HS-BIO101

General Biology 1

Eukaryotic Cells
Lesson 1: Cell Structure & Modifications
Theory that explains the basic property of the cell
1. All organisms are made of cells
2. The cell is the basic unit of life
All cells arise from preexisting cells
Cells can differ substantially from each other but share
common features
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Invented the microscope
o Called the organisms “animalcules”
1670: discovered bacteria
Robert Hooke (1665)
Observed the bark of a dead oak tree
Cell: small empty spaces Eukaria- true nucleus
Matthias Schleiden & Theodore Schwann o DNA is enclosed in a nucleus (double membrane
studied plant & animal tissue organelle)
proposed cell theory 1 & 2 Contain membrane bound organelles
o all organisms (plants & animals are multicellular) o Located in the cytoplasm; region between the nucleus
Abiogenesis: old belief; origin w/o reason and the plasma membrane
Rudolf Virchow Generally much larger than prokaryotic cells
Proposed cell theory 3 Plasma membrane
o Reproduction o Selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of
oxygen, nutrients/waste
Types of Cells To service the volume of every cell
Prokaryotic o There are internal membranes that divide the cell into
Archaea (can withstand extreme environments) compartments
Bacteria (thermophiles: bacteria that thrive in hot Basic fabric of biological membranes is a phospholipid bilayer w/
environments) embedded protein to help in the transportation of materials
o Contain peptidoglycan (mesh-like outer layer of o Communication + immunity
plasma membrane)
o Thrive in moist environment Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles
Eukaryotic o Heterotropic- organisms that depend energy on
Protists – unicellular producers (as food)
Fungi Nucleus is usually at the center
Animals There is also a flagellum (in some cases) for locomotion
Plants Microvilli= cell modification that increases nutrient absorption
o Eukaria- true nucleus Complete cytoskeleton (micro, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules)
Prokaryotic Cells
Plant Cells
No nucleus Autotrophs- produce their own energy
o Chloroplasts (turn light into food/sugars)
Contain cell wall (made from cellulose)
No centrosomes
Usually contain a central vacuole
Nucleoid: prokaryotic only
Nucleolus: inside the nucleus

Basic Features of a Cell

Plasma Membrane
o Boundary between the internal and external
environment of a cell
Nucleoid: unbound region where DNA is located o Regulates the entry and exit of materials
Cytoplasm is bound in the cell membrane Cytosol
o Cytosol, ribosomes & DNA o Semi fluid substance inside the cell
Simplest form of life= simplest structure o Jelly like substance where organelles are
Include a plasma membrane suspended
Cell Wall- Rigid structure to protect the cell Chromosomes
Glycocalyx- outer covering (slime coat) o Carry genetic information
Fimbrae- hairlike projections for attachment
Flagella- for locomotion
 Ribosomes o Metabolism of carbohydrates
o Produce proteins o Detoxification of drugs and poisons
▪ Bound Ribosomes- located in the Rough o Storage of calcium ions
Endoplasmic Reticulum Breaking down into smaller molecules
▪ Free Ribosomes- in prokaryotes B. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cytoplasm: entire inclusion within cytosol Where ribosomes are attached
Cytoskeleton: fibers that give structure to the cell Glycoproteins- proteins w/ carbohydrates covalently
bonded to them; important for cell communication or
Cell Structure immunity
Plasma Membrane Membrane factory of the cell; adding membrane
Composed of a phospholipid bilayer w/proteins proteins & phospholipids to its own membranes
Selectively permeable Transform of transport vesicles to other components
Phosphate group head (hydrophilic) & fatty acid tails of the membrane system
(hydrophobic) Golgi Apparatus
Gives strength shape & protection to the cell warehouse for receiving, sorting and shipping (sometimes,
Regulates the entry & exit of materials manufacturing)
products of the ER are modified, stored & sent into other
Nucleus (Information Central) destinations
Contains most of the genes in the eukaryotic cell o Cisternae- flattened membranous sacs
Most conspicuous Cis face
o Most visible, largest portion o Receiving end
Nuclear Envelope o Golgi modifies the membrane to enable
Encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm hydrolytic enzymes
Double membrane (lipid bilayer) Trans face
Pore Complex o Shipping side; gives rise to the vescicles that pinch
Lines the pore & regulates entry and exit of proteins off & travel to the other side
and RNA o Sorts & targets
Nuclear Lamina Lysosomes
Netlike array of protein filaments (animal cells = Membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that eukaryotic
intermediate filaments) cells use to hydrolyze macromolecules
Chromosomes Produced by the ER system/ Golgi when necessary
Structures that carry genetic information o Phagocytosis- lysosomes hydrolyze materials
Proteins- help coil the DNA to be compact taken into the cell
Chromatin ▪ “fusion”
Complex of DNA and proteins making up ▪ Ex: white blood cell when engulfing
chromosomes viruses and bacteria
Nucleolus o Autophagy- lysosomes recycle intracellular
