CEEES/SC 10110-20110

Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth
Portrait of a Planet
Fifth Edition

Chapter 5

Quiz Time

One space = One Word;

Look for context: if the space is preceded by an
the word begins with a vowel.
Once a word is used, it is not used again.

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Gypsum Crystals - Precipitated from Water

Mineralogy: Study of
minerals.
Mineralogist: people
Cave near Chilhuahua, Mexico. who study minerals. 3

ELEMENT: A pure substance that cannot be broken down by chemical processes.

ATOM: smallest particle of an element that retains its chemical identity. Contains
protons, neutrons, & electrons.
Ionization: addition/subtraction of electrons.
CATIONS: positively charged, electrons removed. Al3+, Si4+, Fe2+ or Fe3+
ANIONS: negatively charged, electrons added. O2-, F-, Cl-
MOLECULE: two or more atoms combined.
Anions and cations bound together to
form neutral species or minerals.

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MINERALS – BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE EARTH: A
naturally occurring homogeneous1 solid with a definite, but generally
not fixed2, chemical composition and a highly ordered3 atomic
arrangement.
1. homogeneous = constant physical proportions, single phase.
2. contains specific elements, some substitution permitted.
3. crystal structure – orderly (i.e., not glass). Structure preserves
translational symmetry. Crystal lattice .
4,000 mineral species, but ~125 added each year!!
Chemical behavior of elements, controlled by valence electrons,
dictates the physical properties of minerals – very diverse!
Glass: inorganic solid, but structure is (semi)chaotic and irregular.

Disordered Structure Ordered Structure 5

Symmetry
The ordered atomic arrangement inside minerals imparts symmetry to
crystals.

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 Minerals are generally formed by inorganic processes, but can have
biogenic mineralization – formed by living organisms.

Minerals must be created by

natural processes. Humans can
recreate natural processes to
make mineral equivalents.
These are called synthetic 7
minerals.

What is a Crystal?
Crystal: single, continuous (uninterrupted) piece of crystalline solid
bounded by flat surfaces (Crystal Faces) that grew naturally as the
mineral grew.
For a given mineral, the angle between two adjacent faces of one
specimen is identical to the angle between the corresponding faces of
another specimen.
Crystals of Quartz

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 What is a Crystal?
Crystals come in a variety of shapes.

Halite Diamond Staurolite Quartz

Garnet Stibnite Calcite Kyanite

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What s Inside a Crystal?

X-rays are diffracted by a crystal; waves interfere and where they
are reinforced, a distinctive pattern is formed.
This defines the crystal structure .
Physical properties of a mineral depend on
the elements and how they are bonded in
the crystal structure.

An X-ray diffractometer 10
 What s Inside a Crystal?
A Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) shoots beams of
electrons at a material.Some electrons scatter off atoms, but some
pass between gaps and make a dark spot on a recorder. The result is
an image that shows the pattern of atoms in the material.

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Chemical Bonds
The type of atomic bonding determines many of the physical
properties of a mineral.
Five types of bonds:
Ionic: mutual attraction of ions of opposite charge (e.g., Na+Cl-).
Covalent: atoms share electrons (e.g., diamond, H2O).

Metallic: outer shells of atoms move easily from one to another.

Allows electricity to move
Hydrogen: in water, the electron on H is attracted to the O atom -
the O side of the molecule is more negative than the H side and
attracts other water molecules and makes it a good solvent.
Van der Waals: these bonds exist because electrons temporarily
cluster on one side of each molecule.
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 Chemical Bonds
Harder minerals = stronger bonds.
If bonds form more easily in one direction than another, the crystal
will grow faster in that direction. [High bond density]
If a mineral has weaker bonds in one direction it will preferentially
break along that direction. [Low bond density]
Halite: Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl-.

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Chemical Bonds
Diamond: each C atom
is covalently bonded to
4 other C atoms
(tetrahedron).

Graphite: C atoms
arranged in sheets.
Sheets are connected
by weak Van der
Waal s bonds.
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Diamond & Graphite = Polymorphs.
 Packing of the Atoms

Cations are smaller than anions.

Tetrahedral Packing
Cations fit into the spaces
between anions.
As many anions as possible
will fit around a cation.
Depending on the ion,
different geometries occur. Cubic Packing Octahedral Packing

The orderly arrangement of

the atoms controls the
outward appearance of the
crystal and controls the
symmetry of the crystal. 15

Formation of Minerals
Solidification of a melt.
Precipitation from a solution.
Solid state diffusion.

Crystals interfere with

Crystals grow with each other so their shape
well defined crystal cannot be maintained =
faces = Euhedral; Anhedral/Subhedral.
Aquamarine (Beryl)

Crystals can be destroyed by melting,

dissolving, or chemical reaction
(including the action of microbes. 16
 MINERAL FORMATION
When a melt solidifies. Quick cooling
results in tiny crystals; slow cooling
creates large crystals.

