ASAL Chemistry CB Executive Preview Digital

We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of these titles.
Executive
Preview
Chemistry
for Cambridge International AS & A Level
MULTI-COMPONENT SAMPLE
Lawrie Ryan & Roger Norris
Third edition Digital Access

At Cambridge University Press, we put you at the heart of our teaching and learning resources. This new
series has been developed using extensive research with our exclusive teacher community (the Cambridge
Science Panel), as well as teacher interviews and lesson observations around the world. It meets the real
needs that we have discovered in our research – solving and supporting the biggest classroom challenges
that you have told us about. We want to help you deliver engaging lessons that use the best practical
pedagogies to enable your students to achieve their learning goals. In essence, we want to make your
teaching time easier and more effective.
At the heart of this new series, our completely revised and expanded teacher’s resource helps you to use
each of the resources in the series effectively. This includes teaching activity, assessment and homework
ideas, suggestions on how to tackle common misconceptions, and support with running practical
activities. This resource will inspire and support you while saving much-needed time.
For this new edition of the coursebook, we have added new features. These include reflection opportunities
and self-evaluation checklists that develop responsible learners, a broader range of enquiry questions that
support practical activities, as well as group work and debate questions that develop 21st century skills.
The ‘Science in Context’ features now include open-ended discussion questions that enable students to
practise their English skills, interpret ideas in a real-world context and debate concepts with other learners.
There is also extra support to help English as a second language learners successfully engage with their
learning (including improved and expanded support for learning the all-important scientific vocabulary)
alongside simple definitions of key terms and command words. Active lesson ideas and multi-part exam-
style questions ensure student engagement and helps them feel confident approaching assessment.
The workbook is the perfect companion for the coursebook. You can use it to reinforce learning, promote
application of theory and help students practise the essential skills of handling data, evaluating information
and problem solving. The workbook now includes frequent tips to support students’ understanding,
alongside a range of formative exercises that map directly onto, and build on, coursebook topics and
concepts. Multi-part exam-style questions also provide students with practice in a familiar format.
To support the syllabus focus on practical work and the scientific method, the practical workbook contains
step-by-step guided investigations and practice questions. These give students the chance to test their
knowledge and help build confidence in preparation for assessment. Practical investigation helps to develop
key skills – such as planning, identifying equipment, creating hypotheses, recording results, and analysing
and evaluating data. This workbook is ideal for teachers who find running practical experiments difficult
due to lack of time, resources or support. It contains help and guidance on setting up and running practical
investigations in the classroom, as well as sample data for when students can’t do the experiments themselves.
We’re very pleased to share with you draft chapters from our forthcoming coursebook, teacher’s resource,
workbook and practical workbook. We hope you enjoy looking through them and considering how they
will support you and your students.
If you would like more information or have any questions, please contact your local sales representative:
cambridge.org/education/find-your-sales-consultant
Steve Temblett
Head of Publishing – Science, Technology & Maths, Cambridge University Press
Hello. I am Roger Norris. I am part of the team involved in writing the books in this series
which supports the revised Cambridge International AS & A Level Chemistry syllabus
(9701). I am an experienced teacher, author and examiner. I am very pleased to be able to
introduce myself to you and give you some information about the content in the new series.
As you may be aware, there have been some revisions to the syllabus for first examination in
2022. You will find the full syllabus document online at cambridgeinternational.org.
The series has four components – a coursebook, workbook, practical workbook and
teacher resource. We have made sure that they work together to give you and your students
full support in every aspect of the Cambridge International AS & A Level Chemistry
course.
• We have revised the coursebook so that it covers all of the learning objectives in the
syllabus. We have reviewed the language level, to make it more accessible for students
whose first language is not English.
• Each chapter begins with a context, to stimulate discussion. Within the text, questions
encourage students to deepen their understanding of the topics covered. At the end of
chapters, there are exam-style questions to build learner confidence.
• The number of technical terms in science can be challenging. We have fully explained
these when they first appear. They are highlighted in ‘Key Words’ boxes and can also
be found in the glossary. Summaries, a self-evaluation table and a reflection feature,
encourage learners to reflect and improve.
• The workbook helps learners to develop the many skills that they need in order to
prepare for examination questions. These include the Assessment Objective 2 skills and
some of the skills that are used in practical work (AO3).
• Practical work can be a challenge, but we also know its importance to help learners
reach their full potential. We have therefore provided a practical workbook to give
really detailed guidance in doing practical work. We have trialed all of the experiments
in a school laboratory, and provide comprehensive step-by-step instructions.
• We have completely revised the teacher’s resource, to ensure that it provides the teacher
with extensive support for all aspects of the course.
All the authors for this series are experienced teachers of chemistry. I sincerely hope that
you and your students will enjoy using these new editions and wish you every success.
Kind regards,
Roger Norris
CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
How to use this series

This suite of resources supports students and teachers following the Cambridge
International AS & A Level Chemistry syllabus (9701). All of the books in the series
work together to help students develop the necessary knowledge and scientific skills
required for this subject.
AS & A Level
Chemistry
The coursebook provides comprehensive support

Chemistry for the full Cambridge International AS &
COURSEBOOK
for Cambridge International AS & A Level A Level Chemistry syllabus (9701). It clearly
COURSEBOOK explains facts, concepts and practical techniques,
and uses real world examples of scientific
principles. Two chapters provide full guidance
etely Cambridge
to help learners develop investigative skills.
ersity Press works with Cambridge
rnational Education and experienced
uce high-quality endorsed textbooks
Questions within each chapter help them to
develop their understanding, while exam-style
urces that support Cambridge Teachers
Cambridge Learners worldwide.
about Cambridge University Press
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questions provide essential practice.

AS & A Level
The workbook contains over 100

Chemistry
exercises and exam-style questions, Chemistry

WORKBOOK
carefully constructed to help learners for Cambridge International AS & A Level

develop the skills that they need as they WORKBOOK
progress through their Chemistry course. Roger Norris & Mike Wooster
The exercises also help learners

develop understanding of the meaning Completely Cambridge
Cambridge University Press works with Cambridge
of various command words used in Assessment International Education and experienced

authors to produce high-quality endorsed textbooks
and digital resources that support Cambridge Teachers
and encourage Cambridge Learners worldwide.
questions, and provide practice in To find out more about Cambridge University Press
visit cambridge.org/cambridge-international
responding appropriately to these.
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AS & A Level
Chemistry How to use this series
Chemistry
This write-in book provides learners with a wealth of
WORKBOOK

PRACTICAL WORKBOOK
hands-on practical work, giving them full guidance
Roger Norris & Mike Wooster and support that will help them to develop all of
the essential investigative skills. These skills include
planning investigations, selecting and handling
Cambridge
y Press works with Cambridge
apparatus, creating hypotheses, recording and
displaying results, and analysing and evaluating data.
onal Education and experienced
igh-quality endorsed textbooks
that support Cambridge Teachers
bridge Learners worldwide.
ut Cambridge University Press
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Third edition
The teacher’s resource supports and enhances the questions and practical activities in the
coursebook. This resource includes detailed lesson ideas, as well as answers and exemplar data
for all questions and activities in the coursebook and workbook.
The practical teacher’s guide, included with this resource, provides support for the practical
activities and experiments in the practical workbook. Teaching notes for each topic area include
a suggested teaching plan, ideas for active learning and formative assessment, links to resources,
ideas for lesson starters and plenaries, differentiation, lists of common misconceptions and
suggestions for homework activities. Answers are included for every question and exercise in the
coursebook, workbook and practical workbook.
Detailed support is provided for preparing and carrying
out for all the investigations in the practical workbook,
including tips for getting things to work well, and a set of
sample results that can be used if learners cannot do the
experiment, or fail to collect results.
Chemistry
Chemistry
for Cambridge International
This card gives you access to your digital teacher’s resource on the Cambridge Elevate platform.
With ready-made lesson plans, worksheets and a scheme of work all written by an experienced
AS & A Level
examiner and teacher, this Cambridge Elevate teacher’s resource helps you save time preparing
and planning. Combining a logical route through the syllabus with editable PowerPoints, advice
for differentiation and tips for tailoring the material to your classroom, this resource is an essential
addition to any Cambridge International AS & A Level English Literature in English teacher’s shelf.
Answers to coursebook questions are included in this resource.
• Includes editable worksheets, PowerPoints and lesson plans to help you tailor the
course to your needs
• Helps you take an active approach to teaching Cambridge International AS & A Level Literature
in English
Chemistry
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Chemistry
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COURSEBOOK

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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2020. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Contents
Contents
How to use this series ix 4.7 Intermolecular forces 90
4.8 Hydrogen bonding 96
How to use this book xi
4.9 Bonding and physical properties 99
Introduction xiii
5 States of matter 109
1 Atomic structure 1 5.1 States of matter 112
1.1 Elements and atoms 4 5.2 The gaseous state 112
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1.2 Inside the atom 4 5.3 The liquid state 118
1.3 Numbers of nucleons 7 5.4 The solid state 119
5.5 Fullerenes 125
2 Electrons in atoms 14
2.1 Simple electronic structure 17 6 Enthalpy changes 133
2.2 Evidence for electronic structure 18 6.1 What are enthalpy changes? 135
2.3 Subshells and atomic orbitals 22 6.2 Standard enthalpy changes 137
2.4 Electronic configurations 24 6.3 Measuring enthalpy changes 139
2.5 Periodic patterns of atomic and 6.4 Hess’s law 142
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ionic radii 27 6.5 Bond energies and enthalpy changes 145
2.6 Patterns in ionisation energies in 6.6 Calculating enthalpy changes
the Periodic Table 28 using bond energies 147
3 Atoms, molecules and 7 Redox reactions 153

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stoichiometry 36 7.1 What is a redox reaction? 155
3.1 Masses of atoms and molecules 39 7.2 Oxidation numbers 157
3.2 Hydrated and anhydrous compounds 40 7.3 Applying the oxidation number rules 158
3.3 Accurate relative atomic masses 41 7.4 Redox and oxidation number 159
3.4 Amount of substance 46 7.5 Oxidising agents and reducing agents 160
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3.5 Mole calculations 49 7.6 Naming compounds 160

3.6 Chemical formulae and 7.7 From name to formula 162
chemical equations 54
7.8 Balancing chemical equations
3.7 Solutions and concentration 61 using oxidation numbers 163
3.8 Calculations involving gas volumes 65 7.9 Disproportionation 164
4 Chemical bonding 74 8 Equilibria 169