Where RNA synthesizing & protein assembly to be sent materials
to the ribosomes ▪ Digested/hydrolyzed materials are
Ribosomes disposed into the cytoplasm
Cellular components that carry out protein synthesis Vacuoles
Not membrane bound; not considered an organelle Diverse maintenance compartments
Free Ribosomes Selective in transporting solutes
Suspended in cytosol; function within the cytosol o Food Vacuoles
Bound Ribosomes ▪ Formed by phagocytosis, delivers food
Attached to the outside of the outside of the endoplasmic materials to the interior of the cell
reticulum; create proteins that are destined for insertion o Contractile vacuoles
into membranes, for packaging ▪ Maintain concentration of ions and
molecules
Endomembrane System ▪ Freshwater eukaryotes- pump excess
Protein synthesis water out of the cell
Protein transport o Plant cells generally contain one large central
Lipid metabolism and movement vacuole which develops by the coalescence of
Detoxification smaller vacuoles
Vesicles ▪ Enlarge as the vacuoles absorb more
Used for transfer of membrane segments water
Membranous sacs ▪ Sometimes occupies 90% of the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum Endosymbiont Theory
Accounts for more than half the total membrane in many An early ancestor of the eukaryotic cell engulfed an oxygen
eukaryotic cells using-non photosynthetic cell
Network of membranous tubules called cisternae Engulfed cell formed a relationship w/ the host cell &
A. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum enclosed; became an endosymbiont (cell within a cell)
Diverse metabolic processes Merged into a single organism: cell with a mitochondrion
o Synthesis of lipids
 Another engulfed a photosynthetic eukaryote and became Cytoskeleton
chloroplasts
Mitochondria
Sites of cellular respiration
Metabolic process: oxygen to ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate)
o Extracting energy from sugars, fats & other fuels
Found in nearly all eukaryotic cells
Number correlates with the cell’s level of metabolic activity
Semi-autonomous
o Grow & self-replicate within
o Powerhouse of the cell
Phospholipid Bilayer
Two membranes enclosing the mitochondrion
OUTER Membrane: smooth
INNER Membrane: convoluted
With infoldings called cristae
Divides the mitochondrion into two internal components
Gives mechanical support to the cell & maintain its shape
1. Intermembrane space
Important for animal cells (lack cell walls)
Narrow region between the inner & outer membrane
o Some types of cell motility involve the
2. Mitochondrial matrix
cytoskeleton
Enclosed by the inner membrane
▪ Changes in cell location & movement in
Contains enzymes + mitochondrial DNA & Ribosomes
cell parts
o Speed up processes for cellular respiration
▪ Require interaction of cytoskeleton
Chloroplasts
with motor proteins
Found in plants and algae
Microtubules
o Sites pf photosynthesis
Hollow rods constructed from globular proteins called
Converts solar energy to chemical energy
tubulins; thickest
Contain the green pigment chlorophyll+enzymes+other
o Dimer: each tubulin protein (two subunits: alpha
molecules that function in the photosynthetic production of
& beta)
sugar
Shape & support the cell & serve as tracks where organelles
Example of plastid
equipped with motor proteins can move
o Chromoplast- orange pigments
Centrosomes & Centrioles
o Amyloplast- starch
Centrosome
Thylakoids – flattened interconnected sacs
Region often located near the nucleus
Granum- poker chip style stack of thylakoids
o Compression resisting girders of the cytoskeleton
Stroma- fluid outside the thylakoids; where free ribosomes
Organizing structure of the cell
are present
Found both in animal and plant cells
o Compartmental organization enables the
Centrioles
chloroplast to convert light energy to chemical
Nine sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring
energy
None in plant cells, a pair in animal cells
▪ Enzymes speed up the process
Cilia & Flagella
▪ In plant cells, mitochondria &
Flagella
chloroplasts work together
specialized arrangements of microtubules are responsible
Peroxisomes
for its beating movement
Specialized metabolic compartment bounded by a single
undulating, snakelike movements
membrane
o longer than cilia
o Contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms
limited to one/ a few per cell
from various substrates & transfer them to
Cilia
oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide (H 2O2) as a
microtubule containing extensions that project from some
byproduct (name derivation)
cells
Some use oxygen to break fatty acids down into smaller
power- recovery strokes; back and forth motion
molecules
may act as signal receiving antennas
Peroxisomes in the liver detoxify alcohol & other harmful
o cells that have this are usually non motile & there
substances
is only one per cell
o Transfer hydrogen from poisonous compounds to
Basal Body : where cilium/ flagellum is anchored in the cell
oxygen
Dynein: motor proteins responsible for bending movement
H2O2 produced is toxic; peroxisome contains an enzyme
that converts H2O2 to water
Glyoxysomes= found in fat storing tissues of plant seeds
o Conversion of fatty acids to sugar
Microfilament Made of cellulose fibers embedded in other
