficult mYjNATOW H ON immortal, eternal
nMARTjNV I fail of, I miss, I err [often + gen.]
85. (Lesson 16) DIDjSKV I teach
D¸W [adv.] twice, a second time
A»SXRÎW ÎN shameful DOKV I seem, I appear
GIGN¢SKV I know ÓMBROW OU [m.] rain, storm
L¸YOW OU [m.] stone OÆD and not, nor, not even
LÃV I loose, I release PANTOºOW H ON of all sorts
ÓLBOW OU [m.] happiness, prosperity PjREIMI I am present
ÒRjV I see, I look at P¸PTV I fall
H¸DIOW H ON easy POU [indef. adv.] perhaps,
XRÎNOW OU [m.] time suppose, of course, no doubt
POÅ [interr. adv., always with
92. (Lesson 17) circumflex] where?
SPEÃDV I hasten
oGV I lead TRFV I nourish, I feed, I rear
EÉDV I sleep FRONV I consider, I have understanding
YNSKV I die
MANYjNV I learn 133. (Lesson 22)
M not; MHD and not, nor, not even
FRV I bear, I bring mJV I increase; [in mid.]: I increase
FILV I love (myself ), I grow
¦W [adv. and conj.] as, that, how A»TV I ask, I request
DOMAI I am pleased with [+ dat.]
99. (Lesson 18) LAMBjNV I take, get
MjXOMAI I fight (against)
NNPV I say, I tell MAXOMAI
PE¸ [conj.] when; since METj [prep. + dat.] among, with
XV I have, I hold [prep. + acc.] into the midst,
¾NA [adv.] where; [conj.] that, in order after
that, to OÌN therefore, then [not of time!]
KEÃYV I hide PLHS¸OW H ON near; neighbor
ÔPVW [conj.] that, in order that, to TRPV I turn
ÔTI [conj.] that; because
ÓFRA [conj.] that, in order that, to
362
Appendix B
141. (Lesson 23) 175. (Lesson 27)

mNXOMAI I hold up under, I endure oNAJoNAKTOW [m.] king, lord
G¸GNOMAI I am born, I become, I am, mNRmNROWor [m.] dat. pl. oNDRESSIor
I happen mNDRÎW mNDRASIman, male
TAºROWOU [m.] companion, comrade GRVNGRONTOW [m.] old man
LIOWOU [m.] sun KASTOWHON each
MISV I hate or, than; … either…or,
ÑRYÎWÎN straight, true whether…or
P¸NV I drink MTRONOU [n.] measure
« O! [in direct address] PAºWPAIDÎW [m., f.] child, boy, girl
149. (Lesson 24) orPATRÎW
oPEIMI I am away PER [encliticparticle] surely, by far
[adds force]; [+ ptc.] though
AÆTjR but, yet
PÎLIWPÎLIOWor [f.] city
DUNATÎWÎN able, possible [+E»M¸and inf.] PÎLHOW
able (to)
FÃSIWFÃSIOW [f.] nature
MLLV I am about, I am going,
I intend, I am destined (to) FA¸NV I show, I reveal; in mid:
[+ inf.] FA¸NOMAIFANOMAI
aor. pass. w. act. force: FjNHN
ÓFRA (in order) that, to I show myself, I appear
PLV I come to be, I am
or deponent 182. (Lesson 28)
form: PLOMAI
PMPV I send DIj [prep. + gen.] through
[prep. + acc.] through; among,
SÎWÎN your [sg.] on account of
TO¸ surely, you see [postpositive] POWPEOW [n.] word
157. (Lesson 25) KRKROW [n.] heart
MKOWMKEOW [n.] length
mME¸BOMAI I (ex)change; I reply PRlGMA [n.] deed; [in pl.] trouble, deeds
GE [enclitic particle] at least, in fact PRjGMATOW
DE¸DV I fear [+ inf. or M and PÅRPURÎW [n.] fire
purpose construction] S¤MAS¢MATOW [n.] body, corpse
E½ROMAI I ask T where [rel. adv.]; there
»ERÎWÎN holy, sacred TDE [adv.] here
NHÎWOÅ [m.] temple FjOWFjEOW [n.] light
PEÃYOMAI I learn (by inquiry), I inquire XRMAXRMATOW [n.] possession, property;
(from), I hear of [+ acc. of [in pl.] wealth
thing heard, + gen. of person heard]
PR¤TOWHON first 191. (Lesson 29)
S¢ZV I save
A¼RV I seize; [in mid.] I pick for
165. (Lesson 26) myself, I choose
mLHYWW true
mPOLLÃV I kill, I destroy; I lose; [in pf. DONW [f.] pleasure
and mid.] I perish, I am lost
DÃWDEºADÃ sweet, pleasant
MÎWÎN my, mine
KR¸NV I pick out; I separate; I judge
RXOMAI I come, I go
MjKARAROW happy, blessed
ZVW [f.] life
PRÎFRVNON willing, eager, ready
KASIGNHTÎWOÅ [m.] brother
PTERÎEIWESSA winged
OÆRANÎWOÅ [m.] heaven, sky EN
PARRXOMAI I go past, I pass XRHSTÎWÎN worthy, good
P¤W [interr. adv.] how?
PVW [enclitic adv.] somehow, 200. (Lesson 30)
in anyway
mKOÃV I hear
SºTOWOU [m.] bread, food
pPAWpPASA [m./ n. gen. pPANTOW> all, the
pPAN whole
EÂWM¸AN [m./n. gen.NÎW] one
MISUWEIAU half
363
MHDE¸WMHDEM¸A no one, none PN contraction of PE¹oN

MHDN N contraction of E»oN
OÆDE¸WOÆDEM¸A no one, none MjLA [adv.] very, quite, greatly
OÆDN ÔTE {adv. conj.] when, whenever
PATR¸W [ f. ] fatherland, country; [as f. TEÃXV I build; I make ready.
PATR¸DOW adj.] of one’s fathers, ancestral [pf. pass. often = I am]
PlWPlSAPlN [m./ n. gen. PANTÎW>all, every,
the whole 256. (Lesson 36)
PEIRjV I make trial of [+ gen.]; I
attempt, I try [+ gen., or + inf.] BOULEÃV I plan, I consider whether to or
how to
215. (Lesson 31) BOULW [f.] plan, advice, will
GAMV I marry
oNEMOWOU [m.] wind
YMIWYMISTOW [f.] a right, custom; YMIWST¸
oRAA [postpositive] therefore, then it is right, lawful [+ acc. and
[not of time!] inf.]
RDV I do LANYjNV I elude, I escape someone’snotice,
TI [adv.] yet, still; OÆKTI no longer I deceive; [in mid.] I am
NKTAR [n.] nectar [the special drink of forgetful of
NKTAROW the gods] PV [+ neg.] [adv.] never yet, in no
PE¸YV I persuade, I win over; [in mid.] way, not at all
I am persuaded by,
I am obedient to, I obey [+ dat.] 263. (Lesson 37)
222. (Lesson 32) BASILE¸HHW [f.] kingdom

jV I leave (alone); permit, allow (to
oLLOWHO other, another, else do or be something) [+ inf.]
BOÃLOMAI I desire, I prefer PjSXV I suffer, I experience
GLUKÃWEºAÃ sweet, delightful PONOMAI I labor, I toil at, I am busy about
NYEN [adv.] from there; then [of time] XjRIWXjRITOW [f.] acc.sg. XjRIN beauty,
M¸SGV I mix (something, in acc.) with charm, grace
(something, in dat.), I mingle
with 271. (Lesson 38)
.OÅSAHW [f.] Muse, a goddess of poetry mE¸RV I lift up, I take up, I raise
and art
MARMATOW [n.] day
ÉDVRÉDATOW [n.] water
MLONOU [n.] sheep; flock
FRNFRENÎW [f.] mind, spirit
PISTEÃV I believe (in), I have faith in [+ dat.]
229. (Lesson 33) XA¸RV <aor. pass. w. act. force] I rejoice
(in)
DXOMAI I receive, I accept XR it is necessary
EÇR¸SKV I find, I discover
EÆRÃWEºAÃ wide, broad 278. (Lesson 39)
LAÎWOÅ [m.] people [a nation]; followers oKROWHON top(most), outermost, extreme;
ÒDÎWOÅ [f.] way, road; journey [as n. noun] edge, tip
OÁNOWOU [m.] wine oLLHLOIVN [pl. only] one another, each
PÎYEN [adv.]from what source? other
whence? pMA [adv., or prep. + dat.] at the
same time, together, with
238. (Lesson 34) PEITA [adv.]then, thereupon
GÎNUGOÃNATOW [n.] knee KÎSMOWOU [m.] world
E»SRXOMAI I enter MAKRÎWÎN long, large [in space or time]
NTOLW [f.] command, order
ZHTV I seek, I search after 286. (Lesson 40)
PÃLHHW [f.] gate, entrance AÆLW [f.] courtyard, farmyard, fold
U¼ÎWOÅor U¼OW [m.] son LPVor LPOMAI [pres. syst. only] I expect, I
hope, I suppose [+ inf.]
248. (Lesson 35) EÈXOMAI I claim to be, I boast, I exult;
b"PÎLLVN [m.] Apollo [the god] I pray (to) [+ inf.]
b"PÎLLVNOW POIMNPOIMNOW [m.] shepherd
DÃVor DÃO [indecl.] two
364
Appendix B
293. (Lesson 41) 347. (Lesson 48)

mPjNEUYE [adv., and prep. + gen.] away mMF¸ [adv.; prep. + dat. or acc.] on
(from), apart (from), afar both sides, around, concerning
EÁPON [2 aor. syst. only] I said, I told KTE¸NV I kill
PER¸ [adv.] round about; especially MTHRMHTROW [f.] mother
[prep. + gen.] about; excelling orMHTRÎW
[prep. + dat. or acc.] about; for PATRPATROW [m.] father
PÎRON [2 aor. syst. only] I gave, I orPATRÎW
offered
TELV I fulfill, I accomplish, 356. (Lesson 49)
I complete oFRVNON senseless
300. (Lesson 42) DEÃTEROWHON second
;EÃW%IÎW or Zeus [father and chief of the
BA¸NV I go ;HNÎW gods]
DÃV I enter
V [present syst.] I flow 364. (Lesson 50)
STN [3 aor. syst. of ¾STHMII stand] DKATOWHON tenth
I stood [intr.] MGAWMEGjLH great, large, big
TLjV I endure (something) patiently, MGA
I have the heart, I dare (to do NÃJNUKTÎW [f.] night
something) [+ inf.]
O»KV I dwell, I inhabit
307. (Lesson 43)
371. (Lesson 51)
oLGOWoLGEOW [n.] pain, distress, woe
pZOMAI [pres. syst. only] I respect,
LE¸PV I leave I revere; I hesitate to or shrink
ÑÚVor ÑÚOMAI I think, I suppose, I imagine from [+ inf.]
POYV I long (to do something), MLOWMLEOW [n.] member (of the body), limb
I yearn (to do something) [+ XE¸RXEIRÎW [f.] hand
inf.], I miss (a person or thing)
379. (Lesson 52)
314. (Lesson 44)
mNABA¸NV I go up, I ascend
BjLLV I throw, I strike
KRDION [comp. adv.] more beneficial,
EÌ [adv.] well better
MNV I remain, I stay; I await LILA¸OMAI [pres. syst. only] I long (to do
SjRJSARKÎW [f.] flesh something) [+ inf.]
323. (Lesson 45) 387. (Lesson 53)
mGjPHHW [f.] love, charity mLOMAI I avoid, I shrink before
GUNGUNAIKÎW [f.] woman, wife YÃRHHW [f.] door
DÎLOWOU cunning, craftiness; trickery; KRjTOWKRjTEOW [n.] strength, power
bait for catching fish NHÅWNHÎWor [f.] ship
OIKA I seem, I am like to; it is fitting NEÎWdat. pl.NHUS¸
OÌLOWHON whole, entire
331. (Lesson 46)
MSSOWHON middle (of ), midst (of ) 436. (Lesson 61)
[followed by noun in same case] 5RO¸HHW [f.] Troy, Ilion
OÁKOWOU [m.] house, home
PjLIN [adv.] back (again); again 441. (Lesson 62)
SFTEROWHON their(s) oSTUoSTEOW [n.] town
340. (Lesson 47) RÃOMAI I save, I rescue, I protect
NÎSTOWOU [m.] return (home)
KEºMAI [pf. mid. syst.] I have been PÎNTOWOU [m.] sea, the deep
placed, I lie (down)
¨W¬W [adv.]thus, so [always with
KRÃPTV I conceal pitch-mark]
TÎTE [adv.]then
365
448. (Lesson 63) KLA¸V I weep, I wail

¥KÃWEºAÃ swift, nimble
mFAIROMAI I take away
BOÅWBOÎW [m., f.] [dat. pl. alsoBOUS¸] 493. (Lesson 71)
ox, cow
YUGjTHR [f.] daughter pLWnLÎW [f.] sea
YUGATROWor ZOMAI I sit down; [in aor.] I cause to be
YUGATRÎW seated
NÎSTIMOWHON of one’s homecoming JW [adv.] in order, in rows
ÓLLUMI I kill, I destroy, I lose; in pf. and RETMÎNOÅ [n.] oar
mid. I perish, I am lost KAY¸ZV I seat myself; I cause to be seated
c6PER¸VN [m.] Hyperion KLHÚWKLHºDOW [f.] oar-lock; bolt
c6PER¸ONOW POLIÎWÎN grayish, white
TÃPTV I strike, I beat
455. (Lesson 64)
mTjR [adversative particle or conj.] but 500. (Lesson 73)
DV [pres. syst. only] I eat MOW [conj.] when
EÁDARE½DATOW [n.] food RIGNEIAHW the early-born (one)
NNMAR [adv.] for nine days b)¢Wb)ÎOW [f.] Eos [the personified
PIBA¸NV [+ gen.] I land upon, I go upon goddess of the dawn]
-VTOFjGOIVN [m.] Lotus-eaters [a legendary M¸MNV [pres. syst. only] I remain,
people] I await
ÑLOÎWÎN destructive, deadly ODODjKTULOW rosy-fingered
ON
462. (Lesson 65)
507. (Lesson 74)
mFÃSSV I draw; I heap up
DEºPNONOU [n.] dinner, meal oGRIOWHON wild, savage
NYA [adv.] there, then mNjoroM [adv.] up; back
YOÎWÎN swift [prep. + gen.] on (to)
[prep. + dat.] on [at rest]
468. (Lesson 67) [prep. + acc.] on (to), over
D¸DVMI I give 514. (Lesson 75)

¾HMI I send forth, I cast; I place
oGXI [adv., and prep. + gen.] near,
»¢NIOÅSA»ÎN going [pres. act. ptc. of EÁMIgo] close by
ÑPjZV I send with (someone); A½JA»GÎW [m., f.] goat
I present
mFIKNOMAI I come to, I arrive [+ acc.]
PATOMAI I partake of [+ gen.]
ÓÐWÓÐOW [dat. pl. always ÓESSI, acc. pl.
PRO¸HMI I send forth, I hurl always ÓÐW] [m., f.] sheep
T¸YHMI I put, I place, I cause SPOWSPOWor [n.] cave
XY¢NXYONÎW [f.] earth SPOW
X¤ROWOU [m.] place, region
476. (Lesson 68)
LVTÎWOÅ [m.] lotus 520. (Lesson 76)
MDOMAI I contrive, I plan mPÎPROSYEN [adv.] far away, aloof
ÓLEYROWOU [m.] destruction »D [conj.] and [= D]
OÁOWHON alone
482. (Lesson 69)
PEL¢RIOWHON gigantic, monstrous
AÆTOÅ [adv.] in the same place, there
MELIHDWW honey-sweet 526. (Lesson 77)
NOMAI [pres. syst. only]I return mRNEIÎWOÅ [m.] ram [full-grown]
YUREÎWOÅ [m.] door-stone
487. (Lesson 70)
¾STHMI I put; I halt [trans.]
GLAFURÎWÎN hollow ¾STAMAI I stand, I halt [intr.]
DV I tie, I fasten ÓROWÓREOW [n.] mountain
R¸HROWON [pl. 3 decl. R¸HREW, etc.] faith
ful, loyal 533. (Lesson 79)
RÃV I drag, I draw mGLAÎWÎN splendid
KLOMAI I order oMAJAHW [f.] wagon
366
Appendix B
mSKÎWOÅ [m.] bag ÓBRIMOWHN heavy, mighty

MLAWMLAINA [m. and n. gen. MLANOW] dark, ÉLHHW wood; forest
MLAN black
ÇCÎSE [adv.] on high, upwards 577. (Lesson 86)
mMLGV [pres. syst.] I milk
540. (Lesson 80)
oRSENoRSENOW [n.] male
oLOXOWOU [f.] wife BAYÃWEºAÃ deep
mMF¸POLOWOU [f.] handmaid, female attendant LAÃNV I drive
DM¢WDMVÎW [m.] man-servant PIT¸YHMI I put on; I put in position
PTj [indecl.] seven ÔSSOWHON as many as, as great as
EÆERGWW well made; fine TÎSSOWHON so many, so great
KRHTRKRHTROW [m.] mixing-bowl
584. (Lesson 87)
547. (Lesson 81)
AÌTE again; on the other hand
mGNVR [adv.]manly, courageous E»SORjV I see, I look at
mGNOROW MBRUONOU [n.] a young one [of animals]
mPXV I hold back from, I refrain from KATAT¸YHMI I put down
AÆT¸KA [adv.] at once LEUKÎWÎN bright, white
MP¸PLHMI Ipour; I heap up I fill (with) MOºRAHW [f.] due measure; portion; fate
PRXOMAI I come to, I come upon [+ dat.,
acc.] 591. (Lesson 88)
YESPSIOWHON heavenly, divine
mLjOMAI I wander [pf. has pres. force]
XV I pour; I heap up [+ acc., gen.]
TOR [n., indecl.] heart
554. (Lesson 82) KLEUYOWOU [f., but frequently n. in pl.] way,
path, course
oNTRONOU [n.] cave OÂOWHON such as, what sort (of )
oRNEWmRN¤N [no nom. sg.; acc.sg. oRNA> PLV I sail (over)
[m., f.] lamb(s)
ÇGRÎWÎN fluid, watery
NDON [adv.] within, inside
ÇPRorÇPE¸R [prep. + gen. or acc.] over
KARPjLIMOWON swift, quick
FYÎGGOWOU [m.] voice
P¸VNP¸ONOW fat, rich
SHKÎWOÅ [m.] pen, fold 598. (Lesson 89)
TURÎWOÅ [m.] cheese
b"GAMMNVN [m.] Agamemnon [king of
561. (Lesson 83) b"GAMMNONOW Mycenae and commander in
chief of Greeks at Troy]
A½NUMAI [pres. syst. only]I seize upon; b"XAIO¸¤N Achaeans, a division of the
I select Greeks; also, Greeks in general
nLMURÎWÎN salty, briny LAºTMA [n.] gulf
truly, indeed; also [an LA¸TMATOW
untranslatable interr. particle O½KADE [adv.] homeward
introducing a question] PROSEºPON I address, I speak to [+ acc.]
L¸SSOMAI I entreat, I beg PTÎLIW [f.] city
JE¸NIONOU [n.] gift of hospitality, a present PTOLIOW
given by a host to a guest
POLÃW— POLÃ much, many [alternative m. and 606. (Lesson 91)
n. forms of POLLÎWÎN]
A»DOMAI I venerate, I revere, I respect
569. (Lesson 85) ¼KTAI¼KETjVN [m.] suppliants
¼KNOMAI I approach, I come [+ acc.]
mPOSEÃV [non-thematic 2 aor.] I rush
away, I rush back (from) KIXjNV I come (by chance), I reach
NTOSYEN [adv.] within, inside NHLEWW pitiless, ruthless
[prep. + gen] inside of ÔPP× [adv.] where, in what direction
MENOWHON sitting, seated
611. (Lesson 92)
EÂOW[alsoOWor [conj.] while, until
VW] A»G¸OXOWHON aegis-bearing [epithet of Zeus]
KA¸V I kindle, I burn sSSON [adv.] near, close [often + gen.
NMV I assign, I drive my flock; or dat.]
[in mid.] I possess, I feed on DÃNAMAI I can, I am able [+ inf.]
367
,ÃKLVC [m.] Cyclops 668. (Lesson 101)

,ÃKLVPOW
AÌ [adv.] again; but now
SXEDÎN [adv.] close by, near
LEV I pity, I have mercy on
618. (Lesson 93) PROSAUDjV I address
A»PÃWEºAÃ steep; utter 676. (Lesson 103)
MjRPTV I seize
A»N¤W [adv.] awfully, greatly
MHRÎWOÅ [m.] thigh
oROURAHW [f.] soil, earth
PEºRARPE¸RATOW [n.] end, boundary
AÌTIW [adv.] back, again
1OSEIDjVN [m.] Poseidon [brother of Zeus
1OSEIDjVNOW and god of the sea] TEÎWÎN your [sg.]
625. (Lesson 94) 682. (Lesson 104)

mNDRÎMEOWHON human [used only of flesh] MEIL¸XIOWHON pleasing, winning
DÎRPONOU [n.] supper 0ÌTIW0ÈTIOW Nobody
KRAKRE¤N [n. pl.] nom. sg. KRAWflesh, meat PAXÃWEºAÃ thick, stout
J¸FOWJ¸FEOW [n.] sword PRÎSYEN [adv.] first, before, in front (of )
ÒPL¸ZV I prepare
688. (Lesson 105)
ÑSTONOU [n.] bone
pPTV I fasten; [in mid.] I lay hold of;
632. (Lesson 95) I catch fire
DA¸MVN [m., f.] a divinity, a superhuman
DºOWAON bright, glorious [f. usually keeps DA¸MONOW power
alpha through sg.]
KSEÃV [non-thematic 2 aor.] I rush out
PIMA¸OMAI I seek out; I feel, I touch of, I pour out of [intr.]
MEGALTVR [adj.] great-hearted, great, thus he spoke [3 sg. impf. of M¸ ]
MEGALTOROW daring TjXA [adv.] quickly, soon
ÔYI [adv.] where
ÑJÃWEºAÃ sharp, keen 695. (Lesson 106)
STENjXV [pres. syst. only] I groan, I lament mTMW [f.] breath; vapor; blast
640. (Lesson 97) BLFARONOU [n.] eyelid
DÎRUDOÃRATOW [n.] beam, plank; spear
b"YNHHW [f.] Athene [a goddess, special orDOURÎW
patroness of Odysseus] ÑFRÃWÑFRÃOW [f.] eyebrow
oC [adv.] back, back again
KLUTÎWÎN famous; excellent 702. (Lesson 107)
T¸NVorT¸V I pay; [in mid.] I take vengeance »jXV [pres. syst. only] I shout; I hiss;
upon, I punish I resound
O»M¢ZV I cry out in pain
647. (Lesson 98)
¬DE [adv.] thus, so
LAÚNEOWHON (of ) olive-wood
¼STÎWOÅ [m.] mast; loom [for weaving] 708. (Lesson 109)
PAR¸STAMAI I stand by oLLOYEN [adv.] from elsewhere
XLVRÎWÎN greenish yellow, green BOjV I shout, I roar
1OLÃFHMOWOU [m.] Polyphemus [a Cyclops,
654. (Lesson 99)
son of Poseidon]
mN¢GV [pf. has pres. sense; plpf. has ¸PTV I hurl
impf. sense] I command, I urge
MOXLÎWOÅ [m.] bar, stake 714. (Lesson 110)
ÉPNOWOU [m.] sleep mMÃMVN [adj.] blameless, excellent
mMÃMONOW
661. (Lesson 100)
BIjZV I constrain, I use violence
AÂMAA¾MATOW [n.] blood against
ÓNOMAor [n.] name STE¸XV I go, I proceed
OÈNOMAÑNÎMATOW
TR¸W [adv.] thrice, three times
368
Appendix B
720. (Lesson 111) 748. (Lesson 116)

