SOCIAL CHANGE

Introduction
In the previous topic you studied various institutions, now you will have an opportunity to study
social change. In fact sociology originated from the study of social change. You will notice that
social change is encompassing, since it potentially includes everything from small group change
to the process of globalization that has been a central concern for recent sociologists. When
sociologists speak about social change they are referring to societal change as changes that occur
in the social structure or function of the entire society. These are understood in terms of social
processes and social interactions and social organization. However, based on the differences in the
sociologist’s analysis of the direction and abruptness of change, there are different types of theories
to explain social change. Below is an analysis of theoretical perspectives of social change:

Functionalist/Equilibrium Theories: The functionalists focus on stability, in other words they

can be used to study change by examining the equilibrium maintaining process. On societal level,
equilibrium refers to a condition in which the components of the society, e.g. institutions, social
classes, political parties, families integrate well to maintain stability and order. Such equilibrium
is important because the various parts of society are interdependent. When change is introduced
from external environments, that change has the potential to alter the existing or old equilibrium
but society must change enough to establish a new equilibrium.

The Conflict Theory: Conflict theorists focus on change and they say that change is inevitable
and desirable. You cannot think of maintaining equilibrium because the nature of any system is
that its components are in conflict because they need to change. Stability is explained as a
temporally balance between competing groups/elements. In a Society that seems to be in
equilibrium stability can also be a product of false consciousness on the part of subordinate groups
when they realise their real state, then conflict comes.

Evolutionary theories: Social change is conceptualized as a social function. These are theories
trying to explain long term social change. To evolve means to develop over time and usually the
process involves change from a lower stage to a higher or better stage. Most evolutionary theorists
came up with stages of development sometimes known as models of change, e.g. Lewis Henry
Morgan thinks that human society has evolved through the following stages: Savagery stage-
instinct of survival was strong, primitive communism, feudalism capitalism, socialism and
communism. As people go through these stages, culture, traditions, norms etc also change.

Modernization Theory: Modernization is not a fixed condition. It is often seen as a period, a

period of transition during which a society sheds its “traditional” characteristics and become
dominated by “Modern” types of institution and action. Modernization is the most recent theory
which emerged from the evolutionary perspective. Modernization is perceived as an increasing
ability to master the environment-it also means the growth of social complexity. Thus
modernization, conceived of as progress, connotes the marking of different periods as compared
with a preceding period. Hence a historical approach becomes the hallmark of this approach.
Because modernization is used to depict a period compared to a preceding one, it is also regarded

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as leading to a future state. Hence, modernization depicts transition from the old to the new, from
tradition to modernity. Modernization thus becomes an effort to imitate advanced western societies
in many respects.

Factors Influencing Social Change

The difficulty of pinning down any aspect of society when change is so rapid has led sociologists
to study factors influencing social change. Sociologists who focus on change, however, tell us that
change is more likely to be caused over time by a variety of social forces, some of which are:

1. Population Changes: The shifting size and shape of the population globally and locally, is
enough by itself to create change in societies. As populations grow, more and more people
move either into urban areas where jobs are easier to find or into previously uninhabited areas
where natural resources are plentiful. Increase in population is one of the important factors
that affect the direction and magnitude of change in the society. The increase in population
implies that more facilities will be demanded by the community/society such as more schools,
medical facilities and other social services. If the facilities are not increasing as their demand
increases then more pressure will be put on the few available amenities and this changes the
way people react towards amenities that are scarce. The other factor regarding the population
could be the population ratios of males to females or adults to children. The changes in these
population ratios will affect the demands for social security like health and extension services.

2. Education: Education is an important instrument of social change. It opens up new avenues

for the educated such as better employment opportunities and improved life chances. In a way,
education gives us the opportunity for greater exposure and knowledge and hence, lays the
foundation for new values and attitudes. The ability to acquire new values and attitudes creates
a receptive disposition for the acceptance or initiation of social change. Therefore, as you have
noticed education makes the educated to come into contact with people of different cultures,
and the educated in their quest for new knowledge and understanding will interact with
professionals in the same field from different cultures and eventually they copy the way other
people from a different culture do certain things and hence, introduce such behaviours in their
own families and societies. In the same manner, residents of rural areas are exposed to
information which had led to acquisition of better knowledge, skill and attitude in the
economic and social spheres. Since agriculture is the major occupation of rural people,
attendance to workshops, seminars, field days, demonstrations etc will result in knowledge of
modern farming practices.

3. Industrialization: You will notice that in the world, every nation is seeking to improve
technologically; therefore, people are becoming more specialized and produce more goods
than before. Industrialization increases the level of urbanization-since industrial workers live
in and around industrial centres and more people come from rural areas to these industrial
centres to seek employment, therefore there will be population boom in these industrial
centres. Industrialization also brings about the introduction of new consumer goods and
therefore, new consumption patterns into the society. On the other hand, people from rural

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 areas find themselves working in factories or companies. As they retire or become retrenched,
they will practice whatever they were doing, hence, the social system is likely to change.

4. Physical Changes: Climate changes, deforestation, soil degradation etc affect the culture of
the rural people though these changes are gradual and usually unnoticed.

5. Isolation and Contact: Communities located at trade centers and other crossroads have been
centers for change. These are areas of great intercultural contact and hence are centers of
change while isolated areas are centers of stability, conservatism and resistance to change.

6. Structure of the Society and Culture: Traditional societies with strong structure do not
easily welcome change as compared to societies that are weak social structures. This is
because of their bureaucratic or red tape tendencies.
7. Attitudes and Values: The attitudes and values affect both amount and the direction of
change. A society that is traditional will change slowly and most unwillingly.