actin filaments polysaccharides & proteins (rigid environment)
o built from molecules of actin (globular protein) b. Grow a secondary cell wall
thin, solid rods; thinnest among the three Between the plasma membrane and the primary cell
twisted double chain of actin subunits wall
role; bear tension in pulling forces Strong & durable matrix (ex. Wood: composed of a
microfilament network help support the cell’s shape, allow secondary cell wall)
changes in cell shape (ex. Muscle contraction, cytoplasmic Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
streaming) ECM
for cytokinesis; forms ring in two dividing cells Glycoproteins + carbohydrate containing molecules
Cortex o Covalent bonds w/ sugars
outer cytoplasmic layer of a cell Collagen
microfilaments give this a semisolid consistency of a gel Most abundant glycoprotein
(compared to the more fluid state of the cytoplasm) Forms strong fibers outside cells
o in some kinds of animal cells, bundles of Proteoglycans
microfilaments make up the core of the microvilli a network where collagen fibers are embedded
(delicate projections that increase the cell’s Fibronectin
surface area) which has a role in nutrient attaches cells to the ECM
absorption Integrins
Motility cell to surface receptor proteins
filaments interact with myosin to cause contraction of transmit signals between the ECM & the cytoskeleton thus
muscle cells (interaction w/ actin and myosin) to integrate changes occurring outside & inside the cell
Pseudopodia Cell Junctions
Greek word pseudo: false & pod: feet) where neighboring cells often adhere,
Crawls along a surface by extending cellular extensions, cell interact/communicate (physical contact)
shape changes Plasmodesmata
Found in amoeba and WBC (s: plasmodesma; Greek Desma: bond)
Cytoplasmic streaming found in plant cells
Actin-myosin interactions: circular flow of cytoplasm within channels that connect cells (where water and other solutes
cells like glucose, minerals, proteins & RNA)
Commonly found within large plant cells joins internal chemical environment of adjacent cells
Intermediate Filaments o unify most of the plant into one living continuum
Named for their diameter (larger than microfilaments) Tight Junctions
Found only in animal cells (vertebrates) plasma membranes of neighboring cells are very tightly
Specialized for bearing tension & anchoring organelles pressed against each other
Permanent fixtures; reinforcement to cell shape + fixes bound together by specific proteins
organelles in shape o ex. Skin cells: watertight humans
o Nucleus sits within a cage made of intermediate Desmosomes (anchoring junctions)
filaments fasten cells together in strong sheets
o Nuclear Lamina: cytoskeleton that maintains the o ex: attach muscle cells to each other (muscle tears
cell shape = rupture of desmosomes)
Help carry out specific functions Gap Junctions (communicating junctions)
Composition is based on cell type (ex. Hair: keratin) necessary for communication between cells in many types
Extracellular Components of tissues
Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are o ex. Heart muscle, animal embryos
external to the plasma membrane
Involved in many cellular functions
Cell Wall
Distinguishes plant cells from animal cells
Roles
Protect the plant cell
Maintain the shape
Prevents further uptake of water
Primary Cell Wall
Relatively thin & flexible wall of young plant cells
Middle Lamella
Thin layer rich in polysaccharides called pectins
Acts as a glue
Located between primary cell walls of adjacent cells
Pectin: used in cooking as a thickening agent (jams and
jellies)
When Maturing:
a. Some secrete hardening substances to the primary cell wall
 Lesson 2: Cell Cycle & Cell Division G0 Phase
the continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells Cells activate only when necessary (resting stage)
(cell division) Example:
integral part of the cell cycle: cell division Heart and liver cells only activate cell division when
Prokaryotic Cells necessary
reproduction is based on cell division Braincells and spinal cord cells are in this state permanently
gives rise to new organism Length of cell division varies on cell type, usage/ functions
Multicellular Eukaryotes Cell Cycle Control System
enables organisms to reproduce cell cycle is driven by specific signaling molecules present in the
o development from a single cell cytoplasm
functions in renewal and repair sequential events are driven by the cell cycle control system
Chromosomes
Greek Chroma: color; soma: body
Named this because they take up certain dyes in microscopy
Walther Flemming
Developed dyes that would help him observe the behavior
of chromosomes during mitosis & cytokinesis
Chromatin
Building material of chromosomes
Gametes: Reproductive cells
o Have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells
Phases of the Cell Cycle
Checkpoint
Control point where stop & go ahead signals can regulate
the cycle
G1: enough proteins, ATP, organelles & size
G2: complete DNA, size
M: metaphase stage (system is subject to internal and external
regulation
Cell Cycle Clock
Regulatory proteins involved in cell cycle control: cyclins
and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)
The activity of Cdk rises & falls with changes in
concentration of its cyclin partner.
