FACULTY OF APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCES

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (DRR) EFFORTS IN IN

BEIRA’S MANGA NEIGHBORHOOD, MOZAMBIQUE

EUGENIO ESPERANTE MAKUYANA

P1834538Q

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQIREMENTS OF BACHELOR OF
SOCIAL SCIENCE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

HARARE, ZIMBABWE

YEAR 2022
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the dissertation for Faculty of Applied Social Sciences BSC Honours in
development studies at Zimbabwe Open University, Harare region, apart from references and help
from recognized sources; it is my own original work and has not been formerly submitted to another
university for a degree.

EUGENIO ESPERANTE MAKUYANA

……………………………………………………. SIGNATURE

..…………………………………………………… DATE

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 APPROVAL FORM
The undersigned certify that they have read and recommended to the Zimbabwe Open University for
acceptance; a dissertation entitled “ AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE DISASTER RISK
REDUCTION (DRR) EFFORTS IN IN BEIRA’S MANGA NEIGHBORHOOD, MOZAMBIQUE ”
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bachelor of Science in Development Studies Degree
Honours.

……………………………………………. .

SUPERVISOR

…………………………………………….

PROGRAMME COORDINATOR

…………………………………………………….

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

………….…………………………

DATE

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 DEDICATION
This thesis is a special dedication to my Family for their moral and spiritual support. This work
would not have been possible without you. I also dedicate it to friends and family who survived to
see the brewing, destruction and aftermath of the infamous Cyclone Idai as it makes a landfall in
Beira at first hand. Your courage and fearless ways gave inspiration to this work

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There is an old say that goes, “It is through a disciplined mind that success may be achieved.” I
would want to give gratitude to God for the chance to preserve me to live and see the effects and
impact of climate change. Being caught up in a tropical cyclone like Idai and survive its harsh path
was something that changed me the way I see life. I would like to thank my supervisor who on each
step gave me the scope and focus on the detailed aspects of what a disciplined person should look
into for the path to a successful work. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family and friends
who inspired me to chose this topic to detail, research and share what we have lived through Cyclone
Idai and see on how disaster and their impacts may be reduced and lives saved. To all those who
helped and supported me through this journey, no words can express my appreciation to you.

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 ABSTRACT
The occurrence of disasters is something human beings cannot fully have control over, but instead
they can work out ways to reduce the damages and risks disasters bring. Worldwide disasters occur
unexpectedly and in many cases, the damages caused are hard to bear. In developing countries where
poverty reigns by the jaws, the impact of disasters means a drawback to development, thus to say
poverty will increase and all progress of development will be like a mammoth task to rekindle, even
if there are resources inclined to address the mayhems. The study was conducted in Mozambique,
which is classified as one of the world’s most vulnerable countries in the face of climate change and
natural disasters. The study seeks to review and reveal the Disaster Risk Reduction efforts by the
residents of Manga an urban village in the coastal city of Beira in Mozambique. The study also puts
into attention the norms and processes placed by the local entities that in the event of disasters, how
they respond and how accessible the systems are in the disaster management, especially in Manga, a
highly populated urban location.

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION............................................................................................................................i
APPROVAL FORM......................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION..............................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................v
Table of Contents..........................................................................................................................vi
Table of Figures............................................................................................................................ix
List of Tables..................................................................................................................................x
ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................................................xi
1 CHAPTER ONE...................................................................................................................13
1.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................13
1.1 Background to the Study...............................................................................................14
1.2 Problem Statement.........................................................................................................19
1.3 Purpose of the study.......................................................................................................20
1.3.1 Objectives...............................................................................................................20
1.4 Research Questions........................................................................................................20
1.5 Significance of the study...............................................................................................20
1.5.1 Practical Significance.............................................................................................20
1.5.2 Theoretical and academic significance...................................................................21
1.6 Delimitations..................................................................................................................21
1.6.1 Geographical Delimitation.....................................................................................21
1.6.2 Data time................................................................................................................22
1.7 Limitations of the study.................................................................................................22
1.8 Assumptions..................................................................................................................23
1.9 Definitions of key terms................................................................................................24
1.10 Brief methodology.....................................................................................................26
1.11 Thesis Outline............................................................................................................27
1.12 Chapter summary.......................................................................................................27
2 CHAPTER TWO..................................................................................................................28
2.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................28
2.1 Theoretical framework...................................................................................................28
2.1.1 Pressure and Release Model (PAR Model)............................................................28
2.2 Conceptual framework...................................................................................................31
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 2.2.1 Disaster...................................................................................................................31
2.2.2 Risk and disaster risk..............................................................................................32
2.2.3 Hazard....................................................................................................................32
2.2.4 Vulnerability...........................................................................................................33
2.2.5 Coping capacity......................................................................................................34
2.2.6 Resilience...............................................................................................................34
2.2.7 Emergency and disaster management....................................................................34
2.2.8 Disaster risk reduction............................................................................................35
2.2.9 Disaster risk management......................................................................................35
2.3 Empirical literature review............................................................................................37
2.3.1 Disaster risk and climate change impact................................................................37
2.3.2 DRR measures and community coping mechanisms.............................................39
2.3.3 Challenges that hinder DRR efforts.......................................................................41
2.3.4 Trends of natural disasters in Mozambique...........................................................45
2.4 Chapter summary...........................................................................................................46
3 CHAPTER THREE..............................................................................................................47
3.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................47
3.1 Research Paradigm/ Philosophy....................................................................................47
3.1.1 Interpretive Paradigm.............................................................................................48
3.2 Research approach.........................................................................................................49
3.2.1 Qualitative Methodology........................................................................................49
3.3 Research Design............................................................................................................51
3.3.1 Case Study Research Design..................................................................................51
3.4 Population......................................................................................................................52
3.5 Sampling........................................................................................................................53
3.5.1 Non-probability sampling.......................................................................................53
3.6 Research Instruments.....................................................................................................54
3.6.1 Interviews...............................................................................................................54
3.6.2 Observations...........................................................................................................57
3.7 Data Presentation and Analysis Procedures..................................................................58
3.8 Trustworthiness..............................................................................................................59
3.9 Ethical and Cultural Considerations..............................................................................60
3.10 Chapter Summary......................................................................................................61
4 CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................62

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 4.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................62
4.1 Research participants profiling......................................................................................63
4.1.1 Key informant profiling..........................................................................................63
4.1.2 Manga residents profiling.......................................................................................65
4.2 Response Rate................................................................................................................66
4.3 Disasters in the area, their risks and impacts.................................................................67
4.3.1 Livelihoods, employment and food security..........................................................67
4.3.2 Social and psychological consequences.................................................................68
4.3.3 Effects on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) and health services..............71
4.4 DRR efforts....................................................................................................................72
4.4.1 Mitigation...............................................................................................................72
4.4.2 Preparedness...........................................................................................................74
4.4.3 Response.................................................................................................................76
4.4.4 Recovery.................................................................................................................78
4.5 Community coping strategies........................................................................................80
4.6 Challenges hindering DRR measures progress..............................................................82
4.6.1 Lack of effective and uniform disaster information system...................................82
4.6.2 Lack of political commitment................................................................................82
4.6.3 Increased risk..........................................................................................................84
4.6.4 Resource constraints...............................................................................................85
4.7 Sustainability of the DRR efforts and solutions to challenges......................................86
4.7.1 Integration of DRR into national policy.................................................................86
4.7.2 Capacity building...................................................................................................87
4.8 Chapter summary...........................................................................................................89
5 CHAPTER FIVE..................................................................................................................90
5.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................90
5.1 Summaries and Conclusions..........................................................................................90
5.1.1 Disasters in the area, their risks and impacts..........................................................90
5.1.2 DRR efforts and Community coping strategies.....................................................91
5.1.3 Challenges hindering DRR measures progress......................................................91
5.1.4 Sustainability of the DRR efforts and solutions to challenges...............................93
5.2 Recommendations..........................................................................................................93
5.3 Recommendations for further research..........................................................................94
6 References............................................................................................................................95

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7 Appendix 1A: Interview Guide for Manga Residents........................................................110
8 Appendix 1B: Interview Guide for representatives from the Government, NGOs and CBOs113
9 Appendix 1C: Observation Guide for the Researcher........................................................114
10 Appendix 2.........................................................................................................................115

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Table of Figures
Figure 1-1: Trend of disaster evolution in Mozambique. Source: (Governo de Moçambique, 2017:
11).................................................................................................................................................14
Figure 1-2: Mozambique hazard impacts summary table. Source: World Bank (2019)..............15
Figure 1-3: Beira city, Manga neighbourhood damage assessment as of 26 March 2019. Source: US
Dept of State Humanitarian Information Unit (2019)..................................................................16
Figure 1-4: Map of Mozambique, Sofala province, Beira, Manga study area. Source: adapted from
Tura et al (2020)...........................................................................................................................21
Figure 1-5: Thesis Outline (Source: Author’s Elaboration).........................................................26
Figure 2-1:Pressure and Release (PAR) Model (Source: Wisner et al.2004)..............................28
Figure 2-2: The Disaster Management Cycle, Source: Warfield, 2008.......................................36
Figure 3-1: Map of Beira city showing Manga suburb. Source: Open Street Map, Retrieved from
city-facts.com...............................................................................................................................51
Figure 4-1: Social and psychosocial impacts of recurrent disasters in Manga, Beira, Sofala Province
(Source: Field Data).....................................................................................................................70

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List of Tables
Table 4-1: Category, themes, and sub-themes of DRR efforts....................................................61
Table 4-2: Key informants' biographic details.............................................................................62
Table 4-3: Biographic details of youth respondents.....................................................................64
Table 4-4: Response Rate.............................................................................................................65

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ABBREVIATIONS
CBO: Community Based Organisation

CCA: Climate Change Adaption

DRR: Disaster Risk Reduction

GCVCA: Gender-sensitive Climate Vulnerability and Capacity Analysis

GDP: Gross Domestic Project

INGD: National Disaster Management Institute

IOM: International Organisation for Migration

IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

NGO: Non-governmental Organisation

PAR: Pressure and Release

UN: United Nations

UNDRR: United Nations Office of Disaster Risk Reduction

USAID: United States Agency for International Development

WMO: World Meteorological Organization

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 1 CHAPTER ONE
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

1.1 Introduction
The occurrence of disasters is something human beings cannot fully have control over, but instead
they can work out ways to reduce the damages and risks disasters bring. Worldwide disasters occur
unexpectedly and, in many cases, the damages caused are hard to bear. In developing countries
where poverty reigns by the jaws, the impact of disasters means a drawback to development, thus to
say poverty will increase and all progress of development will be like a mammoth task to rekindle,
even if there are resources inclined to address the mayhems. This study was done in Mozambique,
which is classified as one of the world’s most vulnerable countries in the face of climate change and
natural disasters. According to Davis, (2011), due to its geographic location downstream of three
major river basins in Southern Africa, Mozambique, ranks third among African countries most
exposed to weather-related hazards such as periodic floods, cyclones and droughts, and most of these
hazards are significantly influenced and intensified by climate change. Global models predict several
future impacts for different regions of Mozambique.

As a result of these calamities, thousands of people are left displaced from their homes. For instance,
in the city of Beira alone, more than 22000 people had to be hosted in spontaneous accommodation
sites spread throughout the city in the first few days after the Cyclone Idai disaster (IOM/INGC,
2019a). Also, climate experts were quick to send off warnings that, due to climate change, extreme
weather events such as cyclones, high temperatures, floods, and droughts will become even more
frequent shortly. According to Mitchell and McEvoy (2019), these extreme weather events such as
Cyclone Idai result in many problems related to people’s land rights, both in the areas directly
affected by such storms and in the locations where environmentally displaced persons seek shelter.
Hence, this investigation seeks to address the impact of the efforts of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
in Manga, a neighbourhood in one of the poverty-stricken areas of Beira, Sofala Province,
Mozambique. This first chapter is consisted of a background, statement of the problem, objectives,
significance and scope of the study, definition of operational terms, as well as a brief methodology.

1.2 Background to the Study

According to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, (2009), DRR is the
concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze and manage the
causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of

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people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for
adverse events. Disaster Risk Reduction is the action taken to minimize the risk that could be
induced due to disaster. According to the Governo de Moçambique, (2017) publication, among
African countries, Mozambique is one of the most prone to natural disasters, such as flooding and
cyclones. Mozambique is most vulnerable to extreme weather and climate events. A report on DRR
by the National Disaster Management Institute (INGC as abbreviated from Portuguese), in February
2022, over the past 40 years, about 20 million people have been cumulatively affected by droughts,
floods, epidemics or tropical cyclones. The report also highlighted that 60% of the population and
40% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) are exposed to two or more extreme events annually. The
devastation of the central and northern areas of the country caused by Cyclone Idai in March 2019,
followed a month later by Cyclone Kenneth again highlighted the country’s vulnerability. Of recent,
this year on the 24th of January, a tropical storm, cyclone Ana made landfall that significantly
affected provinces such as Sofala, Zambezia, Nampula, Tete, Niassa, and Cabo Delgado, among
others (INGC, 2022).

Moreover, as Mozambique is classified as one of the world’s most vulnerable countries in the face of
climate change and natural disasters, it is amongst African countries, one of the most exposed to
weather-related hazards such as periodic floods, cyclones and droughts, and most of these hazards
are significantly influenced and intensified by climate change. According to a Gender-sensitive
Climate Vulnerability and Capacity Analysis (GCVCA) report by Care International Mozambique
(2014), 60% of the Mozambique population were living in extreme poverty and depending on
natural resources, between 75 and 80% depending on rain-fed agriculture and 60% living in the
highly sensitive coastal areas, climate change in Mozambique has the potential to undermine all
development gains. The graphic below shows a significant increase in the number of disasters since
the 80s, with the growing rate of floods and epidemics dominating the last two decades of the 20th
and early 21st centuries. The number of disaster events has decreased in the current decade except
for floods and cyclones.

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Figure 1- 1: Trend of disaster evolution in Mozambique. Source: (Governo de Moçambique, 2017:
11)

In the same vein, according to the Governo de Moçambique, (2017) report, between 1970 and 2009,
Mozambique has been hit by 77 natural disasters, of which 41 occurred between 2000 and 2009
alone. In the last three decades, at least 14% of the population has been affected by either drought,
floods or tropical storms. The floods of 2000, 2008, 2013 and 2016 are especially fresh in people’s
minds (Christie & Hanlon, 2001; Artur, 2011). World Meteorological Organisation figures show that
tropical storms are occurring in Mozambique with less frequency, but more severe tropical cyclones
have increased in number (WMO 2019: 10). The strong winds and relentless rainfall brought by
Cyclone Idai caused major floods and landslides, destroyed infrastructure, houses, crops and
agricultural fields, and affected more than 1.8 million people (WMO 2019; Governo de
Moçambique, 2019). Heavy rains and floods in Central Mozambique during the 2019/2020 rainy
season frustrated part of the disaster-recovery efforts, again displacing thousands of people, and
further highlighting the growing exposure of the country to extreme weather events.

One of the main consequences of cyclones that are recurrent in Mozambique was the displacement of
thousands of people. It is important to keep in mind that displacement is not a completely new reality
in Mozambique. The civil war that devastated the country between 1977 and 1992 displaced more
than 6 million people inside and outside the country. The colonial prazo system and the later
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aldeamentos, as well as the villagisation policies from the 70s and 80s forcedly and ‘voluntarily’
displaced millions more (Coelho, 1998; Artur, 2011: 170). Oil, gas, and other mineral exploitation,
infrastructure development, nature conservation projects, and private investments have also been a
significant cause of displacement throughout the country (see for example Jacobs, 2010; Lillywhite
et al., 2015; Milgroom & Spierenburg, 2008; Shannon et al., 2018). Natural disasters such as floods,
droughts and cyclones have also been a constant source of displacement and resettlement (Christie &
Hanlon, 2001; Artur, 2011; Patt & Schroter, 2008). These different types of displacement gave origin
to different forms of resettlement: forced or voluntary; led by individuals, the state or private
companies; temporary or permanent; with or without any compensation paid; all with various
degrees of success. Nevertheless, history shows that resettlement or reassentamento as it is often
called in Mozambique is a well-known practice in the country. As it happened in previous disasters
and with the nuances that are debated below- one of the main approaches taken by the Mozambican
authorities in response to Cyclone Idai was the resettlement of affected people. The impact of the
recurrent tropical cyclone hazards in Mozambique has been summarized by the World Bank (2019),
Mozambique disaster risk profile report as:

Figure 1-2: Mozambique hazard impacts summary table. Source: World Bank (2019).

For the National Disaster Management Institute (INGC), resettlement is the DRR's main intervention
to reduce the number of people living in high-risk areas and to reduce risks in the future. The
destruction caused by the cyclone temporarily displaced thousands of people to improvised
temporary accommodation centres established in buildings such as schools and churches (IOM 2019;
IOM/INGC, 2019b). Within three months, 66 new permanent resettlement sites were opened and
around 88000 individuals coming from different areas were resettled there (IOM/INGC, 2019b),
raising several problems that are debated below. Months later, at the time of our field visit in
November 2019, the flood levels had gone down in the regions affected by the cyclone, as had media
attention and humanitarian aid interventions, but life had not yet returned to normal for the thousands

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of people resettled in the new resettlement sites. For instance, at the resettlement site of Manga, most
people still depended on aid provision and did not have access to agricultural land or other forms of
employment. Aid was supposed to end in March 2020. If aid is terminated in March 2020, it will
most likely seriously impact people’s lives, their need for land or other resources, and their decision
to stay in the resettlement site, move on to another place, or return to the risk areas again. Strong
rains and floods in December 2019 and January 2020 destroyed thousands of upgraded emergency
shelters, tents, and support structures such as latrines and water points (IOM DTM & CCCM, 2020),
again highlighting the fragilities of the response to Cyclone Idai. Resettlement as a response to
climate risks might be an effective strategy under certain circumstances, but can hardly be seen as a
durable solution to displacement for the people who are affected. The picture below shows the
intensity of damage that was left by Cyclone Idai in Manga neighbourhood, Beira:

Figure 1- 3: Beira city, Manga neighbourhood damage assessment as of 26 March 2019. Source: US
Dept of State Humanitarian Information Unit (2019)

This study investigates DRR efforts in the city of Beira, which houses one of the most significant,
and logical ports that serve neighbouring countries like Malawi, DRC, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In the
past, the city and its proximity suffered from disasters that almost left the city crippled in idleness as
vast investments were affected. As a city with its economy linked to the Beira Port, the population is
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gradually growing leading to the increase of households and makeshift homes in the villages dotted
in Beira. As people scramble for settlement in the vicinity of the economical hub, the port, the quality
of housing and system of settlement becomes haphazard with houses equally similar to shacks,
mushrooming anywhere where there seems to have space for one. Such is the case witnessed in the
Manga area, where every open space is regarded as a potential place to put up a residential house,
without considering the environmental impact or rather, the potential hazards that may come in case
of disasters.

In what seems like a normal cycle, Beira receives significant rainfalls at some point leaving the
whole city partially submerged in water. The general populace in Manga suffers the fate as most
homes would be filled with water up to knee and waist levels making people sleep on tall-legged
tables and others seek shelter in schools or places where the ground is on the high rise. The situation
seems chaotic even though the general populace is there to blame. Wetlands have been transformed
into settlement areas, and on the other hand, the responsible authorities have no way of installing
strategic drainage systems, as they will be disturbed by the unplanned settlement. On the other hand,
relocating the people for infrastructure development seems costly prompting the authorities to give a
blind eye to the situation. The reality is awakened when disaster struck.

Putting all this in mind, the issue of reducing the risks caused by disaster seems to be a huge task as a
lot of planning and execution is required. On the other hand, every effort directed to such is
worthwhile as people grasp the essence of reducing disaster in their neighbourhood. As one example
of this, Mozambique experienced a devastating flood in the year 2000 that left in its wake massive
destruction of lives and properties. Mirza (2003) states that these floods caused over 700 deaths,
leftover 500,000 households homeless and significantly impacted urban infrastructure and
agricultural livelihoods of rural dwellers. Similarly, in September of 2009, Burkina Faso, Senegal,
Ghana, and Niger were inundated with floods that resulted in the displacement of 600,000 people (Di
Baldassarre et al. 2010).As the National Institute for Disaster Management (INGC) takes the leading
role in the prevention of and response in case of natural disasters, it is, however, debated more in
many studies.The scope and institutional design of INGC are limited to emergency response and
disaster preparedness, although in practice some of its actions, such as the leading of the permanent
resettlement of people living in dangerous areas, go much beyond the short-term disaster response. It
is against this background, that the researcher, seeks to investigate and reveal the disaster risk
reduction efforts in Beira’s Manga neighbourhood, Mozambique.