GGÃYEN [adv.] from close at hand, near DAMjZV I tame, I overpower
PETjNNUMI I spread out LUGRÎWÎN miserable, wretched
ÇFA¸NV I weave; I devise STAYMÎWOÅ [m.] doorpost; farmyard
727. (Lesson 112) 755. (Lesson 117)

mKVNOUSA [adj., m. and f.] in silence, MNOWMNEOW [n.] might; courage; wrath
silent(ly) T¯ [adv., often used with
ÉSTATOWHON last conjunctive force] therefore;
in that case
734. (Lesson 113)
761. (Lesson 118)
GASTR [f.] belly
GASTROWor GOjV I weep (for) [+ acc.], I mourn
GASTRÎW L¸HN [adv.] exceedingly; KA¹L¸HN
N¤TONOU [n.] back [adv.] truly
F¢WFVTÎW [m.] man
767. (Lesson 119)
742. (Lesson 115) GEGVNV [pf. with pres. meaning] I shout,
YLUWEIAU [adj.] female I make myself heard
PUKINÎWÎN thick; close; shrewd
TE¸RV [pres. syst. only] I wear out; SYV [pres. syst. only] I eat, I devour
I distress
369
Appendix C
Rules for Writing Pitch-Marks (Accents)
1. The acute (_) may stand on the last, the second-last, or the third-last syllable,
but not on the third-last syllable if the last syllable is long.
2. The circumflex ( a) never stands on the third-last syllable, or on any short
syllable; it may not stand on the second-last syllable if the last syllable is long.
3. The grave ( `) may stand only on the last syllable.
4. Placement. The accent marks are placed over the vowel of the accented syllable
(e.g., KALÏND¤RON). The accent mark is written over the second vowel of a
diphthong (e.g., NOÅSOW0ÌTIWAccents are placed in front of an initial
vowel when upper case (e.g.,e0MHROW. Breathing marks are written before the
acute and grave (e.g., O¾), but under the circumflex (e.g., EÂW).
5. Grave accent. The acute on a final syllable becomes a grave if followed by
another word of the same sentence without intervening punctuation (e.g., PRÏW
POTAMÏNMGANnot PRÎWPOTAMÎNMGAN).
6. Enclitics and Proclitics. Rule 5 does not apply (1) if the word is interrogative
(T¸WPOTAMÎW) or (2) if the word is followed by an enclitic: the personal
pronouns MEÅMO¸MSEÅSO¸SOOÂSF¸SIthe indefinite pronoun
TIWTIin all its cases, the indefinite adverbs POÃPPOY¸POYNPOT
P¢P¢Wthe particles GETTO¸PRKNand all forms of the present
indicative of E»M¸(I am) andFHM¸(I say) except the monosyllabic second person
singular (EÁWFW).
Enclitics tend to throw their pitch marks back onto the preceding word (e.g.,
oNYRVPÎWTIW) but not if it is a dissyllabic enclitic following a word with the
acute on the next-to-last syllable (e.g., LÎGVNTIN¤N).
Ten monosyllabic words, called proclitics, have no accent. These include: the
forms of the article that begin with a vowel (ÒO¼A¼); the prepositions E»W
WKJN;the conjunction E»(if ), ¦W(as, that); the negative adverb OÆ
OÆKOÆXHowever, there are conditions under which proclitics acquire an
accent mark: when they precede an enclitic (e.g.,NSFISI among them); when
JNE»Ware placed after their objects (e.g., KAK¤NJ out of evils); when ¦W
is placed after its noun (e.g.,mNR¨W as a man).
7. Final OIand AIare regarded as short (oNYRVPOI.OÅSAI), except in the
optative of verbs (e.g., KEÃYOInot KEÅYOI).
8. The third-last syllable can have the acute only.
9. The second-last syllable, if marked and long, has the circumflex if the last
syllable is short (e.g., NSOW).
10. If the final syllable is long, the acute cannot stand on the third-last syllable, nor
the circumflex on the second-last. Therefore the acute that is on the third-last
371
syllable in some forms of a word (e.g., oNYRVPOWA»DOMAI) shifts to the