4.1 Types of chemical bonding 77 8.1 Reversible reactions and equilibrium 172
4.2 Ionic bonding 77 8.2 Changing the position of equilibrium 175
4.3 Covalent bonding 79 8.3 Equilibrium expressions and the
4.4 Shapes of molecules 84 equilibrium constant, Kc 180
4.5 σ bonds and π bonds 87 8.4 Equilibria in gas reactions: the
4.6 Metallic bonding 89 equilibrium constant, Kp 185
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8.5 Equilibria and the chemical industry 189 14 Introduction to organic chemistry 281
8.6 Acid–base equilibria 190 14.1 Representing organic molecules 283
8.7 Indicators and acid–base titrations 196 14.2 Homologous series of organic
compounds 285
9 Rates of reaction 208 14.3 Naming organic compounds 285
9.1 Rate of reaction 211 14.4 Bonding in organic molecules 289
9.2 The effect of concentration on 14.5 Structural isomerism 291
rate of reaction 218
14.6 Stereoisomerism 292
9.3 The effect of temperature on rate
of reaction 219 14.7 Types of organic reaction and
reaction mechanisms 295
9.4 Catalysis 220
14.8 Types of organic reaction 297
10 Periodicity 225
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15 Hydrocarbons 303
10.1 Structure of the Periodic Table 228
15.1 The homologous group of alkanes 305
10.2 Periodicity of physical properties 228
15.2 Reactions of alkanes 306
10.3 Periodicity of chemical properties 234
15.3 The alkenes 310
10.4 Oxides of Period 3 elements 236
15.4 Oxidation of the alkenes 314
10.5 Effect of water on oxides and
hydroxides of Period 3 elements 237 15.5 Addition polymerisation 315
10.6 Chlorides of period 3 elements 240 15.6 Tackling questions on addition
polymers 318
10.7 Effect of water on chlorides of
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Period 3 elements 240
16 Halogenoalkanes 324
10.8 Deducing the position of an
16.1 Making halogenoalkanes 326
element in the Periodic Table 242
16.2 Nucleophilic substitution reactions 327
11 Group 2 247 16.3 Mechanism of nucleophilic
11.1 Physical properties of Group 2 substitution in halogenoalkanes 329
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elements 249 16.4 Elimination reactions 332
11.2 Reactions of Group 2 elements 251
17 Alcohols, esters and
11.3 Reactions with oxygen 252
11.4 Reactions with water 253
carboxylic acids 336
17.1 The homologous series of alcohols 339
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12 Group 17 260 17.2 Reactions to make alcohols 340

12.1 Physical properties of Group 17 17.3 Reactions of the alcohols 340
elements 262 17.4 Carboxylic acids 346
12.2 Reactions of Group 17 elements 263
12.3 Reactions of the halide ions 266 18 Carbonyl compounds 351
12.4 Disproportionation reactions 268 18.1 The homologous series of
aldehydes and ketones 353
13 Nitrogen 272 18.2 Preparation of aldehydes and ketones 354
13.1 Nitrogen gas 274 18.3 Reduction of aldehydes and ketones 355
13.2 Ammonia and ammonium 18.4 Nucleophilic addition with HCN 356
compounds 275 18.5 Testing for aldehydes and ketones 357
13.3 Nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere 276 18.6 Reactions to form tri-iodomethane 360
18.7 Infra-red spectroscopy 360
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Contents
P1 Practical skills 1 368 23 Entropy and Gibbs free energy 492

P1.1 Introduction 369 23.1 Introducing entropy 494
P1.2 Manipulation, measurement 23.2 Chance and spontaneous change 495
and observation 371 23.3 Calculating entropy changes 499
P1.3 Presentation of data and observations 372 23.4 Entropy, enthalpy changes and
P1.4 Analysis, conclusions and evaluation 374 Gibbs free energy 504
23.5 Gibbs free energy 505
19 Lattice energy 381 23.6 Gibbs free energy calculations 507
19.1 Defining lattice energy 384
19.2 Enthalpy change of atomisation 24 Transition elements 516
and electron affinity 384 24.1 What is a transition element? 519
19.3 Born–Haber cycles 386 24.2 Physical and chemical properties
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19.4 Enthalpy changes in solution 392 of the transition elements 521
24.3 Ligands and complex formation 525
20 Electrochemistry 403
20.1 Redox reactions revisited 406 25 Benzene and its compounds 539
20.2 Electrolysis 406 25.1 The benzene ring 542
20.3 Quantitative electrolysis 408 25.2 Reactions of arenes 543
20.4 Electrode potentials 411 25.3 Phenol 548
20.5 Combining half-cells 413 25.4 Reactions of phenol 550
20.6 Using E values 418
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20.7 More about electrolysis 428
26 Carboxylic acids and their
derivatives 556
21 Further aspects of equilibria 439 26.1 The acidity of carboxylic acids 558
21.1 Conjugate acids and conjugate bases 441 26.2 Oxidation of two carboxylic acids 560
21.2 pH calculations 443 26.3 Acyl chlorides 561
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21.3 Weak acids: using the acid
dissociation constant, Ka 446 27 Organic nitrogen compounds 568
21.4 Buffer solutions 449 27.1 Amines 571
21.5 Equilibrium and solubility 453 27.2 Formation of amines 572
21.6 Partition coefficients 457 27.3 Amino acids 575
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27.4 Peptides 576

22 Reaction kinetics 464 27.5 Reactions of the amides 577
22.1 Factors affecting reaction rate 466 27.6 Electrophoresis 578
22.2 Rate of reaction 467
22.3 Rate equations 467 28 Polymerisation 584
22.4 Which order of reaction? 470 28.1 Condensation polymerisation 586
22.5 Calculations involving the rate 28.2 Synthetic polyamides 587
constant, k 473 28.3 Biochemical polyamides 589
22.6 Deducing order of reaction from 28.4 Degradable polymers 592
raw data 474
28.5 Polymer deductions 593
22.7 Kinetics and reaction mechanisms 478
22.8 Catalysis 480
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29 Organic synthesis 599

29.1 Chirality in pharmaceutical synthesis 601
29.2 Preparing pure enantiomers for
use as drugs 602
29.3 Synthetic routes 603
30 Analytical chemistry 609

30.1 General principles of
chromatography 611
30.2 Thin-layer chromatography 613
30.3 Gas–liquid chromatography 614
30.4 Proton (1H) nuclear magnetic
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resonance 616
30.5 Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy 623
P2 Practical skills 2 630

P2.1 Introduction 631
P2.2 Planning 631
P2.3 Analysis, conclusions and evaluation 634
P2.4 The three remaining skills 635
Appendix 1
A 640
Appendix 2 641
Appendix 3 642
Glossary 644
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Index 653
Acknowledgements 000
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viii
How to use this book
How to use this book

Throughout this book, you will notice lots of different features that will help your
learning. These are explained below.
LEARNING INTENTIONS KEY WORDS

These set the scene for each chapter, help with navigation through the Key vocabulary
coursebook and indicate the important concepts in each topic. is highlighted in
the text when it is
first introduced.
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BEFORE YOU START Definitions are then
given in the margin,
This contains questions and activities on subject knowledge you will need which explain the
before starting this chapter. meanings of these
words and phrases.
You will also find
SCIENCE IN CONTEXT definitions of these
This feature presents real-world examples and applications of the content in words in the Glossary
a chapter, encouraging you to look further into topics. There are discussion at the back of this
book.
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questions at the end which look at some of the benefits and problems of these
applications.
COMMAND WORDS
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES Command words
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This book does not contain detailed instructions for doing particular experiments, that appear in the
but you will find background information about the practical work you need to do syllabus and might
in these boxes. There are also two chapters, P1 and P2, which provide detailed be used in exams are
information about the practical skills you need to develop during the course. highlighted in the
exam-style questions
when they are first
introduced. In the
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Questions margin, you will

Appearing throughout the text, questions give you a chance to check that you have find the Cambridge
understood the topic you have just read about. You can find the answers to these International
questions in the Digital version of the coursebook. definition*.
You will also find the
KEY DEFINITION same definitions in
the Glossary at the
Key definitions for important scientific principles, laws and theories are given back of this book.
in the margin and highlighted in the text when it is first introduced. You will
also find these definitions in the Glossary at the back of this book.
*The information in this section is taken from the Cambridge International syllabus for examination from 2022. You should always refer to the
appropriate syllabus document for the year of your examination to confirm the details and for more information. The syllabus document is available
on the Cambridge International website at www. cambridgeinternational.org.
xi
WORKED EXAMPLES
Wherever you need to know how to use a formula to carry out a calculation,
there are worked examples boxes to show you how to do this.
REFLECTION IMPORTANT
These activities ask you to look back on the topics covered in the chapter and Important equations,
test how well you understand these topics and encourage you to reflect on facts and tips are
your learning. given in these boxes.
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SUMMARY CHECKLISTS
There is a summary of key points at the end of each chapter.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
These questions provide more demanding exam-style questions, some of which may require use
of knowledge from previous chapters. Answers to these questions can be found in the Elevate edition
A
of the coursebook.
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
There are ‘I can’ statements at the end of each chapter which match the learning intentions at the beginning of the
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chapter. You might find it helpful to rate how confident you are for each of these statements when you are revising.
You should revisit any sections that you rated “Needs more work” or “Almost there”.
See Needs Almost Ready to

I can section... more work there move on
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xii
Chapter 1
Atomic
structure
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LEARNING INTENTIONS
In this chapter you will learn how to:
• describe the structure of the atom as mostly empty space surrounding a very small nucleus that consists of
protons and neutrons and state that electrons are found in shells in the space around the nucleus
• describe the position of the electrons in shells in the space around the nucleus
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• identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their relative charges and relative masses
• use and understand the terms atomic (proton) number and mass (nucleon) number
• describe the distribution of mass and charges within an atom
• deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons moving at the same velocity in
an electric field
• understand that ions are formed from atoms or molecules by gain or loss of electrons
• deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both atoms and ions given atomic
(proton) number, mass (nucleon) number and charge
• define the term isotope in terms of numbers of protons and neutrons
CONTINUED
x
• use the notation y A for isotopes, where x is the mass (nucleon) number and y is the atomic (proton)
number
• explain why isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties
• explain why isotopes of the same element have different physical properties (limited to mass and
density).
BEFORE YOU START
1 Without looking at the Periodic Table, make a list of the names and symbols for the elements in Periods
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1, 2 and 3. Compare your list with another learner then check to see if the symbols are correct.
2 How can you deduce the formula of a simple ion (e.g. a chloride ion or an aluminium ion) by reference
to the Periodic Table?
3 Take turns in challenging another learner to write down the formula of a simple ion. Check your answers
afterwards using a textbook.
4 Make a list of the subatomic particles in an atom giving their relative mass and relative charges as well
as their position in the atom, structure of the atom and isotopes. Compare your answers with those of
another learner. Were you in agreement?
5
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Write down a definition of the term isotope. Put a circle around the three most important words in your
definition. Compare your definition to the one in a textbook.
6 What do the terms mass number and proton number mean? Write down your definitions and compare
yours with another learner.
7 Ask another learner to use a data book or the internet to select an isotope. Use this data to deduce the
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number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom or ion of this isotope, e.g. Cr atom or Cr3+ ion. If
you are unsure, check your answer with someone else in the class or with a teacher.
8 Take a photocopy of the modern Periodic Table and cross out or cut out the group numbers and period
numbers. Get another learner to select an element. You then have to state in which period and group
that element belongs. Take turns in doing this until you are sure that you can easily identify the group
and period of an element.
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9 Ask another learner to select an element. You then have to state if the element is a metal, non-metal
or metalloid (metalloids have some characteristics of both metals and non-metals). If you are both
uncertain, consult a textbook or the internet. Take turns in doing this until you are sure that you can
easily identify the position of metals, non-metals and metalloids.
10 Explain to another learner in terms of numbers of electrons and protons why a sodium ion has a single
positive charge but an oxide ion has a 2− charge.
11 Explain to another learner what you know about attraction or repulsion of positive and negative
charges.
2
1 Atomic structure
DEVELOPING AN IDEA: NANOMACHINES