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1.3 Problem Statement
Although Mozambique has a piece of legislation and enforcement authority to oversee disaster
management issues, a lack of effort in planning and enforcement of the legislation has been a major
handicap (Oxfam GB, 2007). The Law 15/2014 on Calamity Management of the Mozambican legal
framework is relevant for our study. Law 15/2014 is quite comprehensive, establishing several
mechanisms of assessment and prevention of risks and management of calamities, and many of its
provisions are protective of local communities. The legal framework is further complemented by a
considerable number of national plans and governance instruments such as 2017-2030 Plan on
Disaster Risk Reduction; the 2006-2016 Plan for Prevention and Reduction of Natural Disasters; the
2010 Strategy and Action Plan for Gender, Environment, and Climate; Disaster Risk Management
and Reduction Law 10/2020; National Strategy for Adaptation and Mitigation to Climate Change
(2013-2025); and the 1999 Policy for Disaster Management. From these documents, it is possible to
conclude that there is a progressive shift of focus from addressing the impacts of a disaster, to
stronger investment in understanding the risks of disaster and preventing them before they happen
(Governo de Moçambique, 2017: 11).

However, despite these pieces of the various legislations and strategic documents, it seems there is a
lack of planning by relevant authorities and the communities at risk worsen the impact of hazards on
vulnerable people and their assets (Gwimbi, 2007; UNISDR, 2009; Golnaraghi, 2008). With most
houses and other infrastructure poorly established, in times of tropical storms and cyclones, the
general populace is prone to receive the worst of the effects of such. Not only natural phenomenon is
counted as the disaster in Manga, Beira. With the model of settlement of the village of Manga, the
haphazard ordering proved to be a panacea for taking more people to a small location but on the
other hand. With no properly designed sewage system, the general populace resorted to making
different types of blair toilets which in many cases are very shallow. The possibilities of disease
outbreaks are high, as shallow wells remain a source of water for the majority of the people of the
village. During the rainy season, contamination of these wells is obvious. Hence, the central question
that this thesis address is: What is the extent of the efforts of disaster risk reduction efforts in the
Manga neighbourhood in Beira, Mozambique?

1.4 Purpose of the study

The main purpose of the study is to assess the Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) efforts in the Manga
neighbourhood in Beira, Sofala Province, Mozambique.

1.4.1 Objectives
The research sought:
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 1. To explore the disaster risk and its impact in Manga neighbourhood in Beira, Mozambique.
2. To establish the drought DRR measures and community coping mechanisms currently
practised in the Manga area
3. To establish challenges that hinder the disaster reduction efforts
4. To proffer solutions to the challenges in the implementation of DRR efforts.

1.5 Research Questions

The research aims at answering the following key questions:

1. What are the disaster risks and their impact on the Manga neighbourhood in Beira,
Mozambique?
2. What are the drought DRR measures and community coping mechanisms currently practised
in the Manga area?
3. What are the challenges that hinder disaster reduction efforts?
4. What are the solutions to the challenges in the implementation of DRR efforts?

1.6 Significance of the study

The significance of the study was expressed as follows:

1.6.1 Practical Significance

The study seeks to assess the processes, structures and policies of disaster risk reduction and the
entities entitled to enact such. The study will carry out an overall assessment of people in the Manga
neighbourhood in Beira, seeking to give an eye on the accessibility of food, shelter, and
infrastructure amongst other immediate basic needs in the fall of a disaster. The availability of human
resources to handle people in such situations, amenities and policies that cater for people living in
such situations. This will help the responsible authorities in developing and improving disaster risk
reduction legislation and policies. This will enhance the efficient integration of DRR into national
policy. The study will see the efforts to be contained in the disaster risk reduction and analyse if there
is proper warning equipment in place to alert the general populace in the area to avoid loss of lives
and properties.

Furthermore, DRR involves every part of society, every part of the government, and every part of the
public and private sector thus requiring a holistic approach. The research findings will help in the
reduction of disaster risk through systematic efforts and reduce the usual factors of disasters,
furthermore, reducing exposure to hazards, lessening vulnerability of people and property, wise
management of land and the environment and improving preparedness. Thus, this research provides a

20
lens for understanding DRR measures in Beira, Mozambique and this, in turn, will help responsible
authorities and communities locally and also globally in areas that are affected by such disasters.

1.6.2 Theoretical and academic significance

The research will contribute immensely to academic theory. The research will benefit some scholars
who are interested in this particular area of study. This research was made with the desire to
contribute knowledge to an already existing body of knowledge that deals with disasters and DRR
measures. Therefore, any scholar worldwide who might develop an interest in this specific area of
study is bound to extract some bit of facts. Adding on to the above, any scholar who may be keen to
understand more about the plight of societies in disaster-prone areas and mitigatory measures can
gain insight on the topic. It provides the literature with a new case study and findings about climate-
induced disasters, displacement, conflict and mitigatory measures.

To the researcher, the purpose of the study was to give a better, comprehensive understanding of the
impacts of disasters on affected areas, DRR components and measures, and Early Warning Systems
(EWS), among other related subjects. The study also helps the researcher to fulfil the requirements of
acquiring a Bachelor of Science and helps in the illumination of other scholars on the above question.

1.7 Delimitations
1.7.1 Geographical Delimitation
The study is going to be conducted in Beira city specifically in the Manga neighbourhood. The
central Mozambican City of Beira has been described as the country’s ‘most climate-vulnerable city’
(Shannon, 2019: 4) and therefore was a good starting point for this emphirical inquiry. According to
Tura et al (2020), the Manga, Beira covers 4.902 km² in area, with a population of population
47,556 (Male Population 24,200 (50.9%) and Female Population 23,356 (49.1%)). Below is the map
that shows the location of the study area, Manga, on the Mozambique map:

21
Figure 1-4: Map of Mozambique, Sofala province, Beira, Manga study area. Source: adapted from
Tura et al (2020).

1.7.2 Data time

The study provided a snapshot ofDRR efforts inthe Manga neighbourhoodin Beira, Sofala province,
Mozambique. The scope of the study covered the period from March 2019 to March 2022. The idea
was to cover the period when Cyclone Idai started, DRR efforts in Cyclone Ana in February 2022
and other disasters that are in between this period.

1.8 Limitations of the study

The study had the following limitations:

Due to the lack of adequate time to carry out research because of the pressure of school work and
employment, the researcher tried to manage the time available to come up with excellent research.
Additionally, the research, especially data collection was conducted in a relatively short time
whereas DRR is a long-term developmental issue which may need tracking over longer periods. The
topic and some concepts of the study are also technical and more time was needed for clarity and
understanding of the concepts.

22
In carrying out the study, the first thing was to contact the key informants. This was done through
telephone as well as physical visits. The approval letter from the permanent secretary from the
relevant ministry was carried out by the researcher. Despite all these efforts, the respondents
continuously postponed the interviews. In other cases, two months lapsed without being able to
obtain responses from potential interviewees to make the necessary arrangements. Some respondents
refused to be audio-tapped and this adversely affected the intended sample and the recording of the
interviews. As mentioned previously, where interviewees refused to be recorded, these discussions
were compiled into reports soon after the interview.

The disruption of telecommunication services in some areas in the Manga neighbourhood

complicated the process of setting up interviews. Despite this, the researcher travelled long distances
to meet respondents and sometimes they would not avail themselves. The respondents were reluctant
to participate, in some instances.

Since the nature of the study called for confidential information related to the DRR subject, the
researcher’s access to confidential information useful to carry out the report was limited. However,
this limitation was negotiated with community leaders and the respondents were assured of
confidentiality and ethical handling of the information. In addition, the research also relied on
secondary data.

Despite all these challenges, the research successfully captured the community perspectives relating
to an investigation of DRR efforts in Beira, Mozambique. Some respondents were enthusiastic about
the research and shared their experiences voluntarily.

1.9 Assumptions
 The researcher is allowed access to the community to carry out the study.
 The study is based on the assumption that the disaster impacts and DRR measures in Manga,
Beira is reflective of the general outlook of all the disaster-prone and affected areas
throughout the country.
 That the respondents would cooperate and provide accurate information
 That the government and stakeholders would find this research meaningful and helpful.
 It will be used to consider making plans in mitigating the expected and unexpected
forthcoming disasters.

1.10 Definitions of key terms

Following are definitions of key terms used in the research:

23
1. Adaptation is the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected
climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.
2. Adaptive capacity is the ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate
variability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, take advantage of opportunities, or
cope with the consequences. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2001)
3. Climate change: is any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a
result of human activity. (IPCC, 2007)
4. Coping: are short-term mechanisms to ensure survival in face of livelihood stress that does
not reduce underlying vulnerability.
5. Disaster risk: UNISDR (2009:10) defines disaster risk as the potential disaster losses in
lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur to a particular
community or society over some specified future period caused by a hazard due to the
vulnerability within a community.
6. Disaster risk reduction: is an action taken to reduce the risk of disasters and the adverse
impacts of natural hazards, through systematic efforts to analyse and manage the causes of
disasters, including through avoidance of hazards, reduced social and economic vulnerability
to hazards, and improved preparedness for an adverse event. It is the concept and practice of
reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of
disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and
property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for
adverse events. (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, 2009)
7. Disaster: is a serious disruption of the functioning of the community or a society involving
widespread human material economic or environmental loses and impacts which exceed the
ability of the affected community or society to cope using its resources. (UNISDR 2009:9)
8. Early Warning System (EWS): There is no yet universally agreed definition of an early
warning system. However, for this study, an early warning system is simply a system of data
collection that facilitates the detection and monitoring of looming disasters so that actions can
be taken to reduce the negative effects of disasters. This information intends to provide those
with the power and ability to respond in a way that will ameliorate the adverse effects of the
disasters (Monnik, 2000).
9. Hazard: is a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause
loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services,
social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. (IPCC, 2007)

24
 10. Mitigation: these are measures taken in advance of a disaster aimed at reducing its impact on
society and the environment. The measures can be passive or active, structural and non-
structural (Stephenson, 1994; Kesten, 2006).
11. Preparedness: this is individual, community and administrative action to minimise loss of
life and damage and facilitate effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation (Stephenson, 1994).
UN/ISDR, 2002 states that these are activities and measures taken in advance to ensure an
effective response to the impact of disasters including the issuance of timely and effective
EWs and the temporary removal of people and property from threatened locations. So, these
are measures that ensure the readiness and ability of a society to forecast and take
precautionary measures in advance of an imminent threat.
12. Prevention: These are activities designed to provide permanent protection from disasters.
Prevention aims for the outright elimination of the adverse impacts of hazards (UN/ISDR,
2002; UNISDR, 2009).
13. Resilienceis the ability of a community to resist, absorb, and recover from the effects of
hazards in a timely and efficient manner, preserving or restoring its essential basic structures,
functions and identity (IPCC, 2001).
14. Risk: is something that involves a potential danger, and which could undermine a group or
institution’s ability to achieve is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of
climate change, including climate variability and extremesits objectives, or something that
diminishes the effectiveness and cohesion of a group or organisation.
15. Vulnerability is the degree to which a system. Vulnerability is a function of the character,
magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its
adaptive capacity (UNISDR, 2009). In the same vein, according to South Africa Disaster
Management Act, (2003), it is the extent to which an individual, household, community or
area may be adversely affected by a disaster. In other words, it is a set of conditions and
processes resulting from physical, social, economic and environmental conditions that
increase the susceptibility of communities to impacts of hazards (UN/ISDR, 2002).

1.11 Brief methodology

The situation analysis was guided by a pragmatic philosophy. Being pragmatic entails that the
research team had the flexibility to employ methods that were in line with the prevailing situation.
The research also employed the case study research design. The rationale for choosing a case study
is that information could be dissected and scrutinized including the real-life ideologies through
inferred analysis of a very small number of activities or surroundings and their relationships. In
25
gathering data, the researchers adopted a qualitative research design. The data were gathered using
in-depth interviews with 65 purposively and conveniently selected respondents. Fifty-five were
residents of the Manga neighbourhood. Ten respondents were key informants, five from non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) and community-based organisations (CBOs) and five were
government officials working in the fields of climate change, disaster and/or land rights.

Data was collected through in-depth interviews and they were deemed to be the most suitable data
collection method as this study required detailed accounts of the subjective experiences of disaster
impacts and their respective reduction measures. The interviews were digitally recorded and field
notes were taken during the interviews with the consent of the respondents. Before carrying out the
interviews, preliminary meetings and telephonic discussions were held with the prospective
participants where the researchers explained the nature and purpose of the study and informed
respondents that their participation was entirely voluntary and it was within their rights to withdraw
from the study at any time without having to give any explanation. The prospective respondents were
also assured that the information they would give would be treated with strict confidentiality and that
they would remain anonymous. All interviews were transcribed and translated verbatim into English,
and passages were extracted from the transcripts. Key themes and concepts were identified and
coded to offer a rich framework for analysis, comparisons and presentation of the data. The
respondents’ individual experiences, comments and opinions were then categorized according to
recurring selected themes from all the interview transcripts.

1.12 Thesis Outline

Chapter one identified the research problem giving the background and introductory framework of
the study. The chapter also defines the objectives, the significance of the study, the scope and
limitations of the study and a brief methodology that guided the research process. Chapter Two sets
out the theoretical basis of the research. The section covers one of the models around disasters and
the EWS concept. A discussion on cyclones as a hazard is also part of this chapter. Chapter Three
gives a detailed description of the research methodology which was used. Chapter Four presents the
findings and the data analysis. The last Fifth Chapter also concludes the achievement of initial
objectives in light of the research findings. Recommendations for the future exploration and adoption
in the DRR field and DRR policy-making based on the results of data analysis have expressed a way
of concluding the study. A list of references and appendices are placed at the end of the document.
The outline is summarized in figure 1.3 below

26
Figure 1-5: Thesis Outline (Source: Author’s Elaboration)

1.13 Chapter summary

This chapter introduced the topic, background of the study, the statement of the problem and
objectives as well as research questions respectively. The significance of the study and definition of
terms was also explained in the chapter. The next chapter will look at the theoretical framework,
conceptual model, and empirical literature review.

27
 2 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
Chapter One provided an overview of the disaster risk reduction background and sought to describe
the aim, justification and scope of the study. This chapter reviews literature related to the impact of
disaster risk reduction. It initially describes the theoretical framework used for the study and its
rationale. The Pressure and Release (PAR) Model provided the basis for the empirical inquiry of this
study. The PAR assisted with the assessment of the policy's influence on DRR efforts, its
establishment, operations, and challenges in implementation. The chapter further examines the
concepts in the context of DRR, the empirical literature review and lastly the trends of disasters and
respective DRR measures in the study area.

2.2 Theoretical framework

Several theories have been used to relate to DRR. However, this study will be guided by the theory
of the PAR model. This study used the PAR model because it offered the opportunity to
examinevulnerability analysis in specific hazard situations and is a very common framework used
within social science-related vulnerability research, according to IPCC, (2012).

2.2.1 Pressure and Release Model (PAR Model)

According to Wisner et al. (2003), a disaster occurs when a significant number of people who are
vulnerable experience a hazard and suffer severe damage and disruption to their livelihood. Without
external aid, they are unlikely to recover psychologically, physically or replace physical resources
(Wisner et al. 2003). The Pressure and Release Model (PAR Model) is a model that helps understand
risk in terms of vulnerability analysis in specific hazard situations. The PAR model was developed
by Blaikie et al in 1994 and modified in 2004 and is based on three major components, which are,
root causes of vulnerability, dynamic processes and unsafe conditions (Blaikie et al, 2004). PAR is a
tool that shows how disasters occur when natural hazards affect vulnerable people (Wisner et al.
2003). The vulnerability of people is rooted in social processes and underlying causes which may be
isolated from the disaster. The foundation of the PAR model is that a disaster is a connecting factor
between two opposing forces. The two opposing forces are what generate vulnerability and the
natural hazard event. The release part of the model considers the reduction of the disaster. To relieve
pressure, vulnerability has to be reduced (Wisner et al. 2013). The PAR explains the progression of
vulnerability as follows:

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Figure 2-6:Pressure and Release (PAR) Model (Source: Wisner et al.2004)

The model explains that disasters occur when two opposing forces, that is, vulnerability and a hazard
interact. The PAR model explains how disasters (here in this study, adverse climate events) are
shaped by structures and processes distant in space and time (Wisner et al., 2004). Thus, a disaster is
‘crunched’ between a hazard and processes generating vulnerability (Blaikie et al, 1994). Blaikie et
al, (1994), explained the PAR model stages as:

1. Underlying/Root causes are the deep-rooted set of factors within a society that form and
maintain vulnerability. These reflect the exercise and distribution of power in a society. An
example is a political system.
2. Dynamic processes: are translating social macro-forces that channel the effects of a negative
cause into unsafe conditions. This process may be due to a lack of basic services or a series of
macro-forces such as urbanization and population growth.
3. Unsafe conditions: these express how a population is vulnerable to hazards. This is the
vulnerable context where people and property are exposed to the risk of disaster. Examples
can be low-income levels and an unstable economy which expose people to some hazards.
Although the PAR model may not be considered to be within the DRR school by other researchers,
the UN/ISDR (2002) and several studies of risk and vulnerability use the formula derived from this
model to assess vulnerability and risk, such as Shahid and Behrawan (2008), DEWFORA project
(2012), Kipterer and Mundia (2014) among others. The formula is as follows:

Risk = Hazard * Vulnerability

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2.2.1.1 Justification of using the PAR Model
A discrete feature of the PAR model is its focus on the different factors and forces that drive people
to unsafe conditions, thus putting them at greater risk. The progression of vulnerability seeks to
explain the chain of explanations. According to IPCC, (2012), the PAR model points to the need to
ask the question ‘why?’. For instance, why: Poor people’s crop production vulnerable to the
negative impacts of drought? People live in hazardous locations and why do people lack
skills/education? Meanwhile, the ‘progression of safety’ points to transforming unsafe conditions
into safe conditions by addressing root causes and dynamic pressures (UNISDR, 2004)

According to Wamsler, (2014), based on the understanding of risk through the PAR model
authorities can be able to reduce the risk associated with adverse climate events, through (i) avoiding
or reducing hazards, (ii) reducing vulnerability to them, or increasing preparedness to (iii) responding
to and (iv) recovering from disasters as they occur (Wamsler, 2014). The reduction of vulnerability
can target both immediate settings (unsafe conditions) and systems and processes more distant in
space and time (dynamic pressures and root causes) (Wisner et al., 2004). PAR model is justified
also for this study since it is a holistic approach to climate adaptation that target all these risk factors,
using diverse measures: physical (e.g., sea walls and drainage structures); ecosystem-based (e.g.,
planting trees to regulate heat or floodwater); social (e.g., education and informational measures,
evacuation); economic (e.g., insurance schemes), and institutional (e.g., creation of local adaptation
groups) (Wamsler, 2014).

2.3 Conceptual framework

According to Afribary (2020), a conceptual framework is used in a research paper to elucidate the
key concepts or variables and the relationships between them that need to be studied. Also, a
conceptual framework is the way ideas are organized to achieve a research project's purpose and
explanation is the most common method employed (Afribary, 2020). This section explains the
concepts of DRR.

Various terms linked to the activities which we have come to understand as disaster risk reduction,
with an over-emphasis on disaster and humanitarian relief have made way for the contemporary
terms such as disaster reduction and disaster risk management. This section aims to give perspective
on the most important terms used in the field of disaster reduction. The definition of these terms has
been universally accepted to be valid and is a compilation of the definitions according to the
published terminology of the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

30
(UNISDR, 2009). UNISDR is the secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(ISDR).