From an aqueous solution

when dissolved solids
become saturated.

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MINERAL FORMATION
When rocks are buried to great depths.
Sue, the largest and most complete
T-Rex skeleton on display at the
Field Museum, Chicago.

Biomineralization

Directly from a gas – volcanic

vents or “fumaroles” (“fumarolic
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activity”).
 ORE MINERALS
Mineral containing elements/molecules that are concentrated enough
to be extracted economically if there is an accumulation of the ore
mineral.

Sulfide (S–) combines with metallic cations to form many

of our most important metal ore minerals.

Oxygen bonds with metallic cations to

form important ore mineral oxides.

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Colo(u)r:
MINERAL PROPERTIES
First thing that is recognizable
about a mineral (some are !
colo(u)rless, white, or strongly
colo(u)red). Can be useful for
identifying some minerals, but
others with variable chemical Corundum Colo(u)rs
compositions can have variable
colo(u)rs (e.g., garnet).
Colo(u)r is associated with
electron transfers amongst the
valence bands. Some minerals
are colo(u)red by major
elements (wt.%), whereas others
are colo(u)red by trace elements
(ppm) (e.g., Quartz). 20
Quartz Colo(u)rs
 MINERAL PROPERTIES
Physical properties of minerals are dictated by the nature of the
underlying atomic structure, nature and arrangement of chemical
bonds, and energy levels of valence electrons.
Streak: color of the powdered mineral (if it is softer than the streak
plate); body (specimen) color shows more variability than
streak color; sometimes streak color is not the same color as
the specimen.
Calcite always gives a white streak
even if it is pink.!
Hematite gives a dark red streak
although it can be black.
CARE: sometimes the mineral is
harder than the streak plate – the
apparent white streak is actually
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the streak plate.

MINERAL PROPERTIES
Luster: quality and intensity of reflected light. Described as, for
example, earthy or dull, resinous, pearly, silky, greasy,
vitreous (glassy).

Metallic Non-metallic

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 Hardness: MOH S Hardness Scale (NOT absolute):
Talc 1 The
Gypsum 2 Girls/Guys
Calcite 3 Can
Fluorite 4 Flirt
Apatite 5 And
Orthoclase 6 Other
Quartz 7 Queer
Topaz 8 Things
Corundum 9 Can
Diamond 10 Do

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IMPORTANT!

External Crystal Form: e.g., Massive, Granular, etc. Describes the form of a
mass of the same mineral.
Strict definition: Any grouping of crystal faces or facets that are arranged in
the same symmetry is called a "form. Open & closed forms exist. A crystal
form is a set of crystal faces that are related to each other by symmetry.

Fluorite
Feldspar
Quartz Geometric forms built by
stacking cubes. Cubes can
be stacked for cubic and
dodecahedral (12-sided)
crystal forms.
 External Crystal Habit
Needle-like (acicular)
or fibrous
Habit: The term used to
describe general
shape of a crystal.
Bladed Crystals: Kyanite It describes nature
of a single crystal
(bladed, fibrous,
acicular, prismatic,
cubic, blocky,
equant, columnar,
platy).
Crystal habit reflects the symmetry of the
atomic arrangement of the underlying crystal
structure, but the absence of form does not
Quartz
imply the absence of structure (some minerals
do not show well-developed crystals). 25
Prismatic

CLEAVAGE: splitting along preferred directions due to weak bonds

within the atomic structure. Cleavage is described as perfect, good,
poor.
This is a property of crystals – be careful that you are looking at
single crystals and not crystal aggregates.
Cleavages can be confused with crystal faces – can often see
cleavage planes perpendicular to crystal faces. [Cleavage planes =
low bond density; Crystal faces = high bond density]

Some crystals do not show cleavage due to similar bond strengths

[densities] throughout the crystal structure. However, a crystal
can have 1, 2, 3… directions of cleavage. It is important to note:
(i) the number of cleavage directions, and (ii) their angular
relationship:
1 direction; 2 directions at 90˚; 2 directions, inclined;
3 directions, cubic; 3 directions, rhombohedral; ! 26
4 directions, octahedral; 6 directions dodecahedral.
 Cleavage
One direction
2 directions

3 directions 4 directions

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6 directions

Cleavage - Definitions
Minerals with perfect cleavage cleave without leaving any rough surfaces; a
full, smooth plane is formed where the crystal broke.
Minerals with good cleavage also leave smooth surfaces, but often leave over
some rough surfaces.
In minerals with poor cleavage, the smooth crystal edge is barely visible, since
the rough surface is dominant.
Minerals with no cleavage (none) never exhibit any cleavage, thus broken
surfaces are jagged and rough.
If a mineral exhibits cleavage, but it so poor that it is hardly noticeable, it has
"indistinct" cleavage.
Parting
Characteristically similar to cleavage.
It is easily confused with cleavage, and is often present on minerals that do not exhibit any
cleavage.
There are two causes of parting:
1. Two separate pressures pushed toward the center of a crystal after its formation, causing
the crystal interior to evenly dislodge on a flat, smooth plane.
2. Twin crystals that separated from one another, leaving a flat, smooth plane. 28
 Amphibole Cleavage Sheets of Mica.