MPF (maturation-promoting factor) is a cyclin-Cdk complex
Interphase that triggers a cell’s passage past the G2 checkpoint into the
Accounts for 90% of the cycle M phase.
cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for Cyclins activates the kinase (cyclically fluctuating
cell division concentration in the cell
G1 Phase S Phase G2 Phase
“first gap” “synthesis “second gap”
Cell grows in size phase” Ensures that DNA
Cell growth and DNA replication replication in S
organelle forming sister phase has been
duplication chromatids completed.
Centrosome Energy
replication replenishment
through
duplication of
mitochondria
and chloroplast.
Dismantling of
cytoskeleton
(nuclear
envelope)
Mitotic (M) Phase
Shortest part of the cell cycle
Mitosis Cytokinesis
Distributes the daughter Divides the cytoplasm into
chromosomes to the two daughter cells
daughter nuclei
Internal & External Signals Metaphase
Signals come from cellular surveillance mechanisms within Centrosomes are at
and outside the cell. opposite poles of the
Important checkpoints: those is G1, G2, and M phases cell.
For many cells, G1 checkpoint is the most important (usually The chromosomes’
completes interphase and divides) centromeres lie at the
If cells do not pass the G1, it exits the cycle (G0) metaphase plate.
In M checkpoint; a mechanism ensures that daughter cells Kinetochores of sister
do not end up with missing or extra chromosomes chromatids are
Growth factor- protein released to stimulate other cells to divide attached to kinetochore microtubules coming from
Platelet derived growth factor- made by platelets (for opposite poles
division of fibroblasts) Anaphase
Cancer Cells Phase where chromatids
Doesn’t respond normally to the body’s control mechanism. become chromosomes.
Doesn’t heed to growth factors to grow and divide. Shortest stage.
Divides faster than normal cells. The cohesins are cleaved
a.) Benign tumor by an enzyme called
Remains only at the original site. separase.
Can be removed through surgery. Sister chromatids
b.) Malignant tumor separate and move
Localized tumors may be treated with high energy toward opposite ends of
radiation, which damages the DNA in cancer cells. the cell.
Invade surrounding tissues and can undergo metastasis The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at their
(spread of cancer cells to locations distant from original kinetochore ends.
location); can be treated through chemotherapy Nonkinetochore microtubules overlap each other,
Mitosis elongating the cell
Division of nucleus which produces two new nuclei. Telophase
Results in two genetically identical daughter cells. Two daughter nuclei
Many of the events depend on mitotic spindle, which form in the cell.
begins to form in the cytoplasm during prophase. Nuclear envelopes
Stages of Mitosis arise.
G2 of Interphase Nucleoli reappear.
Nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus Chromosomes become
Nucleus: contains one or more nucleoli less condensed.
Chromosomes cannot be seen individually (duplicated in S Remaining spindle
Phase) microtubules are
Prophase depolymerized.