2.3.1 Disaster
Although the focus of disaster reduction is not on any actual disaster event itself, disaster remains the
main focus. Thus, our efforts must be geared towards the reduction of the risk of a disaster occurring.
Probably one of the most debated terms in disaster reduction remains the basic definition of a
disaster. Many scholars (Quarantelli, 1998b; Quarantelli & Perry, 2005) have expressed diverse
views on what exactly constitutes a disaster. Some link the existence of a disaster to a specific
amount of losses sustained (for example number of people killed and injured), others judge an event
to be a disaster if a certain predefined threshold is breached (for example a trigger to a certain
contingency measure is reached), some judge disasters on their geographical extent and significance
concerning “normal” conditions, while some express a disaster in terms of its monetary value in
losses.

However, since the International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) the various
scientific understandings of disaster have culminated in a globally accepted definition. The UNISDR
(2009) defines a disaster as: “A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society
involving widespread human, material, or environmental losses and impacts which exceeds the
ability of the affected community to cope using only its resources.” Thus, if an event exceeds the
coping ability of a village, local municipality, district, state/province or even the nation, then a
specific type of disaster can be declared (that is local, state/provincial or national). The UNISDR
(2009), goes on to indicate: “Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of the
exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or
measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences.

Disaster impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human
physical, mental and social well-being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss
of services, social and economic disruption and environmental degradation. Disasters: Natural or
not? Disaster risk can be determined by the presence of three variables: hazards (natural or
anthropogenic); vulnerability to a hazard; and coping capacity linked to the reduction, mitigation and
resilience to the vulnerability of a community associated with the hazard in question.

2.3.2 Risk and disaster risk

Risk has various connotations within different disciplines. In general,the risk is defined as “the
combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences” (UNISDR, 2009). The

31
term risk is thus multi-disciplinary and is used in a variety of contexts. Risk is usually associated
with the degree to which humans cannot cope (lack of capacity) with a particular situation (e.g.
natural hazard). The term disaster risk, therefore, refers to the potential (not actual and realised)
disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur in a
particular community or society over some specified future time.

Disaster risk is the product of the possible damage caused by a hazard due to the vulnerability within
a community. It should be noted that the effect of a hazard (of a particular magnitude) would affect
communities differently (Von Kotze, 1999). This is true because of the level of the coping
mechanisms within that particular community. Poorer communities are therefore more at risk than
communities that do have the capacity to cope. Risks exist or are created within social systems. The
social context in which risk occurs is an important consideration. It should also be noted that people,
therefore, do not share the same perceptions of risk and their underlying causes due to their social
circumstances (Von Kotze, 1999). According to Von Kotze, (1999), to determine disaster risks, three
aspects need to be a present hazard, vulnerability to the hazard and some form of coping capacity.

2.3.3 Hazard
A hazard is defined as “a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may
cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services,
social and economic disruption, or environmental damage” (UNISDR, 2009). Hazards can be single,
sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterised by its location,
intensity, probability and likely frequency. Typical examples of hazards can be the absence of rain
(leading to drought) or the abundance thereof (leading to flooding). Chemical manufacturing plants
near settlements can also be regarded as hazardous; similarly, incorrect agricultural techniques will in
the long run lead to possible disasters.

According to Twigg (2001), hazards can either be a creation of humans (anthropogenic) or the
environment (natural). Although the former can more easily be planned for than the latter, in both
cases the management of the hazard will remain the same. Once the consequences (a possibly
hazardous situation) of this natural phenomenon come into contact with human beings it becomes a
natural hazard. If this natural hazard (due to the unplanned or poorly planned activities of human
beings), affects them so that they are unable to cope, the situation becomes a disaster (Twigg, 2001).

Difference between a hazard and a disaster “Strictly speaking there are no such things as natural
disasters, but there are natural hazards. A disaster is the result of a hazard’s impact on society. So, the
effects of a disaster are determined by the extent of a community’s vulnerability to the hazard
32
(conversely, its ability, or capacity to cope with it). This vulnerability is not natural, but the result of
an entire range of constantly changing physical, social, economic, cultural, political and even
psychological factors that shape people’s lives and create the environments in which they live.”
Twigg (2001:6).

2.3.4 Vulnerability
Vulnerability is defined as the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that
make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard (Blaikie et al., 1994). Vulnerability is a set of
prevailing or consequential conditions arising from various physical, social, economic and
environmental factors which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards
(UNISDR, 2002:24). It can also comprise physical, socio-economic and/or political factors that
adversely affect the ability of communities to respond to events (Jegillos, 1999). Blaikie et al. (1994)
believed that vulnerability is constituted by the characteristics of a person or group in terms of their
capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a hazard. Vulnerability can be
expressed as the degree of loss resulting from a potentially damaging phenomenon or hazard. It is
therefore the extent to which a community will degrade when subjected to a specified set of
hazardous conditions. The vulnerability has some distinct underlying causes. The magnitude of each
disaster, measured in deaths, damage, or costs (for a given developing country) increases with the
increased marginalisation of the population.

2.3.5 Coping capacity

Coping capacity for disaster risk reduction refers to the ability of people, organisations and systems,
using available skills and resources, to face and manage adverse conditions such as hazards,
emergencies or disasters. Coping capacities contribute to the reduction of disaster risks (UNISDR,
2009). The focus here should therefore not only be on the individual or the community but also the
capacity of the supporting mechanisms for the individual and the community at large. From the
example by Blaikie et al., (1994), one specific community might consist of several new immigrants
but this new community might enjoy the support of the local municipality. In themselves, the new
community might not have cohesion yet, but their capacity lies in the support they have. Similarly,
an impoverished community might not be the focus of development, but inherent in their internal
social and economic structures they might possess significant coping capacity and resilience. Coping
capacity is therefore just as much about what a community internally possesses, as the external
structures on which they depend.

33
2.3.6 Resilience
The UNISDR defines resilience as “the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards
to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient
manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and
functions” (UNISDR, 2009). This definition, therefore, considers the presence of a hazard and not a
disaster. Thus, once a disaster occurs, it would be incorrect to refer to resilience but rather to coping
capacity. Resilience and the building of resilience should therefore be seen as an integral part of
disaster risk reduction activities. Resilience, therefore, means the ability to “spring back from” a
shock. The resilience of a community in respect of potential hazard events is determined by the
degree to which the community has the necessary resources and is capable of organising itself both
before and during times of need (UNISDR, 2009).

2.3.7 Emergency and disaster management

This involves: “The organisation and management of resources and responsibilities for addressing all
aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and initial recovery steps. An
emergency is a threatening condition which requires urgent action. Effective emergency action can
avoid the escalation of an event into a disaster. It involves plans and institutional arrangements to
engage and guide the efforts of government, non-government, voluntary and private agencies in
comprehensive and coordinated ways to respond to the entire spectrum of emergency needs”
(UNISDR, 2009). The expression “disaster management” is sometimes used instead of emergency
management.

2.3.8 Disaster risk reduction

Disaster risk reduction (also referred to as just disaster reduction) is defined as the concept and
practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse and manage the causal factors
of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and
property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse
effects. Disaster reduction strategies include, primarily, vulnerability and risk assessment, as well as
several institutional capacities and operational abilities. The assessment of the vulnerability of
critical facilities, and social and economic infrastructure, the use of effective early warning systems,
and the application of many different types of scientific, technical, and other skilled abilities are
essential features of disaster risk reduction.

2.3.9 Disaster risk management

Disaster risk management is the systematic process of using administrative directives, organisations,
and operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities

34
to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster. Disaster risk management
aims to avoid, lessen or transfer the adverse effects of hazards through activities and measures for
prevention, mitigation and preparedness (UNISDR, 2009). The interaction between disaster risk
reduction and disaster risk management is clear. Disaster risk reduction concerns activities more
focused on a strategic level of management, whereas disaster risk management is the tactical and
operational implementation of disaster risk reduction.

The Disaster risk management cycle (DRMC) as highlighted by Warfield, (2008), is the range of
initiatives which normally occur during both the emergency response and recovery stages of a
disaster. The DRMC also highlights the role of the media, where there is a strong relationship
between this and funding opportunities. The DRMC diagram below by Warfield, (2008) works best
for relatively sudden-onset disasters, such as floods, earthquakes, bushfires, tsunamis, cyclones etc,
but is less reflective of slow-onset disasters, such as drought, where there is no recognizable single
event which triggers the movement into the emergency response stage. According to Warfield
(2008), disaster management aims to reduce, or avoid the potential losses from hazards, assure
prompt and appropriate assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and effective recovery.
The disaster management cycle illustrates the ongoing process by which governments, businesses,
and civil society plan for and reduce the impact of disasters, react during and immediately following
a disaster, and take steps to recover after a disaster has occurred. Appropriate actions at all points in
the cycle lead to greater preparedness, better warnings, reduced vulnerability or the prevention of
disasters during the next iteration of the cycle. According to Warfield, (2008), often phases of the
cycle overlap and the length of each phase greatly depends on the severity of the disaster.The
components of DRR to be considered are:

 Mitigation - Minimizing the effects of a disaster. Examples: building codes and zoning;
vulnerability analyses; public education.
 Preparedness - Planning how to respond. Examples: preparedness plans; emergency
exercises or training; warning systems.
 Response - Efforts to minimize the hazards created by a disaster. Examples: search and
rescue; emergency relief.
 Recovery - Returning the community to normal. Examples: temporary housing; grants;
medical care.
Figure 2.2 below depicts the DRMC model:

35
Figure 2-7: The Disaster Management Cycle, Source: Warfield, 2008.

2.4 Empirical literature review

The empirical literature reviews herein are drawn from the objectives of the study thematic areas.

2.4.1 Disaster risk and climate change impact

According to Wong, (2016), the impact of human activities on the current progressive warming of
the earth’s climate system in the last century is explicit. The exponential growth of the emissions of
greenhouse gasses since the pre-industrial era is pointed by scientists as extremely likely to be
responsible for the progressive warming of the earth’s surface, and other effects such as the
acidification of oceans (IPCC, 2014). As a result of climate change, natural systems are profoundly
affected, which is manifested in current rising sea levels; glacier melting; desertification; and more
frequent extreme weather events such as droughts, cyclones, and storms. The result is an increasing
vulnerability of people to climate-related hazards, and lower adaptation to climate. As a result of
climate change, the number of environmentally displaced persons (EDPs) worldwide is rapidly
increasing (Falstrom, 2002).

In itself, population movement due to climate change is not a new phenomenon: it has happened
since mankind. Yet, as argued by Warner et al.(2010), its scale, speed, and impact are growing and
will be unprecedented. Although the relation between migration and climate change is at times
36
difficult to pinpoint, and although the ways of quantifying environmental displacement are debated
by migration researchers (Naser, 2012), it is clear that environmental factors contribute to and
exacerbate migration (Podesta, 2019). Since 2008, the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
keeps track of disaster-induced displacements. Their figures consistently show that the annual
number of new internal displacements caused by disasters is much higher than the number of new
displacements caused by conflict and violence (Walicki, 2008). In 2018 alone, around 17.2 million
people were newly displaced within their own country as a result of a disaster (IDMC & NRC, 2019:
6).

Moreover, although climate change is a global problem, the impacts of climate change are not evenly
distributed. The poorest and most vulnerable people are disproportionally affected and displaced by
these environmental events, as they tend to live in more disaster-prone areas (Hellmuth et al., 2007;
IPCC, 2014; Hallegatte et al., 2016:). Poor people tend to lose relatively more than richer ones when
affected by a disaster, as precarious housing and a few easily perishable assets represent most of their
savings and are easily destroyed by an extreme weather event (Hallegatte et al., 2016). They are also
more exposed to other consequences such as diseases, and health issues, and have fewer coping
capacities (Hellmuth et al., 2007; Hallegatte et al., 2016). They might have less formalized rights
over their properties, making it more difficult to claim compensation, and their limited tenure
security might make people more reluctant to temporarily or seasonally move as they are less certain
that they will be able to reclaim their land upon return (Hilton Prize Coalition, 2017). At the same
time, poor people have fewer resources to enable their mobility (Borderon et al., 2019). One of the
impacts of environmental displacement is an increase in land tenure issues, both in the areas from
where displaced people flee and the areas where they seek shelter (Mitchell & McEvoy, 2019).

On the one hand, the disaster risk is spread to land tenure issues that are exacerbated by the new
problems brought by climate change while, on the other hand, existing land tenure issues further
complicate climate adaptation measures that are needed (Quan & Dyer, 2008). Besides the
difficulties that these problems create in people’s lives, they also have enormous potential to ignite
and fuel conflict, both in affected and resettlement areas, especially when they take place in settings
with weak and/or overloaded dispute-resolution mechanisms (Mitchell & McEvoy, 2019). If not
properly and timely addressed, the land tenure issues caused by environmental displacement and
measures to prevent disasters can make the response against climate change more difficult, and
further increase its impacts on communities. Interestingly, this nexus between climate change,
displacement and land tenure issues remain understudied in the literature (Quan & Dyer, 2008;

37
Mitchell & McEvoy, 2019). Moreover, although environmental displacement has a significant impact
on land rights and land-related conflict, different studies have not found agreement on how these
processes develop, as shown by the extensive literature review by Busy (2019), nor do they offer
much guidance on how such conflicts can be prevented.As highlighted above, climate change
impacts tend to disproportionately affect the poorest and most vulnerable people. If adequately
considered and designed, measures to address the land-related problems caused by climate change
provide opportunities to address existing social inequalities (Kälin, 2005); but on the other hand,
those same measures also have the potential to deepen social inequality and further marginalize
already vulnerable people. This ignites the zeal to explore more the disaster risk and the impacts of
disasters, as this is the first objective of the research. As such this study will use this assertion to
investigate the plight of the Manga neighbourhood residents in Beira.

2.4.2 DRR measures and community coping mechanisms

To address climate risks and to avoid further disasters from taking place, for instance, the
government of Mozambique, through its National Institute for Disaster Management (INGC), usually
choose a clear strategy of removing people living in high-risk zones to other areas to prevent
disasters from wreaking too much havoc (Busy, 2019). They expect that with this approach, the
number of people that could potentially be affected by disasters is reduced. But such a policy of
population movement has major consequences for the people that are affected; whether they are
resettled, supposed to be resettled, or whether they are among the previous owners of the
resettlement land. However, according to Patt & Schroter, (2008: 459); Chambote & Veja, (2008),
the country has already a have several previous failed experiences where the same approach was
taken. It is therefore not surprising that such a policy provokes strong opinions and risks dividing
people into opposite stances, as averred by Patt & Schroter, (2008). The challenge will be for both
lawmakers, policy makers and practitioners to unite these different stances and balance the needs and
interests of all. This poses tensions that are created by these resettlement practices.

According to Lopez (2020), amid Cyclone Idai, the Mozambican government managed to resettle
more than 80 000 people within a couple of months, but this resettlement process was rather
informal. People had received only temporary informal documents over their residential plots but did
not yet receive the formal land that they were supposed to get (Lopez, 2020). They also had to
organise their livelihoods and were not granted a piece of agricultural land. At the time of our visit,
external aid was still provided and many people had not yet obtained access to agricultural land. A
glance at the site revealed that most people continued to live in the tents that were provided in the
direct aftermath of the cyclone. Significantly, heavy floods in December 2019 and January 2020
38
damaged a considerable number of the housing structures, affecting 64% of the households to some
extent (IOM/INGC, 2020). The physical resettlement had taken place rapidly but in a rather informal
way. More durable resettlement in terms of livelihoods, housing and legal protection was not yet
achieved. Moreover, the process through which land was obtained for the resettlement areas was
rather informal, giving little room for those affected by it to negotiate their position and be
adequately compensated (IOM/INGC, 2020). With little leeway to negotiate alternatives to the
expropriation (e.g., alternative areas), nor the form and amounts of compensation (which seems to
have been none), those that give away their land are in practice bearing the costs of the resettlement
of others. A more formal process to identify resettlement sites; compensate prior land users; and
secure the tenure of new settlers would provide more protection to people who are affected (Lopez,
2020). If they feel more secure about their rights, the solution might also become more sustainable.

Moreover, regarding disaster community coping mechanisms in Africa, Boyce, (2000), elaborated
that local communities had well-developed traditional indigenous knowledge systems for
environmental management and coping strategies, making them more resilient to environmental
change. These communities can easily identify with this knowledge and it facilitates their
understanding of certain modern scientific concepts for disaster prevention, preparedness, response
and mitigation (Boyce, 2000). Globally, there is increasing acknowledgement of the relevance of
traditional knowledge as an invaluable and underused knowledge reservoir, which presents
developing countries, particularly in Africa, with a powerful asset in disaster management (Kemp,
2007). Specifically, from time immemorial, natural disaster management in Africa has been deeply
rooted in local communities which apply and use traditional knowledge to master and monitor
climate and other natural systems and establish early warning indicators for their benefit and future
generations (Lerner-Lam, 2007). In the traditional African worldview, environmental resources
(land, water, animals and plants) are not just production factors with economic significance but also
have their place within the sanctity of nature (Millar, 2006). These examples underscore the
importance of harnessing local knowledge not only as a precious national resource but also as a vital
element in environmental conservation and natural disaster prevention, preparedness and response.
However, despite the prevalent application and use of traditional knowledge by local communities, it
has not been harnessed to fit into the current scientific framework for environmental conservation
and natural disaster management in Africa. As a result, there is a general lack of information and
understanding of the need to integrate or mainstream local mechanisms in disaster management. The
information above is not sufficient for the study as it does not refer to Manga, Beira specifically. This
will also be used as a guide to this study, as it answers the second research question of the research.
39
2.4.3 Challenges that hinder DRR efforts
Though DRR efforts and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) work somewhat separately, their
integration faces a diverse set of challenges, several of which are common across the two
approaches, according to Birkmann and von Teichman (2010). A key challenge is how to achieve
effective integration between the approaches at conceptual, strategic and operational levels.
Birkmann and von Teichman (2010), categorised the practical barriers to effectively implementing
DRR efforts into three key areas: scales (spatial, temporal, and functional); knowledge (data and
information); and norms (legislative, cultural or behavioural). From a critical review of several
studies, the actors and institutions of DRR and CCA operate almost entirely in isolation and
maintain their chains and mechanisms of action (Begum et al., 2014; Setiadi et al., 2010).

2.4.3.1 Actors and institutions

There is a lack of coherent institutional frameworks at local and regional levels to connect the actors
of both approaches (Bhatt et al., 2015; Renaud et al., 2016; Rivera & Wamsler, 2014). Moreover,
inadequate institutional arrangements contribute to the considerable overlap of efforts of DRR
(Boughedir, 2015; Mitchell & van Aalst, 2008). Though the DRR and CCA actors serve similar
communities, boundaries between and within actors, domains, and arrangements in institutions are
often not clearly defined (Forino et al., 2014). Thus, actor’s non-cooperation in mainstreaming, lack
of effective networking among organisations (Howes et al., 2015; IFRC, 2013; Mitchell & van Aalst,
2008), and communication gaps between local, regional and national actors (Johnston, 2014; Pilli-
Sihvola & Väätäinen-Chimpuku, 2016) are also hindrances to effective integration of DRR and CCA
efforts. The literature suggests that more research is required to explore the arrangement of the
interactions between actors and institutions involved in the integration of DRR and CCA to examine
the nature of the interaction between them in different contexts.

2.4.3.2 Governance
Governance is all of the processes of governmental apparatus to engage the citizens and stakeholders,
make and enforce rules, and deliver smooth desirable services, (Forino et al., 2014). Governance is a
varied and complex issue surrounding the potential implementation of DRR efforts that inevitably
involves a set of state, market, and social actors, and bridging arrangements (Forino et al., 2014).
Both foreseeable and unforeseeable barriers and challenges are encountered along the way. Howes et
al., (2015); IFRC, (2013) agreed that they include, among others, bureaucratic organisational
processes, ineffective procedures for retaining organisational memory and a culture of working in
‘silos’ meaning resistance to sharing information with others in an organization. Moreover, the
increasing provision in aid flow may also bring challenges to governance (Johnston, 2014).