Progress in science depends not only on original (change the direction of) the alpha particles. But
thinking but also on developing the ideas of other one alpha particle in every 20 000 was deflected at
people. The idea of an atom goes back over an angle of more than 90°. From this, Rutherford
2000 years to the Greek philosopher Demokritos. deduced that there must be something very small
About 350 years ago, Robert Boyle looked again at and positively charged in the atom. The atomic
the idea of small particles but there was no proof. nucleus had been discovered!
John Dalton moved a step closer to proving that
atoms exist: he developed the idea that atoms In 1960 Richard Feynman (Figure 1.1) suggested
of the same kind had the same weight, thinking that tiny machines could be made from a few
this could explain the results of experiments hundred atoms grouped together in clusters. At
on combining different substances in terms of the time, these ideas seemed like ‘science fiction’.
rearrangement of the atoms. But several scientists took up the challenge and the
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science of nanotechnology was born.
At the beginning of the 20th century, J.J. Thomson
(see Figure 1.6) suggested three models of the In nanotechnology, scientists design and make
atom. His preferred model was to imagine an atom objects that may have a thickness of only a few
as a spherical cloud of positive charge in which thousand atoms or less. Groups of atoms can be
electrons were placed. A few years later, scientists moved around on special surfaces (Figure 1.2). In this
working under the direction of Ernest Rutherford way, scientists have started to develop tiny machines
(see Figure 1.4) fired alpha particles (which we now that will help deliver medical drugs to exactly where
know are positively charged helium nuclei) at very they are needed in the body.
high speeds at strips of metal only 0.0005 mm
thick. Most of the alpha particles went through the
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strip. This would fit with the idea of atoms being
a cloud of charge with very little mass to deflect
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Figure 1.2: Each of the blue peaks in this image is an

individual molecule. The molecules can be moved over
a copper surface, making this a molecular abacus or
counting device.
Questions for discussion

Discuss with another learner or group of learners:
• Why do you think that tiny clusters of atoms
are useful for catalysts?
• How do you think that you could make tiny
Figure 1.1: Richard Feynman. clusters of metal atoms on a cold surface?
3
CONTINUED
HINT: Think about breathing onto a cold surface. • What advantages and disadvantages could
there be in using tiny clusters of atoms to help
• What other uses could be made of tiny deliver medical drugs and in cancer treatment?
groups / clusters of atoms?
• What else do you think nanomachines could
be used for?
are two types of nucleon: protons and neutrons. Atoms of

1.1 Elements and atoms different elements have different numbers of protons.
Every substance in our world is made up from chemical Outside the nucleus, particles called electrons
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elements. These chemical elements cannot be broken move around in regions of space called orbitals
down further into simpler substances by chemical (see page xx). Chemists often find it convenient to
means. A few elements, such as nitrogen and gold, use a simpler model of the atom in which electrons
are found on their own in nature, not combined with move around the nucleus in electron shells. Each
other elements. Most elements, however, are found in shell is a certain distance from the nucleus at its own
combination with other elements as compounds. particular energy level (see page xx). In a neutral
atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number
Every element has its own chemical symbol. The
of protons. A simple model of a carbon atom is
symbols are often derived from Latin or Greek words.
shown in Figure 1.3.
Some examples are shown in Table 1.1.
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Element Symbol KEY WORDS
carbon C element: a substance containing only one type
lithium Li (from Greek ‘lithos’) of atom. All the atoms in an element have the
iron Fe (from Latin ‘ferrum’) same proton number.
potassium K (from Arabic ‘al-qualyah’ or from the atom: the smallest part of an element that can take
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Latin ‘kalium’) part in a chemical change. Every atom contains
protons in its nucleus and electrons outside the
Table 1.1: Some examples of chemical symbols. nucleus. Most atoms have neutrons in the nucleus.
The exception is the isotope of hydrogen 11H.
Chemical elements contain only one type of atom. An protons: positively charged particles in the
atom is the smallest part of an element that can take
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nucleus of the atom.

part in a chemical change. Atoms are very small. The
diameter of a hydrogen atom is approximately 10−10 m, neutrons: uncharged particles in the nucleus of
so the mass of an atom is also very small. A single the atom.
hydrogen atom weighs only 1.67 × 10−27 kg.
electrons: negatively charged particles
surrounding the nucleus.
1.2 Inside the atom energy levels: the specific distances from the
nucleus corresponding to the energy of the
electrons. Electrons in energy levels further from
The structure of an atom the nucleus have more energy than those closer
Every atom has nearly all of its mass concentrated in a to the nucleus. Energy levels are split up into
tiny region in the centre of the atom called the nucleus. sub-levels which are given the names s, p, d, etc.
The nucleus is made up of particles called nucleons. There
4
1 Atomic structure
Atoms are tiny, but the nucleus of an atom is much

IMPORTANT smaller. If the diameter of an atom were the size of a
When we use a simple model of the atom we talk football stadium, the nucleus would only be the size
about shells (n = 1, n = 2, etc) and sub-shells 2s, of a pea. This means that most of the atom is empty
2p, etc. In this model, the electrons are at a fixed space! Electrons are even smaller than protons and
distance from the nucleus. This model is useful neutrons.
when we discuss ionisation energies (Chapter 2).
When we discuss where the electrons really are in space, we

use the orbital model. In this model, there is a probability
of finding a particular electron within certain area of
space outside the nucleus. We use this model for discussing
bonding and referring to electrons in the sub-shells.
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electron
nucleus
Figure 1.4: Ernest Rutherford (left) and Hans Geiger (right)

using their alpha particle apparatus. Interpretation of the
A electron shells results led to Rutherford proposing the nuclear model for
(energy levels) atoms.
proton neutron
Figure 1.3: A model of a carbon atom. This model is

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not very accurate but it is useful for understanding what
happens to the electrons during chemical reactions.
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 1.1

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Experiments with subatomic particles A cathode-ray tube (Figure 1.5b) can be used to
produce beams of electrons. At one end of the
We can deduce the electric charge of subatomic
tube is a metal wire (cathode), which is heated to
particles by showing how beams of electrons,
a high temperature when a low voltage is applied
protons and neutrons behave in electric fields.
to it. At the other end of the tube is a fluorescent
If we fire a beam of electrons past electrically
screen, which glows when electrons hit it.
charged plates, the electrons are deflected
(change direction) away from the negative plate The electrons are given off from the heated wire
and towards the positive plate (Figure 1.5a). This and are attracted towards two metal plates, which
shows us that the electrons are negatively charged are positively charged. As they pass through the
because opposite charges attract each other and metal plates, the electrons form a beam. When
like charges repel each other. the electron beam hits the screen a spot of light is
produced. When an electric field is applied across
this beam the electrons are deflected. The fact
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CONTINUED
a b – cathode
+
–
electron
beam fluorescent
+ cathode rays screen
with scale
charged
plates (anode)
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magnets causing
electromagnetic
field beam deflected
downwards
Figure 1.5: a The beam of electrons is deflected away from a negatively charged plate and towards a positively charged
plate. b The electron beam in a cathode-ray tube is deflected by an electromagnetic field. The direction of the deflection
shows us that the electron is negatively charged.
that the electrons are so easily attracted to the

A KEY WORD
positively charged anode and that they are easily
deflected by an electric field shows us that: anode: the positive electrode.
• electrons have a negative charge
• electrons have a very small mass. In recent years, experiments have been carried
out with beams of electrons, protons and neutrons
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moving at the same velocity in an electric field.
protons detected on
walls of apparatus
–
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+
beam of
+
protons
Figure 1.7: A beam of protons is deflected away from a

positively charged area. This shows us that protons have
Figure 1.6: J. J. Thomson calculated the charge to mass a positive charge.
ratio of electrons. He used results from experiments with
electrons in cathode-ray tubes.
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1 Atomic structure
CONTINUED
The results of these experiments show that: In these experiments, huge voltages have to be
used to deflect the proton beam. This contrasts
• a proton beam is deflected away from a positively with the very low voltages needed to deflect an
charged plate; as like charges repel, the protons electron beam. These experiments show us that
must have a positive charge (Figure 1.7) protons are much heavier than electrons. If we
• an electron beam is deflected towards a used the same voltage to deflect electrons and
positively charged plate; as opposite charges protons, the beam of electrons would have a far
attract, the electrons must have a negative greater deflection than the beam of protons. This is
charge because a proton is about 2000 times heavier than
• a beam of neutrons is not deflected; this shows an electron.
that they are uncharged.
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to be very useful when discussing general chemical
IMPORTANT properties. For example, the charge on a single electron
Remember that like charges repel each other and is −1.602 × 10−19 coulombs. We therefore compare their
unlike charges attract each other. masses and charges by using their relative charges and
masses. These are not the actual charges and masses.
They are the charges and masses compared with each
other in a simple ratio. These are shown in Table 1.2.
Question
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1 A beam of electrons is passing close to a highly
negatively charged plate. When the electrons pass
close to the plate, they are deflected away from
1.3 Numbers of nucleons
the plate.
a What deflection would you expect, if any,
Atomic (proton) number and
mass (nucleon) number
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when the experiment is repeated with beams of
i protons and ii neutrons? Explain your answers.
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is
b Which subatomic particle (electron, proton or called the atomic number (proton number) (Z). Every
neutron) would deviate the most? Explain your atom of the same element has the same number of
answer. protons in its nucleus. It is the atomic number that
makes an atom what it is. For example, an atom with
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Relative Relative an atomic number of 11 must be an atom of the element

Subatomic particle Symbol mass charge sodium. No other element can have 11 protons in its
1 nucleus. The Periodic Table of elements is arranged in
electron e −1
1836 order of the atomic numbers of the individual elements
neutron n 1 0 (see Appendix 1, page xxx).
proton p 1 +1 The mass number (nucleon number) (A) is the number
of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Table 1.2: Comparing electrons, neutrons and protons.
KEY DEFINITION
Masses and charges: atomic number: the number of protons in the
a summary nucleus of an atom. Also called the proton
number. Remember that in writing isotopes, this
Electrons, protons and neutrons have characteristic is the figure which is subscript.
charges and masses. The values of these are too small
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How many neutrons? KEY DEFINITION

We can use the mass number and atomic number to find
the number of neutrons in an atom. As: isotope: atoms of the same element with
different mass numbers. Note that the word
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
‘atom’ is essential in this definition.
Then:
number of neutrons = mass number − atomic number Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different
=A−Z mass numbers.
For example, an atom of aluminium has a mass number
of 27 and an atomic number of 13. So an aluminium
KEY WORD
atom has 27 − 13 = 14 neutrons. mass number: the number of protons + neutrons
in an atom. Also called the nucleon number.
Question
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2 Use the information in Table 1.3 to deduce the Isotopes of a particular element have the same chemical
number of electrons and neutrons in a neutral properties because they have the same number of
atom of: electrons. They have slightly different physical properties,
such as small differences in density or small differences in
a vanadium mass, because they have different numbers of neutrons.
b strontium
We can write symbols for isotopes. We write the nucleon
c phosphorus number at the top left of the chemical symbol and the
proton number at the bottom left.
Atom Mass number Proton number
The symbol for the isotope of boron with 5 protons and
A
vanadium 51 23 11
11 nucleons is written 5B:
strontium 84 38
nucleon number 11
phosphorus 31 15 proton number 5B
Table 1.3: Information table for Question 2 Hydrogen has three isotopes. The atomic structure and
isotopic symbols for the three isotopes of hydrogen are
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shown in Figure 1.8.
Isotopes When writing generally about isotopes, chemists also
All atoms of the same element have the same number of name them by leaving out the proton number and
protons. However, they may have different numbers of placing the mass number after the name. For example,
neutrons. Atoms of the same element that have different the isotopes of hydrogen can be called hydrogen-1,
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numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3.
protium deuterium tritium

electron neutron
proton
protons 1 1 1
neutrons 0 1 2
1 2 3
isotopic symbol
1 H 1H 1H
Figure 1.8: The atomic structure and isotopic symbols for the three isotopes of hydrogen.
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1 Atomic structure
Remember that in writing isotopes, mass number is the

figure which is superscript. IMPORTANT
Isotopes can be radioactive or non-radioactive. Specific Ions: charged particles formed by the loss or gain
radioisotopes (radioactive isotopes) can be used to of electrons from an atom or group of covalently
check for leaks in oil or gas pipelines and to check the bonded atoms. Remember that positive ions are
thickness of paper. They are also used in medicine to formed when one or more electrons are lost by
treat some types of cancer and to check the activity of an atom and that negative ions are formed when
the thyroid gland in the throat. one or more electrons are gained by an atom.
Question
3 Use the Periodic Table on page XXX to help you. WORKED EXAMPLE
Write isotopic symbols for the following neutral 52
1 Deduce the number of electrons in the ion 24Cr2+.
atoms:
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a bromine-81 Solution
b calcium-44 Step 1: Work out the number of protons. This
c iron-58 is the subscripted number 24.
d palladium-110 Step 2: Number of protons = number of
electrons in the neutral atom. So number
How many protons, neutrons of electrons in the atom is 24.
and electrons?
Step 3: For a positive ion subtract the
In a neutral atom the number of positively charged number of charges (because electrons
A
protons in the nucleus equals the number of negatively have been lost from the atom). For
charged electrons outside the nucleus. When an atom a negative ion add the number of
gains or loses electrons, ions are formed, which are charges (because electrons have
electrically charged. For example: been gained).
Cl + e− → Cl− So for Cr2+, 24 − 2 = 22 electrons.
chlorine atom 1 electron gained chloride ion
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17 protons 17 protons
17 electrons 18 electrons
The chloride ion has a single negative charge because Questions
there are 17 protons (+) and 18 electrons (−). 4 Deduce the number of electrons in each of
Mg → Mg + 2+
2e − these ions:
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magnesium atom magnesium ion 2 electrons a