The chromatin is
condensing into discrete
chromosomes. Meiosis
Nucleoli disappear. Heredity
Each duplicated The transmission of traits from one generation to the next
chromosome appears as Variation
two identical sister It is demonstrated by the difference in appearance that
chromatids joined at their offspring show from parents and siblings
centromeres. Genetics
The mitotic spindle begins The scientific study of heredity and variation
to form. Genes
The centrosomes move away from each other The units of heredity and are made up of segments of DNA
Prometaphase Gametes
The nuclear envelope A sex cell/reproductive cells ( sperm and egg)
fragments. Fertilization
Chromosomes become The union of gametes ( the sperm and the egg)
more condensed. Zygote
A kinetochore formed at It is when the egg is fertilized and also has one set of
the centromere of each chromosomes from each parent
chromatid. Homologous Chromosomes
The kinetochore These are the chromosomes that carries the same size,
microtubules jerk the carries the same length, carries the same location of
chromosomes back and centromere, and carries similar genetic traits.
forth. Sister Chromatids
Nonkinetochore microtubules interact with those from the Once the homologous chromosomes separate, they are
opposite pole of the spindle, lengthening the cell called sister chromatid
 Genes are passed to the next generation via reproductive Metaphase I
cells (gametes). The homologous chromosomes are aligned at the
Most DNA is packaged into chromosomes metaphase stage
Humans have 46 chromosomes in all cells in our body Microtubules from one pole are attached to the
except in our sex cells (gametes) which only have 23 kinetochore of one chromosome of each pair
chromosomes Microtubules from the other pole are attached to the
A gene’s specific position along a chromosomes is called its kinetochore of the other chromosome
locus. Anaphase I
Sperm and egg cell are being produced through Meiosis cell The homologous chromosomes are separating from each
division other becoming a sister chromatids
Zygote is not a sex cell. It is a body cell/somatic cell since it Sister chromatids are not identical anymore
already has 46 chromosomes. One chromosome of each pair moves toward opposite
For animal cells, Cleavage furrow forms or produce during poles, guided by the spindle apparatus
cytokinesis. For plant cells, cell plate formation happens. Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere and
Meiosis result into 4 haploid daughter cells Haploid move as one unit toward the pole
gametes (n=23) and Diploid zygote (2n=46) Telophase I and Cytokinesis
Meiosis Once the sister chromatids reach the end pole of the cell,
The process or the cell division that produces the egg cells Telophase and cytokinesis will begin
and the sperm cells (gamete cells) The spindle fibers disappear
A sexual life cycle The nuclear envelope and the nucleolus starts to reappear
Meiosis also enters interphase stage meaning it starts from Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously, forming two
G1, S, G2 haploid daughter cells
Meiosis happen in the ovary and the testes MEIOSIS II: Separation of sister chromatids
Meiosis takes in 2 consecutive cell division that is called Meiosis II is very similar to Mitosis
Meiosis I and Meiosis II Prophase II
In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms
Metaphase II
In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are arranged at the
metaphase plate
Because of crossing over in Meiosis I, the two sister
chromatids of each chromosome are no longer identical
The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to
microtubules extending from opposite poles
Anaphase II
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate
The sister chromatids of each chromosome now move as
two newly individual chromosomes towards opposite poles
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing
Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm
At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter cells, each
with a haploid set of unreplicated chromosomes
Each daughter cell is genetically distinct from the others and
from the parent cell

Stages of Meiosis
MEIOSIS I: Separation of homologous chromosomes
Prophase I
The centrosome starts to migrate or move to the opposite
side of the cell merging out the spindle microtubules.
The nuclear envelope starts to disappear
The nucleolus disappear
The chromosomes starts to condense
At the early prophase I, synapsis and crossing over occurs.
(Synapsis is the pairing of homologous chromosomes and
Crossing over is the exchange of genetic materials fromthe
2 non-sister chromatids.)