40
Similarly, damaging competition among different inter-sectoral mechanisms, and inflexible
government structures and processes are hindering the effective implementation of DRR measures
(Pilli-Sihvola & Väätäinen-Chimpuku, 2016) which is unfortunate because, the administrative
position of DRR in governments could improve response capacity by increasing visibility for CCA
(Solecki et al., 2011). Although the studies reviewed suggested need for improvements in
governance, they did not identify how integrated governance could be achieved in different contexts
and settings.

2.4.3.3 Coordination and collaboration

Institutional frameworks for addressing DRR measures establishment within a region or a country
typically lack coherence. Multiple institutions are commonly found to be delivering similar kinds of
projects across the two approaches (Bhatt et al., 2015). Coordination and collaboration across
sectors, stakeholders, institutions and programmes are regarded as essential for the successful
implementation of DRR efforts (Begum et al., 2014; Schipper et al., 2016). Research has identified
considerable coordination challenges that exist in terms of defining responsibilities and institutional
arrangements (Djalante & Thomalla, 2012). A lack of coordination and collaboration in arranging
network governance is commonly encountered (Forino et al., 2015; Howes et al., 2015). Moreover,
low awareness and institutional weaknesses in coordination often hinder the integration of DRR and
CCA (Setiadi et al., 2010). Though studies mentioned the need for coordination in integration, they
did not suggest clear practical strategies for this integration.

2.4.3.4 Resources and funding mechanism

Studies have shown that there is a lack of cooperative funding, inefficient use of resources (Howes et
al., 2015), divided funding practices (Ireland, 2010), and incoherent funding structures hinder the
effective combination of strategies in putting into place DRR efforts (Birkmann & von Teichman,
2010). Similarly, ineffective funding allocations obstruct integration by preventing effective capacity
planning, preparedness, and management of climate-related disasters (Begum et al., 2014). Such
problems are exacerbated because DRR efforts receive funds from different sources for different
objectives as influenced by their donors (Hasan et al., 2013). Studies also suggested that duplication
of efforts and damaging competition for funds between different intersections such as different
ministries are also hindering DRR (Gebreyes et al., 2017; Mitchell & van Aalst, 2008). Studies have
demonstrated the problematic nature of funding as a major challenge confronting the integration of
DRR and CCA, but they did not suggest strategies to enhance resource mobilization for effective
integration.

41
2.4.3.5 Information, communication and knowledge sharing
Although the assembled information regarding the anticipated impact of climate change is richer
than the information surrounding disaster risks, insufficient data regarding the local level effects of
climate change still hinder the effective implementation of strategies across DRR (Birkmann & von
Teichman, 2010). Both sectors face similar challenges in terms of information and knowledge
limitation (Schipper et al., 2016; Solecki et al., 2011). It has been recommended that a forum should
be constituted to enable policy makers, communities and scientists to share relevant knowledge and
information relevant to DRR processes (McBean & Rodgers, 2010; Setiadi et al., 2010). More
widespread and coordinated use of shared knowledge and information for integrating DRR and CCA
is required to address these information deficit issues.

2.4.3.6 Policy
Poorly thought through, and less relevant policy aimed at separate implementation of DRR measures
and CCA does not directly address the problem at hand. If CCA is to be embedded within DRR
efforts, then DRR also needs to be embedded within sustainable development policy more widely,
according to Burns & Machado Des Johansson, (2017); Mercer, (2010). According to the IPCC,
closer integration of DRR and CCA in policy and practices could provide benefits at all scales,
including local (IPCC, 2014). Although politically challenging, policy implementation of DRR
efforts should be a priority (Begum et al., 2014). Multiple policies involving several institutions or
ministries need to be managed in a constructive way (Bhatt et al., 2015). Moreover, if meaningful
integration is not achieved, unsound and disconnected DRR policies and practices might exacerbate
disaster risk and disaster losses (Hasan et al., 2013). It is therefore imperative to develop a shared
policy vision (Howes et al., 2015; Ireland, 2010). The literature suggested that additional case studies
of successful policy integration of DRR and CCA could help publicize the case for the importance
and effectiveness of meaningful integration across these approaches.

2.4.3.7 Political, social and cultural structure

Many studies have shown that struggles over the direction of DRR efforts exist and unfortunately,
the progress of social, political and cultural initiatives is slow because of the vested interests of the
actors (Burns & Machado Des Johansson, 2017; Gaillard et al., 2013; Oliver Smith, 2013). It is
therefore vital to consider whether the existing political will is adequate to deliver the desired
outcomes and if not how the requisite level of a political will might be realized (Begum et al., 2014;
Mercer, 2010). For instance, in Vanuatu, the village chief is usually the most powerful within the
village (Johnston, 2014). Moreover, sustainable and effective integration occurs when decision
makers succeed in bridging local economic and social areas of concern (Ireland, 2010; Oliver-Smith,

42
2013). Besides this, disasters not only cause suffering through the loss of homes and assets but also
through the loss of social networks and social hierarchy (Turnbull, Sterrett, & Hilleboe, 2013).
Howes et al. (2015) also agree that terminology differences make common understanding difficult,
pointing out that emergency services professionals consider river levees as ‘mitigation’, whereas
climate researchers consider them to be ‘adaptation’. Further research is needed to develop a more
in-depth practical understanding of the political, social, and cultural issues and context required for
the effective establishment of DRR efforts, hence this study at hand.

2.4.3.8 Community involvement

DRR has a long history of working at the community level whereas CCA is just beginning to
Community-based DRR could be a suitable entry point for CCA measures because it would remove
the need for new, potentially duplicate programmes (Lei, 2014; Mercer, 2010; Solecki et al., 2011).
Also, an over-emphasis on the central allocation of resources without reasonable consultation to
determine local needs creates a problematic culture of dependence on central funding (Johnston,
2014). There is also a lack of requisite expertise and capacity to coordinate DRR delivery between
the national and local levels (Gebreyes et al., 2017; Pilli-Sihvola & Väätäinen - Chimpuku, 2016).
For instance, many sectors such as agriculture and contexts such as rural-coastal areas remain far
from establishing effective community networks to harness local knowledge and facilitate local
involvement which is vital for DRR (Gaillard et al., 2013; Mitchell et al., 2010; Turnbull et al.,
2013). However, DRR can be achieved through community participation in developing a policy
agenda, and in the project planning, and implementation stages (Hasan et al., 2013; Mercer, 2010).
None of the studies identified in this review, provided a concrete example of community
involvement in the institution of DRR efforts, although they discussed the importance of community
involvement.

2.4.3.9 Implementation and mainstreaming

Implementation on the ground is difficult because diverse implementers such as different
communities, local governments and so on are engaged (de Leon &Pittock, 2016). Similarly, joint
implementation with multiple agencies also often introduces challenges in the form of
communication and monitoring gaps (Djalante & Thomalla, 2012; Gebreyes et al., 2017). Moreover,
differences exist in terms of technical expertise and in approaches to project implementation (Forino
et al., 2015). An agreed approach is required for analysing the complexities and uncertainties in
implementation (Setiadi et al., 2010). There is increased recognition of the value of predominantly
mainstreaming CCA into DRR activities to reduce vulnerability and increase community resilience.
The existence of international and national agreements, protocols, and policies on climate change are
43
important elements of an enabling environment that would facilitate the mainstreaming of CCA into
DRR policy (Harris & Bahadur, 2011).

However, the reviewed studies provided a partial insight into the importance of addressing
challenges involved in mainstreaming and implementing integration. It appears that the specific
pathways required for effective integration, supported by strong case study exemplars do not yet
exist. Therefore, a political economy analysis of public spending and implementation would appear
to be a key for this research in Manga, Beira.

2.4.4 Trends of natural disasters in Mozambique

Mozambique is the third most vulnerable country in Africa to disaster risks (according to the UN’s
Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction). Frequent natural disasters disrupt the
livelihoods and food production of the most vulnerable people, undermining the fight against
extreme poverty. During the last 35 years, there were 75 declared disasters in Mozambique
consisting of 13 drought events, 25 floods, 14 tropical cyclones and 23 epidemics (Instituto Nacional
de Gestao de Calamidades, 2016). The regional El Niño-induced drought emergency of 2015-2016
was the worst in 35 years (Governo de Moçambique, 2017). According to the Technical Secretariat
for Food Security and Nutrition’s November 2016 report, an estimated 2.1 million Mozambicans had
limited or uncertain access to food and needed assistance before the March-April 2017 harvest. This
figure represents an increase of 700,000 persons over 2016 and illustrates the vulnerability of the
Mozambican people (Governo de Moçambique, 2017).

The depletion of family assets (food stocks, seed stock, livestock and family savings) as a result of
the 2016 drought left many households destitute and dependent on food and other assistance
provided by the Government of Mozambique (GRM) and assistance provided by development
partners such as the USAID (WMO 2019; Governo de Moçambique, 2019). Approximately 80
percent of the Mozambican population relies on rain-fed agriculture for their subsistence, which is
sensitive to extreme climatic events as well as pests (Governo de Moçambique, 2019). The recent
introduction of new pests such as the fall armyworm is now creating additional food security
concerns throughout the country. The fall armyworm (Spodopterafrugiperda), FAW, is an insect pest
that feeds on more than 100 crop species, causing damage to economically important cultivated crops
such as maize, rice, sorghum, various legumes as well as vegetable crops, pasture grasses and cotton
(Governo de Moçambique, 2019).

Tropical cyclones have hit Mozambique with unprecedented strength. For example, cyclone Idai
destroyed the central region of Mozambique and the area most severely affected by the cyclone- the
44
chaos was so intense that the city of Beira, according to Mitchell and McEvoy (2019), the city was
disconnected from the world for weeks and on social media, rumours passed that the whole city was
swept away. Thousands of houses were destroyed by the strong winds, and satellite images showed
vast areas of land completely flooded. As a result, thousands of people were displaced from their
houses (IOM/INGC, 2019a). This influenced the researcher to choose an area that is within the Beira
city.

2.5 Chapter summary

This chapter established the theoretical, conceptual frameworks, and empirical literature review of
this study as illustrated above. The chapter displays that the research was guided by the Pressure and
Release Model (PAR). The conceptual framework explored the concepts associated with DRR. The
chapter also met the objectives of the study and outlines some empirical studies in different countries
and set-ups. The next chapter will establish the research methodology of this study by looking into
aspects like research design, sampling techniques, data collection techniques, and other issues crucial
in the carrying out of the research process.

45
 3 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Creswell (2018), noted that a research methodology is a process adopted for data collection for the
body of research. A specific methodology used in research should describe how the data were
collected and analyzed. This study used an interpretive qualitative methodology. The approach
facilitated the researcher to make sense of why Manga residents responded in the manner they did to
DRR efforts in the area. Kothari (2004), argued that the choice of a certain methodology is
significant in that it articulates the reasons for selecting a particular technique or procedure in the
research. This is critical because it aids readers to understand the research process adopted. There are
two principal categories which are quantitative and qualitative research. This chapter looks at the
methodology and processes used to collect and analyze the data. The drive is to outline the
methodology adopted in seeking to respond to the research objectives and research questions. The
researcher narrates, and justifies the research process used for the research; from the population and
sample, the methodology and research design, data collection instruments, data collection processes,
data analysis, and presentation procedures, and how ethical issues were dealt with.

3.2 Research Paradigm/ Philosophy

A research paradigm is a model or pattern. According to Parahoo (2015), a review by American
philosopher Thomas Kuhn in 1962 initially adopted the word paradigm to imply a philosophical way
of thinking. However, in educational research, the term paradigm is used to describe a researcher’s
‘worldview’ (Cresswell, 2018). The purpose of research and how it will be conducted are all
influenced by the researcher’s paradigmatic beliefs. There are three different methodological
paradigms in the research field known as the positivism paradigm, the interpretive paradigm, and the
emancipatory paradigm. For this study, the researcher has chosen interpretivism.

3.2.1 Interpretive Paradigm

This study adopted the interpretive view which is an insider perspective. This is also known as the
constructivist view. According to Creswell, (2014), the view is called the interpretive paradigm
because it supports the idea that there are various truths and multiple realities. In the same vein, “the
interpretive paradigm is associated more with methodological approaches that provide an opportunity
for voice, concerns, and practices of research participants to be heard” (Cole, 2006: 26).
Interpretivism is a concept that is related to addressing and understanding the world as others
experience it. The interpretive paradigm differs from positivism on assumptions about the nature of
reality, what counts as knowledge and its sources, values, and their role in the research process. The

46
purpose of interpretative research is to understand people’s experiences. The researcher is more
concerned about the discovery of knowledge about how people feel and think in the settings in which
they find themselves than creating judgments about whether those thoughts and feelings are binding
(Cole, ibid). In this particular inquiry, the thrust was to understand the perceptions of Beira, Manga
residents on DRR efforts and their effectiveness in Climate Change Adaptation (CCA).

The interpretive paradigm is meant to polish the theories used in making various interpretations. The
research takes place in a natural setting where the participants make their living. The purpose of the
study expresses the assumptions of the interpretive researcher in attempting to understand human
experiences. Yeboah (2012: 107) averred that “researchers are therefore urged to understand the
socially constructed nature of the social world and realize that values and interests become part of the
research process.” In this light, this study looked at how residents have managed to draw livelihoods
in the obtaining DRR policy environment. Individual perspectives and experiences of the residents
were given much consideration. According to Halloway (in Ponelis, 2015:540), “interpretivism
argued that human behaviour must be observed and interpreted according to the individual’s meaning
or reasons for action. The interpretive approach therefore basically employs qualitative methods in
the collection and analysis of data”. In this study qualitative interviews were used to gather data from
residents and stakeholders in Manga, Beira.

On the other hand, although an interpretive approach is a worthwhile paradigm in policy and
development studies, and is suitable for improving the understanding of various studies, it has its
drawbacks. Complexities of the approach call for trained researchers who can interpret the social
experiences of the participants in their frame and “reconcile the differences without injecting
personal bias or preconceptions into their inferences” (Yeboah, 2012: 73). The other impediment is
that “contextualized inferences drawn from interpretive research do not lend themselves well to
replicability or generalizability” (Ibid). Moreover, interpretive research may occasionally be
unsuccessful in trying to answer the research questions of interest or predict future behaviours. Also,
interpretive investigation inclines to be more time and resource-consuming as likened to positivist
studies during data collection and subsequent analysis. However, these challenges cannot outweigh
their merits, as far as this study is concerned. The interpretivism approach was employed to respond
to how and why questions to understand the participants’ worldview. In this study questions
revolving around how DRR efforts helped the Manga residents, and why the measures were not
adequate.

47
3.3 Research approach
A research approach or methodology can be defined as a way to systemically answer the questions in
a particular research problem. It entails a process of studying how research is done scientifically.
Bhattachejee (2012: 5), claimed that it “refers to a standardized set of techniques for building
scientific knowledge, such as how to make valid observations, how to interpret results, and how to
generalize those results”. Through the methodology, researchers study the various steps they use in
studying a particular research problem and the underlying logic behind such steps. As has been
underscored above, the choice of a particular research method is crucial in making research findings
for a given study phenomenon. It is contended that the methodology governs what the researcher
would say about the cause and factors influencing a given phenomenon. The methodology can be
either qualitative or quantitative or both (where a mixed methodology is adopted). This study
employed the qualitative research methodology.

3.3.1 Qualitative Methodology

Qualitative research was conducted to understand the DRR efforts in Beira’s Manga neighbourhood,
Mozambique. Qualitative research explores a problem to understand a phenomenon (Creswell,
2018). Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines,
traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and other contexts (Denzin et al.,
2005). According to Creswell, (2012), Qualitative research is useful for studies at the individual
level, and to find out, in-depth, how people think or feel. Creswell (2018: 254) states, “We conduct
qualitative research because a problem or issue needs to be explored…because we need a complex,
detailed understanding of the issue and we want to empower individuals to share their stories, hear
their voices, and allow them to tell the stories unencumbered by what we expect to find or what we
have read in the literature. We do this because we want to understand the contexts or settings in
which participants in a study address a problem or an issue”. These reasons inform why I position my
study in a qualitative, interpretive research paradigm. Qualitative research coincides with this study’s
thrust to grasp the everyday experiences of the Manga communities as they try to recover from the
ravages of disasters. Thus, a qualitative research design was seen to be appropriate as it allowed the
researcher to appreciate processes, interactions and events that aid the understanding of DRR and the
contribution they make towards preparing and recovering from disasters.

Qualitative researches are usually exhaustive in giving the depth of the phenomenon. According to
Creswell (2017: 249) “it focuses more attention on smaller rather than large samples to enable in-
depth analysis. It constantly builds a comprehensive, holistic picture, analyses words, reports detailed
views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting”. According to Lincoln and Guba as
48
cited by Creswell, (2014: 206) “the researcher in the qualitative dimension seeks believability, based
on coherence, insight and instrumental utility and trustworthiness that comes through a process of
verification rather than through traditional validity and reliability measures”. Qualitative research,
therefore, provides the thick descriptions that are necessary for an understanding of human
experiences (Sacks, 2015).This approach helped the researcher to investigate the residents'
experiences in the communities of Manga, before, during and after disasters. The participants
narrated their ordeals, and panacea from DRR efforts. This gave the researcher some basis to
interpret the respondents’ worldview and how they relate to policy.

3.3.1.1 Disadvantages of Qualitative Research

Contrary, to the discussion above that, demonstrates the qualities of employing qualitative research,
it is important to note that the approach has some limitations. Yin (2014), argued that qualitative
research methods tend to be affected by the bias of emphasizing meanings and experiences at the
expense of the research context in a particular study. The other demerit is that its findings are not
given as much importance as quantitative studies, especially in the discipline of public policy. Also,
studies using a qualitative approach usually adopt a small sample thus limiting the generalizability of
the findings. In this study, the researcher chose a neighbourhoodinstead of the whole city of Beira,
since the qualitative approach limited her to smaller sample size.

3.4 Research Design

Broadhurst et al. (2012) defined research design as the structure of enquiring. Parahoo (2014)
describes a research design as “a plan that describes how, when and where data are to be collected
and analyzed”. Research design means a plan that guides one through the research process, from the
beginning to the end (Yin, 2014). This means that when one embarks on the research journey, the
research design should be the priority. It is a carefully thought-through plan that a researcher has to
construct with the assistance of relevant literature, introspection and critical reflection, supervisor’s
input, and other forms of assistance that are needed. A qualitative design can be narrative research,
phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnographies or case study. The researcher adopted a case study
research design in this study.

3.4.1 Case Study Research Design

A case study is an in-depth study of a research problem rather than a sweeping statistical survey or
comprehensive comparative inquiry (University of Southern California Libraries, 2016). Creswell
(2018: 32) states that “…case study research involves the study of an issue explored through one or
more cases within a bounded system (that is, a setting or a context)”. Yin (2014:22) takes it a step
further and describes a case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
49
phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not evident.”It is often used to narrow down a very wide-ranging field
of research into one or a few easily researchable examples. According to Yin (2012), case studies are
bounded by time and activity, and the researcher collects well-detailed information using a variety of
data collection procedures over a sustained period. Also, a case study research design is a suitable
technique where little is known about an issue or phenomenon, and it was chosen for this reason,
since, DRR is a contested phenomenon in Mozambique.

Also, the design has the capabilities of extending experience and adding strength to what is already
known through past research and this has made the researcher fill the gap that was left by previous
researchers in the study of DRR. Particularly, this project study meets the requirements for an
instrumental case study because I examined a particular case, namely neighbourhood residents'
perceptions of DRR efforts. According to Creswell, (2012), instrumental case studies elucidate a
particular issue and allow the researcher to develop a relationship with the participants allowing for a
deep understanding to be developed. Above all, this approach outshined other research designs in
bringing the researcher to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed contextual analysis
of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.

3.5 Population
The total population was defined by Parahoo (2014: 52) as “the total number of units from which
data can be collected, such as individuals, artefacts, events or organisations”. For this study, the
target population were the residents of the Manga neighbourhood. Manga covers an area of 4.902
km² in Beira city, with a population of approximately 47,556 habitants. Below shows a map of Beira
city, Manga neighbourhood:

50
Figure 3- 8: Map of Beira city showing Manga suburb. Source: Open Street Map, Retrieved from
city-facts.com

Manga is a place that is highly prone to disasters such as cyclones, drought and floods. The target
population of this study are the victims of such disasters. Accordingly, National Institute for Disaster
Management (INGC) in Beira has shown that almost 10,000 households that have been severely
affected are yet to recover from perennial disasters especially tropical cyclones. Of the 10,000
vulnerable households, this study chose fifty-five households, the other remainder was catered for
with observations and secondary data. These interviewed respondents were selected using sampling
techniques to be discussed in the next section.