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Crystal Face or Cleavage Plane

You can distinguish between cleavage planes and crystal faces
because:
Cleavage planes can be
repeated like a series of
steps or terraces.

A crystal face is a single surface - there are no

repetitions of the crystal face within a crystal.

Crystal Face - High bond density; Cleavage Plane – low bond density.
 Fracture: the way a substance breaks where not controlled
by cleavage. Described as: conchoidal,
irregular, splintery, blocky, hackly.

Specific Gravity: unitless

property, defined by
mass of substance
mass of equal vol. of H 2O

Ice: 0.9
Quartz: 2.65
€ Most silicates: 2.5-3.0
Galena 7.5
Gold 19.3

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Special Properties
Magnetism: (e.g., Magnetite –
Fe3O4; Pyrrhotite – FeS) Striations:
(e.g., Plagioclase)

Solubility in Acid: dilute HCl

(e.g., calcite)

Play of Colors: Schiller affect

(e.g., Ca-rich plagioclase).

Taste: Halite = salty; Sylvite = bitter.

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Classification: Based upon the dominant anion or anionic group in
the atomic structure.
Oxides (Hematite - Fe2O3; Corundum - Al2O3): O2-
4−
Silicates (Quartz – SiO2; olivine – Mg2SiO4): Si O4
2−
[ 4+ 2−
]
Carbonates (Calcite – CaCO3): C 4+O32− [ ]
Hydroxides (Brucite – Mg(OH)2): OH-
2−
Sulfates (Gypsum – CaSO4 (H2O)2): S O4 [ 6+ 2−
]
2−
Sulfides (Pyrite – FeS2; Galena – PbS): S 2
Halides (e.g., Halite – NaCl; Sylvite – KCl; Fluorite - CaF2): F-, Cl-!
Native Metals (e.g., Copper, Gold).
Silicates are important because:
Magma is usually silicate in composition: ~50-70 wt% SiO2;
The rest is made up of Al2O3, Fe2O3, FeO, Na2O MgO, K2O, CaO, P2O5, TiO2.
A continuous range of magma chemistries is observed.

Silicate Minerals: !
Form the bulk of the Earth s crust.
Contain SiO4 tetrahedra – a complex anion of:
4−
Si4+ + O2- [
! Si O
4+ 2−
4 ]

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Silica tetrahedra may occur isolated in a crystal
structure, with cations surrounding them. For
example, Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4

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Polymerization of tetrahedra to form chains,

double chains, rings, sheets and a 3D network.

Isolated tetrahedra: (nesosilicates or orthosilicates)

Paired silicate tetrahedra: (sorosilicates)
Silicate tetrahedra forming rings: (cyclosilicates)
Single & double chains of tetrahedra: (inosilicates)
Sheets of tetrahedra: (phyllosilicates)
3D framework of tetrahedra: (tectosilicates)

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 Real and Schematic
Representations of Crystal Structures

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 Gemstones
Gemstone = mineral of value (rare).
Hope Diamond:
44.5 carats

Gem = a cut gemstone.

Pearl & Amber: biomineralization

1 carat = 200 mg.

Tourmaline

39Beryl

Where do diamonds
Phase transition. come from?
Diamond = metastable persistence.

Pressure DIAMONDS ARE

NOT FOREVER!! Kimberlite Pipe

DIAMOND

GRAPHITE

Temperature
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 Summary
Element: Atoms, Cations, Anions, Molecules.
Mineral definition, Mineralogist.
What is a Crystal? Definitions, Shape, Crystal Structure;
Chemical Bonds: Ionic, Covalent; Metallic, Hydrogen, van der Waals.
Packing: Cubic, Tetrahedral, Octahedral.
Formation: Solidification of a melt; Precipitation from solution; Solid state diffusion.
Mineral Properties: Color, Streak, Luster, Hardness, Crystal Form, Habit, Cleavage,
Fracture, Specific Gravity, Magnetism, Striations, Reaction with acid, Play of
colors, Double refraction.
Mineral Classification: Silicates; Oxides; Carbonates; Sulfates; Sulfides; Halides;
Hydroxides; Native Metals.
Silicates: Nesosilicates; Sorosilicates; Cyclosilicates; Inosilicates; Phyllosilicates;
Tectosilicates.
Gemstones, Diamonds.

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