40
K+
19
removed
15
12 protons 12 protons b N3−
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12 electrons 10 electrons 18
c O2−
8
The magnesium ion has a charge of 2+ because it has
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12 protons (+) but only 10 electrons (−). d Ga3+
31
The isotopic symbol for an ion derived from sulfur-33 is 5 In which one of the following ways are isotopes of
33 2−
S . This sulfide ion has 16 protons, 17 neutrons (because the same element exactly the same?
16
33 − 16 = 17) and 18 electrons (because 16 + 2 = 18). A The sum of the number of electrons and the
number of neutrons in each atom.
B The mass of the nucleus in each atom.
C The number of electrons in each atom.
D The sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons in each atom.
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6 Deduce the number of electrons, protons and

neutrons in each of these ions:
81
a 35Br−
136
b 38
Ce3+
REFLECTION
Read the second paragraph on page XX again about Rutherford’s work in discovering the nucleus. Discuss
these questions with another learner:
1 Why, in Rutherford’s experiments, did most of the alpha particles go straight through the metal foil and
so few bounced back?
2 Suggest what happened to the alpha particles that went a little way from the nucleus. Use ideas of
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attractive or repulsive forces.
3 Use your knowledge of what you have learned in this chapter to think about any other experiments that
could have been used.
How much did you contribute to the discussion? Could you have contributed more?
SUMMARY
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Beams of protons and electrons are deflected by electric fields but neutrons are not.
The atom consists of positively charged protons and neutral neutrons in the nucleus, surrounded by negatively
charged electrons arranged in energy levels (shells).
Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers. They only differ in the number of
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neutrons they contain.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS COMMAND WORDS

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1 Boron is an element in Group 13 of the Periodic Table. Deduce: conclude

Boron has two isotopes. from available
information.
a Deduce the number of i protons, ii neutrons and iii electrons in one
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neutral atom of the isotope 5B. [3] State: express in
b What do you understand by the term isotope? [1] clear terms.
c State the relative masses and charges of:
i an electron [2]
ii a neutron [2]
iii a proton [2]
[Total: 10]
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1 Atomic structure
CONTINUED
2 Zirconium, Zr, and hafnium, Hf, are metals.
An isotope of zirconium has 40 protons and 91 nucleons.
a i Write the isotopic symbol for this isotope of zirconium. [1]
ii State the number of neutrons present in one atom of this isotope. [1]
180
b The symbol for a particular ion of hafnium ion is 72Hf 2+.
Deduce the number of electrons that are present in one of these
hafnium ions. [1]
c The subatomic particles present in
zirconium and hafnium are electrons,
+
neutrons and protons. A beam of
protons is fired into an electric field beam of
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produced by two charged plates, as protons
shown in the diagram. –
i Describe how the beam of protons
behaves when it passes through the COMMAND WORDS
gap between the charged plates. [2] Describe: state the
ii Explain your answer. [2] points of a topic /
d Describe and explain what happens when a beam of neutrons passes give characteristics
through the gap between the charged plates. [2] and main features.
[Total: 9] Explain: set
A
3 a Describe the structure of an atom, giving details of the subatomic out the reasons
particles present. [6] why something
b Explain the terms atomic number and nucleon number. [2] happens or make
the relationships
c Copy and complete the table: [2]
between things
Atomic Nucleon Numbers of each subatomic clear. Make sure that
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Neutral atom number number particle present you write down the
evidence logically.
Mg 12 24
Al 13 27
d Explain why atoms are neutral. [1]
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e An oxygen atom has 8 protons in its nucleus. Explain why it cannot

have 9 protons. [1]
f When deducing the relative mass of an atom, the electrons are not
used in the calculation. Explain why not. [1]
[Total: 13]
4 The symbols below describe two isotopes of the element uranium.
235 238
92
U U
92
a State the meaning of the term isotope. [1]

b State two ways in which these two isotopes of uranium are identical. [2]
c State how these isotopes differ. [2]
d State the number of electrons present in one U ion.
2+
[1]
[Total: 6]
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CONTINUED
5 The table below shows the two naturally occurring isotopes of chlorine.
a Copy and complete the table.
35 37
Cr
17 17
Cr
number of protons
number of electrons
number of neutrons [3]
b The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5. What does this tell you
about the relative abundance of the two naturally occurring isotopes
of chlorine? [2]
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c Magnesium chloride contains magnesium ions, Mg2+, and
chloride ions, Cl−.
i Explain why a magnesium ion is positively charged. [1]
ii Explain why a chloride ion has a single negative charge. [2]
[Total: 8]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
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After studying this chapter, complete a table like this:

understand that every atom has an internal structure with
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a nucleus in the centre and the negatively charged electrons 1.2
arranged in ‘shells’ outside the nucleus
understand that most of the mass of the atom is in the

nucleus, which contains protons (positively charged) and 1.2
neutrons (uncharged)
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understand that beams of protons and electrons are

1.2
deflected by electric fields but neutrons are not
understand that atoms of the same element have the same

number of protons; this is called the atomic (proton) 1.3
number
understand that the mass (nucleon) number (A), is the

1.3
total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
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1 Atomic structure
CONTINUED

deduce the number of neutrons in an atom by subtracting
1.3
the atomic number from the mass number (A − Z )
understand that in a neutral atom, the number of electrons

equals the number of protons: when there are more
protons than electrons, the atom becomes a positive ion; 1.3
when there are more electrons than protons, a negatively
charged ion is formed
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understand that isotopes are atoms with the same atomic
number but different mass numbers; they only differ in the 1.3
number of neutrons they contain.
A
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Chemistry
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for Cambridge International
AS & A Level
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Digital Teacher’s Resource

CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL CHEMISTRY: TEACHER’S RESOURCE
Contents
Introduction v
About the authors vi
How to use this series viii
How to use this Teacher’s Resource x
About the syllabus xi
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About the examination xi
Approaches to teaching and learning xii
Teaching techniques xiv
Teaching notes 1
Chapter 1: Atomic structure 1
Chapter 2: Electrons in atoms 10
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Chapter 3: Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry 27
Chapter 4: Chemical bonding 59
Chapter 5: States of matter 87
Chapter 6: Enthalpy changes 104
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Chapter 7: Redox reactions 135
Chapter 8: Equilibria 150
Chapter 9: Rates of reaction 182
Chapter 10: Periodicity 198
Chapter 11: Group 2 213
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Chapter 12: Group 17 229

Chapter 13: Nitrogen 248
Chapter 14: Introduction to organic chemistry 258
Chapter 15: Hydrocarbons 281
Chapter 16: Halogenoalkanes 310
Chapter 17: Alcohols, esters, carboxylic acids 330
Chapter 18: Carbonyl compounds 348
Chapter 19: Lattice energy 373
Chapter 20: Electrochemistry 389
Chapter 21: Further aspects of equilibria 408
iii
Chapter 22: Reaction kinetics 427

Chapter 23: Entropy and Gibbs free energy 445
Chapter 24: Transition elements 460
Chapter 25: Benzene and its compounds 478
Chapter 26: Carboxylic acids and their derivatives 496
Chapter 27: Organic nitrogen compounds 510
Chapter 28: Polymerisation 531
Chapter 29: Organic synthesis 540
Chapter 30: Analytical chemistry 554
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Practical Teacher’s Resource Answers 572
Acknowledgements 00
Imprints 00
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iv
1 Atomic structure
Syllabus overview
This chapter covers all the topics covered in Chapter 1 of the Coursebook and Workbook.
• This section of the syllabus provides learners with the following knowledge about the structure of the atom
and the properties and arrangement of the subatomic particles within the atom.
• It also deals with how the numbers of these subatomic particles change for ions and isotopes.
• The number of electrons within the atom will link to Chapter 2 (Electrons in atoms).
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• This section is theoretical and there are no realistic opportunities to assess practical techniques.
• The assessment objectives AO1 and AO2 can be covered in this topic and some of the mathematical skills
listed in Section 6 of the syllabus can be used.
Topic teaching plan

Syllabus topic Number Outline of lesson content Resources
of lessons
1.1.1–1.1.5 1 Run through the history of how the Coursebook: Science in context
A structure of the atom was worked ‘Developing an idea: Nanomachines’
out and use this to illustrate how
scientific theories develop. 1.2 ‘Inside the atom’
Exam-style question 3
Workbook: Exercise 1.4
Describe the relative masses and Coursebook: 1.2 ‘Masses and
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electrical charges of protons, charges: a summary’
neutrons and electrons.
Workbook: Exercises 1.1 and 1.2
The behaviour of beams of Coursebook: ‘Practical activity
subatomic particles in an electric 1.1: Experiments with subatomic
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field. particles’, Question 1

Workbook: Exam-style question 2d
Investigate how the atomic number Coursebook: 1.3 ‘Numbers of
and mass (nucleon) number can be nucleons’, Question 2
used to calculate the numbers of the
three subatomic particles: proton, Workbook: Exercise 1.4 Exam-style
electron and neutron. question 1
(Continued)
Syllabus topic Number Outline of lesson content Resources

of lessons
1.1.6 and 1 Explore the differences between Coursebook: 1.3 ‘Isotopes’,
1.2.1–1.2.4 atoms of isotopes of the same Question 3
element.
Workbook: Exercise 1.3 and Exam-
style questions 1 and 2
Explain how ions are formed Coursebook: 1.3 ‘How many
and use the number of charges, protons, neutrons and electrons?’,
atomic number and mass (nucleon) Question 4
number to calculate the numbers of
subatomic particles in an ion. Exam-style questions 1 and 2
Workbook: Exercise 1.3
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Explain how isotopes differ in terms Coursebook: 1.3 ‘Isotopes’
of their physical and chemical
properties.
Topics 1.1.1 to 1.1.5

Learners will:
• run through the history of how the structure of the atom was worked out and use this to illustrate how
scientific theories develop
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• describe the relative masses and electrical charges of protons, neutrons and electrons
• learn about the behaviour of beams of subatomic particles in an electric field
• investigate how the atomic number and mass (nucleon) number can be used to calculate the numbers of the
three subatomic particles: proton, electron and neutron.
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Suggested teaching time:
1 hour
Links to other components in this series

Component Resource Description
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Coursebook Science in Context • Discuss how the model of the atom

evolved and construct a timeline on
‘Developing an idea: Nanomachines’ how the concept of the atom evolved
1.2 ‘Inside the atom’ • Draw and label a model of the atom
Exam-style question 3 • List the relative charges and masses of
1.2 ‘Masses and charges: a summary’, subatomic particles
Question 3 • Describe the relationship between the
Practical activity 1.1: ‘Experiments with atomic and mass (nucleon) numbers and
subatomic particles’, the numbers of electrons, protons and
Question 1 neutrons
1.3 ‘Numbers of nucleons’, Question 2 • Investigate the experiments on particles

in an electric field.