3.6 Sampling
Sampling can be understood as a “statistical process of selecting a subset (called a “sample”) of a
population of interest for purposes of making observations and statistical inferences about that
population” (Bhattachejee, 2012: 65). Alvi (2016), agreed with this definition by defining sampling
as the process through which a sample is extracted from a population. According to Burns and Grove
(2013: 31) sampling refers to “a process of selecting a group of people, events or behaviour with
which to conduct a study”. Due to restraining costs both in terms of money and time, researchers can
hardly study the entire population. This justifies the selection of samples from the population one
will be interested in. Bhattacherjee (2012: 6) argues that “it is extremely important to choose a
sample that is truly representative of the population so that the inferences derived from the sample
can be generalized back to the population of interest”. Polit et al. (2001) confirmed that in sampling,

51
a percentage that represents the whole population is selected and sampling may be closely related to
the generalizability of the findings. For this study, it was impossible to interview all the residents of
the Manga neighbourhood, and therefore sampling was vital in selecting critical respondents. Non-
probability sampling technique was employed in this study.

3.6.1 Non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling can be defined as a “sampling technique in which some units of the
population have zero chance of selection or where the probability of selection cannot be accurately
determined” (Bhattajerchee, 2012:69). Non-probability samples are ideal where the researcher does
not have a comprehensive list of the members of the study population. According to Alvi, (2016), it
limits the research’s generalisability but is often chosen to minimise costs in research. Non-
probability samples can be purposive, convenience, quota or snowball-based (Sarantakos, 2005).
This study employed purposive sampling to choose the 55 residents and 10 key informants.

3.6.1.1 Purposive Sampling

The participants for the interviews were selected using purposive sampling. Purposive or
judgemental sampling can be defined as a non-representative subset of some larger population and is
constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. According to Oliver (2010), the purposive
sample is one in which the researcher identifies certain respondents as being potentially able to
provide significant data to the study. Purposive sampling was used to include the most vulnerable
who felt the savage impact of recent disasters the most. It is stressed that the procedure “allows
researchers to select a sample based on special criteria such as available knowledge on subjects of the
study. The purposive approach ensured that the study has rich information sources and key
informants who have a great deal of knowledge” (Nastasi, 2014: 6). Babbie (2012), also commented
that “purposive or judgmental sampling involves the selection of a sample based on knowledge of the
population, its element, and purpose of the study”.Given the very low literacy levels of some of the
residents in the study area, a self-administered questionnaire could not be used. Therefore, the study
adopted semi-structured interviews to capture the perceptions of potential respondents on DRR in the
study. Being a resident of Manga that was severely impacted by recurrent disasters in the community
was a critical aspect that was considered for one to qualify as a participant or respondent in this
research. Key informant interviews were employed to gain insights from five government officials
and five NGOs or CBOs working in the area.

3.7 Research Instruments

Data collection is the vehicle with which researchers collect information to answer the research
questions and to defend conclusions and recommendations based on the findings of the research.
52
Specific techniques are used to collect research data depending on their suitability and relevancy to a
particular context. Parahoo (2014: 52) suggested that “a research instrument is a tool used to collect
data, it is a tool designed to measure knowledge, attitude and skills”. This research adopted
interviews and observations.

In addition, the research triangulated the interviews and observation data with relevant information
gained from document reviews of public documents like newspapers and official reports. Data was
also collected from a range of secondary sources including, government documents (policies),
relevant books, journals and research reports, newspaper articles as well as web materials. The aim
here was to explore the efficacy of DRR efforts inMozambique.

3.7.1 Interviews
An interview is “an interchange of views between two or more people on a topic of mutual interest,
sees the centrality of human interaction for knowledge production, and emphasizes the social
situations of research data” (Al-Faquha, 2013:39). Interviews are significant in eliciting information
from respondents as they bring the researcher and respondent closer to each other. It is argued that
they represent “a social relationship designed to exchange information between the participant and
the researcher” (Bhattachejee, 2012: 72). Interviewers aim to gather information from the
respondents’ lived experiences. This implies that the researcher has an important role to play in
steering the discussion to extract rich data from participants. In keeping with the ideals of
constructivism (interpretive) discussed earlier on, interviews helped the researcher to understand and
interpret the perspectives of the research participants from their worldview. The researcher believed
that residents have particular meanings they attach to DRR efforts. The fifty-five face-to-face
interviews conducted were the best instrument for accessing these perceptions from the residents'
respondents.

Sixty-five semi-structured interviews conducted on both key informants and residents were with a
fixed set of questions. A semi-structured interview is a process where the interviewer has established
a set of questions beforehand but intends the interview to be conversational (Yin, 2014). According
to Yin (2014), semi-structured interviews provide the researcher with the opportunity to ask
individually tailored questions and do not limit the field of inquiry. I took notes during the interview
sessions, and where necessary, I asked participants follow-up and probing questions that were
important to further understand or clarify the points made. In this study, the interactions were direct
encounters involving the researcher and the respondents and they focused on the individuals’
perspectives and experiences on the contribution of the DRR efforts in thwarting disasters in the

53
prevalent policy environment. These interviews involved purposively selected residents and key
informants from Manga, Beira.

3.7.1.1 Advantages of Interviews

Personal interviews are effective in retrieving the not-so-obvious aspects of the life of the
respondents. There is a high response rate in an interview as there is direct contact with participants.
Neuman (2011) avers that they allow researchers to ask questions perceived as complex and probe
where they need further clarification. Interviews facilitated instant feedback from the respondents
and the researcher could understand well. This study is built on the interviews held by the researcher
and probing and clarifying questions and responses were used during the study. The participants
were mainly interviewed in Portuguese, which is a local language that enabled them to express
themselves with greater clarity.

Also, since, interviews enabled observation of different interviewee expressions (stressing of points),
the researcher, was able to see what is actually communicated and the respondents could also tell if
they had misunderstandings on questions asked. This goes a long way in enriching the validity and
reliability of the study. In this study during probing, the researcher realized that participants could
open up and share more of their experiences and other questions seemed sensitive to the respondents.

3.7.1.2 Disadvantages of Interviews

The research procedure using interviews was very expensive as the researcher travelled to meet
respondents and this was found to be too demanding. Time is also another handicap of this approach
because setting up appointments and the interview process itself need to be prepared for. This
observation is consistent with Neuman’s (2011), that “the major disadvantage of a face-to-face
interview is that, the training, travel, supervision and personnel costs for an interview can be high”.
In this study, the researcher incur much in travelling and other personal costs including stationery
and other related so as to capture well the study area. Besides, interviews are prone to bias which is
the “interviewer’s appearance, tone of voice; question-wording may affect the respondent” (Neuman,
2011). The possibility of any bias was avoided, by the researcher by repeating questions for clarity.
Some interviews were audio-taped and some interview notes were taken where possible and this gave
the research a clearer narration of certain perceptions of DRR efforts.

3.7.1.3 Structure of the interview

For the current study, semi-structured resident interviews and key informant interviews were
designed as shown in the Appendix section. The semi-structured residents' interview questions
included the following topics in their order:

54
  Socio-demographic related questions

 Disasters in the area, their risks and impacts

 DRR efforts

 Community coping strategies

 Challenges hindering DRR measures progress

 Sustainability of the DRR efforts and solutions to challenges.

The key informant interview questions focused on the following areas:

 Government legislation on DRR.

 Roles of policy implementers in ensuring the sustainability of DRR efforts

 Implementation challenges of DRR

 Monitoring and evaluation of projects related to DRR

 Sustainability of the DRR efforts and solutions to challenges.

3.7.1.4 Conducting interviews

The researcher personally conducted interviews with 65 respondents (fifty-five residents, five
government officials, and five NGOs or CBOs officers). The Manga resident respondents were
mainly interviewed in Portuguese. Some agreed to be audio-taped and interview notes were taken
where possible. It was difficult to write some notes in certain instances where the respondents were
found on their homesteads. It is specified that “planning whether a transcription will be used is
important” (Creswell, 2017: 21). Key informant interviews were a challenge since they were difficult
to direct and the respondents gave very detailed accounts. In one case, interviews took more than an
hour.

3.7.2 Observations
Observations were also used as a data collection tool in this research. The researcher got involved in
actual viewing of the Manga residents' lives as they happened.

Observations were important as they made it possible to have an understanding of the whole
circumstance of the experiences of persons with disability that were being investigated. This is one of
the simplest, yet crucial data collection method in a research study. According to Creswell (2012),
observation is a process of gathering open-ended, first-hand information by simply observing people
55
at a research site. This will largely be done through audio and video recording of research subjects in
their natural setting at different points such as the homesteads, clinics, grocery stores, schools, water
points, churches, and evacuation homes in the neighbourhood.

This is in keeping with Ramamurthy (2011) who explained that when a researcher observes
participants, they are concerned with studying how things happen, why they happen, analyzing
human behaviour, and the impact of that behaviour on others. Murairwa (2016), suggested the use of
a Research Data Recording Table (RDRT) which records trial number, run time in seconds, Central
Processing Unit (CPU) time, Matrix Best Fit (MBF), and Simulated Best Fit (SBF). It is my
argument however that as my research did not include a laboratory experiment, I borrowed some, but
not all the aspects of the Research and Data Recording Table as proposed by Murairwa (2016). For
this reason, I modified Creswell (2021)’s concept of observation field notes to suit my study.
Observation henceforth was used to observe the behaviour of Manga residents in Beira city.
Considering that I once stayed in Beira, this specifically made use of the participant observation
method to collect data ideal. This refers to a situation wherein I also take part in the daily activities of
the residents as I was observing their behaviour (Creswell, 2012).

3.7.2.1 Justification of observations

The observations were imperative for the research as they also provided evidence of the issues that
were discussed during the interviews. The researcher had to make follow-ups on some of the issues
that were being experienced by the people. The researcher had to get an understanding of the lives of
the residents in the aftermath of disasters. This helped the researcher to also understand the dynamics
such as the sources of livelihood for disaster victims. Also, another advantage of observation as a
research instrument includes the fact that data is collected where and when an event or activity is
occurring. It does not rely on respondents' willingness to provide information and the researcher sees
what respondents do rather than relying on what they say they do (Finn and Jacobson, 2008).

3.7.2.2 Limitations of observations

However, this method has some disadvantages which include the researcher being susceptible to
observer bias, thus being more inclined to subjectivity than objectivity. As commented by Murairwa
(2016), that participation observation may lead to subjective results which are not easy to verify. As
far as subjectivity is concerned, I subscribed to an interpretivist epistemological perspective which
states that the researcher and the social world impact each other. My ontological perspective is that
many truths await to be explored and that knowledge is seen as personal, subjective, and unique. For
this reason, I was open to many truths, and I combined observation with other methods to establish

56
how research participants view the phenomenon of the lived experiences of Manga residents in the
aftermath of a disaster and the influence of DRR efforts.

3.8 Data Presentation and Analysis Procedures

Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of collected data
(Silverman, 2013). According to Bhattacherjee (2012: 113) “qualitative analysis is the analysis of
data such as text data from interview transcripts. The emphasis is sense-making or understanding the
phenomenon, rather than predicting or explaining”. The author further says that “a creative and
investigative mindset is needed for qualitative analysis, based on an ethically enlightened and
participant-in-context attitude, and a set of analytic strategies” (Bhattacherjee, ibid). The process
involves synthesizing the views of the participants with those of the researcher. Data analysis is
iterative and begins during the collection of qualitative data. Moreover, Denzil and Lincoln (2013)
described qualitative data analysis as working with data, organizing it, breaking it into manageable
units, synthesizing it, searching for patterns, discovering what is important, and deciding which could
be learned and imparted to others. The researcher used Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic data
analysis method of analyzing data whereby the analysis commenced with: a) the reading or
familiarizing with the data obtained from interviews, b) the generation of codes for the participants
for confidentiality purposes so that they can be the only one who can identify them, c) searching for
themes, reviewed the themes, and then defined and named them and e) lastly, production of the final
report.

The data were analyzed and coded manually into themes. The themes evolving in the research guided
the coding and subsequent analysis. Thematic analysis is mainly described as “a method for
identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun and Clarke, 2006: 79).
This is the approach used in this study. Analysis was done to allow for the themes to emerge based
on frequency. This enabled the researcher to have a full analysis of the data.

3.9 Trustworthiness
The trustworthiness of qualitative research is often questioned by positivists, perhaps because their
concepts of validity and reliability cannot be addressed in the same way naturalistic work is done.
Guba & Lincoln (1994) propose four criteria that should be considered by qualitative researchers in
pursuit of attaining valid and credible data namely credibility, transferability, dependability,
conformability, and they are going to be employed in this study as follows:

 Credibility: Guba (1981) argued that ensuring credibility is one of the most important factors
in establishing trustworthiness. Yin (2014) recognised the importance of incorporating correct

57
 operational measures for the concepts being studied. Thus, the specific procedures employed,
such as the line of questioning used in the data gathering sessions and the methods of data
analysis, should be derived, where possible, from those that have been successfully utilised in
previous comparable projects (Shenton, 2004). Since the researcher has experience with
dealing with the members of the community, he did not have challenges with questioning or
interviewing the research participants.
 Transferability: Guba (1981) claimed that it is the responsibility of the researcher to ensure
that sufficient contextual information about the field sites is provided. This is to enable the
reader to transfer findings of a small number of particular environments and individuals to
other situations and populations. Therefore, in this research, the number of participants that
were interviewed and the data collection methods that were employed were also highlighted.
Shenton (2004) concurs that it is important that a sufficient thick description of the
phenomenon under investigation is provided to allow readers to have a proper understanding
of it, thereby enabling them to compare the instances of the phenomenon described in the
research report with those that they have seen emerge in their situations.
 Dependability: In addressing the issue of reliability, the positivist employs techniques to
show that, if the work were repeated, in the same context, with the same methods and same
participants, similar results would be obtained. Guba (1981) stresses the close ties between
credibility and dependability, arguing that, in practice, a demonstration of the former goes
some distance in ensuring the latter. This may be achieved through the use of overlapping
methods such as individual interviews, observations and secondary sources that were used in
the research. To address the dependability issue more directly, the processes within the study
should be reported in detail which is why the direct quotations from the respondents were
included, thereby enabling a future researcher to repeat the work, if not necessarily to gain the
same results.
 Conformability: Guba (1981) suggested that steps must be taken to help ensure as far as
possible that the work’s findings are the result of the experiences and ideas of the informants,
rather than the characteristics and preferences of the researcher. Therefore, beliefs concerning
decisions made and methods adopted should be acknowledged within the research report, the
reasons for favouring one approach when others could have been taken explained and
weaknesses in the techniques employed admitted (Shenton, 2004). In this research study, the
strength and weaknesses of the methods adopted were discussed and triangulation in data
collection and sampling were used to reduce the effect of the investigator’s bias.
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3.10 Ethical and Cultural Considerations
According to Yin (2014) ethics can be considered as a substance of what is good and bad, just and
unjust, right and wrong, and just and unjust. Ethical implications are more common in qualitative
methods. This researcher took numerous measures to guarantee that the study complies with ethical
issues. Before data collection, ethical clearance approval was sought from the Zimbabwe Open
University, Department of Development Studies. For this study to be fruitful, it desired to capture the
experiences and perceptions of Manga residents and stakeholders responsible for DRR in Beira.
Permission to carry out this study was sought from and granted by the National Institute for Disaster
Management (INGC).

The researcher negotiated with and clarified to the residents' respondents and key informants the
nature and purpose of the research study. Informants were asked to complete the informed consent
form before the interviews. Both key informants and residents unequivocally agreed to take part in
the study. To avoid deception, an attempt was made to give research participants reflection on
information about reasons for undertaking the study. Where the respondents anticipated
understanding the aims of the study, they were given all the essential responses by the researcher.

The researcher enlightened the respondents that they were participating voluntarily and participation
withdrawal was permissible at any point in time. The researcher made sure that the information
collected during the data collection will be used purely for academic purposes and nothing else. An
attempt was made to respect respondents’ ethical rights and avoid harming them psychologically,
physically or emotionally. Ethical considerations were also observed by ensuring that research
findings are presented appropriately without disclosing the identities of the participants. Where
necessary pseudonyms were used for individuals to ensure that anonymity is preserved. Some
interviewees refused to be recorded and their views were respected. It is also important to note that
participants did not receive any incentive or compensation for their participation. In addition, the
researcher did not influence the respondents to respond in a way she desired. The researcher did not
alter the research findings; the data were analysed as it was collected.

3.11 Chapter Summary

This chapter defined the research methodology adopted for this study. The discussion outlined that
the research was based on qualitative research methodology using in-depth semi-structured
interviews. The chapter pronounced the study population, sample, and data collection techniques
used. It drew the reasons and justified the adoption of various research strategies used in the study. A
plan of the steps taken to ensure the efficacy of the research has also been elaborated. The chapter

59
further described the actions taken to code, analyse, and present data. This chapter further described
the measures taken to ensure ethical compliance. The next chapter analyses and presents the research
findings from the participants in Manga-Beira, Sofala Province.

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 4 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents and analyses the study findings attained from the fieldwork. In researching the
Disaster Risk Reduction efforts in Beira’s Manga neighbourhood, Sofala Province, Mozambique, the
research was guided by the following objectives:

1. To explore the disaster risk and its impact in Manga neighbourhood in Beira, Mozambique.
2. To establish the DRR measures and community coping mechanisms practised in the Manga area
3. To establish challenges that hinder the disaster reduction efforts
4. To proffer solutions to the challenges in the implementation of DRR efforts.
The discussions and analyses were carried out under the following broadly categorised themes:

Table 4-1: Category, themes, and sub-themes of DRR efforts

Category Themes Sub-themes

DRR Efforts Disasters in the area, their Livelihoods, employment and food security
risks and impacts Social and psychological consequences
Effects on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
(WASH) and health services
DRR efforts Mitigation
Preparedness

Response
Recovery
Community coping
strategies

Challenges hindering Lack of effective and uniform disaster

DRR measures progress information system
Lack of Political commitment

Increased risk

Resource constraints

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 Sustainability of the Integration of DRR into national policy
DRRefforts and solutions
Capacity building
to challenges

4.2 Research participants profiling

To start with, the chapter describes the research participants to get a sense of the participants
involved. The description also offers an idea of the participant’s demographics and social
experiences.

4.2.1 Key informant profiling

Tables 4.1 below provide a breakdown of the profiling details of the key informants.

Table 4-2: Key informants' biographic details

Name* Position

Agostinho (Mr) International Organisation for Migration (IOM)

Projects Officer
Bartelomeu(Miss) International Organisation for Migration (IOM)
Assistant Programs Officer
Carlinhos(Mr) Save the Children
Field Monitor
Daffodil (Mrs) Red Cross
Program Coordinator
Eadrich (Dr) Doctors Without Borders (MSF)
Monitoring and Evaluation Officer
Fabrizio (Mr) National Institute for Disaster Risk Management and
Reduction (INGD) – (Government official)
Gabriel (Mr) National Institute for Disaster Risk Management and
Reduction (INGD) – (Government official)
Gabriella (Mrs) National Institute for Disaster Risk Management and
Reduction (INGD) – (Government official)
Hadassah (Mr) National Institute for Disaster Risk Management and
Reduction (INGD) – (Government official)
Hades (Miss) National Institute for Disaster Risk Management and
Reduction (INGD) – (Government official)
*Pseudo names

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4.2.2 Manga residents profiling
Table 4-3: Biographic details of youth respondents

Frequency Frequency
Variables Categories
n = 55 (%)
Male 19 34.5
Sex
Female 36 65.5
18–25 8 14.5
26-35 13 23.6
36-45 12 21.8
Age (in years)
46-55 11 20.0
56-65 6 10.9
66 & above 5 9.1
Mascerenha 12 21.8
Nhaconjo 8 14.5
Matacupanja 13 23.6
Area of Residence
Passagem de Nivel 5 9.1
Alto da Manga 10 18.2
Ndunda 7 12.7
Rent 25 45.5
Tenure status of H/h Own house 10 18.2
Ressetlement campsite 20 36.4
College Diploma 10 18.2
College Certificate 4 7.3
High School 8 14.5
Highest level of Education
Ordinary Level 17 30.9
Primary 8 14.5
Never attended school 8 14.5
The main source of livelihood Formal employment 12 21.8
Petty trading/street vending 8 14.5
Donations 18 32.7
Remmitances 3 5.5
Casual work/piece jobs 12 21.8

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 Begging 2 3.6
Yes 55 100.0
Received DRR support
No 0 0.0
The main source of DRR UN/NGO 42 76.4
Support Government 13 23.6

The sample consisted of fifty-five resident participants, thirty-six who were female and nineteen
male. The reason why the research was constituted by more females over males, was that they were
the ones available at households during the research hours, whilst their male counterparts were
sourcing for family livelihood. For anonymity, the residents were coded from Manga Resident 1
(MR1) to Manga Resident 55 (MR55). Mascerenha was represented by MR1 to MR12, Nhaconjo –
MR13 to MR20, Matacupanja- MR21 to MR33, Passagem de Nivel – MR34 to MR38, Alto da
Manga – MR39 to MR48 and lastly, Ndunda - MR49 to MR55.