X-shaped regions called chiasmata are sites of crossovers
 Lesson 3: Cell Membrane and Transport Proteins
Cell Membrane/ Plasma Membrane
Made up of a phospholipid bilayer in an aqueous (water)
environment
Phospholipids
o are the foundation of all known biological
membranes
Lipid Bilayer
o forms as a result of interaction between non-
polar (HYDROPHOBIC/WATER-FEARING)
phospholipid tails, polar (HYDROPHILIC/
WATERLOVING) Phospholipid head, and
surrounding water
Separates living cell from its surrounding (EDGE OF LIFE /
BOUNDARY)
8nm thick, serves as a barrier that controls traffic into and
out of the cell
All biological membranes, including plasma membrane is
SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE, allowing some substances cross
more easily than others
KEY EVENT IN EVOLUTION OF LIFE
o Formation of membrane that encloses a solution
that is different from the surrounding solution
while still permitting the uptake of nutrients and
elimination of waste products
FUNDAMENTAL TO LIFE
o ability of cell to discriminate in its chemical
changes with its environment
Plasma membrane and its component molecules make
selectivity possible Fluid Mosaic Model (1972)
Aquaporin First proposed by S.J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson]
o blue ribbons within lipid bilayer Describes Plasma Membrane as a FLUID COMBINATION OF
o helical regions of membrane transport channel PHOSPHOLIPIDS, CHOLESTEROL AND PROTEINS
protein Carbohydrates attached to Lipids
o water channels; transporting of water between (GLYCOLIPIDS) and to proteins
cells (GLYCOPROTEINS) extend from outward facing surface of membrane
Ion channel
o allows potassium ions to pass through the
membrane
o type of transport protein
o charged ions can cross the plasma membrane
down their electrochemical gradient
Plasma Membrane Structures
Main macromolecules in membranes are PROTEINS AND
LIPIDS, but CARBOHYDRATES are also IMPORTANT
Most abundant lipids are PHOSPHOLIPIDS The Fluidity of Membranes
Second most abundant within the plasma membrane are Not static sheets of molecules locked rigidly in place
PROTEINS Held together mainly by Hydrophobic interactions making it
Phospholipids and most of the other membrane much weaker than covalent bonds
constituents are AMPHIPATHIC molecules, has both a Most lipids and some proteins can shift about sideways
HYDROPHILIC (WATER-LOVING) region and a Rarely, a lipid may flip- flop across the membrane, switching
HYDROPHOBIC (WATER- FEARING) region from one phospholipid layer to the other
MEMBRANE Sideway movement of Phospholipids are RAPID
o collage of different proteins embedded in the o Adjacent phospholipids switch positions about
fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer 10^7 times per second
Phospholipid Bilayer o A phospholipid can travel about 2µm (length of
Exist as stable boundary between two aqueous many bacterial cells) in a second- Proteins are
compartments much longer than Lipids and move more slowly
Molecular arrangement shelters hydrophobic tails from but some membrane proteins do drift
water while exposing hydrophilic heads to water Some membrane proteins move in a highly directed manner
(through cytoskeletal fibers by motor proteins connected to
membranes’ cytoplasmic regions)
Other membrane proteins are held immobile by Membranes that are too fluid can’t support protein
attachment to the cytoskeleton or to the extracellular function
matrix (ECM) o Extreme environments pose challenge for life,
MEMBRANE FLUIDITY IS INFLUENCED BY TEMPERATURE resulting in evolutionary adaptations that include
o As Temperatures cool, membranes switch from a differences in membrane lipid composition to
fluid state to solid state as the phospholipids pack maintain membrane fluidity
more closely Evolution of Differences in Membrane Lipid Composition
o A membrane remains fluid as temperature Variations in cell membrane lipid composition appear to be
decreases until phospholipids settle into a closely evolutionary adaptation that maintain the appropriate
packed arrangement and membrane solidifies membrane fluidity under specific conditions
o temperature at which membrane solidifies For example, Fishes that live in extreme cold have
depends on the types of lipids it is made of membranes with high proportion of unsaturated
▪ As temperature decreases, membrane hydrocarbon tails, enabling their membranes to remain
remains fluid to a lower temperature if fluid.
it is RICH in Phospholipids with At other extreme (HOT), bacteria and archaea thrive at
unsaturated Hydrocarbon Tails temperatures greater than 90℃ (194℉) in thermal hot
▪ Because of kinks in tails where double springs and geysers
bonds are located, unsaturated o include unusual lipids that may prevent excessive
hydrocarbon tails can’t pack together as fluidity at such high temperatures
closely as saturated hydrocarbon tails, Ability to change lipid composition of cell membranes in
making the membrane more fluid response to changing temperatures has evolved in
o Steroid cholesterol (wedged between organisms that live where temperature vary
phospholipid molecules in in plasma membranes Natural selection has favored whose mix of membrane
of animal cells) lipids ensures appropriate level of membrane fluidity for
▪ has different effects on membrane their environment. (Adjustments depend on their
fluidity at different temperatures environment)
▪ At relatively high temperatures (37°, Membrane Proteins and Functions
body temperature of humans) Membrane is a collage of different proteins, often clustered