second-last when the final syllable becomes long (mNYR¢POUA»DEÎMHN); a
circumflex likewise will change to an acute if the last syllable of its word
becomes long (D¤ROND¢ROU).
11. If the final syllable is short, the pitch-mark on the final syllable itself is always an
acute (e.g., SOFÎW); on the second-last, it is acute if that syllable is short, but a
circumflex if the second-last syllable is long (e.g., NÎMOWD¤RON); on the
third-last syllable it is always an acute (e.g., RXETO).
12. In most verb forms, the pitch-mark is recessive: it is placed as many syllables
from the end of the word as the above rules allow. Nouns and adjectives (as well
as a few verb forms) have persistent accents: their accents remain where they are
placed in the nominative case, unless forced to move or change nature by the
rules above.
13. There are names for the last three syllables of a Greek word:
the last syllable: ultima
the next to the last syllable: penult
the one before the next to the last syllable: antepenult
14. There are specific names for words of each accent pattern:
acute on the ultima: oxytone
acute on the penult: paroxytone
acute on the antepenult: proparoxytone
circumflex on the ultima: perispomenon
circumflex on the penult: properispomenon
372
Appendix D
REVIEW EXERCISES
LESSON 10
I. Change the following imperfect tense forms of the verb E»M
M¸ to the present tense,
keeping the same person and number.
E.g., A Answer: E»M¸
1. HN
2. MEN
3. SYA
4. N
5. SAN
6. TE
7. SAN
8. EN
9. A
II. The following sentences all have singular subjects and verbs. Change each subject to
the plural, and then also change the verb and any modifying adjective to agree with
the subject. Do not change the verb tense.
E.g., ENKALYjLASSA Answer: SANKALA¹YjLASSAI
1. FVNSTIKAL
2. PTRHP¹GA¸HWN
3. KALA
4. F¸LHSS¸
5. D¸KHST¸N
ANSWERS
I. 1. ST¸N 2. E»MN 3. SS¸E»W 4. ST¸N 5. E»S¸N
6. ST 7. E»S¸N 8. ST¸N 9. E»M¸
II. 1. FVNA¸E»SIKALA¸ 2. PTRAIP¹GA¸HWSAN 3. KALA¹MEN
4. F¸LAIST 5. D¸KAIE»S¸N
373
LESSON 11
I. Say whether each of the following dictionary entries is for an adjective or noun.
If it is for a noun, identify which declension.
1. KARPÎWOU
2. KRATERÎWÎN
3. MOºRAHW
4. MOÅNOWHON
5. PÃLHHW
II. Decline following noun-adjective pairs.
1. »HTRÏWSOFÎW
2. oNYRVPOWNPIOW
3. mNjGKHÇCHL
4. DÎJAMOÃNH
ANSWERS
I. 1. noun, 2nd decl. 2. adjective 3. noun, 1st decl. 4. adjective
5. noun, 1st decl.
II.
1. »HTRÏWSOFÎW »HTRO¹SOFO¸
»HTROÅSOFOÅ »HTR¤NSOF¤N
»HTR¯SOF¯ »HTROºSISOFOºSI
»HTRÏNSOFÎN »HTROÄWSOFOÃW
2. oNYRVPOWNPIOW oNYRVPOINPIOI
mNYR¢POUNHP¸OU mNYR¢PVNNHP¸VN
mNYR¢P¡NHP¸¡ mNYR¢POISINHP¸OISI
oNYRVPONNPION mNYR¢POUWNHP¸OUW
3. mNjGKHÇCHL mNjGKAIÇCHLA¸
mNjGKHWÇCHLW mNAGKjVNÇCHLjVN
mNjGK×ÇCHL mNjGK×SIÇCL×SI
mNjGKHNÇCHLN mNjGKAWÇCHLjW
4. DÎJAMOÃNH DÎJAIMOÅNAI
DÎJHWMOÃNHW DOJjVNMOUNjVN
DÎJ×MOÃN× DÎJ×SIMOÃN×SI
DÎJANMOÃNHN DÎJAWMOÃNAW
374
Appendix D
LESSON 12
I. Modify each of the following nouns with the correct form of the adjective KALÎW
ÎNRemember that, to agree, an adjective must be put into the same case, gender
and number as its noun, but that the endings will not necessarily look alike.
1. B¸OU 6. YjLASSAN
2. RGA 7. PÎLEMOI
3. E»RN× 8. DENDROIW
4. YEOÃW 9. GAºA
5. YANjTVN 10. LÎG¡
II. Translate the above noun-adjective phrases.
ANSWERS
I. 1. KALOÅ 2. KALj 3. KAL 4. KALOÃW 5. KAL¤N 6. KALN
7. KALO¸ 8. KALOºW 9. KAL 10. KAL¯
II. 1. of a noble life 2. noble deeds (as subject or object) 3. by/for/to a noble
peace 4. noble gods (as object) 5. of noble deaths 6. beautiful sea (as object) 7.
noble wars 8. by/to/for beautiful trees 9. beautiful earth 10. by/to/for a noble
word
LESSON 13
I. Indicate whether each of the following adjective and noun phrases show agreement.
When they do not, supply the correct form of the adjective:
1. D¤RAKAL
2. D¤RONKALÎN
3. D¢ROIWKALOºSI
4. D¢RVNKAL¯
5. GAºAKALj
6. GA¸×KAL
7. GAºANKALN
8. JEºNONKALÎN
9. JE¸NOUWKALjW
10. JE¸NOUKALOÅ
11. B¸AIKAL
ANSWERS
1. No: D¤RAKALj 2. Yes 3. Yes 4. No: D¢RVNKAL¤N 5. No:GAºA
KAL6. Yes 7. Yes 8. Yes 9. No: JE¸NOUWKALOÃW 10. Yes 11. No: B¸AI
KALA¸
375
CHAPTER 14
I. Translate the following phrases into Greek:
1. those fruits (nom.)
2. of that fruit
3. those fruits (acc.)
4. by means of the same fruit
5. they themselves (nom. f.)
6. they themselves (acc. m.)
7. of those (things) (n.)
8. of those (men)
9. to the woman herself
10. for the man himself
II. Translate each of the following pronouns according to the case and number,
indicating gender:
1. KE¸NAW
2. KEºNA
3. KE¸N¡
4. KEºNON
5. KEºNO
6. AÆTjVN
7. AÆTO¸
8. AÆTSI
9. AÆTj
ANSWERS
I. 1. KEºNOIKARPO¸ 2. KE¸NOUKARPOÅ 3. KE¸NOUWKARPOÃW
4. AÆT¯KARP¯ 5. AÆTA¸ 6. AÆTOÃW 7. KE¸NVN 8. KE¸NVN
9. AÆT 10. AÆT¯
II. 1. those (acc. f.) 2. those (nom./acc. n.) 3. by/for/to that (m./n.)
4. that (acc. m.) 5. that (nom./acc. n.) 6. of them themselves (f.)
7. they themselves (nom. m.) 8. by/for/to them themselves (f.)
9. they themselves (nom./ acc. n.)
376
Appendix D
CHAPTER 15
I. Give the Greek for each of the following phrases, using the correct forms of the weak
demonstrativeÒTÎand of the demonstrative ÔDEDETÎDE
1. by means of this treasure
2. those treasures (nom.)
3. the treasures (acc.)
4. of that treasure
5. of these treasures
6. for that disease (note the gender of ‘disease’)
7. these diseases (nom.)
8. this disease (acc.)
9. of those diseases
10. the diseases (nom.)
II. Identify each of the demonstratives in the sentences in Section 80 as a pronoun or
adjective.
ANSWERS
I. 1. YHSAUR¯T¯DE 2.O¼YHSAURO¸ 3.TOÄWYHSAUROÃW
4.TOÅYHSAUROÅ 5.T¤NDEYHSAUR¤N 6.TNOÃS¡ 7.A¾DENOÅSOI
8.TNDENOÅSON 9.TjVNNOÃSVN 10.A¼NOÅSOI
II. 1. TOºSI pronoun 2. KEºNOI pronoun; T¤N pronoun 3. TOºO pronoun
4. T¤NDE adjective 5. ÔDE adjective 6. TW adjective 7. A¾DE pronoun;
TjVN pronoun 8. no demonstrative in this sentence 9. TW pronoun
10. DE pronoun
377
CHAPTER 16
I. Based on the information in Section 83, classify each of the following as a voice,
mood, or tense.
1. indicative
2. aorist
3. passive
4. middle
5. optative
6. imperfect
7. imperative
8. subjunctive
9. pluperfect
10. active
11. present
II. Based on the chart in Section 84, indicate the aspect (completed, progressive, or
simple) of each of the following English verb phrases:
1. I had eaten
2. We shall be eating
3. They will have eaten
4. I ate
5. We shall eat
6. They were eating
7. He has eaten
8. She is eating
9. They eat
ANSWERS
I. 1. mood 2. tense 3. voice 4. voice 5. mood 6. tense 7. mood
8. mood 9. tense 10. voice 11. tense
II. 1. completed 2. progressive 3. completed 4. simple 5. simple
6. progressive 7. completed 8. progressive 9. simple
378
Appendix D
LESSON 17
I. In each of the following sentences, identify the subject (S) and, where there is one,
direct object (O) of the verb. Translate the sentences.
1. mNYR¢POUWNÅNoGV 9. ÔDEKEºNONLÃEN
2. O¹F¸LOIL¸YOUWFROUSIN 10. TOÃSDEKEºNOWLÃEN
3. MjNYANONmLHYE¸HN 11. F¸LOWmGAYÎWSTIN
4. POLLkMjNYANEN 12. NOÃSOWSXETL¸H
5. EÉDEIW 13. KEºNONPOTAMÏNÒRjEIW
6. YNSKEI 14. A»SXRkOÆGIGN¢SKOMEN
7. GIGN¢SKVOL¸GA 15. O¼F¸LOID¤RAKALkFRON
mGAYA¹mGAYOÄWFILETE
II. Identify each of the following as either statements of fact or contrary-to-fact.
Translate.
1. FREL¸YOUWPOLLOÃW
2. E»MFREL¸YOUWPOLLOÃWOÆKqNYNSKEN
3. E»FRED¤RAOÆKqNYNSKEN
4. FREDL¸YOUW
5. OÆFRED¤RA
6. YNSKEN
7. B¸OWSXTLIOW
8. E»MB¸OWSXTLIOWENOÆKqNYNSKEN
ANSWERS
I. 1. S I O mNYR¢POUW(I am now leading men.) 2. S O¹F¸LOI O L¸YOUW
(His/her friends carry/ are carrying stones.) 3. S I/they O mLHYE¸HN(I/they were
learning truth.) 4. S he/she/it O POLLk (He/she/it was/were learning many
things.) 5. S You (sg.) O none (intransitive verb) (You (sg.) are sleeping.)
6. S he/she/it O none (intransitive verb) (He/she/it is dying.) 7. S I O OL¸GA
(I know few things.) 8. S you (pl.) O mGAYOÄW(You brave women love brave
men.) 9. S ÔDE O KEºNON(This man was releasing that man.) 10. S KEºNOW O
TOÃSDE(That man was releasing these men.) 11. S F¸LOWhe O none
(intransitive or linking verb) (A/the friend is good. He is a good friend.)
12. S NOÃSOW O none (intransitive or linking verb) (A/the disease is cruel.)
13. S you O KEºNONPOTAMÏN(Do you see that yonder river?) 14. S we O
A»SXRk(We do not know shameful things.) 15. S O¼F¸LOI O D¤RAThose/the
friends were bringing fine gifts.)
II. 1. Fact (He was carrying many stones.) 2. Contrary-to-fact (If he were not
carrying many stones, he would not be dying.) 3. Contrary-to-fact (If he were
carrying gifts, he would not be dying.) 4. Fact (He was in fact carrying stones.)
5. Fact (He was not carrying gifts.) 6. Fact (He was dying.) 7. Fact (Life is cruel.)
8. Contrary-to-fact (If life were not cruel, he would not be dying.)
379
LESSON 18
I. Complete the Greek versions of the English sentences below. You will need to put the
nouns and adjectives in parentheses into the correct cases.
1. They have many treasures.
POLLO¹YHSAURO¹XOUSIN
2. Were you hiding the treasure?
KEÃYEWYHSAURÎW
3. We are doing this in order that we may supply good things to our friends.
TÎDEZOMEN¾NAPARXVMENmGAYkMETROIF¸LOI
4. Noble men always love noble things.
SYLO¹SYLkA»E¹FILOUSIN
5. Let me not lead a life of toil.
B¸OWPÎNOUMoGV
6. Let us learn the truth.
MANYjNVMENmLHYE¸H
7. That person is our guest.
KEºNOWoNYRVPÎWSTINJEºNOWMTEROW
8. She is speaking the truth in order that you may not love that worthless man.
mLHYE¸HNNPEIÓFRAÒPONHRÏWMFIL×W
9. They know many people.
GIGN¢SKOUSIPOLLO¸oNYRVPOI
10. He was always sleeping, but he loved his friends.
A»E¹MNEÉDENO¹F¸LOIDF¸LEEN
II. Change the verbs (in parentheses) in the following purpose clauses into the
subjunctive mood, retaining the same person and number. Translate each sentence.
1. A»SXRkKEÃYEI¾NAÒRjEIWMOÅNASYLj
2. A»SXRkKEÃYEIÓFRAXEIYHSAURÎN
3. A»SXRkKEÃYEIÔPVWMGIGN¢SKETEA»SXRj
4. A»SXRkKEÃYEI¾NAME»SIA»SXRO¸
5. A»SXRkKEÃYEI¨WMANYjNOMEN
ANSWERS
I. 1. POLLOÄWYHSAUROÄW 2.YHSAURÎN 3.TÎDEF¸LOISINMETROISIN
4.SYLj 5.B¸ON 6.mLHYE¸HN 7.JEºNOWMTEROW 8.mLHYE¸HNTÏN
PONHRÏN 9.POLLOÄWmNYR¢POUW 10.OÄWF¸LOUW
II. 1. ÒRj×W He is hiding shameful things in order that you may see only noble
things. 2. X× He is hiding shameful things in order that he may have treasure.
3. GIGN¢SKHTE He is hiding shameful things in order that you may not know
shameful things. 4. «SI He is hiding shameful things in order that they may not be
shameful (men). 5. MANYjNVMEN He is hiding shameful things in order that we
may learn.
380
Appendix D
LESSON 19
I. Hortatory and wish. For each of the following indicative statements, give a subjunctive
(hortatory) or optative (wish) version, as indicated. Translate both versions.
1. oGETE wish: 7. OÆKA»E¹FOITjOUSIN wish:
2. OÆKmDIKOMEN hortatory: 8. NÅNSY¸OMEN hortatory:
3. TOÃSDEDI¢KV hortatory: 9. NÅNEÉDEI wish:
4. OÆPOIEIWKAKj wish: 10. NÅNYNSKV wish:
5. B¸ONKAKÏNOÆKoGV hortatory: 11. KALA¸E»MEN hortatory:
6. B¸ONKAKÏNOÆKoGV wish:
II. Change each of the following from a primary sequence purpose clause to a secondary
sequence purpose clause, changing the mood of the purpose clause verb accordingly.
Translate the new sentences.
1. In order that they may not do worthless things, they are learning many things.
¾NAMZVSIPONHRjPOLLkMANYjNOUSIN
2. We injure their eyes, that they may not see.
mDIKOMENT¤NÑFYALMOÃWÔPVWMÒRjVSIN
3. I supply fruit, in order that you all may eat.
PARXVKARPÎN¾NASY¸HTE
4. He pursues happiness in order to lead a just life.
ÓLBONDI¢KEIÓFRAoG×B¸OND¸KAION
5. You never do cruel deeds, in order that you may have prosperity.
SXTLIARGAOÈPOTEPOIEIW¾NAX×WÓLBON
ANSWERS
I. 1. You all lead. oGOITEMay you all lead! 2. We are not doing wrong. M
mDIKVMENLet us not do wrong! 3. I am pursuing these men. TOÃSDEDI¢KV
Let me pursue these men! 4. You do not do bad things. MPOIOIWKAKjMay you
not do bad things! 5. I do not lead an evil life. B¸ONKAKÏNMoGVLet me not
live an evil life! 6. I do not lead an evil life. B¸ONKAKÏNMoGOIMIMay I not lead
an evil life! 7. They do not wander forever. MA»E¹FOITjOIENMay they not
wander forever! 8. Now we are eating. NÅNSY¸VMENNow let us eat! 9. Now he
is sleeping. NÅNEÉDOINow may he sleep! 10. Now I am dying. NÅNYNSKOIMI
Now may I die! 11. We are beautiful. KALA¸«MENLet us be beautiful!
II. 1. ¾NAMZOIENPONHRjPOLLkMjNYANON In order that they might not
do worthless things, they were learning many things. 2. mDIKOMENT¤N
ÑFYALMOÃWÔPVWMÒRjOIEN We were injuring their eyes, that they might not
see. 3. PjREXONKARPÎN¾NASY¸OITE I was supplying fruit, in order that you
all might eat. 4. ÓLBOND¸VKEÓFRAoGOIB¸OND¸KAION He was pursuing
happiness in order to lead a just life. 5. SXTLIARGAOÈPOTEPO¸EEW¾NA
XOIWÓLBON You never did cruel deeds, in order that you might have prosperity.
381
LESSON 20
I. Change the following direct statements to indirect statements, using the introducing
verb given in parentheses. Translate.
1. NÎMIZON O¼NPIOIPONHRkD¸VKON
2. NOM¸ZOMEN KEºNÎWSTINmGAYÎW
3. LGEI ÒF¸LOWYLEIPÎNONFEÃGEIN
4. LGV DNDREjSTIÇCHLj
5. LGE F¸LEÏWF¸LOWD¸KHN
6. NOM¸ZEIW O¼D¸KAIOIOÈPOTEFOITjOUSIN
7. LGEI OÆYNSKEIÔDEoNYRVPOWmLLkEÉDEI
8. LGOUSI POTAMÏWL¸YOUWE»WYjLASSANFREI
9. LGOUSI O¼¼KjNOUSIN
10. NOM¸ZETE SOFO¹G¸GVNSKONPOLLj
II. Convert the following indicative statements to commands. Translate both versions.
1. KE¸NHNOÆFILEIW 4. FVNNOÈPOTEPOIETE
2. oGEIWB¸OND¸KAION 5. ¼KjNEIW
3. OÆFRETEYHSAUROÃW
III. Identify the way in which each infinitive is used, i.e., as a noun, as the verb in indirect
statement, or as a complement to a verb of wishing. Translate.
1. FEÃGEINPONHRÎNSTIN 4. XALEPÏNFILEMEN
2. OÆKYLEIFEÃGEIN 5. A»E¹SYIMENAIYLV
3. LGEWTOÄWEÁNAIPONHROÃW
ANSWERS
I. (some but not all alternative forms of the present infinitive are given in parentheses)
1. NÎMIZONTOÄWNHP¸OUWPONHRkDI¢KEINDI¢KEMENDIVKMENAII/They
used to believe those foolish men were pursuing base things. 2. NOM¸ZOMENKEºNON
EÁNAIMMENMMENAImGAYÎNWe consider(ed) that man to be brave. (We
thought that man was brave.) 3. LGEITÏNF¸LONYLEINYLEMENYELMENAI
PÎNONFEÃGEINHe says that friend wishes to flee from toil. 4. LGVDNDREA
EÁNAIMMENMMENAIÇCHLjI say the trees are tall. 5. LGEFILEINF¸LEMEN
FILMENAIÏNF¸LOND¸KHNHe kept on saying that his friend loved justice.
6. NOM¸ZEIWTOÄWDIKA¸OUWOÈPOTEFOITjEINFOITjEMENFOITAMENAI
You believe just people never wander. 7. LGEIOÆYNSKEINYNSKEMEN
YNHSKMENAITÎNDEoNYRVPONmLLkEÉDEINEÉDEMENEÇDMENAIHe says this
man is not dying but is sleeping. 8. LGOUSIPOTAMÏNL¸YOUWE»WYjLASSAN
FREINFREMENFERMENAIThey say the river carries stones to the sea.
9. LGOUSITOÄW¼KjNEIN¼KjNEMEN¼KANMENAIThey saythose men are
coming. 10.NOM¸ZETESOFOÄWGIG¢NSKEINGIGN¢SKEMENGIGNVSKMENAI
POLLjYou all think the wise knew many things.
382
Appendix D
II. 1. You do not love that woman. KE¸NHNMF¸LEEDo not love that woman!
2. You lead a just life. oGEB¸OND¸KAIONLead a just life! 3. You all are not
carrying treasures. MFRETEYHSAUROÃWDo not carry treasures! 4. You all never
make a sound. FVNNMPOTEPOIETENever make a sound! 5. You are
coming. ¾KANECome!
III. 1. Noun. To flee is base. 2. Complementary. He/She does not wish to flee.
3. Indirect statement. You were saying that those (men) were base. 4. Noun. To
love is difficult. 5. Complementary. I always wish to eat.
LESSON 22
I. Translate each of the following verb forms. (All are in the indicative mood.)
1. mJEAI 10. LAMBjNEO 19. FRONETO
2. mJETO 11. LAMBjNEIW 20. FRONEI
3. mJOMEN 12. TRPONTO 21. FRÎNEE
4. A»TEIW 13. TRPONTAI 22. FRONEO
5. A»TEÎMHN 14. TRPOUSI 23. FRONEAI
6. A»TEÎMEYA 15. TRFV 24. DONTO
7. LAMBjNETAI 16. TRFOMAI 25. DETO
8. LjMBANON 17. TRFESYE
9. LAMBjNOUSI 18. TRFETE
ANSWERS
I. 1. you (sg.) grow/are growing 2. he/she/it was growing 3. we increase/are
increasing (something), we were increasing (something) 4. you (sg.) ask/ are asking
5. I was asking for myself (mid.), I was being asked (pass.) 6. we ask/ are asking for
ourselves, we were asking for ourselves (mid.), we are/ were being asked (pass.)
7. he/she/it takes/ is taking for himself/herself/itself (mid.), he/she/it is (being) taken
(pass.) 8. I/they were taking 9. they take/are taking 10. you (sg.) were taking for
yourself (mid.), you were being taken (pass.) 11. you (sg.) take/are taking 12. they
were turning themselves (mid.), they were being turned (pass.) 13. they are turning
themselves (mid.), they are (being) turned (pass.) 14. they turn /are turning
(something) 15. I nourish/ am nourishing 16. I nourish / am nourishing myself
(mid.), I am nourished (pass.) 17. you (pl.) nourish/ are/ were nourishing yourselves
(mid.), you are/ were being nourished (pass.) 18. you (pl.) nourish/ are
nourishing 19. He/she/it was considering for himself/herself/itself (mid.), he/she/it
was being considered 20. he/she/it considers/ is considering 21. he/she/it was
considering 22. you (sg.) were considering for yourself (mid.), you were being
considered (pass.) 23. you (sg.) consider/ are considering for yourself (mid.), you are
considered (pass.) 24. they were pleased with 25. he/she/it was pleased with
383
LESSON 23
I. Where an indicative middle-passive verb is given in brackets in the following Greek
clauses of purpose, supply the corresponding form of the subjunctive or optative
according to the rules of syntax. Retain the same person, number, voice and tense. A
translation is supplied.
1. O¼F¸LOIFROUSIKALkD¤RA¦WM<MISONTAI>ÇPÏYE¤N
The friends are bringing fine gifts, lest they be hated by the gods.
2. O¼F¸LOIFRONKALkD¤RA¾NAM<MISONTAI>ÇPÏYE¤N
The friends were bringing fine gifts, lest they be hated by the gods.
3. O¼F¸LOIFROUSIPOLLkD¤RAÓFRAÓLB¡<DÎMEYA>
The friends are bringing many gifts, that we may enjoy prosperity.
4. O¼F¸LOIFRONPOLLkD¤RAÓFRAÓLB¡<DÎMEYA>
The friends were bringing many gifts, in order that we might enjoy prosperity.
5. KEºNOIPLHSIO¹FROUSIPANTOºAD¤RA¾NA<G¸GNESYE>TAºROI
Those neighbors are bringing all sorts of gifts, in order that you may become
comrades.
6. KEºNOIPLHSIO¹FRONPANTOºAD¤RAÔPVW<G¸GNESYE>TAºROI
Those neighbors were bringing all sorts of gifts, in order that you might become
comrades.
7. D¸KAIOIFROUSID¤RA¦WF¸LOI<LÃONTAI>
Righteous men are bringing gifts, in order that their friends may be released.
8. D¸KAIOIFROND¤RA¦WF¸LOI<LÃONTAI>
Righteous men were bringing gifts, in order that their friends might be released.
II. Convert the following indicative statements into hortatory subjunctive constructions.
Translate.
1. OÆKA»TEÎMEYAXRUSÎN
We don't request gold for ourselves.
2. DIDASKÎMEYAÇPÎTESOF¤NKA¹DIKA¸VN
We are taught by both wise and just men.
3. OÆGIGN¢SKOMAI¦WSXETL¸H
I am not known as cruel.
III. Convert the following indicative statements into wishes, using the optative mood.
Translate.
1. OÈPOTEDOMAIYHSAUR¯
I never take pleasure in treasure.
2. D¸KHTOºSIF¸LHG¸GNETAI
Justice is becoming dear to them.
3. O¼TAºROIOÆKA»E¹NKE¸N×GA¸×MjXONTAI
The comrades are not still fighting in that land yonder.
4. mNXESYEPÎNONYUM¯mGAY¯
You (pl.) endure toil with a brave spirit.
384
Appendix D
5. F¸LEAIÇPÏPOLL¤NDIKA¸VN
You are loved by many righteous people.
ANSWERS
I. 1. MISVNTAI 2. MISEO¸ATO 3. D¢MEYA 4. DO¸MEYA 5. G¸GNHSYE
6. G¸GNOISYE 7. LÃVNTAI 8. LUO¸ATO
II. 1. MA»TE¢MEYAXRUSÎN Let us not request gold for ourselves!
2. DIDASK¢MEYAÇPÎTESOF¤NKA¹DIKA¸VN Let us be taught by both wise and
just men! 3. MGIGN¢SKVMAI¦WSXETL¸H Let me not be known as cruel!
III. 1. MPOTEDO¸MHNYHSAUR¯ May I never take pleasure in treasure!
2. D¸KHTOºSIF¸LHG¸GNOITO May justice become dear to them! 3. O¼TAºROI
MA»E¹NKE¸N×GA¸×MAXO¸ATO I hope the comrades are not still fighting in
that land yonder! 4. mNXOISYEPÎNONYUM¯mGAY¯ May you (pl.) endure toil
with a brave spirit! (or, as polite imperative) Please endure toil with a brave spirit!
5. FILOIOÇPÏPOLL¤NDIKA¸VN May you be loved by many just people!
LESSON 24
I. Supply the infinitive of the verb in parentheses in the correct voice (active, middle or
passive) to complement each of the following finite verbs:
1. He wishes to be sent.
YLEIPMPV
2. Are you about to die?
MLLEIWYNSKV
3. They were able to drink.
DUNATO¹SANP¸NV
4. I wish to be asked.
YLVA»TV
5. Those things are going to be taken.
KEºNAMELLE¹LAMBjNV
6. We wish not to fight.
YLOMENMMjXOMAI
7. She wishes to become wise.
YLEIG¸GNOMAISOF
8. He wishes to be carried.
YLEIFRV
9. Are you able to do that deed?
DUNATO¸SSIPOIVRGONKEºNO
10. I myself wish to endure.
AÆTÏWYLVmNXOMAI
11. They were going to take the treasure for themselves.
MLLONLAMBjNVYHSAURÎN
12. He was able to request fine things for himself.
DUNATÏWENA»TVKALj
385
II. Change the following imperative mood verbs into infinitives with the force of an
imperative. Keep the same voice, and translate.
1. PMPETE 6. DESYE
2. PMPESYE 7. DEU
3. mNXEU 8. MM¸SEE
4. MLÃEO 9. mJESYE
5. MLÃE MnMARTjNETE
ANSWERS
I. 1. PMPESYAI 2.YNSKEIN 3. P¸NEIN 4.A»TESYAI 5. LAMBjNESYAI
6. MjXESYAI 7. G¸GNESYAI 8. FRESYAI 9. POIEIN 10. mNXESYAI
11. LAMBjNESYAI 12. A»TESYAI
II. 1. PMPEIN Send! 2. PMPESYAI Send for yourself! Be sent!
3. mNXESYAI Endure! 4. MLÃESYAI Do not loose for yourself! Do not be
loosed! 5. MLÃEIN Do not loose! 6. DESYAI Be pleased! 7. DESYAI
Be pleased! 8. MMISEIN Do not hate! 9. mJESYAI Grow!
10. MnMARTjNEIN Do not miss!
LESSON 26
I. Change the present tense verbs in the following sentences to the future tense,
retaining the original person, number and voice. For your convenience, the second
principal part of the verb to be changed is given in parentheses. Translate each
sentence.
1. O¼F¸LOID¤RAPMPOUSINPMCV
2. O¼F¸LOIE»WYjLASSANRXONTAILEÃSOMAI
3. O¼NPIOIP¸PTOUSINPSOMAI
4. KASIGNHTO¹MO¹XOUSINÓLBONJV
5. KASIGNHTO¹MO¹YLOUSINXEINÓLBONYELSV
6. KASIGNHTÏWMÏWPOLLOÄWS¢ZEIS¢SV
7. KASIGNHTÏWMÏWAÁCAmME¸BETAImME¸COMAI
8. mLHYE¸HNPEUYÎMEYAPEÃSOMAI
9. OÆXDONTAIÓMBR¡SOMAI
10. DNDREATRFEIÓMBROWYRCV
11. G¸GNESYEmYjNATOIGENSOMAI
12. TÎDEPR¤TOWGIGN¢SKEIWGN¢SOMAI
II. Insert the correct form of the relative pronoun into the relative clauses of the
following Greek sentences. The underlined words in the English translations
correspond to the pronouns that you will supply.
1. ÒoNYRVPOW________RXETAIKASIGNHTÏWMÎWSTIN
The person who is going is my brother.
386
Appendix D
2. ÒoNYRVPOW________ ÓCEAIKASIGNHTÏWMÎWSTIN
The person whom you will see is my brother.
3. ÒoNYRVPOW________ SºTONLjMBANEWKASIGNHTÏWMÎWSTIN
The person whose food you were taking is my brother.
4. ÒoNYRVPOWSÄN________ LEÃSEAIKASIGNHTÏWMÎWSTIN
The person with whom you will go is my brother.
5. O¼oNYRVPOI________ M¸SEENMÏWKASIGNHTÏW¼KjNEMENYLOUSIN
The people whom my brother hated wish to come.
6. O¼oNYRVPOI________ MAXÎMEYAmPOLSONTAI
The people with whom we are fighting will perish.
7. O¼oNYRVPOI________ KALO¹G¸GNONTOOÈPOTEmDIKOUSIN
The people who are noble never do wrong.
8. ÒRjETETÏNNHÏNN________MÏWKASIGNHTÏWmPOLLÃETO
Do you see the temple in which my brother perished?
9. ÒRjETETÏNNHÏN________MÏWKASIGNHTÏWS¢ZEN
Do you see the temple that my brother was saving?
10. ÒRjETETÏNNHÏN________¼ERÏWPLEI
Do you see the temple that is holy?
11. ÒRjETETÏNNHÏNmPÏ________MÏWKASIGNHTÏWFEÃGEN
Do you see the temple out of which my brother fled?
12. RGA________D¸KAIOWPOIEIYEO¹FILOUSIN
The gods love the deeds that a just man does.
13. RGA________D¸KAIjSTIYEO¹FILOUSIN
The gods love the deeds that are just.
14. YLVXEIND¤RA________ DEAI
I wish to have the gifts with which you are pleased.
15. TkD¤RA______DOKEIEÁNAIKALA¸P¹PTR×S¸STIN
The gifts, which seem to be noble, are beside the rocks.
ANSWERS
I. 1.PMCOUSIN The friends will send gifts. 2. LEÃSONTAI The friends will
go to the sea. 3. PSONTAI Will the fools fall? 4. JOUSIN My brothers will
have happiness. 5. YELSOUSIN My brothers will wish to have happiness.
6. S¢SEI My brother will save many. 7. mME¸CETAI My brother will respond
quickly. 8. PEUSÎMEYA We shall find out the truth. 9. SONTAI They will not
be pleased with rain. 10. YRCEI The rain will nourish the trees.
11. GENSESYE Will you (pl.) become immortal? 12. GN¢SEAI You will know
this first.
II. 1. ÖW 2. ÖN 3. OÍ 4. · 5. OËW 6. OÂSI 7. OÀ 8. · 9. ÖN
10. ÖW 11. OÍ 12. r 13. r 14. OÂSI 15. r
387
LESSON 27
I. Below are the dictionary entries, including the genitive, of some masculine and
feminine third declension nouns. Find the stem for each.
1. PAºWPAIDÎW[m., f.] child, boy, girl
2. FÃSIWFÃSIOW[f.] nature
3. mNRmNROWor mNDRÎW[m.] man
4. 1OSEIDjVN1OSEIDjVNOW[m.] Poseidon
5. POIMNPOIMNOW[m.] shepherd
6. SjRJSARKÎW[f.] flesh
7. XY¢NXYONÎW[f.] earth
8. F¢WFVTÎW[m.] man
9. KRHTRKRHTROW[m.] mixing-bowl
10. GASTRGASTROWor GASTRÎW[f.] belly
11. PÎLIWPÎLIOWor PÎLHOW[f.] city
II. Give the dative singular for each of the nouns above.
ANSWERS
I. 1. PAID 2. FÃSI 3. mNRor mNDR 4. 1OSEIDjVN 5. POIMN
6. SARK 7. XYON 8. FVT 9. KRHTR 10. GASTRor GASTR
11. PÎLIor PÎLH
II. 1. PAID¸ 2. FÃSII 3. mNRIor mNDR¸ 4. 1OSEIDjVNI 5. POIMNI
6. SARK¸ 7. XYON¸ 8. FVT¸ 9. KRHTRI 10. GASTRIor GASTR¸
11. PÎLIIor PÎLHI
388
Appendix D
LESSON 28
I. Given the nominative and genitive of the following nouns, which ones are third
declension neuter and which are second declension masculine?
1. MKOWMKEOWlength 5. SHKÎWSHKOÅpen for animals
2. oNEMOWmNMOUwind 6. U¼ÎWU¼OWson
3. YUREÎWYUREOÅdoor-stone 7. U¼ÎWU¼OÅson
4. SPOWSPOWcave 8. TURÎWTUROÅcheese
II. Modify the following third declension nouns with the correct form of the adjective
KALÎWÎNThe dictionary entries for the masculine and feminine nouns in this
exercise are given in the Review Exercise I for Lesson 27.)
1. PEA 8. SVMjTESSI 15. F¤TAW
2. PESSI 9. S¢MASI 16. FjOW
3. PESI 10. XYONÎW 17. FjEOW
4. PURÎW 11. XYÎNA 18. FjEI
5. PUR¤N 12. XYON¤N 19. FjEA
6. PÅR 13. F¢W 20. FAVN
7. S¢MATI 14. F¤TEW
ANSWERS
I. 1. 3rd, n. 2. 2nd, m. 3. 2nd, m. 4. 3rd, n. 5. 2nd., m. 6. 3rd, m. (an
exception to the rule given in Section 181) 7. 2nd, m. (this noun is declined in both
declensions) 8. 2nd, m.
II. 1. PEAKALj 2. PESSIKALOºSI 3. PESIKALOºSI 4. PURÎWKALOÅ
5. PUR¤NKAL¤N 6. PÅRKALÎN 7. S¢MATIKAL¯ 8. SVMjTESSI
KALOºSI 9. S¢MASIKALOºSI 10. XYONÎWKALW 11. XYÎNAKALN
12. XYON¤NKALjVN 13. F¢WKALÎW 14. F¤TEWKALO¸ 15. F¤TAW
KALOÃW 16. FjOWKALÎN 17. FjEOWKALOÅ 18. FjEIKAL¯ 19. FjEA
KALj 20. FAVNKAL¤N
389
LESSON 29
I. Below are some dictionary entries for adjectives. Identify each adjective by type as set
forth in this lesson, i.e., Type A, Type B, Type C.
1. PUKINÎWÎN thick; shrewd
2. MLAWMLAINAMLAN dark
3. MELIHDWMELIHDW honey-sweet
4. ÓBRIMOWHON heavy, mighty
5. NHLEWNHLEW ruthless
6. ÑJÃWÑJEºAÑJÃ sharp
7. MAKRÎWÎN long
8. EÆERGWEÆERGW well-made
9. GLUKÃWGLUKEºAGLUKÃ sweet
10. mRE¸VNoREION better
11. mNYEMÎEIWmNYEMÎESSAmNYEMÎEN flowery
12. KARPjLIMOWON swift
II. Use the examples given for Type B and Type C adjectives to predict the genitive
singular for each of the following adjectives:
1. MELIHDW
2. ÑJÃW
3. EÆERGW
4. mRE¸VN
5. mNYEMÎEIW
ANSWERS
I. 1. Type A 2. Type B 3. Type C 4. Type A 5. Type C 6. Type B
7. Type A 8. Type C 9. Type B 10. Type C 11. Type B 12. Type A (see
Note 2 under Type A)
II. 1. MELIHDOW 2. ÑJOW 3. EÆERGOW 4. mRE¸ONOW 5. mNYEMÎENTOW
390
Appendix D
LESSON 30
I. Give the correct form of the present or future participle of the verb in parentheses to
agree with each noun. Keep the participle in the voice and tense in which the verb in
parentheses is shown. Translate each phrase. For example,
PATRVNFILOMAI
Answer: PATRVNFILEOMNVN of the fathers being loved/ of the
fathers loving for themselves (mid.)
1. S¢MATIYNSKV 6. DONFILOMAI
2. PTRAIP¸PTV 7. PÎLIOWLÃSOMAI
3. mNDR¤NP¸NV 8. PRjGMASIG¸GNOMAI
4. oNAJLÃSV 9. F¸L¡MjXOMAI
5. PATR¸DAE»M¸ 10. PÅRE»M¸
II. Each of the following sentences contains a subordinate clause of a type (causal,
temporal, purpose, conditional, relative) that could also be expressed by a participial
clause, as outlined in this chapter. Change each of the subordinate clauses, which have
been italicized in the English translation, into participial clauses. Attempt to translate
(though sometimes a strictly literal English translation of the participial clause does
not work). For example,
PE¹MÏNKASIGNHTÏNF¸LENTÏNS¢ZEN
Since she loved my brother, she saved him.
Answer: FILOUSAMÏNKASIGNHTÎNTÏNS¢ZEN
Loving my brother, she saved him.
1. PE¹KEºNOWNÅNYNSKEIMTÏNmDIKE¢MEN
Since that man is now dying, let's not injure him. (causal)
2. O¾DEFRONGROUSID¤RAÔTIYELONG¸GNESYAIF¸LOI
These men were carrying gifts to the old men, because they wished to become
friends. (causal)
3. ÓFRAPAºDEWEÍDONTOÄWFROMEN
While the children slept, we carried them (the children). (temporal)
4. D¤RAFROMENGRONTIÖWD¸DASKEPAºDAW
We were bringing gifts to the old man who was teaching the children. (relative)
5. RXETAI¾NAKEÃY×YHSAURÎN
He is coming in order that he may hide the treasure. (purpose)
6. TÏNPATRATOÅmNDRÏWÖWPARXEIKARPÏNÒRjEIW
Do you see the father of the man who supplies fruit? (relative)
7. E»MKE¸NHMÏNKASIGNHTÏNmD¸KEONTNqNF¸LEON
If that woman were not harming my brother, I would love her. (conditional)
8. DÎMEYAKE¸NOISID¢ROISIPE¹KALjSTIN
We are pleased with those gifts because they are lovely. (causal)
391
ANSWERS
I. 1. S¢MATIYNSKONTI to/for/by a body dying/ dying body 2. PTRAI
P¸PTOUSAI falling rocks 3. mNDR¤NPINÎNTVN of men drinking/ drinking
men 4.oNAJLÃSVN a lord being about to loose 5. PATR¸DAOÅSAN being a
fatherland/ a fatherland being 6. DÎNHFILEOMNH pleasure being loved
7. PÎLIOWLUSOMNHW of a city being about to be loosed/ of a city being about to
loose for itself 8. PRjGMASIGIGNÎMENOISI to/for/by troubles happening
9.F¸L¡MAXOMN¡ to/for a friend fighting/ fighting friend 10.PÅRÎN being a
fire/ a fire being
II. 1. KEºNONoNDRAYNSKONTAMmDIKE¢MEN Let us not harm that dying
man (since he is dying). 2. O¾DEFRONGROUSID¤RAYLONTEWG¸GNESYAI
F¸LOI These men, wishing to become friends, were carrying gifts to the old man.
3. PAºDAWEÉDONTAWFROMEN We carried the sleeping children. 4. D¤RA
FROMENGRONTIDIDjSKONTIPAºDAW We were bringing gifts to the old man
teaching the children. 5. RXETAIKEÃSVNYHSAURÎN He is coming intending to
hide the treasure. 6. TÏNPATRATOÅmNDRÏWPARXONTOWKARPÏNÒRjEIW
Do you see the father of the man supplying fruit? 7. KE¸NHNMÏNKASIGNHTÏN
MmDIKOUSANqNF¸LEON I would love that woman (if she were) not harming my
brother. 8. DÎMEYAKE¸NOISID¢ROISIÎNTESSIKALOºSIN We take pleasure
in those gifts, being beautiful (the gifts, that is).
392
Appendix D
LESSON 31
I. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the interrogative pronoun/adjective
T¸WT¸
1. Who (sg.) will send this? ____TÎDEPMCEI
2. Who (pl.) will send this? ____ TÎDEPMCOUSIN
3. Whom (sg.) are you sending? ____ PMPEIW
4. Whom (pl.) are you sending? ____ PMPEIW
5. To whom (sing.) shall we send gifts? E»W____ D¤RAPMCOMEN
6. In what do I take pleasure? (By what am I pleased?) ____ DOMAI
7. With whom (sg.) are you all coming? SÄN____ RXESYE
8. With what friend are you coming? SÄN____ F¸L¡RXEAI
9. By means of what words does that man persuade him?
____ LÎGOISITÏNKEºNOWPE¸YEI
10. What man does he obey? ____ mNRIPE¸YETAI
11. In what virtues do they take pleasure? ____ mRETSIDONTAI
12. What children do not love sweet fruit? ____ PA¸DEWKARPÏNDÄNOÆ
FILOUSIN
13. What word do you hear? ____ POWmKOÃEIW
14. What sound do you all hear? ____ FVNNmKOÃETE
15. From what city are they coming? mPÏ____ PÎLIOWRXONTAI
II. Put the following phrases into Greek, using the indefinite pronoun/adjective.
1. someone 6. for some child
2. for certain wisemen 7. certain winds (acc.)
3. some words 8. some truth
4. of some gold 9. of some nectar
5. something 10. certain treasures
III. Change each direct question below into indirect questions introduced by A»TEIand
A½TEE(he/she asks, he/she asked) and using the indirect interrogative pronoun and
the optative in secondary sequence where possible.
1. T¸MAXONTAI (Why are they fighting?)
2. T¸NEWMjXONTAI (Who (pl.) is fighting?)
3. T¸RDEI (What is she doing?)
4. T¸WTÎDERDEI (Who does this?)
5. T¸WNKTARP@¸NEI (Who drinks nectar?)
6. T¸NAFILEIW (Whom do you love?)
393
ANSWERS
I. 1. T¸W 2. T¸NEW 3.T¸NA 4.T¸NAW 5.T¸NA 6.T¡ 7.T¡
8.T¡ 9.TOISI 10.T¯ 11. TOISI 12.T¸NEW 13.T¸ 14. T¸NA
15.TEÅ
II. 1. TIW 2.SOFOºSITEOºSI 3. LÎGOITINW 4. XRUSOÅTEU 5. TI
6.PAID¸TE¡ 7. mNMOUWTINjW 8.mLHYE¸HTIW 9.NKTARÎWTEU
10.YHSAURO¸TINEW
III. 1. A»TEIT¸MjXONTAIA½TEET¸MAXO¸ATO 2.A»TEIO¾TINEW
MjXONTAIA½TEEO¾TINEWMAXO¸ATO 3.A»TEIÔTIRDEIA½TEEÔTI
RDOI 4.A»TEIÔWTIWTÎDERDEIA½TEEÔWTIWTÎDERDOI 5.A»TEIÔWTIW
NKTARP¸NEIA½TEEÔWTIWNKTARP¸NOI 6.A»TEIÔNTINAFILEIWA½TEEÔN
TINAFILOIW
LESSON 32
I. Complete the Greek sentences with the correct form of the Greek first personal
pronoun.
1. The voice of the Muse is sweet to me. FVN.OÃSHWST¸______DEºA
2. The words of wise men always persuade me. LÎGOISOF¤NA»E¸______
PE¸YOUSIN
3. We always obey the words of wise men. _____ LÎGOIWSOF¤NA»E¹
PEIYÎMEYA
4. The treasure is ours. YHSAURÎWSTI______.
5. My gold was hidden among the rocks. XRUSÎW______KEÃYETONTSI
PTR×SI
6. Speak sweet words to me! NNEP_____PEAGLUKA
7. He asked who saved us. A½TEEÔWTIW_____S¢ZOI
8. They heard us speaking. oKOUON_____LEGÎNTVN
9. Why are you making trial of me? T¸____ PEIRjEIW
10. They are bringing me into the city in order that they might make trial of me.
FROUS¸____ E»WPÎLIN¾NAPEIRjVS¸____.
ANSWERS
I. 1.MOI 2. ME 3.MEºW 4.MºN(dat. of possession) 5.MEU 6.MOI
7.MAW8.MVN(mKOÃV+ gen.) 9.MEUPEIRjV+ gen.) 10.MEMEU
394
Appendix D
LESSON 33
I. Change the verb form in the following sentences to agree with the nominative
personal pronoun. Translate.
1. G£NHP¸¡KE¸N¡OÆPE¸SOMAI I shall not obey that fool.
SÄNHP¸¡KE¸N¡OÆ__________
MEºWNHP¸¡KE¸N¡OÆ__________
ÇMEºWNHP¸¡KE¸N¡OÆ__________
2. MEºWOÁNONOÈPOTEP¸NOMEN We never drink wine.
ÇMEºWOÁNONOÈPOTE__________
G£OÁNONOÈPOTE__________
SÄOÁNONOÈPOTE__________
3. SÄBOÃLEAIDIDjSKESYAI You wish to be taught.
ÇMEºW__________DIDjSKESYAI
MEºW__________DIDjSKESYAI
G£__________DIDjSKESYAI
ANSWERS
I. 1. PE¸SEAI You will not obey that fool. PEISÎMEYA We shall not obey that
fool. PE¸SESYE You (pl.) will not obey that fool. 2.P¸NETE You (pl.) never drink
wine. P¸NV I never drink wine. P¸NEIW You never drink wine.
3.BOÃLESYE You (pl.) wish to be taught. BOULÎMEYA We wish to be taught.
BOÃLOMAI I wish to be taught.
395
LESSON 34
I. Replace the underlined words with the correct form of the third personal pronoun.
Translate.
1. ¼KjNVD¤RAE»WSFRVN¦WKE¸NAWF¸LAWLÃS×W
2. LAO¹TÎDERGONRJOUSIN
3. LGVTOºSIoNDRESSImLHYE¸HN
4. FILVMENPjNTEWKASIGNHTOÃW
5. A½TEEWÔWTIWZHTOITÏNUÂON
6. MPOTEPAºDAmDIKVMEN
T¹MISETETOÅmNDRÏWU¾OUW
8. OÆG¸GNVSKONNTINAÒDÏNKE¸N¡FA¸NOIEN
oLLOISImNYR¢POISIBOÃLONTOM¸SGEIN
10. ÒPÎLEMOWENT¯XALEPÎW
ANSWERS
I. 1. SFEAW I come bearing gifts for you, in order that you may free those friends/
them. 2. MIN The people will do this work/ it. 3. SFINSFISI I speak the
truth to the men/ them. 4. SFEAW Let us all love our brothers/ them. 5.MIN
You were asking who was seeking the son/ him. 6.MIN Let us never injure a
child/ him! 7. O Why do you (pl.) hate the sons of that man/ him? 8. O¼ I did
not know what road they were showing to that man/ him. 9. SFISFISI They
wished to mingle with other men/ them. 10.O¼ The war was difficult for someone/
him.
LESSON 35
I. Change each underlined verb to the aorist tense, keeping the same person, number,
and mood. The aorist stem is given in parentheses. Translate.
KEºNONmGAYÏNmD¸KOUSIO¼PONHRO¸mD¸KHS
2. A½TEEWT¸NAFILOIA½THS
mKOÃETOLGONTOWoKOUS
4. DE¸DVTOÄWmGAYOÄWmPOLLÃEINDEºS
D¸VKSFEAWmPÏYALjSSHWE»WPÎLIND¸VJ
XEINPOLLOÄWF¸LOUWYLVMENYLHS
7. ÇMAWDI¢KOMENÓFRASPEÃDHTESPEÅS
II. Translate, identifying each type of condition as either a Future More Vivid (FMV) or
Present General (PG).
1. E½KENRJ×POLLkRGAKAKjmPOLSVMIN
2. ÔTERJVSIPOLLkRGAKAKjmPOLLÃVSFEAW
3. O¾TINEWRJVSIPOLLkRGAKAKjYANONTAI
4. NA»E¹EÉD×WOÈPOTEMAYSEAI
396
Appendix D
5. NA»E¹EÉDHTEOÆDNMANYjNETE
6. PNPAºDEWEÉDSVSINOÆDNMANYjNOUSIN
7. E½KNTIWP¸N×POLLÏNOÁNONP¸PTEI
8. ÔWTIWP¸N×POLLÏNOÁNONPSETAI
9. ÖWP¸N×POLLÏNOÁNONP¸PTEI
10. ÔTEPÅRPÎLIAWmPÎLES×POLLO¹YNSKOUSIN
III. Identify from these dictionary entries which type of aorist each of the following verbs
has. (Review Section 244 )
1. DOKVDOKSVDÎKHSA
2. RXOMAILEÃSOMAILYON
3. SY¸VDOMAIFjGON
4. EÇR¸SKVEÇRSVEÍRON
5. LÃVLÃSVLÃSA
6. GIGN¢SKVGN¢SOMAIGN¤N
7. Z¢VZ¢SVZ¤SA
ANSWERS
I. 1. mD¸KHSAN The vile men injured that brave man. 2. A½THSAW You asked
whom he loved. 3.mKOÃSATE Did you hear him speaking? 4. DEºSA I feared to
kill the brave men. 5. D¸VJ He pursued them from the sea to the city.
6. YLSVMEN Let us wish to have many friends! 7.SPEÃSHTE We are pursuing
you (pl.) in order that you may hurry (make haste).
II. 1. If he does many bad deeds, I shall kill him. FMV 2. When they do many
bad deeds, I kill them. PG 3. Whoever does (pl. subject) many bad deeds will die.
FMV 4. If you are always sleeping, you will never learn. FMV 5. If you (pl.) are
always sleeping, you learn nothing. 6. When children are sleeping, they are learning
nothing. PG 7. If some one drinks much wine, he falls. PG 8. Whoever drinks a
lot of wine will fall. FMV 9. (A man) who drinks a lot of wine falls. 10. When fire
destroys cities, many die. PG
III. 1. 1st 2. 2nd 3. 2nd 4. 2nd 5. 1st 6. 3rd 7. 1st
397
LESSON 36
I. Change the participles in the following sentences into the aorist tense. (The aorist
stem is given in parentheses.) Then translate the new sentences.
1. PE¸YONTEWMAWLÅSAIP¹NHÏNRXONTOPEºS
(While) persuading us to free him, they were going to the temple.
2. SY¸EIWKARPÏNmPOLLÃVNPERTOÄWXRHSTOÃWmPÎLES
Are you eating fruit although (you are) killing those worthy men?
3. YEÏNTNPÎLINS¢SONTAG¸GNVSKONS¤S
They knew that the god was about to save the city. (They knew the god being
about to save the city.)
4. ÒYEÏWTNPÎLINS¢ZVNPMPEIÓMBRONS¤S
The god, (while) saving the city, sends a storm.
5. BOULEÃVNPERD¸DAJAIMAWOÆPOLLÏNGIGN¢SKEIBOÃLEUS
Although planning to teach us, he does not know much.
II. Change the underlined verbs into the aorist tense. (The aorist stem is given in
parentheses.) Translate.
1. BOULEÃOIRDEMENKALjBOÃLEUSRJ
XRHSTkWU¼O¸MEUGAMOIENGjMHS
MOÃNAmGAYkNOOIMINÎHS
YELSAMENG¸GNESYAIYEO¹¾NAZOIMENPjNTArBOULÎMEYAJ
OÁNONNEIKAWÓFRAMHDE¸WSEMISOIM¸SHS
ANSWERS
I. 1. PE¸SANTEW (After)Having persuaded us to free him, they were going to the
temple. 2.mPOLSAW Are you eating fruit although having killed those worthy
men? (although you have killed these worthy men) 3. S¢SANTA They knew that
the god saved the city. (the god having saved the city) 4. S¢SAW The god, (after)
having saved the city, sends a storm. 5. BOULEÃSAW Although having planned to
teach us, he does not know much.
II. 1. BOULEÃSEIENRJAI May he plan to do noble things! 2. GAMSEIAN May
my sons marry worthy women! 3. NOSAIMI May I think/perceive only good
things! 4. JAIMEN We wished to become gods in order that we might do
everything that we wanted. 5. MISSEIEN You brought wine in order that no one
might hate you.
398
Appendix D
LESSON 37
I. Convert each of the following imperfects to aorists (stem in parentheses), and then
translate. Remember to keep the verb in the same voice, but remember that in the
aorist system the passive endings are different from the middle endings.
1. PONEÎMHNPONHS I was toiling
2. TEÃXONTOTEUJ they were building for themselves/they were being built
3. ZHTEOZHTHS you were seeking for yourself/you were being sought
4. PMPETOPEMC he/she was sending for him/herself/he/she was being sent
5. G£BOÃLEUONBOULEUS I was considering
6. GAMOMENGAMHSorGM we were marrying
7. A»TESYEA»THS you were asking for yourselves/you were being asked
8. M¸SGEOMIJ you were mixing for yourself/you were being mixed
9. DETOS he/she was enjoying
10. RDETORJ he/she/it was doing for him/her/itself/it was being done
11. ZONTOEJ they were doing for themselves/they were being done
12. POIONTOPOIHS they were making for themselves/they were being made
13. PE¸YESYEPEIS you (pl.) were obeying
14. FA¸NETOFHN he/she was showing for him/herself/he/she was being shown
15. FILEÎMHNFILHS I was loving for myself/I was being loved
ANSWERS
I. 1. PONHSjMHN I toiled 2. TEÃJANTO they built for themselves
3. ZHTSAO you sought for yourself 4. PMCATO he/she sent for him/herself
5. BOÃLEUSA I planned 6. GAMSAMENGMAMEN we married
7. A»TSASYEyou asked for yourselves 8. M¸JAO you mixed for yourself
9. SATO he/she enjoyed 10. RJATO he/she did for him/herself
11. JANTO they did for themselves 12. POISANTO they made for
themselves 13.PE¸SASYE you (pl.) obeyed 14. FNATO he/she/it showed for
itself/seemed 15. FILHSjMHN I loved for myself
399
LESSON 38
I. Translate each of the following sentences. Then identify or describe the construction
it represents (e.g., Future More Vivid, Purpose Clause in Primary Sequence, etc.).
1. E»KEPRjGMATAXRHSTkPONSHSYEÓLB¡SESYE
2. ÔTEPRjGMATAXRHSTkPONSHSYEÓLB¡DESYE
3. PRjGMATAXRHSTkPONSANTO¾NAÓLB¡SA¸ATO
4. PRjGMATAXRHSTkPONHS¢MEYAÓFRAÓLB¡S¢MEYA
5. NPRjGMATAXRHSTkPONHSjMHNÓLB¡qNSjMHN
6. ÔWTIWPRjGMATAXRHSTkPONSHTAIÓLB¡SETAI
7. O¾TINEWPRjGMATAXRHSTkPONSVNTAIÓLB¡SONTAI
8. MPOTEPRjGMATAPONHRkPÎNHSAI
9. ÓLB¡SASYE
10. ÓLB¡SAIO
11. PRjGMATAXRHSTkPONSAISYE
12. PRjGMATAXRHSTkPONHS¢MAI
13. PRjGMATAXRHSTkPONHSjMENOIÓLB¡SANTO
14. PRjGMATAXRHSTkPONEÎMENOIÓLB¡SANTO
15. PRjGMATAXRHSTkPONHSjMENOWÓLB¡DETAI
16. PRjGMATAXRHSTkPONHSAMNHÓLB¡SOMAI
17. ÓLB¡DOMNHPRjGMATAXRHSTkPONSAO
18. ÓLB¡DÎMENAIPRjGMATAXRHSTkPONONTO
19. PE¹ÓLB¡qNSHAIPRjGMATAXRHSTkPONEAI
20. E»KENÓLB¡SHTAIPONSETAIPRjGMATAXRHSTj
ANSWERS
I. 1. If you (pl.) work at worthy deeds, you will enjoy prosperity. Future More Vivid 2.
When you (pl.) work at worthy deeds, you enjoy prosperity. Present General 3. They
worked at worthy deeds in order that they might enjoy prosperity. Secondary Sequence
Purpose Clause 4. Let's work at worthy deeds in order that we may enjoy prosperity!
Primary Sequence Purpose Clause 5. If I had worked at worthy deeds, I would have
enjoyed prosperity. Past Contrary to Fact 6. Whoever works at worthy deeds will enjoy
prosperity. Future More Vivid 7. Whoever (pl.) works at worthy deeds will enjoy
prosperity. Future More Vivid 8. Never work at vile deeds! (Sg. Imperative) 9. Enjoy
prosperity! (Pl. Imperative) or You (pl.) enjoyed prosperity. 10. May you (sg.) enjoy
prosperity! Wish 11. May you (pl.) work at worthy deeds! Wish 12. Let me work at
worthy deeds! Hortatory 13. Having worked at worthy deeds, they enjoyed prosperity.
Participial clause, time prior to main verb 14. (While) Working at worthy deeds, they
enjoyed prosperity. Participial clause, time simultaneous with main verb 15. (After)
Having worked at worthy deeds, he is enjoying prosperity. Participial clause, time prior to
main verb 16. (After) Having worked at worthy deeds, I shall enjoy prosperity. Participial
clause, time prior to main verb 17. (While) Enjoying prosperity, you worked at worthy
deeds. Participial clause, time simultaneous with main verb 18. (While) Enjoying
prosperity, they were working at noble deeds. Participial clause, time simultaneous with
main verb 19. When you enjoy prosperity, you are working at worthy deeds. Present
General 20. If he enjoys prosperity, he will work at worthy deeds. Future More Vivid
400
Appendix D
LESSON 40
I. Identify and translate each of the following conditions, and then change them to
Future Less Vivid conditions, and translate.
1. E»ÇMAW½DONKEºNOIFNANqNÇMºNTNÒDÎN
2. E»D¸KAIOIEÈJVNTAImGAYO¸EÁNAImLHYE¸HNLGOUSIN
3. E»POIMNLYENE»WoKRONGA¸HWMLAOEÍRENoN
4. E»KÎSMOWmPOLLÃHTAIMEºWPjNTEWYANEÎMEYA
5. E»FILVMENmLLLOUWE»RNHNSXSOMEN
II. Change the following wishes into potential optative sentences. Translate both types of
sentences.
1. POIMNTEZHTSEIEKA¹EÉROIMLAO
2. MLAMPOIMNALjYOI
3. POLLO¹POIMNEWDI¢JEIANTkMLArOÆDUNATO¸E»MENEÇREºN
4. MLALYOIE»WAÆLN
5. POIMN½DOIMLAO
ANSWERS
I. 1. Past Contrary to Fact. If those men had seen you (pl.), they would have shown
the way to you. FLV: E»ÇMAW½DOIENqNKEºNOIFNEIEqNÇMºNÒDÎNIf those
men should see you, they would show the way to you.
2. Present General. If righteous men claim to be brave, they are speaking the truth.
FLV:E»D¸KAIOIEÆJA¸ATOqNmGAYO¸EÁNAImLHYE¸HNLGOIENoN
If righteous men should claim to be brave, they would be speaking the truth.
3. Past Contrary to Fact. If the shepherd had come to the edge of the land, he would
have found his sheep. FLV: E»PO¸MHNLYOIE»WoKRONGA¸HWMLAOEÉROI
oN 4. Future More Vivid. If the world perishes, we shall all die. FLV: E»KÎSMOW
mPOLLÃOITOMEºWPjNTEWYjNOIMENYNSKOIMENoNIf the world were to
perish, we would all die/ be dying. 5. Future More Vivid. If we love one another, we
shall have peace. FLV: E»FILOIMENmLLLOUWE»RNHNSXYOIMENoNIf we
were to love one another, we would have peace.
II. 1. May the shepherd both seek and find his sheep!POIMNTEZHTSEIEKA¹
EÉROIqNMLAOThe shepeherd could/ might/would both seek and find his
sheep. 2. May the sheep not escape the shepherd's notice! MLAOÆPOIMNAqN
LjYOIThe sheep could/might/would not escape the shepherd's notice.
3. May many shepherds pursue the sheep that we are not able to find!POLLO¹
POIMNEWDI¢JEIANqNTkMLArOÆDUNATO¸E»MENEÇREºNMany shepherds
might/could/ would pursue the sheep that we are not able to find. 4. May the sheep
come to the fold! MLALYOIqNE»WAÆLNThe sheep might/ could/ would come
to the fold. 5. May the shepherd see his sheep! POIMN½DOIqNMLAOThe
shepherd might/ could/ would see his sheep.
401
LESSON 41
I. Form the 3rd person singular imperfect and aorist indicative of each verb below. (The
first three principal parts are given.)
1. A¼RVA¼RSVLON
2. mME¸BOMAImME¸COMAImMEICjMHN
3. nMARTjNVnMARTSOMAIpMARTON
4. G¸GNOMAIGENSOMAIGENÎMHN
5. DXOMAIDJOMAIDEJjMHN
6. NNPVN¸CVNISPON
7. RXOMAILEÃSOMAILUYON
8. SY¸VDOMAIFjGON
9. EÇR¸SKVEÇRSVEÍRON
10. EÈXOMAIEÈJOMAIEÆJjMHN
11. XVJVorSXSVSXÎN or SXYON
12. KEÃYVKEÃSVKÃYON
13. KR¸NVKRINVKRºNA
14. LAMBjNVLCOMAILjBON
15. LANYjNVLSVLjYON
16. MANYjNVMAYSOMAIMjYON
17. ÒRjVÓCOMAI½DON
18. PjSXVPE¸SOMAIPjYON
19. PE¸YVPE¸SVPEºSAorPPIYON
20. PEÃYOMAIPEÃSOMAIPUYÎMHN
21. P¸NVP¸OMAIP¸ON
22. P¸PTVPSOMAIPSON
ANSWERS
I. 1. A¾REELE 2. mME¸BETOmME¸CATO 3. nMjRTANEpMARTE
4. G¸GNETOGNETO 5. DXETODJATO 6. NNEPENISPE 7. RXETO
LUYE 8. SYIEFjGE 9. EÉRISKEEÍRE 10. EÈXETOEÈJATO 11. XE
SXSXYE 12. KEÅYEKÃYE 13. KR¸NEKRºNE 14. LjMBANELjBE
15. LjNYANELjYE 16. MjNYANEMjYE 17. ÔRAE½DE 18. PjSXEPjYE
19. PEºYEPEºSEPPIYE 20. PEÃYETOPÃYETO 21. P¸NEP¸E
22. P¸PTEPSE
402
Appendix D
LESSON 42
I. Conjugate the third aorist verb STNI stood) in all the moods, just as has been done
with BN
II. Change each of the following underlined imperfect tense verbs to the aorist indicative,
maintaining the same person and number. Translate.
1. BAºNONKEºNOIPAºDEWmPÏPÎLIOWPRÏWPOTAMÎN
2. BAºNEKEºNOWPAºWmPÏPÎLIOWPRÏWPOTAMÎN
3. DIkMATOWPANTÏWEÇDSAWSÄBAºNEWE»WPÎLIN
GIGN¢SKETETÏNGRONTAÏNB¸ONTELSANTA
5. G¸GNVSKEWTÏNGRONTAÏNB¸ONTELSANTA
SOFO¹ÎNTEWGIGN¢SKOMENmLHYE¸HN
7. TLjONDG£MAXSASYAIE¾NEKAPATR¸DOW
8. TLjOMENDMEºWMAXSASYAIE¾NEKAPATR¸DOW
9. PjNTEWDÃONNHÎNÓFRAPÎROIENmYjNATOIWD¤RA
10. PlWDÃENHÎNÓFRAPÎROImYjNATOIWD¤RA
ANSWERS
I. Indicative Subjunctive
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st pers. STN STMEN STV STVMEN
2nd pers. STW STTE ST×W STHTE
3rd pers. ST STSAN ST× STVSI
Optative
Sg. Pl.
1st pers. STA¸HN STAºMEN
2nd pers. STA¸HW STAºTE
3rd sing. STA¸H STAºEN
Imperative
Sg. Pl.
2nd pers. STYI STTE
Infinitive STNAI
Participle (m. f. n. nom.) STjWSTlSASTjN
II. 1. BSAN Those children went from the city to the river. 2. B That child
went from the city to the river. 3. BW Having slept for the whole day, you went to
the city. 4. GN¤TE Did you (pl.) know that the old man completed his life (died)?
5. GN¤W Did you (sg.) know that the old man completed his life (died)?
6. GN¤MEN Being wise (since we were wise), we knew the truth. 7. TLN I indeed
dared to fight for the sake of my fatherland. 8. TLMEN We indeed dared to fight
for the sake of our fatherland. 9. DÅSANDÅN Everybody entered the temple in
order that they might give gifts to the immortals. 10. DÅ Each man entered the
temple in order that he might give gifts to the immortals.
403
LESSON 43
I. Change the underlined verbs to the aorist, maintaining the same person, number,
voice and mood (unless a change in mood is required by rules of syntax). Then
translate.
1. E»GIGN¢SKOIWNNPOIWoN
2. E»GIGN¢SK×WmLHYE¸HNXRSENNPEIN
3. ÔTEDÃ×ÒJEºNOWE»WPOTAMÎNEÇRSEIÉDVRPOLLÎN
4. ÔTEDÃOIÒJEºNOWE»WPOTAMÎNEÉROIqNÉDVRPOLLÎN
5. BA¸NONTWPERE»WPÎLEMONOÆKLPOUSIPE¸SESYAIfromPjSXV
6. E»BA¸NOIMENEÇR¸SKOIMENqNSºTON
7. G¸GNVSKESAÆTÎN
8. BA¸NETENÅNKA¹S¢ZETME
9. BA¸NOIENoN
10. MANYjNVPOLLk¾NAGIGN¢SKVsubjunctivemLHYE¸HN
11. TLjEWPÎNOUWPOLLOÄW¾NAGAMSEIAWKEºNHN
12. O¼NPIOIP¸PTONKA¹DÃONE»WPOTAMÎN
ANSWERS
I. 1. E»GNO¸HWN¸SPOIWoN If you should know, then you would say.
2. E»GN¢×WmLHYE¸HNXRSENISPEºN If you know the truth, it is necessary for
you to say. 3. ÔTEDÃ×ÒJEºNOWE»WPOTAMÎNEÇRSEIÉDVRPOLLÎN When
the stranger enters the river, he will find much water. 4. E»DU¸HDÃHÒJEºNOWE»W
POTAMÎNEÉROIqNÉDVRPOLLÎN If the stranger should enter the river, he
would find much water. 5. BjNTEWPERE»WPÎLEMONOÆKLPOUSI
PE¸SESYAI Although having gone to war, they are not expecting to suffer.
6. E»BAºMENEÉROIMENqNSºTONIf we should go, we would find food.
7. GN¤YISAÆTÎN Know yourself. 8. BTENÅNKA¹S¢SATEME Come (pl.)
now and save me! 9. BAºENoN They could go. 10. MjYONPOLLk¾NAGNO¸HN
mLHYE¸HN I studied many things in order that I might know the truth.
11. TLWPÎNOUWPOLLOÄW¾NAGAMSEIAWKEºNHN You endured many toils in
order that you might marry that woman? 12. O¼NPIOIPSONKA¹DÅSANDÅN
E»WPOTAMÎN The fools fell and sank into the river.
404
Appendix D
LESSON 45
I. After referring to the following principal parts, form the perfect and pluperfect third
person singular and plural.
1. A¼RVA¼RSVLONRHKA
2. nMARTjNVnMARTSOMAIpMARTONMjRTHKA
3. G¸GNOMAIGENSOMAIGENÎMHNGGAA
4. RXOMAILEÃSOMAILUYONE»LLOUYA
5. SY¸VDOMAIFjGONDDOKA
6. EÇR¸SKVEÇRSVEÍRONEÉRHKA
7. XVJVor SXSVSXÎNor SXYONÓXVKA
8. KEÃYVKEÃSVKÃYONKKEUYA
9. KR¸NVKRINVKRºNAKKRIKA
10. LAMBjNVLCOMAILjBONE½LHFA
11. LANYjNVLSVLjYONLLHYA
12. MANYjNVMAYSOMAIMjYONMEMjYHKA
13. ÒRjVÓCOMAI½DON¢RAKA
14. PjSXVPE¸SOMAIPjYONPPONYA
15. PE¸YVPE¸SVPEºSAor PPIYONPPEIKA
16. PMPVPMCVPMCAPPOMFA
17. P¸PTVPSOMAIPSONPPTVKA
II. Translate the third person plural perfect and pluperfects from I.
ANSWERS
I. 1. RHKERKEI RKASIRKESAN 2. MjRTHKEMARTKEI
MARTKASIMARTKESAN 3. GGAEGEGjEI GEGjASIGEGjESAN
4. E»LLOUYEE»LHLOÃYEI E»LHLOÃYASIE»LHLOÃYESAN 5. DDOKE
DHDÎKEI DHDÎKASIDHDÎKESAN 6. EÉRHKEEÇRKEI EÇRKASI
EÇRKESAN 7. ÓXVKEÑX¢KEI ÑX¢KASIÑX¢KESAN 8. KKEUYEKEKEÃYEI
KEKEÃYASIKEKEÃYESAN 9. KKRIKEKEKR¸KEI KEKR¸KASIKEKR¸KESAN
10. E½LHFEE»LFEI E»LFASIE»LFESAN 11. LLHYELELYEI LELYASI
LELYESAN 12. MEMjYHKEMEMjYHKEI MEMAYKASIMEMAYKESAN
13. ¢RAKEVRjKEI VRjKASIVRjKESAN 14. PPONYEPEPÎNYEI
PEPÎNYASIPEPÎNYESAN 15. PPEIKEPEPE¸KEI PEPE¸KASI
PEPE¸KESAN 16. PPOMFEPEPÎMFEI PEPÎMFASIPEPÎMFESAN
17. PPTVKEPEPT¢KEI PEPT¢KASIPEPT¢KESAN
II. 1. they have seized/ they had seized 2. they have erred/ they had erred
3. they have been born/ they had been born 4. they have come/ they had come
5. they have eaten/ they had eaten 6. they have found/ they had found 7. they have
had/ they had had 8. they have hidden/ they had hidden (both transitive)
9. they have picked out/ they had picked out 10. they have taken/ they had taken 11.
they have escaped notice/ they had escaped notice 12. they have learned/ they had
learned 13. they have seen/ they had seen 14. they have suffered / they had
suffered 15. they have persuaded/ they had persuaded 16. they have sent / they had
sent 17. they have fallen / they had fallen
405
LESSON 46
I. mPÎLVLAis the perfect of the verb mPOLLÃVI destroy, I kill. However, the
perfect has the meaning I am lost, I perish. (Likewise, the second aorist middle mP
OLÎMHN means I was lost, I perished.)Conjugate the perfect mPÎLVLA
a) indicative perfect and pluperfect
b) subjunctive
c) optative
d) imperative
e) infinitive
f ) participle (give the nom. sg. forms)
ANSWERS
I.
a) indicative perfect pluperfect