4.3 Response Rate

This study was conducted with 55 Manga residents, 5 government officers and 5 NGO officers.
Every single person participated in the respective interviews which give this research a 100%
response rate.

Table 4-4: Response Rate

Sample Response Rate

65 65 100%
Interviews

The response rate is highly commendable since it was far above the threshold of 75% that is
proposed for the analysis of the data by Mugenda (2008). Mugenda (2008), stated that the response
rate of 50% is adequate for analysis and reporting, while a rate of 60% is good and a response rate
of 75% and above is excellent. This high rate was achieved since interviews were administered
under close supervision of the researcher, thus satisfactory to make conclusions of the project.

4.4 Disasters in the area, their risks and impacts

4.4.1 Livelihoods, employment and food security
Beira’s Manga neighbourhood has a mixed economy. From the observational data, primarily there is
small to medium scale horticulture production in the peri-urban Manga locations like Alto da Manga
and Passagem de Nivel, as well as the common fish selling business facilitated by illegal fishing
64
from the Indian Ocean, and that is the main economic activity. The narrative accounts of the disaster
survivors (specifically cyclone) indicated that small-scale horticulture producers and fishermen in
these areas lost quite a significant amount of their primary material, which includes canoes and nets
for fishing, pipes, and generators for individual small irrigated plots and crops including lettuce, rape,
litchees and bananas due to Cyclone Idai mainly. One of the participants from Alto da Manga said:
“We lost a lot of fishing equipment, especially at our fishing base of Descida de Nhangau. Apart
from that, crops were washed away. Fields have been degraded and our livelihoods are still at risk. I
am not sure if we are going to recover what we have lost to Cyclone Idai.” (Interview with MR39,
Alto da Manga residential area, 15 March 2022).

While the Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) were displaced and forced to find new livelihoods, the
ones that could stay in their homes also saw their sources of food and income affected since a huge
proportion of productive farmland was destroyed by the cyclones. According to (UNOCHA, 2019a),
Cyclone Idai ruined more than 715,000 hectares of crops and Kenneth did the same with nearly
55,500 hectares, also wrecking fishing boats and facilities. It is estimated that the former alone
caused agricultural losses valued at a minimum of $141 million. The crops more affected included
products such as maize, beans and rice (Save the Children, 2020). In Manga, Miss Helena a
government official had this to say:

“For households dependent on agriculture, in this neighbourhood, stocks from that harvest
typically carry families through until the following year. However, Cyclone Idai made
landfall right before the beginning of the harvest season that year and Kenneth did so in the
midst of it, thus prolonging what was an already difficult season. Indeed, even before both
cyclones struck Mozambique, the country was facing high levels of food insecurity due to an
ongoing drought in many central and southern provinces, which are precisely the areas most
impacted by Idai.” (Interview with Miss Helena, Masceranha residential area MR1, 15 March
2022).

According to Norton et al., (2020), over 80 percent of the Mozambican population relies on
agriculture as a primary source of income, hence the devastating effects of the tropical cyclones
worsened food insecurity and livelihoods. The impacts of climate hazards are not limited to the
destruction of crops but the lack of flood-resistant storage for seeds and harvested food also increases
the exposure of farmers to risks, as reflected by the research:

“Their core assets are their homes, the food and seed they contain, and their arable land, all
of which are climate vulnerable. In the response phase of the disaster, we as international
65
 humanitarian organizations provided affected people with food rations. To recover lost
livelihoods we also distributed seeds and agricultural tools for the following planting season.
However, overall, these efforts proved to be insufficient since only a fifth of the households
impacted by Idai and other cyclones after it, out of half a million farming families had
received such support as of date.” (Interview with Mr Agostinho, Manga neighbourhood, 1
April 2022).

The study also exposed that the income of self-employed individuals was extremely sensitive to the
cyclone, whereas private sector employees likely lost some salary, and public sector employees
maintained their salaries. The labour market effects of tropical cyclones (with special mention to
Cyclone Idai and Kenneth), primarily impact the most vulnerable groups, which include women and
youths. The reason for this was elucidated by a government official, Mrs Gabriella:

“Our economy in this neighbourhood is comprised of many self-employed individuals. This is

because these groups are highly represented in the informal sector and subsistence
agriculture. When these groups lose their income, their food security is greatly impacted as
they also lose access to food and other essential goods because they depend on buying these
from the market. The impact of the cyclone on the self-employed was further exacerbated by
already precarious living conditions.” (Interview with Mrs Gabriella, Manga neighbourhood,
1 April 2022).

4.4.2 Social and psychological consequences

Disasters, mainly tropical cyclones have also impacted the communities of Manga psychologically.
The interviews with residents indicated that some survivors remain haunted by the sights and
screams of people they were unable to save from the floods. One woman from Mascerenha said:

“Thanks to all well-wishers who are giving us food; we appreciate but I can’t eat not
knowing where my children are. You expect me to eat and sleep when my two children are
missing. All I need is to know where they are. I know that they are dead but my soul will have
peace if they have a decent burial.” (Interview with MR54, Ndunda residential area, 31
March 2022).

This was emotionally braced by another woman who lost her husband saying;

“I am finding it very difficult to accept that my husband was reported missing. People die but
they areburied properly. I don’t know whether he was washed away or buried under rubble.”
(Interview with MR44, Matacupanja residential area, 4 April 2022).

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The research revealed that events of the cyclone and its aftermath flash back through their minds.
The residents reported spending nights wide awake. They also reported poor eating habits, feelings of
apprehension and worthlessness. Some people suffered from ‘‘survivor guilt.’’ They reported
feelings of self-defeat and self-loathing, a manifestation of post-traumatic stress disorder.

Moreover, the lack of privacy and safe spaces at emergency shelters in campsites in Mascerenha and
Passagem de Nivel exposed women to sexual abuse. Participants highlighted that there was no
lighting at the emergency shelters, which put women at risk. The study indicated that 60% of the
participants reported cases of sexual exploitation and abuse of women and girls. However, no
remedial action was taken by those in charge raising fears of victimization among those who dared to
raise the alarm. This was expressed by a social worker in the government of Mozambique, Mr
Fabrizio:

“During tropical cyclones, there is a direct result of greater exposure of women and girls to
distant and unsafe locations, such as water collection points, sanitation facilities and health
centres. The need to collect water more frequently and from greater distances and the use of
public toilets and shared latrines increases the risk for women and girls. With the destruction
of health facilities, pregnant women have limited access to safe deliveries.” (Interview with
Mr Fabrizio, Manga Neighbourhood, 16 April 2022).

Likewise, the majority of the research participants (82%) indicated that they were afraid of
victimization. Exposure to sexual abuse of women and children was not limited to community spaces
and strangers. Families living in tents were sharing a tent with the children, thereby exposing young
children to sexual abuse. Lack of privacy for parents also triggered gender-based violence in
emergency shelters. About 60% of the participants reported no preference given to pregnant and
lactating women and girls in the provision of humanitarian aid, and 20.3% reported cases of gender
discrimination concerning access to relief aid. To a certain extent,the recurring cyclones affected
women and children more than men. The feeling of powerlessness in the decision-making process
and insecurity reflected the social and psychological vulnerabilities of the affected women in the
ravaged communities. Thus, women are at risk of falling into deeper poverty after perennial
cyclones, and this realization raises their social and psychological vulnerabilities. One woman in
Mascerenha has this to say:

“As women, we are severely vulnerable to all forms of current and future shocks after
Cyclone Idai, specifically. Every day you have to wake up and look for food while men are
roaming around. Sometimes they leave the family to look for a job which will bring no
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 difference to the family. This has caused some misunderstandings in the home resulting in
physical abuse by men. This is very common and we have lived to accept it”. (Interview with
MR8, Mascerenha, 2 May 2022).

Existing gender inequalities may be compounded as crisis-affected populations fall back on negative
coping mechanisms such as transactional sex, which increases vulnerability to HIV transmission,
especially for women and girls. As a consequence of the loss of livelihood and lack of employment
opportunities, there may also be an increase in sex work and survival sex, greatly increasing the
chance of HIV transmission and abuse.

The figure below shows some of the psychosocial impacts identified during the fieldwork that
continues to haunt people.

Loss of arable land 12.1

Missing Members 22.2

Loss of life 32.0

Psychosocial 43.5

Loss of property 44.3

Increasing conflict within the community 61.0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Residents respondents (%)

Figure 4-9: Social and psychosocial impacts of recurrent disasters in Manga, Beira, Sofala
Province (Source: Field Data)

4.4.3 Effects on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) and health services
The impact of cyclones namely, Idai and Kenneth had serious consequences on people’s access to
health: overall, according to UNOCHA, (2019b), at least 94 health centres were damaged, added to
the numerous equipment, medical supplies and medicines that were destroyed, as well as the fact that
staff working in the health sector were themselves affected by the cyclones. In any climate disaster,
this may result in the collapse of the healthcare system, also entailing the interruption of treatments
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for people suffering from illnesses before the cyclones and health programs such as immunization
(Kouadio et al., 2012).In addition to the impacts on health facilities and personnel, in Manga, the
prolonged effects of natural disasters brought about increases in infectious disease transmission. As
Mrs. Carlinhos expressed:

“In the event of flooding which followed both Cyclone Idai and Kenneth, the massive
displacement of people into unplanned and overcrowded resettlement camps as well as
contamination of water sources are some of the factors that may lead to disease outbreaks.”
(Interview with Mrs. Carlinhos, Manga Neighbourhood, 12 May 2022).

This is in sync with Kouadio et al., (2012), who averred that flood circumstances can bring about a
cholera pandemic and usually an outbreak of other water-borne diseases. According to the residents
and key informants, the risk of the mentioned diseases together with others such as bloody diarrhoea
or acute malnutrition remained a humanitarian concern for several months.

4.5 DRR efforts

4.5.1 Mitigation
In the different literature that was reviewed in the second chapter, mitigation refers to the action that
is to be taken before the occurrence of an event. Koivisto & Nohrstedt, (2017), highlighted that
Mozambique’s disaster risk management strategy has shifted from a reactive to a proactive disaster
management approach. The key informants have informed the study that current Mozambique’s
disaster risk management strategy is led by the National Institute for Disaster Risk Management and
Reduction - in Portuguese called Instituto Nacional de Gestão e Redução do Risco de Desastres
(INGD), which is the result of an institutional transformation process that has taken place since the
1980s to the present. A governmental disaster relief agency was said to be created as the executive
body of the council. This was articulated by Mr Hadassah, who works at INGD in Manga township:

“For the past decade, the national government created a council to coordinate the different
state bodies involved in combating and mitigating natural disasters to provide a quick and
efficient response to such hazards. In 1999, after the National Policy on Disaster
Management was passed, both bodies were replaced by a new governmental agency for
disaster management: the National Institute for Disaster Management (INGC, by its acronym
in Portuguese), whose objective was to give the direction and coordination of disaster
management, namely, in prevention and relief actions for victims in risk areas or affected by
disasters.” (Interview with Mr Hadassah, Manga township, 2 April 2022).

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This is in corroboration to Koivisto & Nohrstedt, (2017) and Wiles et al., (2005), who said that these
reforms implied a shift of emphasis from disaster reaction to mitigation, preparedness and risk
reduction. The INGC was replaced by the INGD after the recent approval of Law 10/2020 on 24
August. It is divided into different departments and divisions, each of them with specific functions.
One of them is the Prevention and Mitigation Division, which is responsible for implementing
disaster risk prevention and mitigation policies and strategies, ensuring humanitarian assistance and
rapid recovery for disaster victims, or even working for the inclusion of materials on disaster risk
management in the education system (INGD, 2020). Mr Hadassah also castigated that:

“Law 10/2020, known as Disaster Risk Management and Reduction Law, is the current legal
framework in Mozambique that establishes a legal regime to face the challenges posed by
climate disasters and “the need to build resilience to extreme events”.However,
unfortunately, this law was not the one in force when Idai and Kenneth struck the country.
The applicable law by the time of such cyclones was Law No. 15/2014 of 20 June, emerging
as the first legal framework for disaster management in Mozambique. Such law sought to
ensure “not only a prompt and efficient response to cases of already consummated calamities
but also to prevent their occurrence or its effects in the future, through a proactive stance”
(Interview with Mr Hadassah, Manga township, 2 April 2022).

Thus, stressing the need to take mitigation and preparedness measures to reduce the impact of
forthcoming hazards on the Mozambican population. The study revealed that these mitigatory
measures, according to this law, are based on the history of previous hazards that have hit the
country, the analysis of their impacts, and scientific studies on the predictions of future phenomena
capable of causing disasters. There are also the area specific, which means to Manga neighbourhood
has its tailor-made mitigatory measures.

In the same venue, the research also learned that in 2017, the government of Mozambique created the
Disaster Management Fund (FGC, by its acronym in Portuguese), which is managed by the INGD.
Likewise, according to Conselho de Ministros, (2018); Matera et al., (2018), the sources of this fund
are, on the one hand, appropriation from the State Budget, of which the minimum annual
contribution is 0.1% and, on the other hand, donations from cooperation partners. The resources of
the FGC are intended for response, recovery and reconstruction activities following the impact of a
climate calamity (Conselho de Ministros, 2018).

Also, the key informants explained that the mitigatory stance of Law 10/2020 regulates international
humanitarian assistance and establishes that the government is responsible for granting authorization
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for the entry of international aid personnel and relief goods for the affected populations, as well as
for coordinating, directing and supervising such humanitarian assistance. However, the majority of
the Manga resident participants (88%) seemed ignorant of these vital pieces of legislation, indicating
poor dissemination of such relevant information.

4.5.2 Preparedness
Like mitigation, preparedness is also done before the occurrence of an event/disaster. It involves all
kinds of a plan like vulnerability management plans, emergency preparedness plans, evacuation plans
and so on. This study finds that in the Manga neighbourhood both dominant cyclones Idai and
Kenneth were forecasted with quite precision several days ahead of the storm as for the location of
landfall, windspeeds, and rainfall. This was reviewed mostly by key informants:

“In our case, cyclone Idai the forecasting system detected the probability of the development
of a tropical cyclone in the Mozambique Channel already on the 26th of February which is
more than two weeks before it made landfall in this city of Beira. More precise predictions
about the characteristics of the cyclone were accessible five days ahead of the disaster.”
(Interview with Mr Gabriel, Manga neighbourhood, 13 April 2022).

Consequently, Emerton et al., (2020); Norton et al., (2020); Zurich Flood Resilience Alliance,
(2020), noted that the sustained periods of heavy rainfall stemming from the cyclone hit Beira rather
than spreading over the country. Track forecasts did not perceive this pattern until the 16 th of March,
which is two days after Idai made landfall in the port of Beira, and “this resulted in uncertainty in the
flood forecasts” (ibid.). Thus, warnings about potential flooding were issued too late for communities
to react. Mr Agostinho from IOM argued that forecasts of cyclone-related flooding continue to be a
challenge in Mozambique. In the case of cyclone Kenneth, the first signs of a possible tropical
cyclone that could develop in Tanzania or northern Mozambique were detected on the 18th of April
2019, that is, one week before it made landfall. Forecast uncertainty decreased as the date
approached and the landfall location became much more accurate from three days before the
cyclone’s arrival, according to Emerton et al., (2020). Unlike Idai, Kenneth’s track was way more
predictable, as agreed by Mr Agostio\nho:

“International humanitarian organizations, specifically at IOM where I work noted that this
was the first time that flood risk information had been provided in real-time to them and that
the type of information was perceived as extremely valuable, innovative and promising for
future interventions, particularly due to the move from weather forecasts to more impact-
based forecasts. The bulletins allowed decision-makers to understand the flood risk: an early
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 response took place in the areas that were likely to be at higher risk especially here in Beira,
which may have become cut off during the peak of the flooding thus impeding the arrival of
humanitarian aid until the water levels had abated, which is what happened with cyclone
Idai due to the delayed flood bulletins.” (Interview with Mr Agostinho, Manga
neighbourhood, 13 April 2022).

Similarly, the attitude of community members influences disaster preparedness and response. More
than two-thirds (68%) of the respondents indicated that they received early warning information
about the dominant cyclone Idai and Kenneth. Of those, more than 85% shared the information with
fellow community members. That people share information about impending danger is very
encouraging. Surprisingly, however, only 36.7% of those informed took precautionary measures. The
actions taken by people included moving to safer areas (12.6%), staying indoors (52.6%), and others
(2.1%) monitored reports on radio and television on what was safe to do. The study revealed that the
majority of people thought the Idai floods were not serious based on previous cyclone events. This
might mean that the majority of the people who did not take action were not aware of what they were
supposed to do, so training at the community level is needed on how people can mitigate the effects
of disasters. This was exacerbated by a lack of local disaster management committees. MR6 from
Mascerenha had this to say:

“Lack of preparedness increases community vulnerability to disasters. The presence and

source of an early warning system or information on the impending danger have implications
for the vulnerability status of the community concerned.” (Interview with MR6, Mascerenha,
18 April 2022).

A slight majority of the respondents (53.7%) reflected that they got information on the
Meteorological Services Department (MSD) early warning for Cyclone Idai from radio and
television, followed by fellow community members. The low number of people who got the
information might be because in some wards there is low radio transmission. Other areas also have
no mobile network coverage, which explains the low number of people who received messages
through cell phones. The interviewer, observed this when he was trying to reach participants in
Marora and Sena over the phone. The respondents that received early warning messages reflected
that they emphasised:

 Staying away permanently from areas susceptible to flooding

 Relocating during the wet season

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  Avoiding building houses close to rivers
 Making use of mobile shops for trading purposes
 Avoiding the use of well water for drinking and domestic purposes consequent on flood
events
 Digging holes around buildings
Thus, for a message to reach all people all possible methods of communication need to be used.
Participants also highlighted other shortcomings concerning communicating Cyclone Idai-related
information. More than 41% of the households said the information about the impending cyclone
came too late. About 24% of the respondents said the information was inadequate to warn people of
the impending danger, leaving them unable to act appropriately. More than 15% said the information
was misleading and increased their exposure to the cyclone impact. The study find out that the
information was also affected by previous experiences with cyclones, like 2003 Cyclone Japhet and
2000 Cyclone Eline, which were less destructive. All these factors could have led to communities’
lack of preparedness in the face of Cyclone Idai. Lack of disaster preparedness ultimately increases
community vulnerability to hazards and also diminishes the risk perception of hazards.