Workbook Exercise 1.1 • Summarise our knowledge of atomic
structure
Exercise 1.2
• Review Rutherford’s experiment.
Exercise 1.3
Exercise 1.4
Exam-style question 2d
Common misconceptions
• Because they sound similar, the words nucleon and neutron sometimes get confused.
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• When electrons and protons are deviated by an electric field, the deviations are not equal. Some learners will
not consider the effect of mass on the deviation.
Lesson starters
This lesson could well be the first lesson of the course and the learners will almost certainly have covered most
of the subject matter at IGCSE/O Level. Therefore, depending on the learners, some of the knowledge could be
assumed and the major part of the subject matter can be treated as a recall exercise.
Two suggestions are given here. The choice of which activity is used will depend on what resources are available,
the time available and how the learners are progressing with this topic.
1 Idea A (15–20 minutes)

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Use some of the facts about the atom’s tiny size. There are plenty of short comparisons you could use to
illustrate the small sizes of atoms and molecules. For example, one drop of water is about 0.1 cm3 or 0.1 g.
When you work out how many water molecules there are in that small amount of water it comes to a large
number but if you calculate how long it would take to count out the water molecules at 1 a second it comes
to about 106 million million years. The question then arises, ‘How do we know these particles/atoms exist
and how did we discover what makes them up?’
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The story of the atom’s structure is not just history; it also shows how scientific theories evolve according to
the evidence available.
In this activity you can give learners the names of the scientists involved and the theories with which they
are associated. This information can be written on a sheet but jumbled up so learners can reconstruct the
information.
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To reinforce the learners’ understanding of what happened in Rutherford’s experiment, they can go on the
internet to view video clips and animations that explain what he and his co-workers did and found out:
search online for ‘Discovery of the atomic nucleus’ or ‘Animations of Rutherford’s experiment’.
Assessment ideas: Ask learners, working in small groups, to construct a timeline showing the order in
which the theories were put forward and by whom. They can also write a short criticism of what is wrong
about each theory. Workbook Exercise 1.4 on the discovery of the nucleus reinforces how the model of the
atom evolved.
2 Idea B (15 minutes)

Use ‘Before you Start’ in the Coursebook to set a quick recall test (see Teaching techniques ‘Diagnostic
exercises’). This can show you how much information learners can recall.
Assessment ideas: Learners can self-assess and record what they find difficult on paper. You can collect these
in or ask learners to record their results in their books for future reference. To make sure the exercise does
not take too long, only allow 1–2 minutes per set of questions and 1 minute each for the answers.
Main activities
Below are several teaching activities which you can pick and choose from in order to tailor the lesson to your
class’s needs.
1 Numbers of subatomic particles (20–25 minutes)

The information required is in Coursebook Section 1.2 ‘Masses and charges: a summary’ and Section 1.3
‘Numbers of nucleons’. Learners can use the relationships between atomic and mass (nucleon) number and
the numbers of electrons, protons and neutrons in a neutral atom. It is worthwhile at this stage to discuss
why the atomic number is defined as the number of protons and not the number of electrons or neutrons
(see Coursebook Section 1.3 ‘Numbers of nucleons’).
Element Symbol Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

number (nucleon) protons electrons neutrons
number
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Table 1.1
Give at least two relevant numbers for each of, for example, 10 elements and ask your learners to complete
Table 1.1. You could also test their knowledge of symbols by leaving one of the first two columns empty for
some elements.
A more difficult approach would be to leave both the first two columns empty and ask them to use the
Periodic Table in the Coursebook to identify each element.
Assessment ideas: Hinge-point Question: Which of the sets of numbers in Table 1.2 cannot be used to
calculate the numbers of subatomic particles in a neutral atom? The correct answer is B. See below for
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explanations.
First number Second number

A atomic number mass (nucleon) number
B atomic number number of protons
C mass (nucleon) number number of neutrons
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D number of electrons mass (nucleon) number
Table 1.2
This is a quick and good diagnostic tool to assess how well learners understand the relationships between
the numbers.
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Explanations:
A Incorrect. If they respond A they do not realise that the atomic number gives the number of protons
and electrons, and that the number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the atomic number (Z)
from the mass number (A).
B Correct: the atomic number will only give the number of protons and electrons, which is the same as the
second number. They cannot calculate the number of neutrons from these numbers.
C Incorrect. They haven’t rearranged the equation: number of neutrons = A – Z. They are given A and
they are given the number of neutrons. Therefore they can find the number of protons and electrons
from A – number of neutrons = number of protons (number of electrons).
D Incorrect. They haven’t realised that the number of electrons in a neutral atom is the same as the atomic
number (the number of protons) and if this is subtracted from the mass number, they will obtain the
number of neutrons.
2 A concept map for atomic structure (20 minutes)

The learners can construct a concept map (see Teaching techniques ‘Concept mapping’), using what they
know about atomic structure and the Coursebook. The words they can use are:
atom, electron, proton, neutron, nucleus, nucleon
plus any more words that you feel are relevant (e.g. atomic number, mass (nucleon) number, negative plate,
negative charge).
This can be done in more than one way and so this allows your learners some choice. Tell them that there
are many variations of a creative, correct answer.
Assessment ideas: For assessment purposes, the concept maps can either be handed in for marking,
photographed using their phones or peer assessed (between groups).
The quality of a concept map depends very much on the phrases/words placed on the arrows, but it is quite
difficult for learners to get it wrong.
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Differentiation
Stretch and challenge
• Ask learners to write one paragraph summarising the deflection of subatomic particles in electrical fields.
Their descriptions should contain explanations of the results obtained (see Coursebook Practical activity
1.1: Experiments with subatomic particles).
• Give more words to incorporate into the concept map.
Support
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• When completing the numbers of subatomic particles in Table 1.1, give learners support by completing the
first two or three sections with the learners. Ask learners, ‘How did you calculate the number of neutrons?’
to encourage them to reflect on how they approached the process.
• Suggest some words to use to help learners devise their concept maps, but delay telling them where they
should go.
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WRAP UP AND REFLECTION IDEAS
If there is sufficient time, split up the learners into groups to do some winding-up exercises:
• Play ‘Guess the word’ (see Teaching techniques ‘Group work’). Choose words related to the chapter.
• Look at the completed concept maps and ask each group to do a one-minute presentation
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describing what they have done and why they have used the links they have. What did they find
easy/hard about this exercise? Many learners find this sort of exercise difficult at first, but once
they get some practice, there is a strong sense of ownership associated with this type of learning.
CROSS-CURRICULAR LINKS
Literacy
• The concept map is mainly a literacy exercise and will test their ability to form clear sentences/
clauses from simple words and scientific vocabulary.
Numeracy
• Simple mathematical skills such as addition, subtraction and use of a formula (A – Z = number of
neutrons).
Topics 1.1.6 and 1.2.1 to 1.2.4

Learners will:
• explore the differences between atoms of isotopes of the same element
• explain how ions are formed and use the number of charges, atomic number and mass (nucleon) number to
calculate the numbers of subatomic particles in an ion
• explain how isotopes differ in terms of their physical and chemical properties.
Suggested teaching time:

1 hour
Links to other components in this series
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Coursebook 1.3 ‘Isotopes’, • Learn the definition of an isotope and why isotopes
Question 3 have the same chemical properties but slightly different
physical properties
1.3 ‘How many
protons, neutrons • Investigate how ions are formed and use this knowledge
and electrons?’, to calculate the numbers of electrons in positive and
Question 4 negative ions
A
1.3 ‘Isotopes’ • Either interpret the symbols XXor write the symbols
Z
Exam-style
A using the numbers of subatomic particles present.
questions 1 and 2
Workbook Exercise 1.3 • Assess understanding of isotopes and the nomenclature
used to describe them.
Exam-style
questions 1 and 2
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Common misconceptions
Many learners believe that all isotopes are radioactive.
Lesson starters
Two suggestions are given here. The choice of which activity is used will depend on what resources are available,
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the time available and how the learners are progressing with this topic.
1 Idea A (10 minutes)

Review the previous lesson.
Assessment ideas: Give learners a quick-fire test (see Teaching techniques ‘Diagnostic exercises’) on the
concepts learned from the previous lesson.
2 Idea B (10 minutes)

The word isotope means same (iso = same) place (tope = place). The place refers to the place in the Periodic
Table. Ask learners why these (neutral) atoms are placed in the same place in the Periodic Table? What must
they have that is identical and what could be different? Hopefully, this discussion will lead to understanding
the definition of an isotope and that the proton or atomic number is unique to each element.
Main activities
Below are several teaching activities which you can pick and choose from in order to tailor the lesson to your
class’s needs.
1 Isotopes (20 minutes)

Use the Coursebook Section 1.3 ‘How many protons, neutrons and electrons?’
x
If it hasn’t been introduced already, define the term isotope and the symbol A. Then explain to the
y
learners that they will be expected to use this notation to find the number of protons (y), electrons (= y) and
neutrons (x – y), or use the numbers of subatomic particles to find the values of x and y. Encourage learners
to use the internet to reinforce their understanding: search online for ‘Videos on isotopes’.
Assessment ideas: Some simple exercises on isotopes: using Questions 2 and 3 in the Coursebook or
questions such as:
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What are the similarities and differences for these two isotopes?
35
A Cl
17
37
B Cl
17
Note: they need to give the numbers of subatomic particles present.
You can use hinge-point Questions 4 and 5 (in Section 1.3 ‘How many protons, electrons and neutrons?’).
2 Ions, isotopes and numbers of electrons, protons and neutrons (15–20 minutes)
Ask learners to complete a few equations which illustrate the formation of ions. Depending on the ability of
A
the learners, these can be a mixture of positive and negative ions or separated into two categories.
To build confidence the ions formed can be familiar (e.g. Na → Na+ and Cl → Cl−) and gradually increased
in difficulty.
At the end of the exercise they should be able to write definitive statements about the formation of ions
and whether the number of electrons remaining increases or decreases. They should also be able to give the
change in the electron number from the charge on the ion.
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Assessment ideas: Ask learners to fill in a table similar to Table 1.1 above. You can use the headings
in Table 1.3.
Particle e− lost or gained in Number of Number of Number of

forming ion electrons protons neutrons
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1 gained 18 17 20
37 −
Cl
17
Table 1.3
Alternatively, use Coursebook Section 1.3, Question 4.