mPÎLVLA mPOL¢LEAH
mPÎLVLAW mPOL¢LEAW
mPÎLVLE mPOL¢LEI
mPOL¢LAMEN mPOL¢LEMEN
mPOL¢LATE mPOL¢LETE
mPOL¢LASI mPOL¢LESAN
b) subjunctive optative
mPOL¢LV mPOL¢LOIMI
mPOL¢L×W mPOL¢LOIW
mPOL¢L× mPOL¢LOI
mPOL¢LVMEN mPOL¢LOIMEN
mPOL¢LHTE mPOL¢LOITE
mPOL¢LVSI mPOL¢LOIEN
e) imperative
mPÎLVLE mPOL¢LETE
f) infinitive
mPOLVLNAImPOLVLMENAI
g) participle
mPOLVL¢WmPOLVLUºAmPOLVLÎW
406
Appendix D
LESSON 47
I. Using the consonant changes chart in Section 339 for reference, conjugate
the perfect and pluperfect middle-passive forms of a) LE¸PV b) TEÃXV
c) PEÃYOMAITheir fifth principal parts are, respectively: LLEIMMAITTUGMAIand
PPUSMAI
ANSWERS
I.
a) LLEIMMAI LELE¸MMEYA
LLEICAI LLEIFYE
LLEIPTAI LELE¸FATAI
LELE¸MMHN LELE¸MMEYA
LLEICO LLEIFYE
LLEIPTO LELE¸FATO
b) TTUGMAI TETÃGMEYA
TTUJAI TTUXYE
TTUKTAI TETÃXATAI*
TETÃGMHN TETÃGMEYA
TTUJO TTUXYE
TTUKTO TETÃXATO**
c) PPUSMAI PEPÃSMEYA
PPUSAI PPUSYE
PPUSTAI PEPÃYATAI
PEPÃSMHN PEPÃSMEYA
PPUSO PPUSYE
PPUSTO PEPÃYATO
* frequently spelled TETEÃXATAI
** frequently spelled TETEÃXATO
407
LESSON 48
I. For each of the following forms of the perfect active participle, give the corresponding
form in the middle-passive. Use the chart below to check your answer.
1. LELUKÎTI
2. LELUKUºAI
3. LELUKÎTVN
4. LELUK¢W
5. LELUKUIjVN
6. LELUKÎW
7. LELUKÎSI
8. LELUKÎTA
9. LELUKÎTESSI
10. LELUKU¸AN
PF. ACT. PART.

M F N
Sg.
N LELUK¢W LELUKUºA LELUKÎW
G LELUKÎTOW LELUKU¸HW LELUKÎTOW
D LELUKÎTI LELUKU¸× LELUKÎTI
A LELUKÎTA LELUKU¸AN LELUKÎW
Pl.
N LELUKÎTEW LELUKUºAI LELUKÎTA
G LELUKÎTVN LELUKUIjVN LELUKÎTVN
D LELUKÎTESSI LELUKU¸×SI LELUKÎTESSI
LELUKÎSI LELUKÎSI
A LELUKÎTAW LELUKU¸AW LELUKÎTA
PF. M.-P. PART.