▪ Cholesterol makes the membrane less together in groups, embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid
fluid by restraining phospholipid bilayer
movement Phospholipids form the main FABRIC of the Membrane, but
MEMBRANE FLUIDITY IS INFLUENCED BY COMPONENTS proteins determine MOST of membrane’s FUNCTION
OF THE MEMBRANE POPULATIONS of MEMBRANE PROTEINS
1. Integral Proteins
penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer
Majority are transmembrane proteins, which span the
membrane (for transportation)
Hydrophobic regions of integral proteins consist of one or
more stretches of non- polar amino acids, typically 20-30
amino acids in length (coiled in ∝ helics)
Hydrophilic parts are exposed to the aqueous solutions on
either side of the membrane
Some also have one or more hydrophilic channels that allow
passage through the membrane of hydrophilic substances
2. Peripheral Proteins
Not embedded in the lipid
bilayer
Loosely bound to the
surface of membrane,
often exposed parts of
integral proteins
o Membranes rich in unsaturated fatty acids are
Can move from one place
more fluid than those dominated by saturated
to another
fatty acids
Some membrane proteins
o To work properly with active enzymes and
are held in place by
appropriate permeability, membranes must be
attachment to the cytoskeleton
about as fluid as salad oil
o Cytoplasmic Side (inside the cell)
▪ As membrane solidifies, permeability
Certain membrane proteins may attach to materials outside
changes
the cell
▪ Enzymatic proteins in membrane may
o Extracellular Side (outside the cell)
become inactive if their activity
requires movement within membrane
FUNCTIONS of PROTEINS in PLASMA MEMBRANE
1. TRANSPORT
Specific solutes into or out of cells
Provides a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is
selective for a particular solute
Serves as shuttle to a substance from one side to the other
by changing shape
Some proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to
actively pump substances across the membrane
2. ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY
Protein built into membrane may be an enzyme with its
active site exposed to substances in adjacent solution
Several enzymes are organized as a team that carries out
sequential steps of a metabolic pathway
Catalyzing (cause to begin) one of a number of steps of a
metabolic pathway
3. SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
Membrane protein (receptor, binds signaling molecules
known as first messengers or ligands; initiates signaling
cascade or chemical response that induces cell growth,
division and death or opens membrane channels) may have
binding site with specific shape that fits the shape of a
chemical messenger (hormone)
4. CELL- CELL RECOGNITION
Some glycoproteins serve as identification tags that are
specifically recognized by membrane proteins of other cells
This cell- cell binding is short- lived compared to
intercellular joining
Allows other proteins to attach two adjacent cells together
5. INTERCELLULAR JOINING
Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in
various kinds of junctions
More long- lasting bind than cell- cell recognition
Adjacent cells with gap or tight junctions
6. ATTACHMENT TO THE CYTOSKELETON AND EXTRACELLULAR
MATRIX (ECM)
Microfilaments or other elements of cytoskeleton may be
noncovalently bound to membrane proteins
Helps maintain cell shape and stabilizes the location of
certain membrane proteins
Proteins that bind to Extracellular Matrix (ECM) molecules
can coordinate extracellular and intracellular changes
Proteins on cell’s surface are important in medical field
Protein called CD4 on surface of immune cells helps Human
immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infect these cells
o leading to Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS)
Despite many exposures to HIV, small number of people
don’t develop AIDS and show no evidence of HIV- infected
cells
o resistant people have an unusual form of a gene
that codes for an immune cell- surface protein
called CCR5
o CD4 is the main HIV receptor, HIV must bind to
CCR5 as a “Co-receptor” to infect most cells
o Absence of CCR5 on cells of resistant individuals,
due to gene alteration, prevents virus from
entering the cells
THE ROLE OF MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATES in CELL- CELL
RECOGNITION Transport Proteins
Cell- cell recognition How hydrophilic substances can avoid contact with the lipid
o cell’s ability to distinguish one type of neighboring bilayer
cell from another Specific for the substance it translocates(moves), allowing
o crucial to the functioning of an organisms only a certain substance (or a small group of related
Important, like in the sorting of cells into tissues and organs substances)
in an animal embryo Channel Proteins
Basis for the rejection of foreign cells by the immune system Hydrophilic channel that certain molecules and atomic ions
o important line of defense in vertebrate animals use as a tunnel through the membrane
Cells recognize other cells by binding to molecules (often Aquaporins
containing CARBOHYDRATES) o Allows entry of 3 billion (3x109) water molecules
Membrane Carbohydrates per second (single file through its central channel;
o usually short, branched chains of fewer than 15 10 at a time)
sugar units o w/o aquaporins, only a tiny fraction of the water
o some are covalently bonded to Lipids (Glycolipids) molecules could pass through the same area of
o the cell membrane in a second