At this stage, the whole class or separate groups could discuss why the number of protons is given as the
defining number for an element. You could then ask learners to write a paragraph with the appropriate
explanation.
Assessment ideas: Isotopes have the same number of protons and electrons. Give learners two properties,
such as chemical reactivity and density. Ask them to explain, giving reasons, which of these two properties is
different for isotopes and which is unchanged.
Differentiation
Stretch and challenge
Ask learners to explain why the formation of an ion is through either oxidation or reduction.
Support
The equations for the formation of ions are partially completed at first and then made slightly harder.
e.g. …. − 2e− → Fe2+ ; Cl …. e− → Cl−
WRAP UP AND REFLECTION IDEAS

Hinge-point question
Which of the statements A to D in Table 1.4 is a correct statement about the two particles Q and R
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below?
52 3+ 54 2+
Cr Cr
24 24
Q R
A Q has one more Incorrect. Q has more positive charges, therefore it has one less
electron than R electron than R.
B Q and R both have 28 Incorrect. R has 30 neutrons (54 – 24). The learner has calculated
neutrons the number for Q and assumed they were the same, showing they
have misunderstood what isotopes are.
C
A
Q has 24 protons Correct
D R has 24 electrons Incorrect. Q and R both have 24 protons but Q has 21e− and R has
and 24 protons 22e−. They have not accounted for the charge on the ions.
Table 1.4
• If they were incorrect, what did they misunderstand?

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• Can they explain what is wrong about the incorrect alternatives?
• To assess what concepts are understood/partially understood/not understood, the learners can
complete a quick ‘traffic lights’ exercise (see Teaching techniques ‘Diagnostic exercises’). A sample
statement/question is: ‘The number of neutrons in the atom of an element can vary.’
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CROSS-CURRICULAR LINKS
Numeracy
• Learners will need to remember the formula for calculating the number of neutrons from the
atomic number and the mass number.
A
• They will need to translate the numbers in the symbols X for both neutral atoms and ions.
Z
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A
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Chemistry
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WORKBOOK
Roger Norris & Mike Wooster

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Contents
Contents
How to use this book x
Introduction xi
1 Atomic structure 1
2 Electrons in atoms 6
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3 Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry 15
4 Chemical bonding 26
5 States of matter 36
6 Enthalpy changes 45
7 Redox reactions 54
8 Equilibria 61
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9 Rates of reaction 74
10 Periodicity 82
11 Group 2 94
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12 Group 17 100
13 Nitrogen 107
14 Introduction to organic chemistry 114
15 Hydrocarbons 126
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16 Halogenoalkanes 136
17 Alcohols, esters and carboxylic acids 144
18 Carbonyl compounds 153
19 Lattice energy 161
21 Further aspects of equilibria 180
22 Reaction kinetics 190
23 Entropy and Gibbs free energy 201
v
CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL CHEMISTRY: WORKBOOK
24 Transition elements 209

25 Benzene and its compounds 218
26 Carboxylic acids and their derivatives 226
27 Organic nitrogen compounds 233
28 Polymerisation 241
29 Organic synthesis 249
30 Analytical chemistry 257
P1 and P2 Practical skills 267
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Appendix 1 The Periodic Table of the Elements 275
Appendix 2 Selected standard electrode potentials 276
Appendix 3 Qualitative analysis notes 277
Glossary 279
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vi
Chapter 1
Atomic structure
CHAPTER OUTLINE
In this chapter you will learn how to:
• describe the structure of the atom and the relative charges and masses of protons, neutrons and
electrons
• describe how protons, neutrons and electrons behave in electric fields
• deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions
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• define proton (atomic) number, mass (nucleon) number and isotopes
• explain why isotopes have the same chemical properties but some of their physical properties are
different
• use the symbolism yx A for isotopes.
Exercise 1.1 Atomic structure KEY WORDS

A
nucleus: the dense
This exercise will familiarise you with the properties of the three types of subatomic core at the centre of
particle. an atom containing
neutrons (except
TIP the 1H isotope) and
protons.
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Remember to read the stem of the question carefully. Here it states that some
words can be used more than once. electron: negatively
charged particle found
in orbitals outside the
Copy and complete these sentences using words from this list. Some words may be nucleus of an atom.
used more than once. It has negligible mass
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compared with a
electron negative neutrons positively protons proton.
relative shells proton: positively

charged particle in the
nucleus of an atom.
An atom contains a dense nucleus surrounded by ____________ of electrons. The
neutron: uncharged
nucleus contains the nucleons ( ____________ and ____________ ). Protons are particle in the nucleus
charged, electrons have a ____________ charge and ____________ are uncharged. of an atom, with the
same relative mass as
The ____________ and neutrons have the same ____________ mass. The mass of an a proton.
____________ is negligible (hardly anything).
1
Exercise 1.2 Terms used in atomic TIP
structure It is important that

you learn the exact
meanings of scientific
This exercise will familiarise you with some terms related to atomic structure. words such as mass
Match the boxes 1 to 4 on the left with the descriptions A to D on the right. number and key
definitions such as
1 Atomic number A The tiny central core of the atom isotopes.
2 Mass number B The number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus
When defining terms,
3 Neutrons C The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom you must be precise.
4 Nucleus D Uncharged particles in the nucleus
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Exercise 1.3 Isotopes
This exercise will familiarise you with the concept of isotopes and help you deduce the
number of particular subatomic particles in an atom.
TIP KEY WORD

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Number of neutrons = mass number − atomic number isotope: atoms of
an element with
the same number
a Deduce the number of protons and electrons or neutrons represented by the
of protons but a
letters A to F.
different number of
Isotope Number of Number of Number of neutrons.
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protons electrons neutrons
86
36 Kr 36 A 50
TIP
115
49 In B 49 C The top number in an
isotopic formula is the
D E F
D
50
24 Cr number of protons +
neutrons and the
bottom number is the
Table 1.1: Isotopes. proton number.
b Here is a ‘cell’ of the Periodic Table:
38
Sr
87.6
2
1 Atomic structure
i Explain why the relative atomic mass is not a whole number.

ii An isotope of strontium has a nucleon number of 90. How many neutrons
are there in this isotope?
iii Explain in terms of the charge on the subatomic particles why the strontium
ion has a 2+ charge.
c How many protons, neutrons and electrons do the following species have?
i 27
13Al
ii 133
55 Cs
+

iii 17
8O2−
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Exercise 1.4 The discovery of the nucleus
This exercise explores how the nucleus was discovered and will familiarise you with the
behaviour of charged particles.
TIP
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When answering questions about unfamiliar material, always:
• Read the information carefully, noting down the key points.
• Take note of the command words such as explain and suggest. The
definitions are given in the glossary if you‘re not sure what these mean.
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In 1910, researchers in Manchester, UK, fired alpha-particles (α-particles) at thin
sheets of gold foil. Some of the α-particles passed straight through the foil (course A gold atoms
in Figure 1.1). Others were deflected slightly (course B). About 1 in every 20 000 was
deflected backwards (course C). α-particles
A
a Alpha-particles are helium nuclei. Helium atoms have 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
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Write the isotopic symbol for a helium nucleus.

B
b Suggest, in terms of the structure of the atoms, why most α-particles passed
straight through the foil.
c Explain why some α-particles were deflected slightly. C
d Suggest, in terms of the structure of the atoms, why so few α-particles were
deflected backwards. gold foil
e Suggest what would happen in this experiment if a beam of neutrons were fired at
the gold foil. Explain your answer. Figure 1.1: Alpha-particles
are fired at gold foil.
f Explain why two different isotopes of helium have different densities.
3
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS TIPS

1 This question is about isotopes and subatomic particles. The diagram in In part a, don’t forget
Figure 1.2 shows the structure of an isotope of lithium. that there are three
types of particle as
− well as three things to
− describe. For simple
questions you may
have to write two
n points to get one
+ +
n mark.
n n
+ In part c, don’t forget
the charge on the
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− lithium ion.
Figure 1.2 COMMAND WORD
Describe: state the

a Describe the number, charge and relative mass of each subatomic
points of a topic /
particle present. [5]
give characteristics
b Explain why two different isotopes of lithium have the same chemical and main features.
properties. [1]
c Write the isotopic symbol for the lithium atom shown. [2]
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d Explain why a lithium ion is positively charged. [1] TIP
[Total: 9]
Note, the number of
2 Cobalt and nickel are next to each other in the Periodic Table. marks available. In
parts 2 b and 2 d you
need to give at least
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27 28
three separate points
Co Ni
58.9 58.7 in order to gain full
marks.
a Which one of these elements has the higher atomic number?
Explain your answer. [1]
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b Suggest why nickel has a lower relative atomic mass than cobalt. [3] COMMAND WORD
c The isotopic symbols of two isotopes are: Suggest: apply
59
27 Co
58
Ni
28
knowledge and
understanding to
i Which one of these isotopes has a greater number of neutrons? situations where there
Explain your answer. [1] are a range of valid
ii Which one of these isotopes has fewer electrons? Explain your responses in order to
answer. [1] make proposals /
put forward
iii An ion of cobalt has 27 protons and 24 electrons. Give the symbol
considerations.
for this ion. [1]
4
1 Atomic structure
CONTINUED COMMAND WORD

d A beam of electrons is fired through an electric field between two Explain: set out
charged plates. purposes or
reasons / make the
relationships between
things evident /
– provide why and/or
how and support with
beam of relevant evidence.
electrons +
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Figure 1.3
Describe how the electron beam behaves when it passes through the
plates. Explain your answer. [3]
[Total: 10]
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Chemistry
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PRACTICAL WORKBOOK
Roger Norris & Mike Wooster

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Third edition
Contents
Contents
Introduction vi
How to use this book vii
Safety x
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Practical skills xi
1 Masses, moles and atoms 1
1.1 Empirical formula of hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals 1
1.2 Relative atomic mass of magnesium using molar volumes 5
1.3 Percentage composition of a mixture of sodium hydrogencarbonate
and sodium chloride 11
1.4 Relative atomic mass of calcium by two different
methods – molar volume and titration 14
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2 Structure and bonding 19
2.1 Physical properties of three different
types of chemical structure 19
2.2 Effect of temperature on the volume of a fixed mass of gas 21
2.3 Effect of pressure on the volume
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of a fixed mass of gas 24
3 Enthalpy changes 28
3.1 Enthalpy change for the reaction between zinc and
aqueous copper(II) sulfate 28
3.2 Enthalpy change of combustion of alcohols 34
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3.3 Enthalpy change of thermal decomposition 40

3.4 Change in enthalpy of hydration of copper(II) sulfate 44
4 Redox reactions 49
4.1 Understanding redox (I): investigating the reactivity
series and displacement reactions 49
4.2 Understanding redox (II): investigating further
reactions 54
5 Chemical equilibrium 59
5.1 Applying Le Chatelier’s principle to an aqueous
equilibrium 59
5.2 The equilibrium constant for the hydrolysis of ethyl
ethanoate 62
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CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL CHEMISTRY: PRACTICAL WORKBOOK
6 Rates of reaction 73
6.1 Effects of concentration on rate of chemical reaction 73
6.2 Effects of temperature and a homogeneous catalyst on the rate of
chemical reaction 78
6.3 An observed catalysed reaction 80
7 The properties of metals 82
7.1 Properties of metal oxides and metal chlorides
across Period 3 82
7.2 Relative atomic mass of magnesium using a back-titration method 86
7.3 Planning Separation of two metal ions in solution 89
7.4 Identification of three metal compounds using qualitative analysis 91
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8 The properties of non-metals 95
8.1 Formula of hydrated sodium thiosulfate crystals 95
8.2 Preparation and properties of the hydrogen halides 98
8.3 Reaction of bromine with sulfite ions (sulfate(IV)) 102
8.4 Identification of unknowns containing halide ions 104
9 Hydrocarbons and halogenoalkanes 108
9.1 Cracking hydrocarbons 108
9.2 How a halogenoalkane structure affects the rate
of hydrolysis 112
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10 Organic compounds containing oxygen 117
10.1 Identifying four unknown organic compounds 117
11 More about enthalpy changes 126
11.1 Enthalpy change of vaporisation of water 126
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11.2 Enthalpy change of solution of chlorides 131
11.3 Planning Thermal decomposition of iron(ll)
ethanedioate 135
11.4 Planning Thermal decomposition of metal carbonates 138
11.5 Data analysis Enthalpy change of mixing 143
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12.1 Determining the Faraday constant 146
12.2 Comparing the voltage of electrochemical cells 150
12.3 Half-cells containing only ions as reactants 153
12.4 Planning Changing the concentration of ions in an
electrochemical cell 155
12.5 Planning and Data analysis Electrical conductivity
of ethanoic acid 158
iv
Contents
13 Further aspects of equilibria 163