Sg.
N LELUMNOW LELUMNH LELUMNON
G LELUMNOU LELUMNHW LELUMNOU
D LELUMN¡ LELUMN× LELUMN¡
A LELUMNON LELUMNHN LELUMNON
Pl.
N LELUMNOI LELUMNAI LELUMNA
G LELUMNVN LELUMNVN LELUMNVN
D LELUMNOISI LELUMN×SI LELUMNOISI
A LELUMNOUW LELUMNAW LELUMNA
408
Appendix D
LESSON 49
I. Form the comparative (nominative, masculine, singular) and the superlative of each of
the following adjectives. For help with the irregular forms, consult Section 354.
1. SOFÎWÎN wise 9. TAXÃWEºAÃ swift (irreg.)
2. ¼ERÎWÎN holy 10. POLLÎWÎN many (irreg.)
3. NHLWW pitiless 11. mGAYÎWÎN good (irreg.)
4. GLUKÃWEºAÃ sweet 12. F¸LOWHON dear (irreg.)
5. PONHRÎWÎN vile 13. KALÎWÎN beautiful (irreg.)
6. PRÎFRVNON willing 14. MGAWMEGjLHMGA (irreg.)
7. XLVRÎWÎN green 15. A»SXRÎWÎN shameful
8. EÆERGWW well-made
II. Translate the following noun adjective phrases
1. mME¸NVNMTHR 8. %¸APATRA¼ER¢TATON
2. mME¸NONOWMHTRÎW 9. OÁKOWEÆERGSTEROW
3. mMEINÎNESSIMHTRESSI 10. O½KVNEÆERGESTjTVN
4. mR¸STHNMHTRA 11. RGONGLÃKION
5. ;EÄW¼ER¢TATOW 12. RGAGLÃK¸ONA
6. %IÏW¼ERVTjTOU 13. RG¡GLUK¸ST¡
7. ;HNÏW¼ERVTjTOU
ANSWERS
I. 1. SOF¢TEROWSOF¢TATOW 2. ¼ER¢TEROW¼ER¢TATOW
3. NHLSTEROWNHLSTATOW 4. GLUK¸VNGLÃKISTOW 5. PONHRÎTEROW
PONHRÎTATOW 6. PROFRONSTEROWPROFRONSTATOW 7. XLVRÎTEROW
XLVRÎTATOW 8. EÆERGSTEROWEÆERGSTATOW 9.YjSSVN
TjXISTOW 10. PLE¸VNPLEºSTOW 11. mRE¸VNmME¸NVNoRISTOW
12. F¸LTEROWF¸LTATOW 13. KALL¸VNKjLLISTOW 14. ME¸ZVN
MGISTOW 15. A»SX¸VNA½SXISTOW
II. 1. better mother 2. of (a) better mother 3. to/for better mothers
4. best mother (acc.) 5. holiest Zeus 6. of holiest Zeus 7. of holiest Zeus
8. holiest father Zeus (acc.) 9. better-made house 10. of best-made houses
11. sweeter deed 12. sweeter deeds 13. to/for (a) sweetest deed
409
LESSON 50
I. Form the positive degree of the adverbs from each of the following adjectives by
adding VWto the neuter stem. Translate the adverb.
1. MAKRÎWÎN long, large (in space or time)
2. A»SXRÎWÎN shameful
3. BAYÃWEºAÃ deep
4. D¸KAIOWHON just
5. SYLÎWÎN noble
6. ¼ERÎWÎN holy
7. GLUKÃWEºAÃ sweet
8. KAKÎWÎN bad
9. KRATERÎWÎN strong
10. ÑRYÎWÎN straight, correct
11. mLHYWW true
12. BARÃWEºAÃ heavy
13. XALEPÎWÎN difficult
14. oFRVNON senseless
15. MGAWMEGjLHMGA big, great
II. Translate the following comparatives and superlatives as adverbs.
1. F¸LTERONF¸LTATA
2. mLHYSTERONmLHYSTATA
3. KjLLIONKjLLISTA
4. MAKR¢TERONMAKR¢TATA
5. oMEINONoRISTA
6. A½SXIONA½SXISTA
7. DIONDISTA
8. DIKAIÎTERONDIKAIÎTATA
9. ¼ER¢TERON¼ER¢TATA
10. PLEºONPLEºSTA
ANSWERS
I. 1. MAKR¤W at great length, slowly 2. A»SXR¤W shamefully 3. BAYVW
deeply 4. DIKA¸VW justly 5. SYL¤W nobly 6. ¼ER¤W holily 7. GLUKVW
sweetly 8. KAK¤W badly 9. KRATER¤W strongly 10. ÑRY¤W correctly
11. mLHYVW truly 12. BARVW heavily 13. XALEP¤W with difficulty
14. mFRÎNVW senselessly 15. MEGjLVW greatly
II. 1. more dearly, most dearly 2. more truly, most truly 3. more beautifully,
most beautifully 4. at greater length/ more slowly, at greatest length/ most slowly
5. better, best 6. more shamefully, most shamefully 7. more sweetly, most sweetly
8. more justly, most justly 9. more holily, most holily 10. more, most
410
Appendix D
LESSON 51
I. Change each of the following imperfect passive indicatives to aorist passive
indicatives, keeping the same person and number. Translate both the imperfect and
aorist forms.
1. LÃONTO
2. LÃEO
3. LÃESYE
4. ÒRAÎMHN
5. ÒRAÎMEYA
6. ÒRjETO
7. GIGNVSKÎMEYA
8. GIGN¢SKESYE
9. GIGN¢SKETO
10. XA¸REO*
11. XAIRÎMHN*
12. FA¸NONTO
13. FA¸NETO
14. FAINÎMEYA
15. FAINÎMHN
ANSWERS
I.
1. LÃYHSAN they were being loosed/ They were loosed
2. LÃYHW you (sg.) were being loosed/ you were loosed
3. LÃYHTE you (pl.) were being loosed/ you were loosed
4. ÓFYHN I was being seen/ I was seen
5. ÓFYHMEN we were being seen/ we were seen
6. ÓFYH he/she was being seen/ he/she was seen
7. GN¢SYHMEN we were being known/ we were known
8. GN¢SYHTE you all were being known/ you all were known
9. GN¢SYH he/she was being known/ he/she was known
10. XjRHW you (sg.) were rejoicing/ you rejoiced
11. XjRHN I was rejoicing/ I rejoiced
12. FjNHSAN they were appearing/ they appeared
13. FjNH he/she was appearing/he/she appeared
14. FjNHMEN were were appearing/ we appeared
15. FjNHN I was appearing/ I appeared
* The verb XA¸RV has the same meaning in the active, middle and passive voices.
411
LESSON 52
I. Change each of the following from a primary sequence purpose clause to a secondary
sequence purpose clause. Change the main verb into either the imperfect or aorist
indicative (retaining the same mood, voice, person and number); change the verb in
the subordinate clause from the subjunctive to the optative mood (retaining the same
tense, voice, person and number). Translate.
1. PONEÎMEYAPOLLÏNÓFRA«MENoRISTAI
2. PONOMAIPOLLÏNÓFRA«mR¸STH
3. PONETAIPOLLÏNÓFRAmR¸STH
4. PONONTAIPOLLÏNÓFRA«SIoRISTAI
5. PONEAIPOLLÏNÓFRAWmR¸STH
6. PONESYEPOLLÏNÓFRATEoRISTAI
7. mNABSOMAITAXVW¾NAMÑFY¤
8. mNABSONTAITAXVW¾NAMÑFY¤SI
9. mNABSEAITAXVW¾NAMÑFYW
10. mNABSETAITAXVW¾NAMÑFY
11. mNABSESYETAXVW¾NAMÑFYTE
12. mNABHSÎMEYATAXVW¾NAMÑFY¤MEN
ANSWERS
1. PONEÎMEYAPONHSjMEYAPOLLÏNÓFRAEÁMENoRISTAI
We were toiling/We toiled much in order that we might be best.
2. PONEÎMHNPONHSjMHNPOLLÏNÓFRAE½HNmR¸STH
I was toiling/ I toiled much in order that I might be best.
3. PONETOPONSATOPOLLÏNÓFRAE½HmR¸STH
She was toiling/ She toiled much in order that she might be best.
4. PON@ONTOPONSANTOPOLLÏNÓFRAEÁENoRISTAI
They were toiling/ They toiled much in order that they might be best.
5. PONEOPONSAOPOLLÏNÓFRAE½HWmR¸STH
You (sg.) were toiling/ You toiled much in order that you (sg.) might be best.
6. PONESYEPONSASYEPOLLÏNÓFRAEÁTEoRISTAI
You (pl.) were toiling/ You toiled much in order that you (pl.) might be best.
7. ANjBAINONmNjBHNTAXVW¾NAMÑFYE¸HN
I was going up/ I went up swiftly in order that I might not be seen.
8. mNjBAINONmNjBHSANTAXVW¾NAMÑFYEºEN
They were going up/ They went up swiftly in order that they might not be seen.
9. mNjBAINEWmNjBHWTAXVW¾NAMÑFYE¸HW
You (sg.) were going up/ You went up swiftly in order that you (sg.) might not
be seen.
10. mNjBAINEmNjBHTAXVW¾NAMÑFYE¸H
He was going up/ He went up swiftly in order that he might not be seen.
412
Appendix D
11. mNABA¸NETEmNjBHTETAXVW¾NAMÑFYEºTE
You (pl.) were going up/ You went up swiftly in order that you (pl.) might not
be seen.
12. mNABA¸NOMENmNjBHMENTAXVW¾NAMÑFYEºMEN
We were going up/ We went up swiftly in order that we might not be seen.
LESSON 54
I. The verb forms in the left and right columns below are almost identical except for the
presence of the augment and in some cases the accent mark. First (a) translate the
augmented forms in the left column. Then (b) identify the forms in the right hand
column, assuming that they are not indicative.
1. LUE LÃE
2. LÃETE LÃETE
3. LUSAW LÃSAW
4. LUSAN LÅSAN
5. LELÃKETE LELÃKETE
6. LELÃKEMEN LELUKMEN
7. LÃEO LÃEO
8. LÃSASYE LÃSASYE
9. LLUSO LLUSO
10. LLUSYE LLUSYE
11. LEIPE LEºPE
12. LE¸PETE LE¸PETE
13. LEIPON LEºPON
14. LE¸PEO LE¸PEO
15. LE¸PESYE LE¸PESYE
16. LIPE L¸PE
17. L¸PETE L¸PETE
18. L¸PEO L¸PEO
19. L¸PESYE L¸PESYE
20. LIPON LIPÎN
413
ANSWERS
1. a. He was loosing
b. Loose! (pres. impt. act. 2 sg.)
2. a. You (pl.) were loosing
b. Loose! (pres. impt. act. 2 pl.)
3. a. You (sg.) loosed
b. having loosed (aor. ptc. act. nom. m. sg.)
4. a. They loosed
b. having loosed (aor. ptc. act. nom./acc. n. sg.)
5. a. You (pl.) had loosed
b. Loose once and for all! (pl.) (pf. impt. act. 2 pl.)
6. a. We had loosed
b. to have just loosed (pf. inf. act.)
7. a. You (sg.) were loosing for yourself / you were being loosed
b. Loose for yourself! Be loosed! (pres. impt. m.-p. 2 sg.)
8. a. You (pl.) loosed for yourselves/ you were loosed
b. Loose for yourselves! Be loosed! (aor. impt. m.-p. 2 pl.)
9. a. You (sg.) had loosed for yourself / you had been loosed
b. Loose for yourself once and for all! Be loosed once and for all!
(pf. impt. m.-p. 2 sg.)
10. a. You (pl.) had loosed for yourselves / you had been loosed
b. Loose for yourselves once and for all! Be loosed once and for all!
(pf. impt. m.-p. 2 pl.)
11. a. He was leaving.
b. Leave! (pres. impt. act. 2 sg.)
12. a. You (pl.) were leaving.
b. Leave! (pres. impt. act. 2 pl.)
13. a. I was/ They were leaving.
b. leaving (pres. ptc. nom./acc. n. sg.)
14. a. You (sg.) were leaving for yourself / you were being left
b. Leave for yourself! Be left for yourself! (pres. impt. m.-p. 2 sg.)
15. a. You (pl.) were leaving for yourselves / you were being left.
b. Leave for yourselves! Be left for yourselves! (pres. impt. m.-p. 2 pl.)
16. a. He left.
b. Leave! (aor. impt. act. 2 sg.)
17. a. You (pl.) left.
b. Leave! (aor. impt. act. 2 pl.)
18. a. You (sg.) left for yourself.
b. Leave for yourself! (aor. impt. mid. 2 sg.)
19. a. You (pl.) left for yourselves.
b. Leave for yourselves! (aor. impt. mid. 2 pl.)
20. a. I/ They left.
b. having left (aor. ptc. act. nom./acc/ n. sg.)
414
Greek-English Vocabulary
Containing all words in the “Memorize” sections; the number in parentheses after entry indicates the
lesson in which the word is first introduced.
( ) enclose words not necessarily needed in translating; [ ] contain explanatory information
" pLWnLÎW [f.] sea (71)

pMA [adv., or prep. + dat.] at the same time, together with (39)
mGAYÎWÎN good, brave (11) oMAJAHW [f.] wagon (79)
b"GAMMNVNb"GAMMNONOW [m.] Agamemnon [king of nMARTjNVnMARTSOMAIpMARTON I fail of, I miss,
Mycenae and commander in chief of Greeks at Troy] (89) I err [often + gen.] (21)
mGjPHHW [f.] love, charity (45) mME¸BOMAImME¸COMAImMEICjMHN I (ex)change; I reply (25)
mGNVRmGNOROW [adj.] manly, courageous (81) mMLGV [pres. syst.] I milk (86)
mGLAÎWÎN splendid (79) oMME [acc. pl. pron.]us
oGRIOWHON wild, savage (74) oMMEW [nom. pl. pron.] we
oGXI [adv., or prep. + gen.] near, close by (75) oMMIN [dat. pl. pron.] to/for us
oGVoJVoGAGON I lead (17) mMÃMVNmMÃMONOW [adj.] blameless, excellent (110)
mDIKVmDIKSVmD¸KHSA I (do) wrong, I injure (19) mMF¸ [adv.; prep. + dat. or acc.] on both sides, around,
mE¸RV—oEIRA I lift up, I take up, I raise (38) concerning (48)
mJVmEJSVmJHSA I increase [trans.]; [intr. in mid.] mMF¸POLOWOU [f.] handmaid, female attendant (80)
I increase (myself ), I grow (22) mNjor oM [adv.] up; back; [prep. + gen.] on (to); [prep. + dat.]
pZOMAI [pres. syst. only] I respect, I revere; I hesitate to or on [at rest]; [prep. + acc.] on (to), over (74)
shrink from [+ inf.] (51) mNABA¸NVmNABSOMAImNjBHN I go up, I ascend (52)
mYjNATOWHON immortal, eternal (21) mNjGKHHW [f.] necessity, need (9)
b"YNHHW [f.] Athene [a goddess, special patroness of oNAJoNAKTOW [m.] king, lord (27)
Odysseus] (97)
mNDRÎMEOWHON human [used only of flesh] (94)
A»G¸OXOWHON aegis-bearing [epithet of Zeus] (92)
oNEMOWOU [m.] wind (31)
A»DOMAIA»DSSOMAIA»DESSjMHN I venerate, I revere,
I respect (91) mNXOMAImNJOMAIor mNASXSOMAImNjSXONor
SXEYON I hold up under, I endure (23)
A»E¸ [adv.] ever, always, forever (9)
oNYRVPOWOU [m.] man, human being (11)
AÂMAA¾MATOW [n.] blood (100)
mNRmNROWORmNDRÎW [m.] dat. pl. oNDRESSIor
A½NUMAI [pres. syst. only] I seize upon; I select (83) mNDRjSI man, male (27)
A»N¤W [adv.] awfully, greatly (103) oNTRONOU [n.] cave (82)
A½JA»GÎW [m., f.] goat (75) mN¢GVmN¢JVoNVJAoNVGA [pf. has pres. sense;
A»PÃWEºAÃ steep; utter (93) plpf. has impf. sense] I command, I urge (99)
A¼RVA¼RSVLON I seize; [in mid.] I pick for myself, mPjNEUYE [adv., or prep. + gen.] away (from), apart (from),
I choose (29) afar (41)
A»SXRÎWÎN shameful (16) pPAWpPASApPAN [m./ n. gen. pPANTOW> all, the
A»TVA»TSVA½THSA I ask, I request (22) whole (30)
AÁCA [adv.] quickly, suddenly (10) oPEIMI I am away (24)
mKVNOUSA [adj., m. and f.] in silence, silent(ly) (112) mPXV I hold back from, I refrain from (81)
mKOÃVmKOÃSOMAIoKOUSA I hear (30) mPÎ [prep. + gen.] away from, from (6)
oKROWHON top(most), outermost, extreme; [as n. noun] mPOLLÃVmPOLSVmPÎLESSAmPÎLVLA
edge, tip (39) <2 aor. mid.] mPOLÎMHN I kill, I destroy; I lose;
mLjOMAI—mLYHNmLjLHMAI I wander [pf. has pres. [in pf. and mid.] I perish, I am lost (26)
force] (88) b"PÎLLVNb"PÎLLVNOW [m.] Apollo [god of prophecy] (35)
oLGOWoLGEOW [n.] pain, distress, woe (43) mPÎPROSYEN [adv.] far away, aloof (76)
mLOMAI —mLEjMHN or mLEUjMHN I avoid, I shrink mPOSEÃV, —, mPOSSÃMHN [non-thematic 2 aor.]
before (53) I rush away, I rush back (from) (85)
mLHYE¸HHW [f.] truth (7) pPTVpCOMAIpCA I fasten; [in mid.] I lay hold of;
mLHYWW true (29) I catch fire (105)
mLLj [conj.] but (8) oRAor A [postpositive] therefore, then [not of time!] (31)
oLLHLOIVN [pl. only] one another, each other (39) mRE¸VNoREION [comp. of mGAYÎWÎN>better (49)
oLLOYEN [adv.] from elsewhere (109) mRETW [f.] manliness, virtue (7)
oLLOWHO other, another, else (32) oRISTOWHON [supl. of mGAYÎWÎN>best (49)
nLMURÎWÎN salty, briny (83) mRNEIÎWOÅ [m.] ram [full-grown] (77)
oLOXOWOU [f.] wife (80) oRNEWmRN¤N [no nom. sg.; acc.sg. oRNA>[m., f.] lamb(s)
(82)
415
oROURAHW [f.] soil, earth (103) GÎNUGOÃNATOWor GOUNÎW [n.] knee (34)
oRSHNENOW[m., f.] oRSENoRSENOW [n.] male, masculine GUNGUNAIKÎW [f.] woman, wife (45)
(86)
mRXW [f.] beginning (9) %
mSKÎWOÅ [m.] bag (79)
DA¸MVNDA¸MONOW [m., f.] a divinity, a superhuman power
sSSON [adv.] near, close [often + gen. or dat.] (92) (105)
oSTUoSTEOW [n.] town (62) DAMjZVDAMjVDjMASSA I tame, I overpower (116)
mTjR [adversative particle or conj.] but, however, but yet (64) D [alone] but, however; and (8)
AÌ [adv.] again; but now (101) DE¸DVDE¸SOMAIDEºSADE¸DIA I fear [+ inf., or M +
AÆLW [f.] courtyard, farmyard, fold (40) purpose construction; pf. has pres. sense] (25)
AÆTjR [conj.]but, yet (24) DEºPNONOU [n.] main meal, meal (65)
AÌTE again; on the other hand (87) DKATOWHON tenth (50)
AÆT¸KA [adv.] at once (81) DNDREONOU [n.] tree (12)
AÌTIW [adv.] back, again (103) DEÃTEROWHON second (49)
mTMW [f.] breath; vapor; blast (106) DXOMAIDJOMAIDEJjMHN I receive, I accept (33)
AÆTÎWÎ self, same, very; himself, herself, itself; him, DVDSVDSA I tie, I fasten (70)
her, it [not in nom. in last sense] (14) D [adv.] clearly, indeed (9)
AÆTOÅ [adv.] in the same place, there (69) DIj [prep. + gen.] through [prep. + acc.] through; among,
mFAIROMAImFAIRSOMAImFELÎMHN I take away (63) on account of (28)
mFIKNOMAImF¸JOMAImFIKÎMHN I come to, I arrive DIDjSKVDIDjJVD¸DAJA I teach (21)
[+ acc.] (75) D¸DVMID¢SVD¤KA I give [see Appendix A for irreg.
oFRVNON senseless (49) forms] (67 and 68)
mFÃSSVmFÃJVoFUSSA I draw; I heap up (65) D¸KAIOWHON just, honorable (12)
b"XAIO¸¤N Achaeans [a division of the Greeks; also, D¸KHHW [f.] justice; custom (7)
Greeks in general] (89) DºOWAON bright, glorious [f. usually keeps alpha
oC [adv.] back, back again (97) through sg.] (95)
D¸W [adv.] twice, a second time (21)
# DI¢KVDI¢JVD¸VJA I pursue (19)
BAYÃWEºAÃ deep (86) DM¢WDMVÎW [m.] man-servant (80)
BA¸NVBSOMAIBNBBHKA I go (42) DOKVDOKSVDÎKHSA I seem, I appear (21)
BjLLVBALVBjLON I throw, I strike (44) DÎLOWOU [m.] cunning, craftiness; trickery; bait for
BASILE¸HHW [f.] kingdom (37) catching fish (45)
BIjZV I constrain, I use violence against (110) DÎJAHW [f.] opinion; glory (8)
B¸HHW [f.] force (7) DÎRPONOU [n.] supper (94)
B¸OWOU [m.] life (12) DÎRUDOÃRATOWor DOURÎW [n.] beam, plank; spear (106)
BLFARONOU [n.] eyelid (106) DÅN 3 aor. of DÃV I go down, I sink (42)
BOjVBOSVBÎHSA I shout, I roar (109) DÃNAMAIDUNSOMAIDUNHSjMHN I can, I am able [+ inf.]
(92)
BOULEÃVBOULEÃSVBOÃLEUSA I plan, I consider whether
to or how to [+ inf., or ÔPVW + purpose construction] (35) DUNATÎWÎN a) [adj.] able, possible; b) [vb.] [+ E»M¸and
inf.] able (to do something) (24)
BOULW [f.] plan, advice, will (35)
DÃVDÃSVDÅN I enter (42)
BOÃLOMAIBOULSOMAIBOULÎMHN I desire, I prefer (32)
DÃVor DÃO [indecl.] two (35)
BOÅWBOÎW [m., f.] [dat. pl. also BOUS¸] ox, cow (63)
D¤RONOU [n.] gift (13)
BROTÎWÎN mortal, human (15)
&
(
him, her [acc. sg. of 3 pers. pron.]
GAºAHW [f.] earth, land (8)
jVjSVASA I leave (alone); permit, allow (to do or
GAMVGAMVGjMHSAor GMA I marry (35) be something) [+ inf.] (37)
GkR [conj.; never first word] for (6) GGÃYEN [adv.] from close at hand, near (111)
GASTRGASTROWor GASTRÎW [f.] belly (113) GGÃW [adv.; prep. + gen.] near (14)
GE [enclitic particle] at least, in fact (25) GNVKAGNVSMAI pf. of GIGN¢SKV
GGAA pf. of G¸GNOMAI G¢N I
GEGVNVGEGVNSVGEG¢NHSAGGVNA [pf. with DOMAI fut. of SY¸V
pres. meaning] I shout, I make myself heard (119)
DV [pres. syst. only] I eat (64)
GRVNGRONTOW [m.] old man (27)
ZOMAI—SA I sit down; [in aor.] I cause to be seated (71)
G¸GNOMAIGENSOMAIGENÎMHNGGAA I am born, I
become, I am, I happen (23) YLVYELSVYLHSA I wish (20)
G¸GN¢SKVGN¢SOMAIGN¤NGNVKAGNVSMAI E» [conj.] if (10); E»GjRif only [+ opt. in impossible wish] (19);
GN¢SYHN I know (16) E»Munless
GLAFURÎWÎN hollow (70) EÁDARE½DATOW [n.] food (64)
GLUKÃWEºAÃ sweet, delightful (32) E½YE if only, would that (19)
GOjVGOSOMAIGÎHSA I weep (for) [+ acc.], E»M¸ I am (see Appendix A for forms)
I mourn (118) E¾NEKA [prep. +. gen.] on account of, for the sake of (12)
416
EÂOW [also OW or VW] [conj.] while, until [+ ind. if purely RÃOMAI RÃSSOMAI RRUSjMHN I save, I rescue, I
factual; + purpose construction if anticipatory, like ÓFRA] protect (62)
(85) RÃV — RUSSA I drag, I draw (70)
EÁPON [2 aor. syst. only] I said, I told (41) RXOMAILEÃSOMAILUYONE»LLOUYA I come, I go
E»RNH HW [f.] peace (7) (26)
E½ROMAI E»RSOMAI RÎMHN I ask (25) SY¸V DOMAI FjGON I eat (19)
E»W [prep. + acc.] into, to (10) SYLÎW ÎN noble, excellent (13)
EÂW M¸A N [m./n. gen. NÎW] one (30) SYV [pres. syst. only] I eat, I devour (119)
E»SRXOMAI E»SELEÃSOMAI E½SELYON I enter (34) TAºROW OU [m.] companion, comrade (23)
E»SORjV E»SÎCOMAI E½SIDON, etc. I see, I look at (87) TEROW H ON (the) other (14)
K (J before vowels) [prep. + gen.] out of (6) TI [adv.] yet, still; OÆK TI no longer (31)
KASTOW H ON each (27) EÌ [adv.] well (44)
KEºNOW H O that (one) (14) EÉDV EÇDSV EÉDHSA I sleep (17)
KSEÃV — KSSÃMHN [non-thematic 2 aor.] I rush out of, I EÆERGW W well made; fine (80)
pour out of [intr.] (105) EÇR¸SKV EÇRSV EÍRON I find, I discover (33)
KTOYEN [adv.] outside (86) EÆRÃW EºA Ã wide, broad (33)
LAÚNEOW H ON (of ) olive-wood (98) EÈXOMAI EÈJOMAI EÆJjMHN I claim to be, I boast, I exult; I
LAÃNV LjV LASSA I drive (86) pray (to) [+ inf.] (40)
LEV — LHSA I pity, I have mercy on (101) FH he/she said [irreg. from FHM¸>
LON 2 aor. of A¼RV XV JV or SXSV SXÎN or SXYON I have, I hold (18)
LPV or LPOMAI [pres. syst. only] I expect, I hope, I suppose VW [also OW or EÂOW] [conj.] while, until [+ ind. if purely
[+ inf.] (40) factual; + purpose construction if anticipatory, like ÓFRA]
LUYON 2 aor. of RXOMAI (85)
MBRUON OU [n.] a young one [of animals] (87)
;
MÎW ÎN my, mine (26)
MP¸PLHMI MPLSV MPLHSA I pour; I heap up I fill ;EÃW %IÎW or ;HNÎW Zeus [father and chief of the gods] (49)
(with) (81) ZHTV ZHTSV ZTHSA I seek, I search after (34)
N [prep. + dat.] in, on, among (6) ZV W [f.] life (26)
NDON [adv.] within, inside (82) Z¢V Z¢SV Z¤SA I live (20)
NEIKA aor. of FRV )
NYA [adv.] there, then (65)
NYEN [adv.] from there; then [of time] (32) or, than; … either…or; … whether…or (27)
NNPV N¸CV NISPON I say, I tell (18) truly, indeed; also, an untranslatable interrogative particle
NNMAR [adv.] for nine days (64) introducing a question (83)
NTOYEN [adv.] inside; [prep. + gen.] inside of (86) thus he spoke [3 sg. impf. of M¸ ] (105)
NTOL W [f.] command, order (34) D [conj.] and (20)
NTOSYEN [adv.] within, inside; [prep. + gen] inside of (85) DOMAI SOMAI SjMHN I am pleased with [+ dat.] (22)
J = K before vowels DON W [f.] pleasure (29)
JW [adv.] in order, in rows (71) DÃW DEºA DÃ sweet, pleasant (8 and 29)
O of him/her [gen. sg. of 3 pers. pron.] =
OIKA [pf. with pres. force; KEA plpf. with impf. force] E = or
I seem, I am like to; [in 3 sg. impersonal construction, LIOW OU [m.] sun (23)
which may take acc. and inf.] it is fitting (45) MAR MATOW [n.] day (38)
ÎW ÎN own; his, her (15) MEºW we [nom. pl. personal pron.]
PE¸ [conj.] when; since (18) MENOW H ON sitting, seated (85)
PEITA [adv.] then, thereupon (39) MTEROW H ON our (14)
PRXOMAI I come to, I come upon [+ dat., acc.] (81) M¸ I speak [only in 3 sg. impf. ] (105)
PN contraction of PE¹ oN (35) MISUW EIA U half (30)
P¸ [prep. + gen.] upon; [prep. + dat.] on, at, beside; [prep. + MOW [conj.] when (73)
acc.] to, towards; after [in search or attack] (6) N contraction of E» oN (35)
PIBA¸NV PIBSOMAI P¸BHN PIBBHKA I land OW [also EOW or VW] [conj.] while, until [+ ind. if purely
upon, I go upon [+ gen.] (64) factual; + purpose construction if anticipatory, like ÓFRA]
PIMA¸OMAI PIMjSSOMAI PIMASSjMHN I seek out; I (85)
feel, I touch (95) RIGNEIA HW the early-born (one) (73)
PIT¸YHMI PIYSV P¸YHKA I put on; I put in position TOR [n., indecl.] heart (88)
(86) b)¢W b)ÎOW [f.] Eos [the personified goddess of the dawn]
POW PEOW [n.] word (28) (73)
PTj [indecl.] seven (80) :
RGON OU [n.] work, deed (13)
YjLASSA HW [f.] sea (8)
RDV RJV RJA I do (31)
YjNATOW OU [m.] death (12)
RETMÎN OÅ [n.] oar (71)
YjSSVN YlSSON [comp. of TAXÃW EºA Ã> swifter (49)
R¸HROW ON [pl. 3 decl. RHREW, etc.] faithful, loyal (70)
417
YMIWYMISTOW [f.] a right, custom; YMIWST¸ it is right, KLHÚWKLHºDOW [f.] oar-lock; bolt (71)
lawful [+ acc. and inf.] (36) KLUTÎWÎN famous; excellent (97)
YEÎWOÅ [m., f.] god, goddess (11) KÎSMOWOU [m.] world (39)
YESPSIOWHON heavenly, divine (81) KOÃRHHW [f.] daughter
YLUWYLEIAYLUor YLUWYLU female (115) KRATERÎWÎN strong (15)
YHSAURÎWOÅ [m.] treasure (15) KRjTOWKRjTEOW [n.] strength, power (53)
YNSKVYANOMAIYjNON I die (17) KRAKRE¤N [n. pl.] [nom. sg. KRAW]flesh, meat (94)
YNHTÎWÎN mortal (15) KRHTRKRHTROW [m.] mixing-bowl (80)
YOÎWÎN swift (65) KR¸NVKRINVKRºNA I pick out; I separate; I judge (29)
YRCVYRCA fut. and aor. of TRFV KRÃPTVKRÃCVKRÃCA I conceal (47)
YUGjTHRYUGATROWor YUGATRÎW [f.] daughter (63) KTE¸NVKTENVKTEºNAor KTjNON I kill (48)
YUMÎWOÅ [m.] heart, spirit (13) ,ÃKLVC,ÃKLVPOW [m.] Cyclops (92)
YUREÎWOÅ [m.] door-stone (77)
YÃRHHW [f.] door (53) -
* LAºTMALjITMATOW [n.] gulf (89)