4.5.3 Response
Response in this study refers to the activities that are done after the event or disaster has occurred.
The major concern at this stage is saving human life. In response to many disasters that were
remembered by the resident participants, some humanitarian organizations such as the Red Cross
took strides to alleviate the consequences of this foreseeable situation and paid attention to Idai
forecasts. According to the respondents, these organisationstook early action by distributing water
and sanitation supplies to some vulnerable communities before the cyclones struck to accelerate the
handing out of relief supplies after the disaster. MR29 in Matacupanja averred that:

“After the landfall of different tropical cyclones we experienced in this area, NGOs rapidly
distributed thousands of dignity and sanitation kits and built latrines and sanitation facilities.
(Interview with MR29, Matacupanja area,” 17 April 2022)

Also, as a response stance, key informants noted that the Ministry of Health established a
surveillance system to ensure early detection of any outbreak of infectious diseases in the most
affected districts by cyclone Idai. The collected data allowed rapid implementation of measures to
prevent cholera from further spreading and to treat already existing cases. To achieve so, WASH
activities included the provision of clean and safe water, as well as distribution of essential

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commodities to health centres namely cholera kits or dehydration solutions, and hygiene promotion
activities. Regarding the various health interventions, Dr Eadrich said:

“As the Doctors Without Borders (MSF), we worked to explain the risk of disease outbreaks
to communities by going door-to-door to inform people about how to protect themselves
against cholera and how to access medical care if needed but it also put on street theatre
groups to further disseminate the information. (Interview with Dr Eadrich, Manga
Neighbourhood, 23 March 2022).”

Likewise, MSF, (2019); Lequechane et al., (2020), reported that the Ministry of Health also set up
different cholera treatment centres, which were established not only to cure existing cases but also to
face a possible exponential increase in the number of cases of such disease Moreover, a massive oral
cholera vaccination campaign was conducted. Mr Fabrizio, at a health centre, had this to say:

“Here in Sofala province, the one most affected by cyclone Idai, the campaign was directed
to more than 800,000 individuals. In only a few weeks, it reached 98.6% of the targeted
population, leading to a reduction in the reported cholera cases.” (Interview with Mr
Fabrizio, Manga Neighbourhood, 23 March 2022).

He also revealed that another vaccination campaign was run in mid-May 2019 in the provinces
affected by cyclone Kenneth, where the number of cholera cases was significantly lower: 225 cases
and no deaths were reported in Sofala province. Communicable diseases do not break out in the
immediate phase following the disaster but may occur several days, weeks or even months after it
strikes (Kouadio et al., 2012). In this sense, while the spread of cholera was being contained, the
proliferation of mosquitoes due to stagnant waters as a consequence of the cyclones resulted in a
concerning number of reported malaria cases. As a response, the participants highlighted that
thousands of mosquito nets were distributed and an indoor spraying campaign was carried out. As
MR1 in Mascerenha said, “there was an intervention that consists of covering with insecticide the
internal walls and ceilings of a house so that malaria vectors die when they come in contact with it”

WASH is considered to be “the strongest of all the response sectors” (Norton et al., 2020) due to both
the anticipatory measures taken and the rapid response after the cyclones. The efficiency of such
efforts was partly thanks to large-scale WASH programs that were already in place in the Manga
neighbourhood to face previous needs as well as the existence of several organizations in the region
specializing in WASH, which contributed to the emergency with skilled staff and equipment.

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However, the disaster management concerning WASH was still improvable when it comes to taking
mitigation measures before the cyclones to avoid the loss of infrastructure, as Mrs Daffodil noted:

“WASH efforts were more focused on quickly containing the consequences of loss of critical
WASH infrastructure, rather than on reducing the risk of loss of the infrastructure itself.”
(Interview with Mrs Daffodil, Manga Neighbourhood, 23 March 2022).

This is where the concept of resilience appears again. As this will be mentioned in the recovery
section, the aim of the government should be to rebuild critical infrastructure to invest in building
health facilities that are better prepared to withstand the impacts of climate hazards so that they
remain operational after extreme events and the disruption of the health system is less severe.

4.5.4 Recovery
Recovery is the last component of DRR and for this study, it is referred to as a post-disaster action.
Manga residents highlighted that formal institutions have generally provided relief support to the
communities when a disaster occurs. These supports ranged from the material, food and medicine,
temporal shelter and financial. The study shows that the most dominant support from the formal
institutions to communities in times of disasters was the provision of food and medicine (27.8%)
followed by material support (26.5%); 22.2% and 24% for the provision of temporal shelter and
financial assistance respectively. However, interviews revealed that the external support systems
were unsustainable. This statement was buttressed by a respondent, MR50 in Ndunda who said:

“We were grateful for the support given to us in this community during the floods in 2019.
They provided us with food relief and some beddings and cooking utensils. But shortly after
that, it got finished. They promised to come back to give us more food and even building
materials, but to date, we have not seen them again.” (Interview with MR50, Ndunda
township, 5 May 2022).

This statement from MR50 is an indication of the over-reliance by communities on external support
systems. Moreso, the support systems are given by the formal institutions are wholly material and do
not cater for emotional, spiritual and other social needs.

As part of recovery in the health sector and WASH, during the reconstruction phase after Idai and
Kenneth, some humanitarian organizations already worked to rebuild sanitation facilities in a way
that made them resistant to future floods, which implies a will “to learn from past events and to adapt
construction approaches” (Dr Eadrich). Moreover, WASH services can also play an important role
when building climate resilience, for instance by enabling access to water at times of scarcity or, as

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has been explained, by reducing the risk of communicable disease outbreaks following natural
disasters (UNICEF & GWP, 2017). By ensuring that affected communities by a calamity will have
access to clean water and health services or that the conditions that contribute to the spread of
infectious diseases will be assessed, people are relieved of worrying about avoidable health issues
and can focus on other challenges stemmed from the disaster, such as the loss of livelihoods or the
need of shelter. In other words, the research has shown that access to adequate WASH services
enabled to create resilience by lessening the burden that impacted residents have to deal with after
the disaster. Thus, helping them to be in healthy conditions that will allow them to better cope with
the situation. One man in Nhaconjo detailed recovery actions that had been taken in the area:

“Here in Alto da Manga, Oxfam has built many clean water points, after cyclones Idai and
Kenneth. MSF has been running around providing free health services on their mobile well-
equipped clinics. Destroyed clinics have been rebuilt, thanks to the Ministry of Health.”
(Interview with MR40, Alto da Manga area, 17 May 2022)

Also, taking into consideration the gender perspective again, the research has highlighted that the
cyclones also aggravated the vulnerability of women and girls due to an increased risk of being
victims of gender-based violence. Their exposure to such risk stemmed, on the one hand, from the
fact that the contamination of water sources forced them to walk long distances to access clean water
and, on the other hand, from having to use crowded latrines in communal spaces. In reaction to this,
the Mozambican government is establishing safe spaces for women and girls, like the construction of
closer sources of clean water and gender-segregated latrines in Ndunda and Nhaconjo.

4.6 Community coping strategies

This is the people’s ability to cope with risks that reduce to a large extent their vulnerability to such
exposures. In all the communities visited in the study area, it was observed that external agencies,
governmental or NGOs are becoming unpopular in a disaster situation. The general perception by
respondents is external support does not guarantee long-term and effective responses. Hence, these
Manga communities that face seasonal stress and reoccurring hazards, typically use internal
mechanisms to cope with disasters. Most communities visited indicated that they rely more on
community support to tackle the adverse effect of disasters. The study identified various local
organizations across the study area that ensure disaster management when they occur. However,
generally, when disasters strike in a community, the first point of support is to rely on local
organizations to respond to the situation before outside help from NGOs or government institutions
arrives. As the respondents reported that relief support from traditional sources is always received or

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given on time when a disaster occurs. This was corroborated by MR35 in Passagem de Nivel, who
said:

“When my house collapsed during the heavy rains in 2019, the first support I received was
from a relative nearby who provided us with a temporal shelter. This was timely. Where
would l have been while waiting for support from the government people?” (Interview with
MR35 Passagem de Nivel township, 12 April 2022)

As coping strategies, the respondents identified support systems received from close relations
mutually sharing sorrowwith victims by seeking on behalf of them some spiritual answers to the
calamity. It was also disclosed that support systems from the community enhance the dignity of the
victim. In Sena, the majority revealed that some victims feel not respected to queue for relief support
as such they abandon it altogether. They rather would prefer support from close relations.

However, in supporting their neighbours, other Manga residents felt that they were used. As they
argued that they were neither compensated nor benefited from donor aid for the resources they used
to help the survivors before the external agencies intervened but they. These residents contended that
the donors created a gap between the survivors and the rest of the residents. As narrated by women
from Matacupanja:

“Some of us were not directly affected by the cyclone but we helped our neighbours. We gave
them food and shelter, but when the NGOs came they did not recognize us. Who will give us
back the resources that we used to help the victims? I think we are not being treated fairly.”
(Interview with MR24, Matacupanja residential area, 12 March 2022).

On the other hand, the fact that communities affected by the cyclones were suffering from food
shortages pushed them to use any options they found to eat. Some farmers planted tomatoes since it
is one of the few fast-growing crops they could cultivate, but other people opted for more dangerous
strategies, as warned the Save the Children field monitor, Mr Carlinhos in Passagem de Nivel:

“In the aftermath of the destructive cyclone Idai, women were skipping meals so that the little
food they have can be given to children. Families were foraging for wild plants as there were
not enough or very little to eat. Hunger risks becoming the silent killer of those who survived
Idai.” (Interview with Mr Carlinhos, Passagem de Nivel, 20 April 2022).

In fact, before Idai and Kenneth, impoverished families have already resorted to negative coping
strategies such as selling productive assets and removing children from school to work to cover basic

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needs, the study revealed. Considering that most households were already struggling to subsist on the
few resources they had, the loss of such livelihoods due to the impact of the cyclones further forced
them to increasingly make desperate decisions in an attempt to survive, including early marriages,
child labour, child trafficking or survival sex, mostly affecting girls. Indeed, as has been previously
noted, women are particularly vulnerable in the wake of climate disasters.

Other coping strategies listed by the residents were:

 Sand filling of erosion-prone areas

 Clearance of drainage channels
 Digging holes around buildings to reduce the level of flood water
 Construction of concrete barriers in front of buildings to stop the inflow of flood water
 Relocation out of the flood-affected area
 Draining out excess water from buildings and compounds
 Saying prayers
 Calling on the government for assistance by residents

4.7 Challenges hindering DRR measures progress

4.7.1 Lack of effective and uniform disaster information system
Despite the lack of timely flooding predictions for Cyclone Idai, specifically, the fact that both
cyclones (with cyclone Kenneth) were forecasted quite in advance enabled alert the actors involved
in the preparedness and response of the cyclones namely, governmental authorities and humanitarian
organizations, as well as to disseminate warnings to the communities. However, accurate forecasting
alone is not sufficient as highlighted by the key informant: “warnings are only useful if people can
interpret and act on them” (Mr Hadassah). The majority of respondents (82%) admitted not knowing
how to react to those warnings and which actions to take to protect themselves and their properties,
especially considering that they had not experienced such strong winds before. Indeed, the low-
frequency nature of tropical cyclones in the country becomes a major factor that influences risk
perception. In the case of cyclone Idai, when people received the alerts they understood that a
cyclone was approaching but did not react because they underestimated its magnitude and believed
that it would be similar to the cyclones that had previously experienced:

“Official warnings such as ‘stay safe, go to your house, close windows and doors, make sure
you stay inside’, though clear and accurate, failed to communicate the qualitative difference

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 between winds of 60km/h such as had been experienced in previous cyclones and Idai’s 180
km/h winds.” (Interview with Mr Hadassah, Manga Neighborhood, 2 May 2022)

As postulated by WMO, (2019b); Zurich Flood Resilience Alliance, (2020), to avoid this to happen
again, it is necessary to improve warning communications: considering that people do not understand
the terminology used in the alerts, for instance, 50 mm of rain or wind speeds of 150 km/h, messages
should be user-oriented and be accompanied by information about both the potential impacts of the
upcoming disaster and specific actions that people should take to protect themselves.

Conversely, as mentioned above, there was no uniform disaster information dissemination as in some
areas where there is low radio transmission and no mobile network coverage, which explains the low
number of people who received messages through cell phones.

4.7.2 Lack of political commitment

The study has shown that there is a lack of political commitment when it comes to DRR in
Mozambique, as a whole. In terms of assistance, only 10% of the respondents got early assistance
from government agencies. This might mean that the government had no institutional structures in
place to respond fast and adequately enough to disasters. Despite being aware of the impending
danger through its early warning systems, the government did not deploy trained people to assist
people who might be affected. Interviews with representatives of key government institutions
indicated a lack of human and financial resources to prepare for emergencies. The government relied
on humanitarian aid. The lack of human and financial resources further tends to increase community
vulnerability to hazards such as Cyclone Idai in this context. This creates a vicious cycle of
vulnerability to meteorological hazards like Cyclone Idai.

Moreover, there was no due diligent pre-evaluation before the construction of resettlement sites in
Manga, especially Terra Prometida. Respondents argued that this increases the vulnerability of
relocated people since they are offered to restart their lives in an area that may be at risk of
experiencing a new climate hazard in the future, pushing them to be displaced once again. A
humanitarian official interviewed also suspected that resettlement sites were not being selected
following a risk assessment:

“I have no idea how the government chooses resettlement sites. It seems as though it is just
based on what land is available. In this sense, resettlement has mainly been an emergency
measure in the aftermath of a disaster, and less part of a planned prevention strategy”
(Interview with Mr Bartolomeu, Manga, 13 May 2022).

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Manga residents bemoaned that there was no effective communication facilitating the participation
not only of the relocated populations but also of other affected groups such as host communities.
However, people displaced by cyclones Idai and Kenneth reproached not having received enough
information about the process.

“Resettlement often occurred with almost no prior communication and displaced people
were usually not aware of the options they had or how far they were being moved. The
abruptness of the process together with the lack of information about the destinations meant
that people had no time to prepare, train or gather resources to migrate safely, thus,
impeding that they could properly plan their migratory journey.” (Interview with MR14, Alto
da Nhaconjo, 23 April 2022)

To do so, the government has to commit to implementing measures that can serve as pull factors and
make the relocation site more attractive than the high-risk area where cyclone-affected communities
used to live, according to Jacobs & Almeida, (2020). On the one hand, the respondents lamented that
the government did not ensure that displaced populations rebuild lost livelihoods due to resettlement,
thereby they started from scratch. They were not provided with land and access to job opportunities.
According to Jacobs & Almeida, (2020), by not helping people to find new livelihoods, they become
dependent on the aid provided by the government and humanitarian organizations which is, in turn,
temporary. On the other hand, the provision of basic services such as schooling and health care, and
even psychological support, must also be ensured. Moreover, for resettlement to be sustainable,
adequate compensation mechanisms need to be established to prevent targeted communities from
fearing that moving will be detrimental. This can be done in different ways such as offering cash,
land, materials, or even professional training. Thus, all this requires great commitment from political
players.

4.7.3 Increased risk

By observation, most of the areas affected by the cyclones have low elevation and are close to river
basins, which makes them highly vulnerable to subsequent flooding. Furthermore, disasters have hit
an already weak urban environment in the Manga neighbourhood where houses are built with low-
quality materials and techniques that are not prepared to resist climate shocks. Indeed, data from the
literature review shows that in 2017 more than 64 percent of the inhabitants in Mozambique lived in
houses with adobe, wooden sticks and bamboo as predominant materials (World Bank, 2019b). On
the other hand, there were high rates of urban population growth registered in the country pushing
people to settle in high-risk areas, especially due to a lack of land use planning, as revealed by key

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informants. The loss of housing which usually comes together with the simultaneous loss of all the
household goods exacerbated poverty due to the difficulties to recover from it:

“For families that have lost everything at once, finding the necessary financial and material
resources to simultaneously rebuild housing, replace domestic items, and rebuild livelihoods,
is still extremely challenging and will take time. (Interview with MR19, Nhaconjo township,”
20 April 2022).

The challenge “lies not only in constructing new resilient affordable housing but also retrofitting
existing housing structures” (Miss Hades). This also applies to public infrastructure such as hospitals
or police stations, which need to be either designed to resist climate shocks or located in safe areas to
ensure the provision of basic services during emergencies.

4.7.4 Resource constraints

The lack of climate-proof infrastructure and housing in the Manga community are not the only ones
that need to be resilient in the face of disasters. Even in the case that early warnings are properly
understood and affected people take the right measures, the damage to infrastructure and properties is
likely to be severe if they are not prepared for such circumstances. In this sense, Miss Gabriella
stated the following:

“Cyclone Idai underlined that no matter how effective early warnings were, there is still a
huge demand for greater investment in resilient infrastructure in many parts of the world if
we are to break the cycle of disaster-response-recovery” (Interview with Miss Gabriella,
Manga Neighborhood, 24 April 2022).

Indeed, the passage of cyclones Idai and Kenneth through Manga-Beira resulted in massive
infrastructure damage and loss. In Ndunda, Mascerenga and Nhacojo, the destruction of main roads
and bridges caused by the heavy cyclones limited the capacity of humanitarian aid to access critically
impacted areas. Moreover, damages to hospitals also complicated the ability to provide care to the
victims and contain the spread of diseases as a result of floods. However, IOM representative Mr.
Agostinho also highlighted that the destruction of key infrastructure has consequences “not just for
the emergency response phase but for the long-term efforts of these countries to eradicate poverty
and hunger” (Mr. Augostinho).

Furthermore, according to Macamo, (2021), the Covid-19 pandemic has also negatively impacted
post-cyclone reconstruction and other climate resilience plans along the country Cyclones Idai and
Kenneth also had adverse impacts on local businesses. Mr Bartolomeu supported this by saying:

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 “In addition to the direct costs associated with damages to facilities and equipment, local
enterprises suffered from the indirect effects of infrastructure disruptions, as well as demand
and supply shocks.” (Interview with Mr Bartolomeu, Manga Neighborhood, 4 April 2022)

Thus, the recovery of the private sector after the cyclones was key to recovering the previous levels
of employment and, in this way, ensuring the restoration of livelihoods and slowing down the
increase in poverty levels. There were also cases where infrastructure proved to be prepared for
climate shocks. The most relevant example observed by the investigator is the drainage system in the
city of Beira, which is particularly vulnerable to flooding due to its low-lying location. According to
Trujillo, (2019), the system was built in the 1960s and had been rehabilitated in the decade before the
cyclones under different funded projects. The benefits of such investments became manifest after
Beira suffered from rainfall-induced flooding in and again landfall of Idai and Kenneth.

“Here in Nhaconjo, the drainage system responded efficiently by facilitating rapid water
disposal, with only temporary flooding in some neighbourhoods. The exception was for some
areas where the drainage network had not been rehabilitated, thus not being able to handle
the high levels of rain.” (Interview with MR15, Nhaconjo, 17 May 2022).

The challenge further highlighted the need for further strengthening the resilience of coastal
protection and drainage networks to future shocks:

“The city has a vulnerable coastal protection system due to lack of maintenance and
insufficient investment, as well as an inadequate drainage system, which is poorly maintained
and in urgent need of expansion due to rapid urbanization.” (Interview with Mrs Daffodil,
Manga Neighborhood, 13 May 2022).

As for housing, Beira becomes one of the most affected sectors in the wake of the cyclones, as
agreed by all key informants. This is because Mozambique faces a lack of adequate housing at the
national level, which has become a structural problem as a result of several factors.

4.8 Sustainability of the DRR efforts and solutions to challenges

4.8.1 Integration of DRR into national policy
In the sense of integrating DRR into national policy, the respondents suggested that there is a need to
go beyond climate adaptation and integrate development policies that enhance the resilience of
households by diminishing the loss of livelihoods and therefore their impoverishment. This avoids
the repetition of disaster impacts when forthcoming disasters strike the country. As MR11 said:

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 “Here in Mascerenha, we depend on farming. The government should aim at providing
durable solutions besides the provision of seeds and agricultural tools. For instance, it would
be desirable to increase farming productivity as well as to facilitate access to markets so that
people could make some profit out of their harvests, which would contribute to decreasing
poverty levels. Moreover, the construction of safe storage warehouses is essential to protect
farmers’ harvests” (Interview with MR11, Mascerenha area, 27 March 2022).

Also, the government must enhance the diversification of livelihoods beyond agriculture into
activities that do not directly rely on natural resources that could also be considered as an option to
reduce the vulnerability of communities since it would diminish their exposure to climate hazards
and would prevent them from highly depending on humanitarian assistance even long after the
impact of a disaster. In other words, Mr Hadassah said:

“Fundamentally, the rebuilding process is based on the idea of building back better, that is,
using the restoration of infrastructure as an opportunity to improve its characteristics and
make it climate-proof. Hence, the construction strategy needs to include resistant materials,
as well as to take some measures such as reinforcing walls and anchoring roofs so that they
can withstand strong winds and harvest rainwater.” (Interview with Mr Hadassah, Manga
neighbourhood, 18 May 2022).