13.1 Change in pH during an acid–base titration 163
13.2 Data analysis Partition of ammonia between water and
trichloromethane 167
13.3 Planning An esterification reaction at equilibrium 170
13.4 Planning The effect of temperature on the
N2 O4  2NO2 equilibrium 174
13.5 Data analysis Equilibrium, entropy and enthalpy
change 178
14 Reaction kinetics 181
14.1 Kinetics of the reaction between propanone and
iodine 181
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14.2 Data analysis Rate of decomposition of an organic
compound 184
14.3 Planning Determination of the order of a reaction 187
14.4 Planning and analysis Effect of temperature on rate of reaction 191
15 Transition elements 196
15.1 Planning Copper content of copper ore 196
15.2 Data analysis Iron tablets 198
15.3 Data analysis Formula of a complex ion 201
15.4
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Planning Reaction of copper with potassium
dichromate(VI) 204
16 More about organic chemistry 208
16.1 Planning Making an azo dye 208
16.2 Data analysis Acylation of a nucleic acid 211
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16.3 Planning Nitration of benzene 215
17 Identifying organic compounds 218
17.1 Data analysis Extracting an amino acid from hair 218
17.2 Data analysis Identification of a white crystalline solid 221
17.3 Data analysis Preparation and identification of a
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colourless liquid 224

Glossary 227
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Chapter 1
Masses, moles and atoms

CHAPTER OUTLINE
This relates to Chapter 1: Atomic structure; Chapter 2: Electrons in atoms; Chapter 3: Atoms,
molecules and stoichiometry in the coursebook.
In this chapter you will complete investigations on:
• 1.1 Empirical formula of hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals
• 1.2 Relative atomic mass of magnesium using molar volumes
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• 1.3 Percentage composition of a mixture of sodium hydrogencarbonate and sodium chloride
• 1.4 Relative atomic mass of calcium by two different methods – molar volume and titration
Practical investigation 1.1: Empirical formula

of hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals
In this investigation you will determine the empirical formula (refer to Chapter 3 of
KEY WORD
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the coursebook if required) of hydrated copper(II) sulfate by finding the value of x in
CuSO4.xH2O. You will weigh out some hydrated copper(II) sulfate in an evaporating hydrated (crystals):
basin, heat it to constant mass, determine the mass of water present in your sample Crystals that have
and then find the molar ratio CuSO4 : H2O. a specific number
of moles of water
associated with their
YOU WILL NEED
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crystal structure.
Equipment:
• pipe-clay triangle • evaporating basin • Bunsen burner and tripod • tongs
• glass stirring rod • two heat-resistant pads • spatula
Access to:
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• supply of gas • top-pan balance that reads to at least two decimal places
Safety considerations
• Make sure you have read the advice in the Safety section at the beginning of this
book and listen to any advice from your teacher before carrying out this investigation.
• You must wear eye protection at all times and tie your hair back if it is long.
• Copper(II) sulfate is an irritant and is harmful if swallowed.
• Carry the evaporating basin to the top-pan balance on a heat-resistant pad.
Do not use the tongs to carry it.
1
Method
1 Weigh an empty evaporating basin, and then weigh the mass of crystals that you
have been given. Record your measurements here:
Mass of basin + CuSO4·xH2O crystals …………… g
Mass of basin …………….. g
Mass of CuSO4·xH2O crystals ………………….. g
2 Put the pipe-clay triangle and the evaporating basin containing your crystals on
the tripod as shown in Figure 1.1.
copper(II) sulfate
evaporating basin
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pipe-clay triangle
heat-resistant mat
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Figure 1.1: Heating a solid
KEY WORD
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3 Copper(II) sulfate decomposes if heated too strongly. Heat the crystals very gently. decomposition:
A low, just-blue Bunsen flame should be used for this. The breakdown of
a substance into
4 While you are heating the crystals, stir them using the glass stirring rod. At the
two or more other
same time grip the evaporating basin using the tongs to prevent it toppling over
substances.
and spilling the contents.
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5 At first, the copper(II) sulfate will be ‘sticky’ but after a short time it should not
cling to the glass rod and will become powdery.
6 The colour of the copper(II) sulfate will change from blue to light blue, and then
to a very light grey – almost white.
7 When it gets to this stage, weigh the evaporating basin and anhydrous copper(II)
sulfate.
Mass of basin + copper(II) sulfate = ……………. g
8 Reheat the powder for a short while and then reweigh it. If constant mass is obtained,
then all the water of crystallisation will have been driven out of the crystals.
Mass of basin + copper(II) sulfate = …………….. g
2
1 Masses, moles and atoms
9 If the mass has decreased, then keep on reheating and reweighing until a constant
mass is obtained. TIP
Repeat (1) mass of basin + copper(II) sulfate = …………….. g Note that anhydrous
CuSO4 absorbs water
Repeat (2) mass of basin + copper(II) sulfate = …………….. g from the air when it
Repeat (3) mass of basin + copper(II) sulfate = …………….. g is cool.
Analysis, conclusion and evaluation

a Calculate the mass of the anhydrous copper(II) sulfate remaining, and then the
mass of water that has been lost from the crystals on heating. This is the water of
crystallisation.
Mass of anhydrous CuSO4 = …………….. g
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Mass of water of crystallisation = …………….. g
b Using the grid supplied, draw a set of axes with the mass of anhydrous copper(II)
sulfate on the horizontal (x) axis and the mass of the water of crystallisation on
the vertical (y) axis. Use suitable scales and label the axes.
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3
• Plot the points on the graph.

KEY WORD
• Reject any anomalous points (that are obviously wrong).
anomalous points:
• Draw a best-fit line through the remaining points. Points that do not fit
c Use your line to calculate the mass of water that combines with 1.60 g of in with the pattern
anhydrous copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4). of the rest of the
results.
Mass of water = ………………… g
d From your result, calculate the number of moles of water that combine with
1 mole of anhydrous CuSO4.
TIP
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Remember that your
………………………………………………………………………………………….. line must go through
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the origin (0, 0).
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
e Calculate the value of x in the formula CuSO4·xH2O.

x = ………………..………………..
f Which point on your graph should you be most confident about?
Explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
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…………………………………………………………………………………………..
TIP
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
If the point lies above
the line, the ratio of
g Explain any points:
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water to anhydrous
i that lie above your best-fit line copper(II) sulfate
is higher than it
……………………………………………………………………………………... should be.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
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……………………………………………………………………………………...
4
ii that lie below your best-fit line.

TIP
……………………………………………………………………………………... If the point lies below
the line, the ratio of
……………………………………………………………………………………... water to anhydrous
copper(II) sulfate
……………………………………………………………………………………... is lower than it
should be.
h Copper(II) sulfate crystals lose their water of crystallisation between 100 °C and
350 °C. They start to decompose at approximately 600 °C.
Briefly describe a better way of heating the copper(II) sulfate crystals in this
experiment and explain why it is an improvement on the method you used.
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…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Practical investigation 1.2: Relative

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atomic mass of magnesium using
molar volumes
The objective of this investigation is to find the relative atomic mass of magnesium
using its reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid to give hydrogen gas.
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Refer to Chapter 3: Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry in the coursebook for
more details of the theory. The equation for the reaction between magnesium and
hydrochloric acid is:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
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1 mol of any gas occupies 24 000 cm3 (at room temperature and pressure).
This reaction can be used to find the relative atomic mass of magnesium. By
determining the number of moles of hydrogen produced by a known mass of
magnesium (m), the number of moles (n) of magnesium can be determined.
m
The relative atomic mass of magnesium can be found using Ar =
n
Because the masses of short lengths of magnesium ribbon are very small and difficult
to measure on a top-pan balance, you will measure out a 10 cm length and weigh it.
You will then estimate the masses of different shorter lengths and use these for your
experiments.
5
YOU WILL NEED

Equipment:
• apparatus for the collection and measurement of a gas • small piece of
steel wool • one 10.0 cm length of magnesium ribbon • 30 cm ruler • plastic
gloves (see ‘Safety considerations’) • scissors
Access to:
• a top-pan balance reading to at least two decimal places • 2 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid
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• Make sure you have read the advice in the Safety section at the beginning of
this book and listen to any advice from your teacher before carrying out this
investigation.
• You must wear eye protection at all times.
• Magnesium is highly flammable.
• Hydrogen is a flammable gas.
• 2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
• Steel wool sometimes splinters, so use gloves if you have sensitive skin.
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• If you are using a glass measuring cylinder for collecting the gas or a gas syringe,
then take care when clamping it because over-tightening could shatter the glass.
Method
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1 Get a l0.0 cm length of magnesium ribbon and gently clean it using the steel wool.
2 Weigh the cleaned magnesium ribbon and record its mass.
Mass of ribbon ............. g
3 Cut the ribbon into 2 × 0.5 cm, 2 × l.0 cm, 2 × l.5 cm and 2 × 2.0 cm lengths.
4 From your mass for 10.0 cm of ribbon, estimate the masses of the 1.0 cm, 1.5 cm
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and 2.0 cm lengths.

Estimated mass of 1.0 cm lengths ..................... g
Estimated mass of l.5 cm lengths ..................... g
Estimated mass of 2.0 cm lengths ..................... g
6
5 Depending on which gas-collecting system you are going to use, set up your
apparatus as shown in Figure 1.2.
a clamp
delivery tube
gas syringe
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hydrochloric
acid
magnesium
b delivery tube
clamp
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measuring
cylinder
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hydrochloric
acid
magnesium
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Figure 1.2: Different ways of collecting gases
6 Measure out 25.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid into the conical flask.
a Set up the apparatus ready for the measurement of a gas.
b Add one of the 1 cm lengths of magnesium ribbon to the acid, quickly replace
the bung, and start collecting the gas.
c Continually swirl the flask because the magnesium will stick to its sides.
d When the reaction is finished, record the volume of gas produced.
Volume of gas given by a 1.0 cm length of ribbon = .............................. cm3
7 Repeat step 6 with all the other known lengths of magnesium ribbon.
Volume of gas (from 1.0 cm of ribbon) ............................ cm3
7

Results
Use Table 1.1 to record the masses of the ribbon used and the corresponding volumes
of hydrogen produced.
Length of Mg Mass of Volume of gas produced/cm3

ribbon/cm Mg/g Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Average
0.5 cm
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l.0 cm
l.5 cm
2.0 cm
Table 1.1: Results table

a Plot a graph of mass of magnesium along the horizontal axis (x-axis) against the
A
volume of gas up the vertical axis (y-axis). You should use at least three-quarters
of the space available on the graph.
R
D
8
• Discard any results that are obviously wrong.