LAMBjNVLCOMAILjBON I take, get (22)
»jXV [pres. syst. only] I shout; I hiss; I resound (107) LANYjNVLSVLjYON I elude, I escape someone’s
»D [conj.] and [= D] (76) notice, I deceive; [in mid.] I am forgetful of [+ gen.] (36)
¼ERÎWÎN holy, sacred (25) LAÎWOÅ [m.] people [a nation]; followers (33)
¾HMISVKA I send forth, I cast; I place (67) LGVLJVLJA I say, I tell; I call (10)
»HTRÎWOÅ [m.] physician (11) LE¸PVLE¸CVL¸PON I leave (43)
¼KjNV [pres. syst. only] I come (19) LEUKÎWÎN bright, white (87)
¼KTAI¼KETjVN [m.] suppliants (91) L¸HN [adv.] exceedingly; KA¹L¸HN[adv.] truly (118)
¼KNOMAI¾JOMAI¼KÎMHN I approach, I come [+ acc.] (91) L¸YOWOU [m.] stone (16)
¾NA [adv.] where; [conj.] that, in order that, to (18) LILA¸OMAI [pres. syst. only] I long (to do something) [+ inf.]
¾STHMISTSVSTSA I put; I halt [trans.] (77) (52)
¾STAMAISTSOMAISTN I stand, I halt [intr.; mid. of L¸SSOMAI—, LISjMHN I entreat, I beg (83)
¾STHMI] (77) LÎGOWOU [m.] word; account (11)
¼STÎWOÅ [m.] mast; loom [for weaving] (98) LUGRÎWÎN miserable, wretched (116)
»¢NIOÅSA»ÎN going [pres. act ptc. of EÁMI go] (67) LÃVLÃSVLÅSALLUKALLUMAILÃYHN I loose,
I release (16)
, LVTÎWOÅ [m.] lotus (68)
-VTOFjGOIVN [m.] Lotus-eaters [a legendary people] (64)
KjD=KjTA before D
KAY¸ZV—KjYISA I seat myself; I cause to be seated (71) .
KA¸ [conj.] and; even, also (6)
KA¸VKAÃSVKA I kindle, I burn (85) MjKARAROW [adj.] happy, blessed (29)
KAKÎWÎN cowardly, bad, evil (12) MAKRÎWÎN long, large (in space or time) (39)
KALVKALVKjLESSA I call, I summon, I invite MjLA [adv.] very, quite, greatly (35)
KjLLISTOWHON supl. of KALÎWÎN MANYjNVMAYSOMAIMjYON I learn (17)
KALL¸VNON comp. of KALÎWÎN MjRPTVMjRCVMjRCA I seize (93)
KALÎWÎN beautiful, noble (7) MjXOMAIMAXOMAIMAXSOMAIMAXESSjMHN
KARPjLIMOWON swift, quick (82) I fight (against) [+ dat.] (22)
KARPÎWOÅ [m.] fruit (14) MEGALTVROROW [adj.] great-hearted, great, daring (95)
KASIGNHTÎWOÅ [m.] brother (26) MGAWMEGjLHMGA [m. acc. sg.MGAN, n. acc. sg.
MGA, rest of m. and n. is 2nd declension, on stem
KATj [prep. + gen.] down from; [prep. + acc.] down (along); MEGAL] great, large, big (50)
throughout; according to (10)
ME¸ZVNMEºZON <comp. of MGAWMEGjLHMGA>bigger
KATAT¸YHMIetc. I put down (87) (49)
KEºMAI [pf. mid. syst.] I have been placed, I lie (down) (47) MEIL¸XIOWHON pleasing, winning (104)
KEºNOWHO that (one) (14) MLAWMLAINAMLAN [m. and n. gen. MLANOW] dark,
KLEUYOWOU [f., but frequently n. in pl.] way, path, course black (79)
(88) MELIHDWW honey-sweet (69)
KELEÃVKELEÃSVKLEUSA I command [+ acc., dat., inf.] MLLVMELLSVMLLHSA I am about, I am going, I
(19) intend, I am destined (to do something) [+ inf.] (24)
KLOMAIKELSOMAIKEKLÎMHN I order (70) MLOWMLEOW [n.] member (of the body), limb (51)
KEN particle giving a theoretical, general, expected, or MN…D [correlative particles marking contrast] indeed…but;
contrary to fact coloring to clause. (17) on the one hand…on the other (8)
KRDION [comp. adv.] more beneficial, better (52) MNOWMNEOW [n.] might; courage; wrath (117)
KEÃYVKEÃSVKÃYON I hide [trans.] (18) MNVMENVMEºNA I remain, I stay; I await (44)
KRKROW [n.] heart (28) MSSOWHON middle (of ), midst (of ) [modifying noun in
KIXjNVKIXSOMAIK¸XON I come (by chance), I reach (91) same case] (46)
KLA¸VKLAÃSVKLAÅSA I weep, I wail (70) METj [prep. + dat.] among, with; [prep. + acc.] into the midst,
after (22)
418
MTRONOU [n.] measure (27) ÓÐWÓÐOW [dat. pl. also ÓESSI, acc. pl. always ÓÐW] [m., f.] sheep
M not; MHD and not, nor, not even (17) (75)
MHDE¸WMHDEM¸AMHDN no one, none (30) O½SV fut. of FRV
MDOMAIMSOMAIMHSjMHN I contrive, I plan (68) ÑÚVor ÑÚOMAIÑÚSOMAIÑÐSjMHN I think, I suppose,
MKOWMKEOW [n.] length (28) I imagine (43)
MLONOU [n.] sheep; flock (38) ÓLBOWOU [m.] happiness, prosperity (16)
MHRÎWOÅ [m.] thigh (93) ÓLEYROWOU [m.] destruction (68)
MTHRMHTROWor MHTRÎW [f.] mother (48) ÑL¸GOWHON small, few (13)
M¸MNV [pres. syst. only] I remain, I await (73) ÓLLUMIÑLSVÓLESSAÓLVLA2 aor. mid. ÑLÎMHN
I kill, I destroy, I lose; [in pf. and mid.]
MIN him/her [acc. sg. of pers. pron.] I perish, I am lost (63)
M¸SGVM¸JVM¸JA I mix (something, in acc.) with ÑLOÎWÎN destructive, deadly (64)
(something, in dat.), I mingle with (32)
ÓMBROWOU [m.] rain, storm (21)
MISVMISSVM¸SHSA I hate (23)
ÒMOºOWHON like to, similar to (12)
MOºRAHW [f.] due measure; portion; fate (87)
ÓNOMA or OÈNOMAONÎMATOW [n.] name (100)
MOÅNOWHON alone, only (11)
ÑJÃWEºAÃ sharp, keen (95)
.OÅSAHW [f.] Muse [a goddess of poetry and art] (32)
ÑPjZVÑPjSSVÓPASSA I send (someone) as a
MOXLÎWOÅ [m.] bar, stake (99) companion; I present (67)
ÒPL¸ZV—ÔPLISSA I prepare (94)
/
ÔPP× [adv.] where, in what direction (91)
NKTARNKTAROW [n.] nectar [the special drink of ÔPVW [conj.]that, in order that, to (18)
the gods] (31) ÒRjVÓCOMAI½DON¢RAKA¢RAMAIÓFYHN I see,
NMVNEMVNEºMA I assign, I drive my flock; [in mid.] I look at (16)
I possess, I feed on (85) ÑRYÎWÎN straight, true (23)
NOMAI [pres. syst. only] I return (69) ÓROWÓREOW [n.] mountain (77)
NHLEWW pitiless, ruthless (91) ÔWÔ [rel. pron.] who, which, that (26); ÔWTIWTIW
NHÎWOÅ [m.] temple (25) ÔTIÔTTI[indef. rel. pron.] whoever, whatever (31)
NPIOWHON simple; foolish (11) ÔSSOWHON as many as, as great as, as much as [see
NHÅWNHÎWor NEÎWdat. pl. alsoNHUS¸ [f.] ship (53) TÎSSOW] (86)
NOVNOSVNÎHSA I think, I perceive (20) ÑSTONOU [n.] bone (94)
NOM¸ZVNOMI¤NÎMISA consider, think, believe (20) ÔTE [adv. conj.] when, whenever (35)
NÎOWOU [m.] mind (15) ÔTI [conj.] that; because (18)
NÎSTIMOWHON of one’s homecoming (63) OÆ [OÆK before smooth breathing, OÆX before rough
breathing] not, no (8)
NÎSTOWOU [m.] return (home) (62)
OÆD and not, nor, not even (21)
NOÅSOWOU [f.] disease (15)
OÆDE¸WOÆDEM¸AOÆDN no one, none (30)
NÅN [adv.] now, at the present time (9)
OÆKTI [adv.] no longer
NÃJNUKTÎW [f.] night (50)
OÌLOWHON whole, entire (53)
N¤TONOU [n.] back (113)
OÌN [adv.] therefore, then [not of time!] (22)
+ OÆRANÎWOÅ [m.] heaven, sky (26)
OÈTE and not, nor [following a neg. clause] (8)
JE¸NIONOU [n.] gift of hospitality, a present given by a OÈTE…OÈTE neither…nor (8)
host to a guest (83) 0ÌTIW0ÈTIOW Nobody (104)
JEºNOWOU [m.] guest, stranger (13) OÉTVW [adv.] thus, in this way, so (9)
J¸FOWJ¸FEOW [n.] sword (94) ÑFYALMÎWOÅ [m.] eye (14)
ÓFRA [conj.] that, in order that, to [+ subj. or opt. in
0 purpose construction] (18); while, until [+ ind. if purely
ÒTÎ that, the [modifying noun or substantive]; who, factual, + purpose construction if anticipatory] (24)
which, that [w. def. antecedent]; he, she, it [as pron. ÑFRÃWÑFRÃOW [f.] eyebrow (106)
standing alone] (15)
ÓBRIMOWHN heavy, mighty (85) 1
ÔDEDETÎDE [demonstrative pron./adj.]this (one) (15) PAºWPAIDÎW [m., f.] child, boy, girl (27)
ÒDÎWOÅ [f.] way, road; journey (33) PjLIN [adv.] back (again); again (46)
ÔYI [adv.] where (95) PANTOºOWHON of all sorts (21)
OÁDAE»DSV [irreg.; see Appendix A for forms] I know PARj [prep. + gen.] from; [prep. + dat.] at, beside; [prep. +
O½KADE [adv.] homeward (89) acc.] to, along (20)
O»KVO»KSVO½KHSA I dwell, I inhabit (50) PjREIMI I am present (21)
OÁKOWOU [m.] house, home (46) PARRXOMAI I go past, I pass (26)
O»M¢ZVO»M¢JOMAIO½MVJA I cry out in pain (107) PARXVPARJVor PARASXSVPARjSXON
OÁNOWOU [m.] wine (33) I supply (18)
OÁOWHON alone (76) PAR¸STAMAIPARASTSOMAIPARjSTHN
OÂOWHON such) as, (of ) what sort (88) I stand by (98)
419
PlWPlSAPlN [m./ n. gen. PANTÎW>all, every, the PRO¸HMIPROSVPROKA I send forth, I hurl (67)
whole (30) PRÎW [prep. + gen.] from; [prep. + dat.] on, at; [prep. + acc.]
PjSXVPE¸SOMAIPjYON I suffer, I experience (37) to, towards (10)
PATOMAI—PASSjMHN I partake of [+ gen.] (67) PROSAUDjV I address (101)
PATRPATROWor PATRÎW [m.] father (27, 48) PROSEºPON I address, I speak to [+ acc.] (89)
PATR¸WPATR¸DOW [ f . ] fatherland, country; [as f. adj.] of PRÎSYEN [adv.] first, before, in front of (104)
one’s fathers, ancestral (30) PRÎFRVNON willing, eager, ready (29)
PAXÃWEºAÃ thick, stout (104) PR¤TOWHON first (25)
PE¸YVPE¸SVPEºSAor PPIYON2 aor. mid.PIYÎMHN PTERÎEIWESSAEN winged (29)
I persuade, I win over; [in mid.] I am persuaded by, I am PTÎLEMOWOU [m.] war (12)
obedient to, I obey [+ dat.] (31)
PTÎLIWPTÎLIOW [f.] city (89)
PEºRARPE¸RATOW [n.] end, boundary (93)
PUKINÎWÎN thick; close; shrewd (115)
PEIRjVPEIRSVPE¸RHSA I make trial of [+ gen.];
I attempt, I try [+ gen., or + inf.] (30) PÃLHHW [f.] gate, entrance (34)
PLV—PLONor deponent form PLOMAI—PLÎMHN PÅRPURÎW [n.] fire (28)
I come to be, I am (24) PV [+ neg.] [adv.] never yet, in no way, not at all (36)
PEL¢RIOWHON gigantic, monstrous (76) P¤W [interr. adv.] how? (26)
PMPVPMCVPMCA I send (24) PVW [enclitic adv.] somehow, in anyway (26)
PER [encliticparticle] surely, by far [adds force];
[+ ptc.] though (27) 3
PER¸ [adv.] round about; especially; [prep. + gen.] about;
excelling (over); [prep. + dat. or acc.] about; for (41) A [See under oRA]
PETjNNUMI—PTASSA I spread out (111) ZVJVJA I do (18)
PTRHHW [f.] rock (7) V [pres. syst.] I flow (42)
PEÃYOMAIPEÃSOMAIPUYÎMHN I learn (by inquiry), H¸DIOWHON easy (16)
I inquire (from), I hear of [+ acc. of thing heard, + gen. ¸PTV¸CVºCA I hurl (109)
of person heard] (25) ODODjKTULOWON rosy-fingered [epithet of Eos,
P¸NVP¸OMAIP¸ON I drink (23) goddess of the dawn] (73)
P¸PTVPSOMAIPSON I fall (21) ÃOMAIÃSOMAIUSjMHN [See under ERÃOMAI]
PISTEÃVPISTEÃSVP¸STEUSA I believe (in), I have
faith in [+ dat.] (38) 4
P¸VNP¸ONOW fat, rich (82) SjRJSARKÎW [f.] flesh (44)
PLEºSTOWHON [supl. of POLLÎWÎN>most (49) SHKÎWOÅ [m.] pen, fold (82)
PLE¸VNPLEºON [comp. of POLLÎWÎN>more (49) SºTOWOU [m.] bread, food (26)
PLVPLEÃSOMAIPLEÅSA I sail (over) (88) SÎWÎN your [sg.] (24)
PLHS¸OWHON near; neighbor(ing) (22) SOFÎWÎN wise (11)
PÎYEN [interr. adv.] from what source? whence? SPOWSPOWor SPOW [n.] cave (75)
POYVPOYSVPÎYESA I long (to do something), SPEÃDVSPEÃSVSPEÅSA I hasten (21)
I yearn (to do something) [+ inf.], I miss (a person
or thing) (43) STAYMÎWOÅ [m.] doorpost; farmyard (116)
POIVPOISVPO¸HSA I make, I produce, I do (19) STE¸XV—ST¸XON I go, I proceed (110)
POIMNPOIMNOW [m.] shepherd (40) STENjXV [pres. syst. only] I groan, I lament (95)
PÎLEMOWOU [m.] war (see PTÎLEMOW) STN [3 aor. syst. of ¾STHMII stand] I stood [intr.] (42)
POLIÎWÎN grayish, white (71) SÃ you [nom. sg. pers. pron.]
PÎLIWPÎLIOWor PÎLHOW [f.] city (27) SÃN [prep. + dat.] with (6)
POLLÎWÎN much; many (14) SFTEROWHON their(s) (46)
POLÃW— POLÃ much, many [alternative m. and n. forms SFINSFISIN to/ for them [dat. pl. pers. pron.]
of POLLÎWÎN] (83) SXEDÎN [adv.] close by, near (92)
1OLÃFHMOWOU [m.] Polyphemus [a Cyclops, son of SXYON 2 aor. of XV
Poseidon and the nymph Thoösa] (109) SXTLIOWHON cruel, pitiless; reckless (13)
PONOMAIPONSOMAIPONHSjMHN I labor, I toil at, SXSV fut. of XV
I am busy about (37) S¢ZVS¢SVS¤SA I save (25)
PONHRÎWÎN worthless, base, wicked (15) S¤MAS¢MATOW [n.] body, corpse (28)
PÎNOWOU [m.] toil, trouble (14)
PÎNTOWOU [m.] sea, the deep (62) 5
PÎRON [2 aor. syst. only] I gave, I offered (41)
1OSEIDjVNVNOW [m.] Poseidon [brother of Zeus and god TjXA [adv.] quickly, soon (105)
of the sea] (93) TAXÃWEºAÃ swift (49)
POTAMÎWOÅ [m.] river (14) T [postpositive conj.] and T…T both…and;
POT [enclitic adv.] ever, (at) some time, once (10) T…KA¸ both…and (13)
POU [indefinite adv.] perhaps, I suppose,of course, no doubt TE¸RV [pres. syst. only] I wear out; I distress (115)
(21) TELVTELVTLESA I fulfill, I accomplish, I complete (41)
POÅ [interr. adv., always with circumflex] where? (21) TEOISI dat. pl. of TIWTI
PRlGMAPRjGMATOW [n.] deed; [in pl.] trouble, deeds (28) TEÎWÎN your [sg.] (103)
420
TEÃXVTEÃJVTEÅJApf. mid. TTUGMAI I build; FA¸NVFANVFNA I show, I reveal;

I make ready. [pf. pass. often = I am] (35) [in mid.] FA¸NOMAIFANOMAI aor. pass. w. act.
TEVN gen. pl. of TIWTI force FjNHN I show myself, I appear (27)
T where [rel. adv.]; there (28) FjOWFjEOW [n.] light (28)
TDE [adv.] here (28) FRVO½SVNEIKA I bear, I bring (17)
T¸YHMIYSVYKA I put, I cause, I make (67) FEÃGVFEÃJOMAIFÃGON I flee, I escape (20)
T¸NVor T¸V[fut.] TE¸SV or T¸SV[aor.] TE¸SAor TºSA FHM¸FSVFSA I say, I claim [see Appendix A for
I pay; [in mid.] I take vengeance upon, I punish (97) irreg. forms]
T¸WT¸ who? which? what? [interrog. pron.]; FYÎGGOWOU [m.] voice (88)
T¸[interrog. adv.] why? (31) FILVFILSVF¸LHSA I love (17)
TIWTI some(one), some(thing), one, a certain, any(one) [indef. F¸LOWHON dear (to), friendly (to) [+ dat.] (10)
pron.]; TI[adv.] somehow, in some respect (31) F¸LOWOU [m. adj. as noun] friend (11)
TLjVTLSOMAITLN I endure (something) patiently, FOITjVFOITSVFO¸THSA I roam (back and forth) (19)
I have the heart, I dare (to do something) [+ inf.] (42) FRNFRENÎW [f.] mind, spirit (32)
TO¸ surely, you see [postpositive] (24) FRONVFRONSVFRÎNHSA I consider, I have
TÎSSOWHON so many, so great, so much [often understanding (21)
correlative with ÔSSOW: so many…as…] (86) FÃSIWFÃSIOW [f.] nature (27)
TÎTE [adv.]then (47) FVNW [f.] voice, sound (9)
TRPVTRCVTRCA I turn [trans.]; [in mid.] F¢WFVTÎW [m.] man (113)
I turn (myself ) [intr.] (22)
TRFVYRCVYRCA I nourish, I feed, I rear (21) 9
TR¸W [adv.] thrice, three times (100)
5RO¸HHW [f.] Troy, Ilion (61) XA¸RVXAIRSVXjRHN <aor. pass. with active force]
TÃPTVTÃCVTÃCA I strike, I beat (71) I rejoice (in) (38)
TURÎWOÅ [m.] cheese (82) XALEPÎWÎN difficult (15)
T¤ [adv., often used with conjunctive force] therefore; XjRIWXjRITOW [f.] acc. sg. XjRIN beauty, charm, grace (37)
in that case (117) XE¸RXEIRÎW [f.] hand (51)
XVXEÃVXEÅA I pour; I heap up [+ acc., gen.] (81)
6 XY¢NXYONÎW [f.] earth (67)
XLVRÎWÎN greenish yellow, green (98)
ÇGRÎWÎN fluid, watery (88)
XR [+ inf. w. acc. sub.] it is necessary (38)
ÉDVRÉDATOW [n.] water (32)
XRMAXRMATOW [n.] possession, property; [in pl.] wealth
U¼ÎWOÅor U¼OW [m.] son (34) (28)
ÉLHHW wood; forest (85) XRHSTÎWÎN worthy, good; useful, serviceable (29)
ÇMEºW you all [nom. pl. of personal pron.] 9RISTÎWOÅ [m.] Christ [“the anointed one”]
ÇPRor ÇPE¸R [prep. + gen. or acc.] over (88) XRÎNOWOU [m.] time (16)
c6PER¸VNc6PER¸ONOW [m.] Hyperion (63) XRUSÎWOÅ [m.] gold (12)
ÉPNOWOU [m.] sleep (99) X¤ROWOU [m.] place, region (75)
ÇPÎ [prep. + gen.] from under; under the influence of, = by
[personal or impersonal agent]; [prep. + dat. ] under $
[at rest]; [prep. + acc.] under [motion to] (6)
ÉSTATOWHON last (112) CUXW [f.] soul; life (7)
ÇFA¸NVÇFANVÉFHNA I weave; I devise (111)
ÇCHLÎWÎN high (11) :
ÇCÎSE [adv.] on high, upwards (79)
« O! [in direct address] (23)
' ¬DE [adv.] thus, so (107)
¥KÃWEºAÃ swift, nimble (70)
FjGON 2 aor. of SY¸V
¦W [adv. or conj.] as, that, how (17)
¨W¬W [adv.]thus, so [always with pitch-mark] (62)
421
English-Greek Vocabulary
( ) enclose words not always used in translation; [ ] contain explanatory information.
For more detail (i.e., principal parts of verbs, case usage after prepositions, etc.), consult the fuller
entry in the Greek-English Vocabulary.
A at P¸PARjPRÎW[preps. + dat.]; at least GE[enclitic parti-