Moreover, the respondents postulated that Mozambique needs to build multi-purpose resilient
infrastructures such as schools or stadiums that can be used as shelters in the event of tropical
cyclones or floods, even though it needs to be noted that some public buildings were already used for
that purpose in the wake of both Idai and Kenneth.

“There is a need for reinforcing national building regulations as well as having adequate
land use planning based on a risk assessment is essential to ensure that new houses are
erected in safe locations, and to avoid the expansion of informal settlements.” (Interview
with MR53, Ndunda, 10 April 2022)

Hence, the inclusion of climate adaptation into development plans is in itself a tool to build resilience
in the country. Making communities resilient is of little use if it is not accompanied by other actions
that create resilience in the country as a whole. The fact that people react efficiently to a disaster will
enable them to reduce the impacts suffered in the shortterm, for instance by evacuating to a safe area
and thus avoiding being seriously injured.

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4.8.2 Capacity building
Capacity building is necessary as it represents national/local strength. It may include providing
education, training, resources and skills to volunteers and all the related support. As one government
key informant interview revealed this shortcoming:

“We have very good disaster risk management plans but they have been shelved. We do not
have the financial and human resources to implement our plans that including doing disaster
drills and simulations. In the end, the government institutions are found wanting when it
comes to disaster preparedness and response.” (Interview with Mr Gabriel, Manga
neighbourhood, 12 March 2022).

Therefore, despite the presence of these policies, the research found that government and local
institutions were not prepared for Cyclone Idai in terms of alerting communities and training. There
is a need for capacitation of human resources, financial resources, infrastructure and equipment, and
coordination was inadequate, the study revealed. When disaster risk management systems are riddled
with shortcomings, the consequences of natural hazards overwhelm vulnerable communities, as
happened to the communities of Manga.

Also, there is a need to capacitate local institutions so that they fulfil their obligation in reducing
community vulnerability to disasters. This study has shown that education and knowledge of climate
hazards in the Manga community is needed to increase their capacity to prepare and respond to
flooding. Interviews with residents highlighted there is low knowledge levels of climate hazards in
communities increase their vulnerability to these hazards. The situation becomes worse when those
in charge cannot prepare the communities on how to respond to climate-related hazards. This further
supports the need to build the capacity of vulnerable communities to assist them in coping with the
hazards. The interviews conducted show that most responders admitted lacking knowledge about
climate change, even ignoring its link with extreme weather events:

“Some of us attributed the cyclone to spiritual forces that were punishing our communities for
social ills and various other transgressions. This made us passive about possible climate
hazards. Thus, I think that these awareness activities should be carried out on an ongoing
basis, and not only initiated during emergencies, since they take time and, besides, vulnerable
communities should also be involved in the preparedness process.” (Interview with MR37,
Alto da Mnaga, 20 May 2022).

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On the other hand, the study revealed that during Idai in Beira city the wind cut off the
communication and power lines, thus affecting the communication channels, that is, phone lines,
radio, and television, and consequently interrupting the diffusion of warnings. This resulted in
serious impacts on communities and people were forced to find ways to escape floodwaters. Thus,
Mrs. Carlinhos recommended that:

“There is a need for an alternative communication system that can be used to disseminate
warnings in the case of failure of normal communication means as one of the weaknesses
identified in emergency preparedness and response to the cyclones.” (Interview with Mrs.
Carlinhos, Manga neighbourhood, 24 May 2022).

In this sense, the key informants argued that the communication of weather forecasts should not be
limited to the different conventional media channels but should be complemented with community-
based social structures, such as community leaders. Nevertheless, the mass media still play an
important role and need to be involved in weather forecasting and the dissemination of alerts.

4.9 Chapter summary

The chapter presented research findings gathered in Manga neighbourhood, Beira, Sofala Province
among the government officers implementing DRR policies, NGO officers, and the community
participants. This presentation managed to demonstrate that the study area is a disaster-prone area.
Tropical cyclones have wreck havoc in the community, leaving residents in precarious predicaments.
Different players in the government, humanitarian aid fraternity as well the community have made
various DRR efforts. It is also clear that in doing the DRR activities; they faced huge constraints and
challenges impacting negatively on the implementation targets. One can conclude that the members
are betrayed by the operational environment which is not supportive. However, the respondents
suggested that for DRR efforts sustainability, there should be a commitment to integrate DRR
measures with the national policy and capacitate the different players in risk reduction. The next
chapter, concludes the research by summing up the study with recommendations, and insight on
possible future research.

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 5 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, an analysis, interpretation, and discussion of data were made based on the
interview transcriptions of resident participants and key informants who participated in the study.
This chapter draws on both the literature reviewed and the empirical data collected from participants
residing in Manga neighbourhood, Beira. This chapter concludes the research and provides
recommendations on how recognized challenges can be addressed. The suggested recommendations
target the government, development agents, community leaders, residents, and researchers working
on DRR policy implementation. Possible research areas for future researchers are also highlighted.

5.2 Summaries and Conclusions

The summaries and conclusions from the findings of the study were categorized from the themes,
linking the themes to the research questions. The conclusions herein answer the research questions.

5.2.1 Disasters in the area, their risks and impacts

Question 1: What are the disaster risk and their impact on the Manga neighbourhood in Beira,
Mozambique?

To answer this question, the researchers first looked at the main vulnerabilities and disasters existing
in the country and followed with their impacts. After getting a better picture of the conditions in
which the dominant cyclones that were named by respondents as Idai and Kenneth, it becomes easier
to understand the harder impacts of extreme weather events, therefore being relevant to take into
consideration the factors that explain these realities. The Manga residents and possibly the whole of
Mozambique have gotten used to living with cyclones, floods, droughts and other natural sudden and
slow-onset disasters. The disasters caused savage socio-economic, psychological and environmental
impacts in the study and the local institutions were not able to deal with the vulnerabilities and risks
posed by the climate-related hazards.

Ultimately, this paper has shown the ongoing needs regarding livelihoods, shelter, and WASH
services of impacted communities by Idai and Kenneth that persisted even years after the disasters.
This is the result of several factors, namely the ravaging nature of the events, the weak institutional
capacity of the country to respond together with the insufficient foreign funding received, and the
acute vulnerabilities that affected the Manga population even before the catastrophe. But there is

86
another factor that further contributes to hindering the recovery of the communities: the occurrence
of subsequent disasters.

5.2.2 DRR efforts and Community coping strategies

Question 2: What are the DRR measures and community coping mechanisms practised in the
Manga area?

Even though the mitigation and preparedness measures are taken in the country before the cyclones
have not been revised, the hurdles arising during the response and recovery phases evince the
effectiveness and flaws of such previous measures. In this sense, this thesis has analyzed four
components of DRR that are: mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. The focus was put on
disaster management in the face of disasters such as the tropical cyclones Idai and Kenneth in
Mozambique’s Manga neighbourhood in Beira. Drawing on the concept of climate resilience, the
paper has analyzed the dissemination of early warning systems, the capacity of critical infrastructure
to withstand climate hazards, the housing support and resettlement options offered to affected
communities, and finally the impact of the cyclones on people’s livelihoods and the provision of
WASH services.

Bearing in mind that the magnitude of the catastrophe would most likely have exceeded the coping
capacity of any country, some of the weaknesses detected during the response would have still
appeared in the event of a less devastating disaster due to the still existing need to take measures
towards a truly proactive DRM strategy and to build resilience among the population. Other
communities coping strategies by the residents were: Sand filling of erosion-prone areas, clearance of
drainage channels, digging holes around buildings to reduce the level of flood water, construction of
concrete barriers in front of buildings to stop the inflow of flood water, relying on relatives and
friends, calling on the government for assistance by residents, among other support systems.

5.2.3 Challenges hindering DRR measures progress

Question 3: What are the challenges that hinder disaster reduction efforts?

However, our findings suggest the occurrence of Cyclone Idai exposed capacity and policy gaps in
Mozambique’s disaster risk governance system, particularly in the study area. For example, the DRR
policy is reactive and largely silent on the mitigation trajectory. Although people got information
about the impending disaster, they did not know how to use the information, because it was not
properly packaged. There is a lack of effective DRM systems, lack of DRR training and awareness,
population growth in poorly drained areas, climate change, beliefs and attitudes, and settlements in
dangerous locations like along waterways, lack of disaster preparedness at all levels, and household
87
vulnerability attributes caused Manga neighbourhood to be susceptible to the damaging effects of
disasters, mainly Cyclone Idai and Kenneth.

Besides highlighting the deficiencies in the disaster management system, this study also emphasized
other community factors such as community attitudes that increased household vulnerability to
hazards. Also, the area faces several development challenges such as poverty or lack of adequate
housing that in turn become vulnerabilities in the face of weather hazards. Therefore, the efforts
made by the government of Mozambique have so far proved to be insufficient since it also needs to
address several structural problems. This means that such vulnerabilities were further exacerbated
after the events due to both the limited institutional capacity to respond and the lack of resilience
among the population.

Yet the strengths of the government’s disaster management should not be undervalued: accurate and
timely forecasts of the cyclones were issued, and WASH measures were quite effective, mainly the
early distribution of supplies and the containment actions of communicable disease outbreaks. This
reflects that the lessons learned from previous events have been useful to improve some aspects of
the disaster response. Nonetheless, the research has exposed that in general all the areas of response
to the cyclones presented numerous flaws. Despite the adequate forecasts, the dissemination of early
warnings turned out to be ineffective, and the poor infrastructure of health facilities rendered them
non-operational after the disaster. The other areas presented even more room for improvement. Poor
construction standards of critical infrastructure and housing resulted in massive destruction that to
some extent could have been avoided by retrofitting those buildings during the mitigation phase to
make them climate-proof.

The resettlement options offered by the government did not follow most of the basic principles to
guarantee the effectiveness and sustainability of the process, which risked driving people to an even
more vulnerable situation than they were before the disaster.

Lastly, the fact that most of the population depends on climate-sensitive sectors and that previous
measures had not been taken to protect their livelihoods triggered a worsening of the already existing
food insecurity situation. Overall, the identified shortcomings in the response and recovery phases
demonstrate that, even if the government stands for proactive disaster risk management, in practice
there are still a lot of measures that need to be taken in the mitigation and preparedness phases to
reduce the consequences of disasters on people’s lives. Therefore, it looks like there exists an
intention of creating resilience, but the measures taken are incomplete. Such measures need to be
included along all the phases of the disaster management cycle, especially before the events:
88
mitigation and preparedness actions will further enable to increase people’s capacity to withstand the
impacts of climate disasters and recover from them.

5.2.4 Sustainability of the DRR efforts and solutions to challenges

Question 4: What are the solutions to the challenges in the implementation of DRR efforts?

The study has reflected that there need for integration of DRR into national policy and capacity
building, to sustain DRR efforts. In the sense of integrating DRR into national policy, the
respondents suggested that there is a need to go beyond climate adaptation and integrate development
policies that enhance the resilience of households by diminishing the loss of livelihoods and therefore
their impoverishment. This avoids the repetition of disaster impacts when forthcoming disasters
strike the country.

Capacity building is necessary as it represents national/local strength. It may include providing

education, training, resources and skills to volunteers and all the related support. Therefore, despite
the presence of policies stated in the thesis above, the research found that government and local
institutions were not prepared for disasters in terms of alerting communities and training. There is a
need for capacitation of human resources, financial resources, infrastructure and equipment, and
coordination was inadequate, the study revealed. When disaster risk management systems are riddled
with shortcomings, the consequences of natural hazards overwhelm vulnerable communities, as
happened to the communities of Manga.

5.3 Recommendations
Climate-induced natural disasters are likely to continue to affect Manga neighbourhood and
Mozambique at large in the future. Both people and the government must be prepared to deal with
such events. The study has shown some of the dynamics at work in the aftermath of different
disasters mainly tropical cyclones. From this, some lessons can be learnt that lead to
recommendations for the future. Following are recommendations drawn by the researcher from the
study:

1. There should be an emphasis, especially on the need to set up a proper legal framework to
deal with the resettlement process. This legislation should not undermine the land rights
protections established by the Land Law, but should especially establish the framework for a
clear, consultative, and transparent expropriation process. Such a legal framework can help
to ensure that proper consultation is done, undocumented land rights are respected,
compensation is provided in case of expropriation, and the rights of resettled and host
communities are adequately registered and formalised to prevent contestation and conflict in
89
 the future. Moreover, state institutions must follow and implement the legislation that is
already in place.
2. The current Master plan that directs the work of the INGD already focuses on the reduction
of disaster risks and aims to reduce people’s vulnerability and increase their resilience. To
realise some of these measures, financial and human resources will be indispensable. This
could come from the Mozambican government, but might also need support from the
international community. Besides, it is important to develop plans in partnership with the
people concerned to ensure ownership and engagement. This will make the successful
implementation of plans more likely. This study has shown some of the challenges in aessing
climate-induced displacement and the existing protection gaps.
3. For longer-term policy making and programming on resettlement sites, whereas resettlement
can be considered as a durable solution to displacement, it can only be durable if people are
supported to obtain access to durable housing and livelihood conditions. This might not be a
task of the INGD, but other governmental and non-governmental actors could take up a role
here at the moment humanitarian actors are leaving the scene.
4. The relations between resettled people and members of host communities and/or surrounding
communities of the resettlement site need to be monitored closely. Moreover, host
communities or neighbouring communities might deserve attention and support just as well
to avoid (perceived) inequalities that can lead to frictions.

5.4 Recommendations for further research

After the completion of this research, there are several issues which have concerned the researcher in
the area of policy execution in Mozambique. Further research on specific hazards by addressing the
policies and implementations more deeply will give an insight into the situation in Mozambique. For
better understanding and observation, the inclusion of more organizations and practitioners working
on DRR will be useful along with close discussion among the Government policymakers.

Also, a political economy analysis would identify efficient governance frameworks, better policies,
and effective coordination among influencing actors for effective integration of DRR and Climate
Change Adaptation (CCA). To gain more in-depth insights, I propose that more refined context-
based studies are required.

90
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7 Appendix 1A: Interview Guide for Manga Residents
SECTION A: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHICS
1. Age-Range
18-25 26-35

36-45 46-55

56-65 66 & Above

2. Gender
Female Male

3. Marital Status
Married

Single

Divorced

Other………………………. (Please specify)

4. Number of Dependants (if any)…………………………

5. Highest Educational Level Attained:
University Degree

College Diploma

College Certificate
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 High School

Ordinary Level

Primary Level

Never attended school

6. Area of resident………………….
7. What is the tenure status of your household
Rent

Own house

Resettlement Camp/ Site

Tied Accommodation Other (Specify)………………….

8. What have been your household’s main sources of livelihood in the past 12 months?
(Answers may include: formal employment, petty trading/street vending, remittances,
Donations (from neighbours, church, government, NGOs, CBOs e.t.c), unskilled daily work,
skilled daily work, casual work/piece jobs, begging etc)
9. Has your household received any support/ assistance or participated in any programmes or
services (esp DRR related) provided by external sources during the last 12 months?
Yes

No

10. If yes, Where was (is) this support from?

(Answers may include: Government, UN/NGO, Religious, Relatives, Friends/Neighbors,
Remittances, Mutual help groups, Civic groups, Charitable groups e.t.c)
SECTION B: OBJECTIVES QUESTIONS

Objective 1: To explore the disaster risk and its impact in the Manga neighbourhood in Beira,
Mozambique.

1. What are the major hazards in the area? And their frequency say in the last 10 years?
2. Which ones have the greatest negative impacts?
3. How do tropical cyclones rank amongst the hazards?
4. Who is at most risk within the community?

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Objective 2: To establish the DRR measures and community coping mechanisms practised in
the Manga area

1. How do you manage these disasters (before, during and after) internally? (Focus on tropical
cyclones)
2. What external support do you get (before, during and after) to manage the hazards, especially
in tropical cyclones?
3. Do you have any means you use to determine if a tropical cyclone is coming?
4. How are Early Warning (EWs) messages shared? By who (channel)? How do you respond
after receiving the messages? Are there any guidelines on how to respond?
Objective 3: To establish challenges that hinder the disaster reduction efforts

1. What do you think are challenges being faced in the implementation of DRR efforts, in the
face of disasters in the area?
(answers to be given with regards to DRR components, that is: mitigation, preparation,
response and recovery)
2. What challenges do you face in using the EWs, both the traditional and modern ones?
Objective 4: To proffer solutions to the challenges in the implementation of DRR efforts.

1. What can be done to improve DRR efforts in this area? Which resources are needed?
2. What message would you like to give to key decision-makers concerning DRR efforts?
THANK YOU

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8 Appendix 1B: Interview Guide for representatives from the Government,
NGOs and CBOs
SECTION A: INTRODUCTION

What is the name of your organisation and designation

……………………………………………………

Can you please describe your role in this community and the role of your organisation (especially in DRR
efforts)?

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

SECTION B: OBJECTIVES QUESTIONS

Objective 1: To explore the disaster risk and its impact in the Manga neighbourhood in Beira,
Mozambique.

1. Major hazards in the area? And their frequency?

2. How does drought rank amongst the hazards? What are the major hazards in the area? And
their frequency say in the last 10 years?
3. Which ones have the greatest negative impacts?
4. Who is at the most risk?
Objective 2: To establish the DRR measures and community coping mechanisms practised in
the Manga area

1. What are internal capacities used in the event of tropical cyclones occurrence?
2. Is external support usually received and from who?
3. How are the vulnerability and risk assessed? How is hazard assessment done?
4. What preparedness measures are put in place after the risk assessments?
5. Who develops EWs? How are these reviewed? Who uses EWs? How are EW messages
shared? By who? How do the receivers of messages respond?

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 6. Are there any Monitoring and evaluation systems in place to oversee projects related to DRR?
How do you rate them?
Objective 3: To establish challenges that hinder the disaster reduction efforts

1. What do you think are challenges being faced in the implementation of DRR efforts, in the
face of disasters in the area?
(answers to be given with regards to DRR components, that is: mitigation, preparation,
response and recovery)
3. What challenges do you face in using the EWs, both the traditional and modern ones?
Objective 5: To proffer solutions to the challenges in the implementation of DRR efforts.

1. What can be done to improve the sustainability of DRR? What can be done to improve Tropical
cyclone Early warning systems in the area?
2. Which stakeholders are critical in this process? What resources are needed?
THANK YOU

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9 Appendix 1C: Observation Guide for the Researcher
The researcher also used the observation technique to collect data in this study and was guided by the
following key aspects and checklist.

 Settings: the physical aspects of the places where residents stay or do their businesses
– the state of infrastructure and property, accessibility, cleanliness, and quality of life
among other factors. Resources allocated for DRR.
 People: Characteristics of people who do business and stay with them. Relationships
among the various stakeholders. Structures, roles and responsibilities.
 Activities: What activities are occurring in the setting? For example, how are they
conducting their businesses? What are the limitations for residents in conducting
business activities? Disaster and tropical cyclones management plans are in place.
Implementation rates.
 Behaviour: This is linked to activities. The conduct of people toward DRR efforts is
influenced by attitudes, perceptions, beliefs and the environment around them. Any
stories around the use of DRR. Community satisfaction.
 Events: Is what is being observed recurring or a “once-off” event?
 Time: In what order and at what times and for how long do behaviours and events
occur. What could be the reason?
Some pictures were taken in some instances to support what was observed.

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 10 Appendix 2
FACULTY OF APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
SUPERVISOR—STUDENT AUDIT SHEET

SUPERVISORS’ NAME: MR MAZURUSE STUDENT NAME: Makuyana Eugenio

DATE ACTIVITY SUPERVISOR SIGNATURE STUDENT

SIGNATURE

Proposal and correction

Proposal correction

Chapter 1

Corrections and approval

for next chapter

Chapter 2 and 3

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 Chapter 4 and 5

Final Corrections and

submission of project to
the supervisor. Signing of
the approval form

PROGRAMME CO-ORDINATORS’ SIGNATURE DATE:

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