• Draw a best-fit line through your points.
b Using your graph, calculate the mass of magnesium that gives 24.0 cm3 of
hydrogen gas.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
c From this value, calculate the number of moles of magnesium that give this
mass of magnesium
volume of gas and use Ar = to find the relative atomic mass
FT
number of moles
of magnesium. Assume that under the conditions of the experiment, 1 mol of gas
occupies 24 dm3 (or 24 000 cm3).
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
d Compare your value for Ar with the value given in your Periodic Table.
A
Using the following formula, calculate the percentage error in your result.
actual value − experimental value
Percentage error = × 100
actual value
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
R
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
e What was the maximum error for the top-pan balance that you used?
D
maximum error
The percentage error for your weighing = × 100%
mass weighed out
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
TIP
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Look back at the
f Calculate the percentage error from your measurements of lengths of magnesium Practical skills
ribbon. chapter to see how
to calculate the
………………………………………………………………………………………….. percentage error
from your readings.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
9
TIP
The ruler measures to 1 mm and the maximum error is ± 0.5 mm or 0.05 cm.
Therefore, a 2 cm length is really 2.0 ± 0.05 mm and the percentage error
0.05
= × 100% = 2.5%
2.0
g Using this information, calculate the total error from your length measurements.
Remember, you made just one weighing but several volume and length
measurements and these should be added up.
i Calculated error from length measurements:
……………………………………………………………………………………...
FT
……………………………………………………………………………………...
ii Possible errors from volume measurements:
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
A
……………………………………………………………………………………...
iii Total possible percentage error from apparatus readings:
……………………………………………………………………………………...
R
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………... KEY WORD

h What other factors could limit the accuracy of your results and contribute to accuracy (of
the error? measurement): How
D
close a measurement
………………………………………………………………………………………….. is to its true value.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
10
Practical investigation 1.3: Percentage composition

of a mixture of sodium hydrogencarbonate and
sodium chloride
In this practical, you will investigate the percentage composition of a mixture of
sodium hydrogencarbonate and sodium chloride using an acid–base titration.
YOU WILL NEED

Equipment:
• 150 cm3 conical flask • 250 cm3 volumetric flask • wash bottle of distilled
FT
water • burette stand • 25 cm3 pipette • white tile • 250 cm3 beaker
• 100 cm3 beaker • stirring rod • small dropper • small filter funnel for
burette and larger one for volumetric flask • 50 cm3 burette • weighing boat
Access to:
• top-pan balance reading to two, or ideally, three decimal places • mixture
of sodium hydrogencarbonate and sodium chloride • 0.100 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid • methyl orange indicator and dropper • distilled water
A
• Make sure you have read the advice in the Safety section at the beginning of
this book and listen to any advice from your teacher before carrying out this
investigation.
• Eye protection must be worn at all times.
R
• Hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
• Methyl orange is poisonous. If you get it on your skin, wash it off immediately.
Part 1: Making up the solution of the mixture

D
Method
1 Weigh out 1.90–2.10 g of the mixture of sodium hydrogencarbonate and sodium
chloride.
Weight of this mixture ......................... g
2 Dissolve this solid sample in distilled water and make up to a total volume of
250 cm3 in your volumetric flask as described in the Practical skills chapter.
11
Part 2: The titrations

Method
1 Titrate 25 cm3 samples of this solution against the standard 0.100 mol dm−3
hydrochloric acid.
Use methyl orange as the indicator.
2 You should look back at the Practical skills chapter to remind yourself how to do this.
Results
Complete Table 1.2.
FT
Rough First Second Third
titration/cm3 accurate accurate accurate
titration/cm3 titration/cm3 titration/cm3
Final burette
reading/cm3
Starting
burette
reading/cm3
Titre/cm3
A

R
a Identify the concordant titres and write the average of these values.
Concordant titres = ..................... cm3 and ..................... cm3
Average of concordant titres = ..................... cm3
Using the data collected, you can calculate the number of moles of sodium
hydrogencarbonate present in your sample. You can then calculate the mass of this
D
compound and, from that, the composition of the mixture.

The equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydrogencarbonate is:
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
b Calculate the following:
i The volume of 0.100 mol dm−3 hydrochloric acid needed to react completely
with the sodium hydrogencarbonate present in 25 cm3 of the mixture
= ………………… cm3
ii The number of moles of hydrochloric acid reacting = …………….. ×
………….. mol = number of moles of sodium hydrogencarbonate present in
25.00 cm3 of solution = ………………… mol
12
iii Mass of sodium hydrogencarbonate present (Remember m = n × Mr)

= ……………………….. g
iv Total mass of mixture = …………………………… g
v Therefore, mass of sodium chloride present in mixture = ………………… g

vi Percentage of sodium hydrogencarbonate present in mixture
= ……………………
vii What is the actual percentage composition of the mixture? (Ask your teacher/
supervisor.) Answer = ……………………… %
c You should also calculate the percentage error in your results, as you did in
Investigation 1.2.
FT
actual value – experimental value
Percentage error = × 100 KEY WORDS
actual value
d Identify and calculate the systematic errors in your experiment from the following systematic errors:
apparatus: Errors due to data
being inaccurate in
i The top-pan balance
a consistent way,
e.g. all the results
……………………………………………………………………………………...
in an experiment
measuring gas
……………………………………………………………………………………...
volumes are
A
ii The pipette 1 cm3 higher than
they should be.
……………………………………………………………………………………... Systematic errors
are often caused
……………………………………………………………………………………... by errors in the
experimental
R
iii The burette readings procedure or
equipment.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
random errors:
……………………………………………………………………………………... Errors that are due
to chance changes
D
e Identify the random errors in your experiment. in the experiment or

by the experimenter,
………………………………………………………………………………………….. e.g. the electric
current in a water-
………………………………………………………………………………………….. bath heater shuts
down for a short
f What was the main contribution (if any) to your percentage error? time, human error
in a one-time
………………………………………………………………………………………….. misreading.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
13
g How could this be overcome?

TIP
………………………………………………………………………………………….. Remember that in
each titration you
………………………………………………………………………………………….. make two readings,
each with a possible
error of ±0.05 cm3.
Practical investigation 1.4: Relative So, for example, a
titre of 20.00 cm3 has
atomic mass of calcium by two different a maximum possible
error of ±0.10 cm3.
methods – molar volume and titration
The equation for the reaction between calcium and water is:
FT
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
This reaction can be used to find the relative atomic mass of calcium by measuring the
number of moles of hydrogen produced by a known mass of calcium. The number of
moles of calcium (n) can then be calculated using Ar= m/n
The calcium hydroxide formed in the reaction can then be titrated against standard
hydrochloric acid.
YOU WILL NEED

A
Equipment:
• apparatus for measuring gas volumes (as used in Investigation 1.2) • small
filter funnel for burette • 50.00 cm3 burette • weighing boat • 150 cm3 conical
flask • wash bottle of distilled water • burette stand • 25.00 cm3 pipette
• white tile • 250 cm3 beaker • 25.0 cm3 measuring cylinder
R
• methyl orange indicator in dropper bottle
Access to:
• top-pan balance reading to at least two decimal places • 0.200 mol dm−3
hydrochloric acid • fresh calcium granules • distilled water
D
• Make sure you have read the advice in the Safety section at the beginning of this
book and listen to any advice from your teacher before carrying out this investigation.
• You must wear eye protection at all times.
• Calcium reacts vigorously with water. Do not handle it with bare hands.
• Hydrogen is a flammable gas.
• 0.2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
• If you are using a glass measuring cylinder for collecting the gas or a gas syringe,
then take care when clamping it. Over-tightening the clamp could shatter the glass.
• Calcium hydroxide is an alkali and should be regarded as being corrosive. If you
get any on your skin then wash it off immediately.
14
Part 1: Determination by molar volume

Method
1 Setup your apparatus for reacting calcium with water and collecting the gas formed
during the reaction. Use either of the two arrangements shown in Figure 1.2.
2 Measure 25 cm3 of distilled water and pour it into the conical flask.
3 Weigh out between 0.040 g and 0.080 g of calcium.
4 Make sure that your gas-collection apparatus is ready.
5 Add the calcium granules to the conical flask and quickly replace the stopper.
Swirl the flask vigorously to make sure that all the calcium has reacted.
6 When the reaction is finished note the volume of gas evolved and record it in
FT
Table 1.3.
Results
Mass of calcium/g Volume of hydrogen/ Burette reading for
cm3 hydrochloric acid/cm3
2nd
1st
Titre
A
2nd
1st
Titre
2nd
R
1st
Titre

D

a Assume that 1 mol of a gas occupies 24 000 cm3 at room temperature and pressure.
i Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen formed in your first experiment.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
ii From this, calculate the number of moles of calcium.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
iii Calculate the relative atomic mass of calcium.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
15
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
b Using the data shown in your Periodic Table, calculate the percentage error in
your result.
Percentage error = actual value − experimental value × 100%

actual value
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
FT
c Systematic errors: calculate the percentage errors in your apparatus.
i The weighing out of the calcium.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
ii The measurement of gas volume.

A
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
iii Identify any random errors in the method.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
R
TIP
……………………………………………………………………………………...
Look back at the
iv Are there any improvements you would make to this method? Practical skills
chapter for full
……………………………………………………………………………………... details on carrying
out titrations.
D
……………………………………………………………………………………...
Part 2: Determination by titration

Method
1 Remove the flask from the gas collection apparatus and wash any liquid and white
solid on the sides into the solution.
2 a Fill your burette to near the zero mark with 0.200 mol dm−3 hydrochloric acid.
b Put a white tile under the burette tap.
c Add a few drops of methyl orange indicator to the calcium hydroxide in the
conical flask. There are no opportunities for a rough titration.
16
3 a Add the acid to the flask and after each addition swirl the flask vigorously.
b When the indicator shows signs of a colour change to orange red, add the acid
more slowly – one drop at a time until an orange colour is obtained.
c Note the final burette reading.
4 a Wash the flask thoroughly using tap water and then rinse it with distilled water.
b Repeat these steps twice using a new mass of calcium each time.
Results
Complete Table 1.4.
Mass of Volume of Burette reading for hydrochloric acid/cm3
FT
calcium/g hydrogen/cm3
2nd
1st
Titre
2nd
1st
Titre
A 2nd
1st
Titre

R
a Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid reacting with the calcium
hydroxide.
D
i From this value, calculate the number of moles of calcium hydroxide, and
therefore the number of moles of calcium.
ii Calculate the relative atomic mass of calcium.
Repeat these calculations if you have more than one set of results.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
17
b Using the value shown in your Periodic Table, calculate the percentage error in
your results for the following:
i Weighing out the calcium.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
ii The titrations.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
FT
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
iii Systematic errors: calculate the total percentage errors in your measurements.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
iv Random errors: identify these in this method.

A
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
c Are there any improvements you would make to this method?

R
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
D
18

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Lawrie Ryan & Roger Norris

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3 Atoms, molecules and 7 Redox reactions 153

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4 Chemical bonding 74 8 Equilibria 169

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12 Group 17 260 17.2 Reactions to make alcohols 340

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Questions margin, you will

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BEFORE YOU START

DEVELOPING AN IDEA: NANOMACHINES

Figure 1.2: Each of the blue peaks in this image is an

Questions for discussion

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are two types of nucleon: protons and neutrons. Atoms of

nucleus of the atom.

Atoms are tiny, but the nucleus of an atom is much

When we discuss where the electrons really are in space, we

Figure 1.4: Ernest Rutherford (left) and Hans Geiger (right)

Figure 1.3: A model of a carbon atom. This model is

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 1.1

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that the electrons are so easily attracted to the

Figure 1.7: A beam of protons is deflected away from a

Relative Relative an atomic number of 11 must be an atom of the element

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