cle]; at once AÆT¸KA
able DUNATÎWÎN I am able DÃNAMAIDUNSOMAI Athene "YNHHW[f.]
DUNHSjMHN attempt PEIRjVPEIRSVPE¸RHSA[+ inf.]
about a) PER¸[prep. + gen., dat., acc.]; b) [vb.] I am attendant mMF¸POLOWOU[f.]
about MLLVMELLSVMLLHSA
avoid mLOMAI —mLEjMHN or mLEUjMHNmLEE¸NV
above (all) PER¸[prep. + gen.]
await MNVMENVMEºNA; M¸MNV[pres. syst. only]
accept DXOMAIDJOMAIDEJjMHN
away (from) mPÎ[prep. + gen.]; mPjNEUYE [adv., or prep. +
accomplish TELVTELVTLESA gen.]; Iam away oPEIMI
according to KATj[prep. + acc.] awfully A»N¤W[adv.]
account LÎGOWOU[m.]; on account of DIj[prep. + acc.],
E¾NEKA[prep. + gen.] B
Achaeans b"XAIO¸¤N[m.]
address PROSAUDjVPROSEºPON[+ acc.] back a) [adv.] AÌTIWoCPjLINmNjor oMback again oC
admirable mMÃMVNmMÃMONOW PjLIN b)[noun] N¤TONOU[n.]
advice BOULW[f.] bad KAKÎWÎN
aegis-bearing A»G¸OXOWHON bag mSKÎWOÅ[m.]
afar mPjNEUYE[adv.] bait (for catching fish) DÎLOWOU[m.]
after (in search or attack) P¸[+ acc.]; (in time or position) bar MOXLÎWOÅ[m.]
METj[+ acc.] base PONHRÎWÎN
again AÌAÌTEAÌTIWPjLIN be [see “am”]
Agamemnon b"GAMMNVNb"GAMMNONOW [m.] beam DÎRUDOÃRATOWorDOURÎW[n.]
all PlWPlSAPlN[m./ n. gen. PANTÎW>pPAWpPASA bear FRVO½SVNEIKA
pPAN[m./ n. gen. pPANTOW> beat TÃPTVTÃCVTÃCA
allow jVjSVASA[+ inf.] beautiful KALÎWÎN [comp. KALL¸VNON; supl.
alone MOÅNOWHONOÁOWHON KjLLISTOWHON]
along PARj[prep. + acc.] beauty XjRIWXjRITOW[acc. sg. XjRIN] [f.]
aloof mPÎPROYEN[adv.] because ÔTI[conj.]
also KA¸ become G¸GNOMAIGENSOMAIGENÎMHNGGAA
although PER[+ ptc.] before PRÎSYEN[adv.]
always A»E¸[adv.] beg L¸SSOMAI—,LISjMHN
am a) E¸M¸[see appendix for forms] b) PLV—,PLON or beginning mRXW[f.]
mid. PLOMAI, —,PLÎMHNc)G¸GNOMAIGENSOMAI believe (in) PISTEÃVPISTEÃSVP¸STEUSA[+ dat.]
GENÎMHNGGAA belly GASTRGASTROWor GASTRÎW[f.]
among N[prep. + dat.];METj[prep. + dat.];DIj[prep. + acc.] beneficial, more KRDION[comp. adv.]
ancestral PATR¸WPATR¸DOW [as f. adj.] beside P¸PARj[preps. + dat.]
and KA¸DDDTE[never first word]; and not OÆD best oRISTOWHON[supl. of mGAYÎWÎN>best
MHDOÈTE
better KRDION[comp. adv.]; mRE¸VNoREION[comp.
another oLLOWHO of mGAYÎWÎN>
any(one) TIWTI big MGAWMEGjLHMGA[m. acc. sg.MGAN, n. acc.
apart (from) [adv., or prep. + gen.] mPjNEUYE sg. MGA, rest of m. and n. is 2nd decl., on stem MEGAL ;
Apollo b"PÎLLVNb"PÎLLVNOW [m.] comp. ME¸ZVNON; supl. MGISTOWHON]
appear FA¸NOMAIFANOMAIFjNHN; appear [seem] DOKV black MLAWMLAINAMLAN[m. and n. gen. MLANOW]
DOKSVDÎKHSA blameless mMÃMVNmMÃMONOW
approach ¼KNOMAI¾JOMAI¼KÎMHN[+ acc.] blast mTMW[f.]
around mMF¸[adv.; prep. + dat. or acc.];mMF¸W[adv.] blessed MjKAR[gen. MjKAROW]
arrive mFIKNOMAImF¸JOMAImFIKÎMHN[+ acc.] blood AÂMAA¾MATOW[n.]
as ¦W;as many, as great, as much ÔSSOWHON[often cor- boast EÈXOMAIEÈJOMAIEÆJjMHN [+ inf.]
relative with TÎSSOWHONso many (etc.)…as] body S¤MAS¢MATOW[n.]
ascend mNABA¸NVetc. bolt KLH¸WKLHºDOW[f.]
ask A»TVA»TSVA½THSAE½ROMAIE»RSOMAIRÎMHN bone ÑSTONOU[n.]
assign NMVNEMVNEºMA born, I am G¸GNOMAIGENSOMAIGENÎMHNGGAA
423
both…and TE…TETE…KA¸; on both sides mMF¸[adv.; prep. concerning mMF¸[adv.; prep. + dat. or acc.]
+ dat. or acc.] consider FRONVFRONSVFRÎNHSANOM¸ZVNOMI¤
boundary PEºRARPE¸RATOW[n.] NÎMISA;considerwhether or how to BOULEÃV
boundless mPE¸RVNON BOULEÃSVBOÃLEUSA[+ inf., or ÔPVW + purpose con-
boy PAºWPAIDÎW[m.] struction]
brandish TINjSSVTINjJVT¸NAJA constrain BIjZV[pres. syst. only]
brave mGAYÎWÎN[comp. mRE¸VNON; supl. oRISTOW contrive MDOMAIMSOMAIMHSjMHN
HON] corpse S¤MAS¢MATOW[n.]
bread SºTOWOU[m.] could [= potential fut. supposition expressed by vb. in opt. +
breath mTMW[f.] KEN oroN]
bright DºOWAON[f. usually keeps alpha through sg.]; country a) homeland PATR¸WPATRºDOW[f.]; b) rural area, as
LEUKÎWÎN opposed to city mGRÎWOÅ[m.]
bring FRVO½SVNEIKA; bring to a halt ¾STHMISTSV courage MNOWMNEOW[n.]
STSA[trans.]; bring oneself to a halt¾STAMAI courageous mGNVR [gen. mGNOROW]
STSOMAISTN[intr.] course a) [noun] KLEUYOWOU[f., but frequently n. in pl.];
briny nLMURÎWÎN b) [indef. adv.] of course POU
broad EÆRÃWEºAÃ courtyard AÆLW[f.]
brother KASIGNHTÎWOÅ[m.] cow BOÅWBOÎW[m., f.] [dat. pl. also BOUS¸]
build TEÃXVTEÃJVTEÅJApf. mid. TTUGMAI cowardly KAKÎWÎN
burn KA¸VKAÃSVKA[trans.] craftiness DÎLOWOU[m.]
busy about, I am PONOMAIPONSOMAIPONHSjMHN cruel SXTLIOWHON
but mLLjAÆTjRmTjR; D [never first word; following a cry out in pain O»M¢ZVO»M¢JOMAIO½MVJA
phrase or clause introduced by MN>; but now AÌ cunning DÎLOWOU[m.]
by [cause or agent] ÇPÎ[+ gen.] custom D¸KHHW[f.]; YMIWYMISTOW [f.]
Cyclops ,ÃKLVC,ÃKLVPOW[m.]
C
D
call LGVLJVLJAKALVKALVKjLESSA call (by
name) ÑNOMjZVÑNOMjSVÑNÎMASA dare TLjVTLSOMAITLN[+ inf.]
can DÃNAMAIDUNSOMAIDUNHSjMHN[+ inf.] daring [adj.] MEGALTVR[gen. MEGALTOROW]
carry FRVO½SVNEIKA dark MLAWMLAINAMLAN[m. and n. gen. MLANOW]
cast PRO¸HMIPROSVPROKA daughter YUGjTHRYUGATROWorYUGATRÎW[f.]; KOÃRH
catch fire pPTOMAIpCOMAInCjMHN HW[f.]
cause T¸YHMIYSVYKA;Icause to be seated SA[aor. of Dawn [= goddess] b)¢Wb)ÎOW[f.]
ZOMAI>or KAY¸ZV—, KjYISA day MARMATOW [n.]; for nine days NNMAR[adv.]
cave oNTRONOU[n.]; SPOWSPOWor SPOW[n.] dead body S¤MAS¢MATOW[n.]
certain, a [indef. adj. and pron.] TIWTI[for forms, see Section deadly ÑLOÎWÎN
212] dear (to) F¸LOWHON[comp. F¸LTEROWHON;supl.
change mME¸BOMAImME¸COMAImMEICjMHN F¸LTATOWHON]
charity mGjPHHW[f.] death YjNATOWOU[m.]
charm XjRIWXjRITOW[acc. sg. XjRIN] deceive LANYjNVLSVLjYON
cheese TURÎWOÅ[m.] deed RGONOU[n.]; PRlGMAPRjGMATOW[n.]
child PAºWPAIDÎW[m., f.] deep a) [adj.] BAYÃWEºAÃ; b) [noun = sea] PÎNTOWOU
choose A¼ROMAIA¼RSOMAILÎMHN[mid. of ARV> [m.]
Christ 9RISTÎWOÅ delightful GLUKÃWEºAÃ
city PTÎLIWPTÎLIOW[f.] desire BOÃLOMAIBOULSOMAIBOULÎMHN
claim (to be) EÈXOMAIEÈJOMAIEÆJjMHN destroy ÑLLÃVÑLSVÓLESSAmPOLLÃVetc. [=
clearly D[adv.] destroy utterly]
close a) [adj. = compact]PUKINÎWÎN; b) [adv.] sSSON; destruction ÓLEYROWOU[m.]
close by oGXI[adv., or prep. + gen.], SXEDÎN[adv.] destructive ÑLOÎWÎN
come a) RXOMAILEÃSOMAILUYONE»LLOUYA; devise ÇFA¸NVÇFANVÉFHNA
b) ¼KNOMAI¾JOMAI¼KÎMHN[+ acc.]; c) ¼KjNV[pres. syst. devour SYV[pres. syst. only]
only] d) I come (by chance) KIXjNVKIXSOMAIK¸XON; die YNSKVYANOMAIYjNON
e) I come to PRXOMAI etc. [+ dat. or acc.];mF
IKNOMAIetc. [+ acc.]; f ) I come to be PLV—PLON difficult XALEPÎWÎN
or deponent form: PLOMAI—PLÎMHNG¸GNOMAI dinner DEºPNONOU[n.]
GENSOMAIGENÎMHNGGAA; g) I come upon P discover EÇR¸SKVEÇRSVEÍRON
RXOMAI[+ dat. or acc.] disease NOÅSOWOU[f.]
command a) [vb.] mN¢GVmN¢JVoNVJAoNVGA[pf. distressa) [noun] oLGOWoLGEOW[n.]; b) [vb.] TE¸RV[pres.
has pres. sense; plpf. has impf. sense];KELEÃVKELEÃSV syst. only]
KLEUSA [+ acc., dat., inf.]; b) [noun] NTOLW[f.]
divine YESPSIOWHON
companion TAºROWOUTAROWOU[m.]
divinity DA¸MVNDA¸MONOW[m., f.]
complete TELVTELVTLESA
do ZVJVJARDVRJVRJAPOIV
comrade TAºROWOUTAROWOU[m.] POISVPO¸HSA; I do wrong mDIKVmDIKSV
conceal KRÃPTVKRÃCVKRÃCA mD¸KHSA
424
door YÃRH HW [f.] faithful R¸HROW ON [pl. 3 decl.: R¸HREW, etc.]
door-post STAYMÎW OÅ [m.] fall P¸PTV PESOMAI PSON
door-stone YUREÎW OÅ [m.] famous KLUTÎW ON
doubt, no doubt POU [indef. adv.] far away mPÎPROYEN [adv.]
down (from) KATj [prep. + gen.]; down (along) KATj [prep. farmyard AÆL W [f.]; STAYMÎW OÅ [m.]
+ acc.]; down (to) KATj [prep. + acc.] fast TAXÃW EºA Ã [comp. YjSSVN YlSSON; supl.
drag RÃV —RUSSALKV TjXISTOW H ON]
draw RÃV — RUSSA; I draw (water or wine) mFÃSSV fasten pPTV pCOMAI pCA DV DSV DSA
mFÃJV oFUSSA fat P¸VN P¸ONOW
drink P¸NV P¸OMAI P¸ON fate MOºRA HW [f.]
drive LAÃNV LjV LASSA; I drive a flock NMV father PATR PATROW or PATRÎW [m.]
NEMV NEºMA fatherland PATR¸W PATR¸DOW [f .]
due measure MOºRA HW [f.] fear DE¸DV DE¸SOMAI DEºSA DE¸DIA [+ inf. or M + purpose
dwell O»KV O»KSV O½KHSA construction; pf. has pres. sense]
feed [trans.] TRFV YRCV YRCA; feed (upon) [intr., =
E
graze] NMOMAI NEMOMAI NEIMjMHN
each KASTOW H ON; other oLLHLOI VN [pl. only] feel PIMA¸OMAI PIMjSSOMAI PIMASSjMHN
eager(ly) PRÎFRVN ON fellow oNYRVPOW OU [m.]
early-born (one) RIGNEIA HW [f.] female YLUW YLEIA YLU <or adj. of two endings YLUW
earth [= world, globe] GAºA HW [f.]; [= ground] XY¢N YLU]
XYONÎW [f.]; [= soil, arable land] oROURA HW [f.] few ÑL¸GOW H ON
easy H¸DIOW H ON fight (against) MjXOMAI MAXOMAI MAXSOMAI
eat SY¸V DOMAI FjGON DV [pres. syst. only]; SYV MAXESSjMHN [+ dat.]
[pres. syst. only] fill (with) MP¸PLHMI MPLSV MPLHSA; I fill to over-
edge oKRON OU [n.] flowing NA¸V
either…or … <after neg.] OÆD…OÆD find EÇR¸SKV EÇRSV EÍRON
else oLLOW H O fine EÆERGW W
elude LANYjNV LSV LjYON fire PÅR PURÎW [n.]
end PEºRAR PE¸RATOW [n.] first a) [adj.] PR¤TOW H ON; b) [adv.] at first PR¤TON
endure mNXOMAI mNJOMAI or mNASXSOMAI mNj fitting, it is OIKA [in 3 sg. impers. construction, which may
SXON or SXEYON; I endure patiently TLjV TLSOMAI take acc. and inf.]
TLN flee FEÃGV FEÃJOMAI FÃGON
enter E»SRXOMAI E»SELEÃSOMAI E½ZELYON DÃV flesh SjRJ SARKÎW [f.]; KRA KRE¤N [n. pl.] nom. sg.
DÃSOMAI DUSjMHN or DÅN KRAW
entire OÌLOW H ON flock MLON OU [n.]
entrance PÃLH HW [f.] flow V [pres. syst.]
entreat L¸SSOMAI —, LISjMHN fluid ÇGRÎW ÎN
err nMARTjNV nMARTSOMAI pMARTON fold [= pen for animals] AÆL W [f.]; SHKÎW OÅ [m.]
escape FEÃGV FEÃJOMAI FÃGON I escape the notice of followers LAÎW OÅ [m.]
(someone) LANYjNV LSV LjYON food SºTOW OU [m.]; EÁDAR E½DATOW [n.]
especially PER¸ [adv.] foolish NPIOW H ON
eternal mYjNATOW H ON for [conj., never first word in clause] GjR for PER¸ [prep. +
even KA¸ not even OÆD MHD dat. or acc.]; for the sake of E¾NEKA [prep. +. gen.]
ever [= forever] A»E¸ [adv.]; [= at some time] POT [enclitic force B¸H HW [f.]
adv.] forest ÉLH HW
every PlW PlSA PlN [m./ n. gen. PANTÎW> forever A»E¸ [adv.]
evil KAKÎW ÎN forgetful of, I am LANYjNOMAI LSOMAI LAYÎMHN [+ gen.]
exceedingly L¸HN [adv.]; PER¸ [adv.] friend F¸LOW OU [adj. as noun]
excellent SYLÎW ÎN KLUTÎW ON mMÃMVN mMÃMONOW friendly (to) F¸LOW H ON [+ dat.]
excelling (over) PER¸ [prep. + gen.] from mPÎ K PARj PRÎW [preps. + gen.]; down from
(ex)change mME¸BOMAI mME¸COMAI mMEICjMHN KATj [prep. + gen.]; from close at hand GGÃYEN [adv.];
expect LPV or LPOMAI [+ inf.] [pres. syst. only] from elsewhere oLLOYEN [adv.]; from there NYEN [adv.];
experience PjSXV PE¸SOMAI PjYON from under ÇPÎ [+ gen.]; from what place or source?
extreme oKROW H ON [interr. adv.] PÎYEN
exult EÈXOMAI EÈJOMAI EÆJjMHN fruit KARPÎW OÅ [m.]
eye ÑFYALMÎW OÅ [m.] fulfill TELV TELV TLESA
eyebrow ÑFRÃW ÑFRÃOW [f.]
eyelid BLFARON OU [n.] G
gate PÃLH HW [f.]
F
gave PÎRON [2 aor. syst. only]
fail of nMARTjNV nMARTSOMAI pMARTON [often + gen.] get LAMBjNV LCOMAI LjBON
faith in, I have PISTEÃV PISTEÃSV P¸STEUSA [+ dat.] gift D¤RON OU [n.]; gift of hospitality, guest-gift JE¸NION OU [n.]
425
gigantic PEL¢RIOWHON hesitate to pZOMAI[pres. syst. only] [+ inf.]

girl PAºWPAIDÎW[f.] hide [trans.] KEÃYVKEÃSVKÃYONKRÃPTVKRÃCV
give D¸DVMID¢SVD¤KA[see appendix for irreg. forms]; KRÃCA
ÑPjZVÑPjSSVÓPASSAPÎRON[2 aor. syst. only] high ÇCHLÎWÎN
glorious DºOWAON[f. usually keeps alpha through sg.] him [see he]
glory DÎJAHW[f.] himself, herself, itself AÆTÎWÎ
go BA¸NVBSOMAIBNBBHKARXOMAILEÃSOMAI his ÎWÎN
LUYONE»LLOUYASTE¸XV—ST¸XON; I go up hiss »jXV[pres. syst. only]
mNABA¸NVetc; I go upon PIBA¸NVetc. [+ gen.]; I go hold XVJVorSXSVSXÎNor SXYONhold back
past PARRXOMAI, etc. from mPXV; hold up under mNXOMAI, etc.
goat A½JA»GÎW[m., f.] hollow GLAFURÎWÎN
god YEÎWOÅ [m., f.] holy »ERÎWÎN
going »¢NIOÅSA»ÎN[pres. act. ptc. of EÁMI go] home OÁKOWOU[m.]
gold XRUSÎWOÅ[m.] homecoming a) [noun] NÎSTOWOU[m.] b) [adj., = of one’s
good mGAYÎWÎN[comp. mRE¸VNON; supl. oRISTOW homecoming] NÎSTIMOWHON
HON]; XRHSTÎWÎN; good-for-nothing LUGRÎW homeward O½KADE[adv.]
ÎN
honey-sweet MELIHDWW
grace XjRIWXjRITOW[f.] acc. sg. XjRIN
honorable D¸KAIOWHON
grayish POLIÎWÎN
hope LPVor LPOMAI[+ inf.] [pres. syst. only]
great MGAWMEGjLHMGA[m. acc. sg.MGAN, n. acc. sg.
MGA, rest of m. and n. is 2nd decl., on stem MEGAL; house OÁKOWOU[m.]
comp. ME¸ZVNON; supl. MGISTOWHON]; as great as how ¦W[adv.]; how? P¤W[interr. adv.]
ÔSSOWHON [see as]; so great as TÎSSOWHON however D[never first word]
[see so] human BROTÎWÎN [used only of flesh] mNDRÎMEOWH
great-hearted MEGALTVR[gen. MEGALTOROW][adj.] ON; human being oNYRVPOWOU [m.]
greatly MjLA[adv.] hurl ¸PTV¸CVºCA¾HMISVKAPRO¸HMIPRO
Greeks b"XAIO¸¤N[m.] SVPROKA
green, greenish-yellow XLVRÎWÎN Hyperion c6PER¸VNc6PER¸ONOW[m.]
greyish POLIÎWÎN
groan STENjXV[pres. syst. only] I
grow a) [trans.] mJVmEJSVmJHSAb) [intr.] mJOMAI I G¢N[for forms, see Appendix A]
mEJSOMAImEJHSjMHN
if E»; if only [=impossible wish] E»E»GjRE½YE[+ opt.]
guest JEºNOWOU[m.]
Ilion 5RO¸HHW[f.]
gulf LAºTMALjITMATOW[n.]
imagine ÑÚVorÑÚOMAIÑÚSOMAIÑÐSjMHN
H immortal mYjNATOWHON
in N[prep. + dat.]; in any way PVW[enclitic adv.]; in fact GE
half MISUWEIAU [enclitic particle]; in front of PRÎSYEN[adv.]; in order
halt a) [trans.]¾STHMISTSVSTSA b) [intr.] ¾STAMAI JW[adv.]; in order that ¾NA¦WÔPVWÓFRA[conj.];
STSOMAISTN in silence mKVNOUSA—; in that case [=therefore]T¯
[conj.]; in the same place AÆTOÅ[adv.]
hand XE¸RXEIRÎW[f.]
increase a) [trans.] mJVmEJSVmJHSA; b) [intr. = I
handmaid mMF¸POLOWOU[f.] increase (myself ), I grow] mJOMAImEJSOMAI
happen G¸GNOMAIGENSOMAIGENÎMHNGGAA; happen mEJHSjMHN
upon TUGXjNVTEÃJOMAITÃXON indeed D[adv.]; [in contrasts followed by D] MN
happiness ÓLBOWOU[m.] inhabit O»KVO»KSVO½KHSA
happy MjKAR[gen. MjKAROW] injure mDIKVmDIKSVmD¸KHSA
hasten SPEÃDVSPEÃSVSPEÅSA inquire (from) PEÃYOMAIPEÃSOMAIPUYÎMHN
hate MISVMISSVM¸SHSA inside (of ) a) [adv.] NDONNTOSYEN; b) [prep. + gen.] inside
have XVJVorSXSVSXÎNor SXYONhave mercy on of NTOSYEN
LEV—LHSAhave the heart (to) TLjV intend (to do something) MLLVMELLSVMLLHSA[+
TLSOMAITLN inf.]
he a) ÒÔDEAÆTÎW b) him [pron. in gen., dat., acc.] into E»W [prep. + acc.]; into the midst METj[prep. + acc.]
see Lesson 34
it [if gender is unclear] TÎTÎDEAÆTÎ
heap up XVXEÃVXEÅAmFÃSSVmFÃJVoFUSSA
itself AÆTÎ[gen. AÆTOÅ]
hear mKOÃVmKOÃSOMAIoKOUSA; I hear of PEÃYOMAI
PEÃSOMAIPUYÎMHN
J
heart YUMÎWOÅ[m.]; KRKROW[n.]; TOR[n., indecl.];
I have the heart (to) TLjVTLSOMAITLN journey ÒDÎWOÅ[f.]
heaven OÆRANÎWOÅ[m.] judge KR¸NVKRINVKRºNA
heavenly YESPSIOWHON just D¸KAIOWHON
heavy ÓBRIMOWHN justice D¸KHHW[f.]
her a) [pron., see she]; b) [adj.] ÎWÎN
here TDE[adv.]
hereafter ÓPISYENÑP¸SSV[adv.]
herself [see himself, herself, itself ]
426
K M
keen ÑJÃWEºAÃ make POIVPOISVPO¸HSA; I myself heard GEGVNV
kill KTE¸NVKTENVKTEºNAor KTjNON;mPOLLÃVetc. GEGVNSVGEG¢NHSAGGVNA [pf. with pres. mean-
kindle KA¸VKAÃSVKA ing]; I make trial of PEIRjVPEIRSVPE¸RHSA[+
gen.]
kindly PRÎFRVNON
male oRSHNENOW[m., f.] oRSENoRSENOW[n.]
king oNAJoNAKTOW[m.]
man [=human being] oNYRVPOWOU [m.]; [= male]mNR
kingdom BASILE¸HHW[f.] mNROWor mNDRÎW[m.] dat. pl. oNDRESSIor mNDRASI;
knee GÎNUGOÃNATOWor GOUNÎW[n.] [= person] F¢WFVTÎW[m.]
know G¸GN¢SKVGN¢SOMAIGN¤NGNVKA manliness mRETW[f.]
GNVSMAIGN¢SYHN;OÁDAE»DSV[irreg.; manly mGNVRmGNOROW[adj.]
see Appendix A for forms]
man-servant DM¢WDMVÎW[m.]
L many POLLÎWÎN; [m./n. also 3rd decl. POLÃWÃ;
comp. PLE¸VNON; supl. PLEºSTOWHON]; as many
labor at PONOMAIPONSOMAIPONHSjMHN as ÔSSOWHON[see as]; so many as TÎSSOWH
ON[see so]
lamb(s) oRNEWmRN¤N[no nom. sg.; acc.sg. oRNA>[m., f.]
marry GAMVGAMVGjMHSAorGMA
lament STENjXV[pres. syst. only]
mast ¼STÎWOÅ[m.]
land a) [noun] GAºAHW[f.]; b) [vb.] PIBA¸NVPI
BSOMAIP¸BHNPIBBHKA[+ gen.] meal DEºPNONOU[n.]
large a) MGAWMEGjLHMGA[m. acc. sg. MGAN, n. acc. measure MTRONOU[n.]; due measure MOºRAHW[f.]
sg. MGA, rest of m. and n. is 2nd decl., on stem MEGAL ; meat KRAKRE¤N[n. pl.] nom. sg. KRAW
comp. ME¸ZVNON; supl. MGISTOWH member (of the body) MLOWMLEOW[n.]
ON]; b) MAKRÎWÎN middle (of ) MSSOWHON[modifying noun in same case]
last ÉSTATOWHON midst (of ) MSSOWHON[modifying noun in same case]
lawful, it is YMIWST¸ [+ acc. and inf.] might MNOWMNEOW[n.]
lay hold of pPTOMAIpCOMAInCjMHN mighty ÓBRIMOWHN
lead oGVoJVoGAGON milk mMLGV[pres. syst. only]
learn MANYjNVMAYSOMAIMjYON; I learn by mind NÎOWOU[m.]; FRNFRENÎW[f.]
inquiry PEÃYOMAIPEÃSOMAIPUYÎMHN
mine MEºOMEUMÎWÎN
least, at GE[enclitic particle]
mingle (with) M¸SGVM¸JVM¸JA[+ dat.]
leave LE¸PVLE¸CVL¸PON; leave (alone) jVjSV
ASA[+ inf.] miserable LUGRÎWÎN
length MKOWMKEOW[n.] miss nMARTjNVnMARTSOMAIpMARTON[often + gen.];
miss (an absent person or thing) POYVPOYSV
lest M¾NAM[+ subj. or opt. in purpose construction] PÎYESA[+ acc.]
let a) let me, let us [expressed by vb. in 1st pers. hortatory mix (something with something) M¸SGVM¸JVM¸JA
subj.] b) let him, her, it [expressed by vb. in 3rd pers. opt.]
c) let alone [= allow, permit] jVjSVASA[+ inf.] mixing-bowl KRHTRKRHTROW[m.]
lie (down) KEºMAI[pf. mid. syst. only] money XRMATAXRHMjTVN[pl. of XRMA]
life ZVW[f.]; B¸OWOU [m.]; CUXW[f.] monstrous PEL¢RIOWHON
lift up mE¸RV—oEIRA more [see many]
light FjOWFjEOW[n.] mortal YNHTÎWÎNBROTÎWÎN
like (to) a) [adj. + dat.] ÒMOºOWHON; b) [vb.] I am like most [see many]
to OIKA[pf. with pres. force; KEA plpf. with impf. mother MTHRMHTROWORMHTRÎW[f.]
force] mountain ÓROWÓREOW[n.]
limb MLOWMLEOW[n.] mourn GOjVGOSOMAIGÎHSA
live Z¢VZ¢SVZ¤SA much a) [adj.] POLLÎWÎN; [m./n. also 3rd decl. POLÃW
lofty ÇCHLÎWÎN Ã; comp. PLE¸VNON; supl. PLEºSTOWHON]; as
long a) [adj.] MAKRÎWÎNb) [vb.] I long (after)POYV much as ÔSSOWHON[see as]; so much as TÎSSOW
POYSVPÎYHSA I long (to do something) POYV HON[see so]; b) [adv.] POLÃ
POYSVPÎYESA[+ inf.], LILA¸OMAI[+ inf.] [pres. syst. Muse .OÅSAHW[f.]
only] my MÎWÎN
look (at) ÒRjVÓCOMAI½DON¢RAKA¢RAMAIÓFYHN myself a) 1st personal pron. + AÆTÎWin same case; b) often
E»SORjVE»SÎCOMAIE½SIDON expressed by mid. voice of vb.
loom [for weaving] ¼STÎWOÅ[m.]
loose LÃVLÃSVLÃSALLUKALLUMAILÃYHN N
lord oNAJoNAKTOW[m.] name ÓNOMAorOÈNOMAONÎMATOW[n.]
lose mPOLLÃVmPOLSVmPÎLESSA nature FÃSIWFÃSIOW[f.]
lost, am ÑLLÃOMAIÑLSOMAIÑLÎMHNÓLVLAmP near a) [adv.] GGÃWoGXIsSSONGGÃYENSXEDÎNb)
OLLÃOMAIetc. [preps. + gen.] GGÃWoGXIsSSONc) [prep. + dat.]
lotus LVTÎWOÅ[m.] sSSONd) [adj.] PLHS¸OWHON
Lotus-eaters -VTOFjGOIVN[m.] necessary, it is XR[+ inf. w. acc. sub.]
love a) [noun] mGjPHHW[f.]; b) [vb.] FILVFILSV necessity mNjGKHHW [f.]
F¸LHSA neck AÆXNAÆXNOW[m.]
loyal R¸HROWON[pl. 3 decl.: R¸HREW, etc.] nectar NKTARNKTAROW[n.]
427
need mNjGKHHW [f.] path KLEUYOWOU[f., but frequently n. in pl.]