o Glyco means Carbohydrates Carrier Proteins
o most are covalently bonded to proteins hold onto their passengers and change shape in a way that
(Glycoproteins) shuttles them across the membrane
Diversity of molecules and their location on cell’s surface Passive Transport
enable MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATES to function as diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy
MARKERS that distinguish one cell from another investment
o For example: the four human blood types (A, B, A. Diffusion
AB, O) reflect variation in the carbohydrate part movement of particles of any substance so that they spread
of Glycoproteins on the surface of Red Blood Cells out into the available space
(RBC) Each molecule moves randomly, yet diffusion of a
o Carbohydrates on Extracellular (EC) side of population of molecules may be directional
plasma membrane vary among species, No work must be done to make this happen (spontaneous
individuals, and even cell types in an individual process)
Concentration Gradient
Where substances move from an area of high concentration
to low concentration
Each substance diffuses down its own concentration
gradient (unaffected by the gradients of other substances)

Membrane Structure & Selective Permeability

Ability to regulate transport across cellular boundaries
Cell membrane: selectively permeable
o Substances do not cross the barrier
indiscriminately

The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer

Non-Polar Molecules Polar Molecules & Ions
hydrocarbons Hydrophilic
CO2 & O2 C.M impedes passage because
of its hydrophobic interior
Hydrophobic (like lipids) Glucose & sugars only pass
Can dissolve easily in the lipid through it slowly
bilayer & cross it easily
Proteins built into the membrane play key roles in
regulating transport
 Osmosis Terrestrial (land dwelling) animal cells are bathed in an
isotonic solution
Osmoregulation: the control of solute concentration and
water balance
Paramecium
Lives in pond water (hypotonic to the cell)
Equipped with a contractile vacuole to pump out
excess water (enter=exit)
Water Balance of Cells (w/ Cell Walls)
Turgid Flaccid Plasmolyzed
Turgor pressure: No net tendency for Plasmolysis: plasma
opposes further water water to enter membrane pulls away
intake from the cell wall at
multiple places
Very firm Limp Cell loses water to its
surrounding
healthy state for most The plant wilts Shrinking; will cause the
plants plant to wilt and can
lead to plant death
Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic Solution

B. Facilitated Diffusion
Ions impeded by the lipid bilayer diffuse passively with the
help of transport proteins
Selective + specific (transport some substances but not all
Osmosis considered passive transport because the solute is moving
Diffusion of free water across a selectively permeable down its concentration gradient and requires no energy
membrane
Water: diffuses across the membrane from a region of a
higher concentration (lower solute concentration) → region
of a lower free water concentration (higher solute
concentration)
Tonicity
Ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or
lose water
Isotonic Solution Hypertonic Solution Hypotonic Solution
iso: same Hyper: more Hypo: less
No net movement Cell loses water Water will enter the
of water cell faster than it
leaves
Water diffuses Solutes have a low Cell will swell
across the concentration
membrane at both
directions

Channel Proteins
Provide corridors that allow specific molecules and ions to
cross the membrane
Hydrophilic passageways
Ex. Aquaporins
Ion Channels: channels that transport ions
o Act as gated channels, which open or close in
respond to a stimulus
Carrier Proteins
Undergo a subtle change in shape that somehow
translocates the solute binding site across the membrane
 Active Transport Co Transport
Cell must expend energy in order for it to pump a solute Transport protein can couple the “downhill” diffusion of the
across a membrane against its concentration gradient solute to the “uphill” transport

Bulk Transport
Exocytosis Endocytosis
Fusion of vesicles to the plasma Cell takes in molecules and
membrane particulates by forming new
vesicles from the plasma
membrame
Sodium-Potassium Pump Transport vesicle (fr: plasma
Exchanges Na+ for K- across the plasma membrane of animal membrane) moves along the
cells microtubules of the
cytoskeleton
Human use of receptor mediated endocytosis to take in
Cholesterol for membrane synthesis and synthesis of other
steroids
Low density lipoproteins(LDL): travel vesicles of cholesterol
in the blood
LDL’s bind to LDL receptors on the cell membrane and
enters the cell through endocytosis
Familial hypercholesterolemia: very high level of
cholesterol in the blood; LDL receptors are defective or
missing
o Cholesterol accumulates in the blood (early
atherosclerosis)
▪ Buildup of lipid deposits within the
Membrane Potential walls of blood vessels
Voltage across the membrane ▪ Narrows the space in blood vessels
Acts as a battery ▪ Heart damage & stroke
Electrochemical Gradient
o Two forces drive the diffusion of ions across a cell
membrane (chemical force+electrical force)
Electrogenic Pump
Transport protein that generates a voltage across a
membrane
Helps store energy that can be tapped for cellular work
Sodium Potassium pump
o Main electrogenic pump of animal cells
Proton pump
o Transports protons (Hydrogen ions) in and out of
the cell
o Main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi and
bacteria