neighbor(ing) PLHS¸OWHON pay T¸NVor T¸V[fut.] TE¸SVor T¸SV[aor.] TE¸SA
neither…nor OÈTE…OÈTE or TºSA
never (yet) PV[+ neg.] [adv.] peace E»RNHHW[f.]
night NÃJNUKTÎW[f.] pen SHKÎWOÅ[m.]
nimble ¥KÃWEºAÃ people LAÎWOÅ[m.]
nine days, for NNMAR[adv.] perceive NOVNOSVNÎHSA
no, nor OÆ[OÆK before smooth breathing; OÆX before rough perhaps POU[indef. adv.]
breathing]; M[OÆgenerally is the neg. of concrete fact, M perish ÑLLÃOMAIÑLSOMAIÑLÎMHNÓLVLA; mP
of possibility, condition, command, general, dependence, OLLÃOMAIetc.
etc.]; no doubt POU; no longer OÆKTIorOÆKTI[adv.]; persuade PE¸YVPE¸SVPEºSAor PPIYON
in no way PV[+ neg.]; no one OÆDE¸WOÆDEM¸AOÆDN physician »HTRÎWOÅ [m.]
MHDE¸WMHDEM¸AMHDN
pick for myself A¼ROMAIA¼RSOMAILÎMHN[mid. of
noble SYLÎW-ÎNKALÎWÎN [comp. KALL¸VNON; A¼RV>;pick out KR¸NVKRINVKRºNA
supl. KjLLISTOWHON]
pitiless SXTLIOWHON; NHLEWW
nobody OÆDE¸WOÆDEM¸AOÆDNMHDE¸WMHDEM¸AMHDN;
Nobody 0ÌTIW0ÈTIOW pity LEV—LHSA
none OÆDE¸WOÆDEM¸AOÆDNMHDE¸WMHDEM¸AMHDN place a) [noun] X¤ROWOU[m.]; b) [vb.] ¾HMISVKA;
I have been placed KEºMAI[pf. mid. syst. only]
nor a) OÆDMHD b) [following a neg. clause]OÈTE; c)
neither…nor OÈTE…OÈTE plan a) [noun] BOULW[f.]; b) [vb.] plan how to
BOULEÃVBOULEÃSVBOÃLEUSA[+ inf., or ÔPVW +
not [see no]; not at all PV[+ neg.]; not even OÆDMHD purpose construction]; MDOMAIMSOMAIMHSjMHN
nothing OÆDN
plank DÎRUDOÃRATOWorDOURÎW[n.]
nourish TRFVYRCVYRCA
pleasant DÃWDEºADÃ
now [= at the present time] NÅN[not of time; = therefore] D
please [expressed by verb in opt.]
O pleased with, I am DOMAISOMAISjMHN[+ dat.]
pleasing MEIL¸XIOWHON
O! [in direct address] « pleasure DONW[f.]
oar RETMÎNOÅ[n.] pole MOXLÎWOÅ[m.]
oar-lock KLHÚWKLHºDOW[f.] Polyphemus 1OLÃFHMOWOU[m.]
obey, am obedient to PE¸YOMAIPE¸SOMAIPIYÎMHN[+ dat.] portion MOºRAHW[f.]
of a) expressed by gen. case b)[adv.] of course POU Poseidon 1OSEIDjVNVNOW[m.]
offered PÎRON[2 aor. syst. only] possess NMOMAINEMOMAINEIMjMHN
old man GRVNGRONTOW[m.] possession XRMAXRMATOW[n.]
olive-wood, of LAÚNEOWHON possible DUNATÎWÎN
on P¸NPRÎW[preps. + dat.]; mNjoroM[prep. + gen., pour [trans.] XVXEÃVXEÅAI pour out of [intr.] K
dat., acc.]; on account of DIj[prep. + acc.], E¾NEKA [prep. + SEÃV—,KSSÃMHN[non-thematic 2 aor.]
gen.]; on high [adv.] ÇCÎSE; on the one hand MN; on the power KRjTOWKRjTEOW[n.]; a superhuman power or
other hand DAÌTE divinity DA¸MVNDA¸MONOW[m.]
once [= some time] POT[enclitic adv.]; at once AÆT¸KA pray (to) EÈXOMAIEÈJOMAIEÆJjMHN[+ dat. and inf.]
one EÂWM¸AN[m./n. gen. NÎW] prefer BOÃLOMAIBOULSOMAIBOULÎMHN
one another oLLHLOIVN[pl. only] prepare TEÃXVTEÃJVTEÅJA—,TTUGMAI; ÒPL¸ZV—
only MOÅNOWHON ÔPLISSA
opinion DÎJAHW[f.] present a) [adv., = now] at present NÅNb) [vb.] ÑPjZV
or E ÑPjSSVÓPASSA; I am present PjREIMI[see E»M¸
order a) [noun] NTOLW[f.]; b) [vb.] KLOMAI in Appendix A for forms]
KELSOMAIKEKLÎMHN; c) [conj. = in order that] ¾NA proceed STE¸XV—ST¸XON
ÔPVW¦WÓFRA[neg. M]; d) [adv.] JW produce POIVPOISVPO¸HSA
other oLLOWHO; (the) other(s) TEROWHON property XRMAXRMATOW[n.]
ought XR[+ inf. w. acc. sub.] prosperity ÓLBOWOU[m.]
our MTEROWHON protect RÃOMAIRÃSSOMAIRRUSjMHN
out of K(J before vowels) [prep. + gen.] punish T¸NOMAIT¸SOMAITISjMHN
outermost oKROWHON pursue DI¢KVDI¢JVD¸VJA
over mNjoroM[prep. + acc.]; ÇPRor ÇPE¸R[prep. + gen. or put ¾STHMISTSVSTSA; T¸YHMIYSVYKA;
acc.] put down KATAT¸YHMIetc.; put in position, put on
overpower DAMjZVDAMjVDjMASSA PIT¸YHMIetc.
own (his/her own) ÎWÎN
ox BOÅWBOÎW[m., f.] [dat. pl. also BOUS¸] Q
quick KARPjLIMOWON
P
quickly AÁCA; TjXAKARPAL¸MVW [adv.]
pain oLGOWoLGEOW[n.] quite MjLA[adv., modifying adj. or adv.]
pair of [expressed by the dual]
partake (of ) PATOMAI—PASSjMHN[+ gen.]
pass (by) PARRXOMAIetc.
428
R sea YjLASSAHW [f.];[=the deep] PÎNTOWOU[m.];pLW

nLÎW[f.]
raft SXED¸HHW[f.] search after ZHTVZHTSVZTHSA
rage MENEA¸NV—MENHNA seat myself KAY¸ZV—KjYISA
rain ÓMBROWOU[m.] seated MENOWHON
raise mE¸RV—oEIRA second DEÃTEROWHON; a second time D¸W[adv.]
ram mRNEIÎWOÅ[m.] see ÒRjVÓCOMAI½DON¢RAKA¢RAMAIÓFYHN;
reach (by chance) KIXjNVKIXSOMAIK¸XON [= watch, look at] E»SORjVetc.
ready a) [adj.] PRÎFRVNONb) [vb.] I make ready TEÃXV seek ZHTVZHTSVZTHSA; seek out PIMA¸OMAIPI
TEÃJVTEÅJApf. mid.: TTUGMAI MjSSOMAIPIMASSjMHN
rear TRFVYRCVYRCA seem DOKVDOKSVDÎKHSA; OIKA[pf. with pres.
reason LÎGOWOU[m.] force; KEA plpf. with impf. force]
receive DXOMAIDJOMAIDEJjMHN seize A¼RVA¼RSVLON ; seize upon A½NUMAI[pres. syst.
reckless SXTLIOWHON only]
refrain from mPXV seize MjRPTVMjRCVMjRCA
region X¤ROWOU[m.] select A¼ROMAIA¼RSOMAILÎMHN[mid. of A¼RV>
A½NUMAI[pres. syst. only]
rejoice (in) XA¸RVXAIRSVXjRHN<aor. pass. with active
force] self AÆTÎWÎ
release LÃVLÃSVLÃSALLUKALLUMAILÃYHN send PMPVPMCVPMCA¾HMISVKAI send
forth ¾HMISVKA;I send (someone) as a
remain MNVMENVMEºNAM¸MNV[pres. syst. only] companion ÑPjZVÑPjSSVÓPASSA[+ acc. and
reply mME¸BOMAImME¸COMAImMEICjMHN dat.]
request A»TVA»TSVA½THSA senseless oFRVNON
rescue RÃOMAIRÃSSOMAIRRUSjMHN separate KR¸NVKRINVKRºNA
resound »jXV[pres. syst. only] servant [man] DM¢WDMVÎW[m.]; [woman] DMVW[f.]
respect A»DOMAIA»DSSOMAIA»DESSjMHNpZOMAI seven PTj[indecl.]
[pres. syst. only] shameful A»SXRÎWÎN
return a) [vb.] NOMAI[pres. syst. only] b) [noun = return sharp ÑJÃWEºAÃ
home] NÎSTOWOU[m.]
she a) DE;AÆT;b) her [pron. in gen., dat., acc.] see Lesson
reveal FA¸NVFANVFNA 34
revere pZOMAI[pres. syst. only]; A»DOMAIA»DSSOMAI sheep MLONOU[n.]; ÓÐWÓÐOW[dat. pl. also ÓESSI, acc. pl.
A»DESSjMHN always ÓÐW] [m., f.]
reverence A»DOMAIA»DSSOMAIA»DESSjMHN shepherd POIMNPOIMNOW[m.]
rich P¸VNP¸ONOW ship NHÅWNHÎWor NEÎWdat. pl. also NHUS¸[f.]
right ÑRYÎWÎN; a right YMIWYMISTOW [f.]; it is shout BOjVBOSVBÎHSA»jXV[pres. syst. only];
right YMIWST¸ [+ acc. and inf.] GEGVNVGEGVNSVGEG¢NHSAGGVNA
rivalry RIWRIDOW[f.] [pf. with pres. meaning]
river POTAMÎWOÅ [m.] show FA¸NVFANVFNA; I show myself FA¸NOMAI
road ÒDÎWOÅ[f.]; KLEUYOWOU[f., but frequently n. in pl.] FANOMAIFjNHN
roam (back and forth) FOITjVFOITSVFO¸THSA shrewd PUKINÎWÎN
roar BOjVBOSVBÎHSA shrink before mLOMAI —mLEjMHN or mLEUjMHN
rock PTRHHW[f.] sickness NOÅSOWOU [f.]
rosy-fingered ODODjKTULOWON silent(ly) mKVNOUSA
round about PER¸[adv.] similar to ÒMOºOW—ON[+ dat.]
rush away, rush back (from) mPOSEÃV, —, mPOSSÃMHN simple NPIOWHON
[non-thematic 2 aor.]; rush out of KSEÃV—,K since PE¸ [conj.]
SSÃMHN sit down ZOMAI—SA
ruthless NHLEWW sitting MENOWHON
sky OÆRANÎWOÅ[m.]
S
sleep a) [vb.] EÉDVEÇDSVEÉDHSA;
sacred »ERÎWÎN b) [noun] ÉPNOWOU[m.]
said [3 sg.] FH[irreg. from FHM¸]; I said EÁPON[2 aor. syst. small ÑL¸GOWHON
only] so OÉTVW·DE¨W¬W[adv.]; so many, so great, so
sail (over) PLVPLEÃSOMAIPLEÅSA much TÎSSOWHON[often correlative with
ÔSSOWHON: so many (etc.)…as]
sake: for the sake of E¾NEKA [prep. +. gen.]
soft MALAKÎWÎN
salty nLMURÎWÎN
soil oROURAHW[f.]
same a) [adj.] AÆTÎWÎb) [adv., or prep. + dat.] at the
same time pMA some(one), some(thing) TIWTI
savage oGRIOWHON somehow PVW[enclitic adv.]; TI[enclitic adv.]
save S¢ZVS¢SVS¤SA RÃOMAIRÃSSOMAI sometime(s) POT[enclitic adv.]
RRUSjMHN son U¼ÎWOÅor U¼OW[dat. pl. U¼jSI] [m.]
say LGVLJVLJANNPVN¸CVNISPONEÁPON soon TjXA[adv.]
[2 aor. syst. only]; FHM¸FSVFSA[see Section 595 sort a) [adj.= of what sort] OÂOWHON; b) [adj. = of all sorts]
for impf. forms] PANTOºOWHON
429
soul CUXW[f.] them see they

sound FVNW [f.] themselves AÆTO¸A¸j
speak FHM¸FSVFSA[see Section 595 for impf. forms]; then [of time] NYANYENTÎTEPEITA[adv.]; [not of time,
speak to PROSEºPON[or PROSEIPON] = therefore] OÌNoRAor A[postpositive]
[+ acc.] there [adv.] AÆTOÅTNYA
spear DÎRUDOÃRATOWor DOURÎW[n.] therefore OÌNoRAor A[postpositive], T¯
speech LÎGOWOU[m.] thereupon PEITA[adv.]
spirit [= heart, soul, life] YUMÎWOÅ [m.]; [= mind] FRN they a) [nom.] O¼A¼O¾DEA¾DEAÆTO¸A¸KE¸NOIAI
FRENÎW[f.] b) them [gen., dat., acc.]; see Lesson 34
splendid mGLAÎWON thick PAXÃWEºAÃPUKINÎWÎN
spoke [= thus he spoke] thigh MHRÎWOÅ[m.]
spread out PETjNNUMI—PTASSA think ÑÚVor ÑÚOMAIÑÚSOMAIÑÐSjMHN NOVNOSV
stake MOXLÎWOÅ[m.] NÎHSA; NOM¸ZVNOMI¤NÎMISA
stand [intr.] ¾STAMAISTSOMAISTN; I stand by PAR this (one) [demonstrative pron. and adj.] ÔDEDETÎDE
¸STAMAIetc. though PER[+ ptc.]
stay MNVMENVMEºNA; M¸MNV[pres. syst. only] three times TR¸W[adv.]
steep A»PÃWEºAÃ thrice TR¸W[adv.]
still TI[adv.] through DIj[prep. + gen., acc.]
stone L¸YOWOU [m.] throughout KATj[prep. + acc.]
stood [intr.] STN[3 aor. syst. of ¾STHMII stand] throw BjLLVBALVBjLON
storm ÓMBROWOU[m.] thus OÉTVW¬DE¨W¬W[adv.]; thus he spoke
stout PAXÃWEºAÃ tie DVDSVDSA
straight ÑRYÎWÎN time a) [noun] XRÎNOWOU[m.]; b) [adv.] at the present
stranger JEºNOWOU[m.] time NÅN; at the same time pMA; at some time, at any
strength KRjTOWKRjTEOW[n.] time POT
strike BjLLVBALVBjLON; TÃPTVTÃCVTÃCA tip oKRONOU[n.]
strong KRATERÎWÎN to a) [prep. + acc.] P¸[= upon, e.g., “It fell to earth.”], E»W
such a) [adv., modifying adj. or adv.]OÉTVWb) [adj. = (such) [= into, toward];PRÎW[= up to],PARj[= up alongside];
as] OÂOWHON b) [conj. = in order that] ¾NA¦WÔPVWÓFRAor
expressed by fut. ptc. or fut. inf.]
suddenly AÁCA
together with pMA[adv., or prep. + dat.]
suffer PjSXVPE¸SOMAIPjYON
toil a) [noun] PÎNOWOU [m.] b) [vb.] I toil at PONOMAI
sun LIOWOU[m.] PONSOMAIPONHSjMHN
superhuman power [a divinity] DA¸MVNDA¸MONOW[m., f.] told EÁPON[2 aor. syst. only]
supper DÎRPONOU[n.] topmost oKROWHON
suppliants ¼KTAI¼KETjVN[m.] touch PIMA¸OMAIPIMjSSOMAIPIMASSjMHN
supply PARXVetc. towards P¸PRÎW[preps. + acc.]
suppose a) [vb.] ÑÚVor ÑÚOMAIÑÚSOMAIÑÐSjMHN LPVor town oSTUoSTEOW[n.]
LPOMAI[pres. syst. only]; b) POU[indef. adv.]
treasure YHSAURÎWOÅ [m.]
surely PERTOI[encliticparticles]
tree DNDREONOU [n.]
sweet DÃWDEºADÃGLUKÃWGLUKEºAGLUKÃ
GLUKERÎWÎN trial, make trial of PEIRjVPEIRSVPE¸RHSA[+ gen.]
swift TAXÃWEºAÃ[comp. YjSSVNYlSSON; supl. trickery DÎLOWOU[m.]
TjXISTOWHON> ¥KÃWEºAÃYOÎW trouble PÎNOWOU [m.]; PRjGMATAPRAGMjTVN[pl.
ÎN KARPjLIMOWON of PRlGMAPRjGMATOW]
sword J¸FOWJ¸FEOW[n.] Troy 5RO¸HHW[f.]
true ÑRYÎWÎN; mLHYWW
T truly KA¹L¸HN[adv.]
trusty R¸HROWON[pl. 3 decl.: R¸HREW, etc.]
take LAMBjNVLCOMAILjBONtake away mFAIROMAI
mFAIRSOMAImFELÎMHN; take hold of A½NUMAI [pres. truth mLHYE¸HHW[f.]
syst. only]; take up mE¸RV—oEIRA; I take vengeance try PEIRjVPEIRSVPE¸RHSA[+ gen. or + inf.]
upon T¸NOMAIT¸SOMAITISjMHN turn TRPVTRCVTRCA[trans.]; TRPOMAI
tame DAMjZVDAMjVDjMASSA TRCOMAITRECjMHN[intr.]
teach DIDjSKVDIDjJVD¸DAJA twice D¸W
tell LGVLJVLJA; NNPVN¸CVNISPON; EÁPON two DÃVor DÃO[indecl.]
[2 aor. syst.]; FHM¸FSVFSA[see Section 595 for
impf. forms] U
temple NHÎWOÅ[m.]
under a) [= at rest under] ÇPÎ[prep. + dat.]; b) [= motion up
tenth DKATOWHON under] ÇPÎ[prep. + acc.]; c) [= from under, under the
than [or use comp. gen.] influence of, by] ÇPÎ[prep. + gen.]
that a) demonstr. adj./pron ÒTÎKEºNOWHO; understanding, I have FRONVFRONSVFRÎNHSA
b) [conj. = in order that]¾NAÔPVW¦WÓFRA[neg. M]; unless E»M
c) [conj. after vb. of saying, thinking, etc. in indirect state-
ment] ÔTI until EÂOW [alsoOWor VW] or ÓFRA[+ ind. if purely factual;
+ purpose construction if anticipatory]
their(s) SFTEROWHON
430
up mNjoroM[adv.] while EÂOW [alsoOWorVW] or ÓFRA[+ ind. if purely factual;

upon P¸ [prep. + gen.] + purpose construction if anticipatory]
upwards ÇCÎSE[adv.] white LEUKÎWÎNPOLIÎWÎN
urge mN¢GVmN¢JVoNVJAoNVGA[pf. has pres. sense; who, which, what a) interr. pron./ adj.] T¸WT¸b) [rel. pron.]
plpf. has impf. sense] ÔWÔc) [rel. pron. w. def. antecedent]ÒTÎ
us [see pron. forms in appendix] whoever, whatever ÔWTIWTIWÔTIÔTTI[indef. rel. pron.]
use violence against BIjZV[pres. syst. only] [see Section 214]
useful XRHSTÎWÎN whole pPAWpPASApPAN[m./n. gen.nPANTÎW]PlW
PlSAPlN[m./ n. gen. PANTÎW>OÌLOWHON
utter A»PÃWEºAÃ
why? T¸[interr. adv.]
V wicked PONHRÎWÎN
wide EÆRÃWEºAÃ
vapor mTMW[f.] wife GUNGUNAIKÎW [f.]; oLOXOWOU[f.]
venerate A»DOMAIA»DSSOMAIA»DESSjMHN wild oGRIOWHON
vengeance, I take vengeance upon T¸NOMAIT¸SOMAITISjMHN will BOULW[f.]
very MjLA[adv., modifying adj. or adv.] willing heart, with PRÎFRVNON
violence B¸HHW[f.]; I use violence against BIjZV[pres. syst. win over PE¸YVPE¸SVPEºSAor PPIYON
only] wind oNEMOWOU[m.]
virtue mRETW[f.] wine OÁNOWOU[m.]
voice FVNW [f.]; FYÎGGOWOU[m.] winged PTERÎEIWESSAEN
winning MEIL¸XIOWHON
W
wise SOFÎWÎN
wagon oMAJAHW[f.] wish YLVYELSVYLHSA
wail KLA¸VKLAÃSVKLAÅSA with METj[prep. + dat.]; SÃN[prep. + dat.]
wait M¸MNV[pres. syst. only] within NDON[adv.]; NTOSYEN[adv.]
wander mLjOMAI—mLYHNmLjLHMAI[pf. has pres. woe oLGOWoLGEOW[n.]
force] woman GUNGUNAIKÎW [f.]
war PTÎLEMOWOU[m.] wood ÉLHHW
water ÉDVRÉDATOW[n.] word LÎGOWOU [m.]; POWPEOW[n.]
watery ÇGRÎWÎN work RGONOU[n.]
wave KÅMAKÃMATOW[n.] world KÎSMOWOU[m.]
way a) [noun] KLEUYOWOU[f., but frequently n. in pl.]; worthless PONHRÎWÎN
ÒDÎWOÅ[f.] b) [adv., = in this way] OÉTVW worthy XRHSTÎWÎN
we [see pron. forms in Appendix A] would that [=impossible wish] E»E»GjRE½YE[+ opt.]
wealth XRMATAXRHMjTVN[pl. of XRMA] wrath MNOWMNEOW [n.]
wear out [tr.] TE¸RV[pres. syst. only] wretched LUGRÎWÎN
weave ÇFA¸NVÇFANVÉFHNA
weep for GOjVGOSOMAIGÎHSA[+ acc.]; KLA¸V Y
KLAÃSVKLAÅSA[+ acc.]
well EÌ[adv.] yearn (after) POYVPOYSVPÎYESA
well made EÆERGWW yet TI[=of time]; AÆTjR[=nevertheless]; D[after MN, in
what a) see who b) [adv.] in what direction [= whither]ÔPP× contrasts]
c) [adj.] (of ) what sort OÂOWHON you [sg and pl.: see pron. forms in Appendix A and Lesson 33]
whatever ÔTIÔTTI[indef. rel. pron.] [see Section 214] you see[enclitic adv.] TO¸
whence? PÎYEN[interr. adv.] young one[of animals] MBRUONOU [n.]
when(ever) PE¸ÔTEMOW [conj.] your [sg.] SÎWÎNTEÎWÎNSEºOSEU[pl.]
where a) [not interr.] ÔYI¾NA[adv.]; T[rel. adv.]; b) [interr. ÇMTEROWHONÇMVN
adv.] where? POÅ[always w. circumflex]; from yourself [sg., or pl.] 2 personal pron. + same case of AÆTÎW
where? PÎYEN ÎN
whether [in indirect question] E»whether…or …
which [see who] Z
Zeus ;EÃW%IÎWor;HNÎW [m.]
431
Index of Grammatical Terms
(by Section numbers)
accusative case, uses of 18; in indirect statement 114; cognate indirect question 214, 465
602; of specification 644 indirect statement 114, 163, 199
active voice of verbs 83, 132; endings: see Appendix A infinitive 40; in indirect statement 114, 163; complementary
acute accent, see pitch marks 114; as imperative 148; explanatory and purpose 588; with
adjective, declension of 61, 189; substantive use of 46; compari- XR270
son of 353, 354, 355; stem of 188, 189; degrees of 353 interrogative pronoun/adjective 210-212
adverbs, formation of 362; comparison of 363 intransitive verbs 132
agreement, noun-adjective 46 iota subscript and adscript 5
alpha privative 123 iterative forms of verb 407
alphabet, Greek 1, 11, 445 meter 565
anastrophe 408 middle voice of verbs 83, 130, 132; endings: see Appendix A
aorist or aorist passive system, see under verb systems; moods 83; sequence of 106; indicative, uses of 40, 83, 91, 122;
Appendix A subjunctive, uses of 83, 98, 122, 247, 299; optative, uses of
apodosis 91 83, 106, 122, 285, 465, 480, 524; imperative, uses of 83,
aspect 83, 84 114, 122, 148; infinitive, uses of 40, 83, 114, 122, 148,
163, 270, 588
augment 391
negatives 122
breathing mark 12, 452
nominative case, use of 18
cases, use of 18, 415; special case-endings 422
nu-movable 90
circumflex accent, see pitch marks
number 459
cognate accusative 602
object, direct 18; indirect 18
comparison, of adjectives 353, 354, 355; of adverbs 363
optative, see under moods
conditions 91, 247, 285, 480
participle, declension of 60, 189, 190; uses of 199; stem of 188,
consonant changes 339 189; tenses of 84
contraction of vowels 399 passive voice of verbs 83, 130; endings: see Appendix A
contrary to fact conditions 91 perfect active or m.-p. system, see under verb systems, and
dative case, uses of 18, 504 Appendix A
declension 18, 23; first 23, 29, 35, 189; second 46, 52, 189; person 40; person marker 299
third 171, 172, 173, 174, 181, 189, 197, 198 pitch 8; marks 13 and Appendix C
degrees, of adjectives 353 possession, dative of 504
deponent verbs 132 potential optative 285, 524
digamma 445 prepositions, use of 22; position of 408
diphthongs 4 present general condition 247
direct object of verbs 18 present system endings 155, Appendix A
dual 459 primary sequence 106
elision 423 primary tenses 83
enclitics 211, Appendix C principal parts 83, 163
expectation 524 proclitics Appendix C
explanatory infinitive 588 pronouns, intensive and demonstrative 68, 69, 77, 78; relative
future less vivid condition 285 164; interrogative and indefinite 210, 211, 212; indefinite
future more vivid condition 247 relative 214; indirect interrogative 214; personal 221, 228,
future system, see under verb systems; Appendix A 235, 236
gender 24, 171 protasis 91
general condition, present 247; past 480 punctuation 15
genitive case, uses of 18 purpose constructions 98, 106
grave accent, see pitch marks question, indirect 214, 465
hortatory subjunctive 98 reduplication 321
imperative, see under moods relative clauses 164
impersonal verbs 270 scansion 565
indefinite pronoun/adjective 210-212 secondary sequence 106, 465
indefinite relative pronoun/adjective 214 secondary tenses 83
indicative, see under moods sequence of moods 106, 465, 480
indirect interrogative pronoun/adjective 214 should-would condition 285
indirect object 18 specification, accusative of 644
433
subject, of verbs 18 verbs, omitted 30; paradigm 41; terminology 40, 83, 84, 132;
subjunctive, see under moods moods 83; tenses 83, 84; aspect 83, 84; stem 83, 89, 245,
substantives 46 299; deponent 132; MIverbs 472, 473, 485; characteristics
385; augment of 391; iterative forms of 407; endings:
syllables 6; quantity (long and short) of 8; pitch 8 Appendix A
tenses, primary and secondary 83; meanings of 40, 84; endings: vocative case 415
see Appendix A; tense by relation 84, 114
voice 83, 132
thematic vowel 156, 299
vowels, quantity (long and short) of 2; pronunciation 2; con-
verb systems 83; present 121, 155; future 163; first aorist 244, traction of 399; thematic 156, 299
245, 246, 254, 262, 269; second aorist 284, 292; third
aorist 299, 306; perfect active 320, 321, 329; perfect m.-p. wishes 106
338, 346; aorist passive 370, 377
434
A Reading Course in Homeric Greek, Book I, Third Edition is a revised edition of
the well-respected text by Frs. Schoder and Horrigan. This text provides an
introduction to Greek language as found in the Greek of Homer. Covering
120 lessons, readings from Homer begin after the first ten lessons in the
book. Honor work, appendices, and vocabularies are included, along with
review exercises for each chapter with answers.
“Leslie Edwards’ [new edition of] A Reading Course in Homeric Greek captures
the spirit of the original Schoder and Horrigan text while serving the needs
of today’s audience. It’s simply Homerically delightful!”
—Susan Setnik
Tufts University
Leslie Collins Edwards is a Lecturer of Classical Literature and Languages

at the University of California, San Diego, with research interests in Greek
literature and Greek education.
Focus Publishing
R. Pullins Co.
www.pullins.com FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDY | Greek

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What is the purpose and structure of the book?

What is the purpose and structure of the book?

What topics are covered in the first 10 lessons?

What topics are covered in the first 10 lessons?

A Reading Course in

by Raymond V. Schoder, S.J. and Vincent C. Horrigan, S.J.

Third Edition, Revised

Third Edition, Revised

Raymond V. Schoder, S.J., M.A., Ph.D.

Revised, with additional material by

On Using This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Structure of the Course

Reading Real Greek

Why this revised edition

What has been changed

acc. accusative m.-p. middle-passive

1. THE GREEK ALPHABET

LETTER NAME PRONUNCIATION GREEK EXAMPLE

Long vowels: Short vowels:

3. PRONOUNCE AND COPY CAREFULLY IN GREEK

DIPHTHONG SOUND EXAMPLE

*MEY is from the preposition META

8. STRESS AND PITCH

A syllable is long by nature if it contains a long vowel or diphthong (Section 2).

11. ALPHABET NAMES

13. PITCH MARKS

15. PUNCTUATION MARKS

18. THE CASES AND THEIR USE AND MEANING

‘a jar of wine’ (Gen. of contents)

22. PREPOSITION USE

ThusB¸H force is declined:

27. PUT INTO GREEK

28. WORD STUDY

30. OMISSION OF VERB

OÈTE and not, nor [following a negative clause]

33. PUT INTO GREEK

34. WORD STUDY

38. PUT INTO GREEK

39. WORD STUDY

44. PUT INTO GREEK

45. WORD STUDY

Thus YEÎWgod is declined:

3. Sometimes the adjective is used alone, with the noun it modifies

49. PUT INTO GREEK

51. WORD STUDY

LOGARITHM (mRIYMÎW number [Cp. ARITHMETIC]; list of numbers) —

58. WRITE IN GREEK

59. WORD STUDY

60. ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES

YUMÎWOÅ [m.] heart, spirit

64. PUT INTO GREEK

PTVXÎWOÅ [m.] beggar

66. WRITE IN GREEK

67. WORD STUDY

73. PUT INTO GREEK

75. WRITE IN GREEK

76. WORD STUDY

Note: The dative masculine/neuter plural is sometimes TOºSDES S Iinstead of

81. WRITE IN GREEK

82. WORD STUDY

*MEY is from the preposition META

YUMÎWOÅ [m.] heart, spirit

PTVXÎWOÅ [m.] beggar

Note: The dative masculine/neuter plural is sometimes TOºSDESSIinstead of

GL¤SSAHW [f.] tongue, language

NOM¸ZOMENKEºNONEÁNAISOFÎN We consider that man to be wise.

1st pers. VMAI VMEYA LÃVMAI LU¢MEYA

1st pers. OIMHN OIMEYA LUO¸MHN LUO¸MEYA

MLLVN nom. m. ptc, modifying subject: translate: “(one) destined” [+ infinitive]

FA¸NVFANVFNA I show, I reveal; in mid: FA¸NOMAIFANOMAI

GRVNGRONTOW [m.] old man

DEILÎWÎN wretched, worthless