8. Perceived Needs: The rate and direction of change is affected by perceived needs in the
society. Until people feel a need to change they will resist change

9. The Culture Base: This is the accumulation of knowledge and techniques available in a given
society. The local knowledge may make the society become self sufficient and hence the
society may resist change from outside.

10. Understanding rural realities: Rural societies are very complex. They are largely
heterogeneous and their gender, caste, religion and wealth define people. This complex
stratification is inhibiting factor for receiving communication and process of change. The
communications, which are designed without having regard to the specific interest of the
various segments of heterogeneity of a rural area, do not reach many sections of the rural
society. Receptivity of communication depends on the promise of gains. Poor do not always
gain from the growth but rich gains from the losses of the poor as well as from their gains.
The communication plan must take into account the socio-economic processes in
heterogeneous rural societies for ushering change. The development process cannot negate
either the question of equitable gain or the question of dignity and provision of both is essential
for motivation to higher productivity. The basic strategic planning generally looks for direct
correlation between input and output, whereas development is a balanced activity, which takes
into account the people, their environment and created devices. Therefore, understanding of
rural social system, their values and norms would help and empower the extension agency for
taking appropriate initiatives to ensure people’s participation in the development process.

Sociology of Development and Underdevelopment

You might be wondering why some countries or areas are more developed and yet others are
underdeveloped! You have also heard many people at different forums explaining the reasons or
factors attributing to this state of affairs.

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In this section we will attempt to explain why people living in rural areas account for a substantial
proportion of the chronically poor. The evidence for this will be gathered from longitudinal
quantitative and qualitative micro-level studies and the growing volume of work on spatial poverty
traps in Africa. Therefore, to help us explain why rural areas are poor or underdeveloped, you will
be introduced to theoretical perspectives of development and these are: (1) the linear-stages of
growth model, (2) the international dependency theories; and (3) the free-market theory.

Theoretical approaches to Study Development

There are three major thoughts on development.

1. The linear-stages of economic growth theories of the 1950’s;

2. The international dependency theories of 1960’s; and
3. The free market theories.

The thinking of the 1950’s focused mainly on the concept of successive stages of economic growth
in which the process of development was seen as a series of sequential stages. According to this
theory, the transition from underdevelopment to development can be described in terms of a series
of steps or stages through which all countries must proceed.

Then this thought was followed by what is called the international dependence school of thought,
this views development in-terms of international and domestic power relationships. Essentially,
underdevelopment of the Third world countries is attributed to a large part to the existence and
policies of the industrialized countries. Underdevelopment is thus seen as an externally induced
phenomenon.

Finally in the 1980’s, some more economists agreed that the third world needed more free markets
and less government interventions in the economy in order to stimulated growth and development.
Proponents of this theory emphasized the beneficial role of free markets, open economies, and the
privatization of inefficient public enterprises. Failure to develop is primarily the result of too much
government intervention and regulation of the economy. Contrary to the claims of the dependency
theorists, these argue that the Third World is under-developed not because of the predatory
activities of the First World and the international agencies that it controls but rather because of the
heavy hand of the state and the corruption, inefficiency, and lack of economic incentives that
permeate the economies of developing nations.

Development defined
You may discover that there is no common consensus on what development is. Therefore, amidst
these sharply conflicting values and prevailing ideologies, in this course we do suggest that
something of significance can be gleaned from each of the four approaches to define development.
A classical understanding of development is that it is as a multi – dimensional process involving
changes in structures, attitudes and institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the

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reduction of inequalities and eradication of absolute poverty. This is a holistic approach in looking
at development.

Causes of underdevelopment
Although you may have understood why Third World countries are underdeveloped while Western
countries are developed, this section will introduce you to some of the reasons explaining these
development gaps. There are several explanations to why Africa is poor or underdeveloped
depending on how one views development. Under development in Africa particularly in Zambia
is caused by a combination of factors which can generally be categorized as historical, structural
and artificial. We must be aware that an analysis of the historical factors is neither an escapist
strategy of blaming Africa’s underdevelopment on others nor is it an attempt to glorify Africa’s
pre-colonial ethos or to live in the past. However, an understanding of the past is necessary for an
understanding of the present and for mapping out strategies for the future (Thompson, 1995).

Historical factors
Slavery, slave trade, and slavery labor
 The starting point for an objective analysis of Africa’s underdevelopment is the inhuman
trade in slaves (about 30 million able-bodied young adults) which not only deprived the
continent of its people but left behind a stigma of slave mentality. Thus, it deprived Africa
of its human resources resulting in social and economic stagnation and political dislocation;
European dominance over most of Africa through the transatlantic slave trade lasted 440
years, from 1444 to 1885.
 The establishment of factories and plantations in Africa in the name of modernization
resulted in the exploitation of people’s labor in return for wages of death.

Colonial and neo-colonial rule

 The creation of artificial borders is one of the causes of perennial border and land disputes
which is tearing communities apart and providing a cause for war between communities
and between nations;
 Since independence, the majority of African countries were, at some point, led by dictators.
Their primary goal was staying in power and enriching themselves and a small group of
people, while the rest of the country was usually ignored. Dictators, surrounded by
unqualified but loyal individuals in all strategic positions, are one of Africa’s biggest
problems (Sandbrook, 1985: 90; Mabogunje, 2000: 14007). Meier and Rauch (2000: 67)
write that in many African countries dictatorship and personal rule create “patron-client
relationship, largely based on familial and ethnic loyalties.” Those who are on good terms
with the leaders and the elites are able to get government contracts, jobs, and loans, while
the rest of the population and the country’s economy suffer. This model of governing is
disastrous for long-term economic development, write Meier and Rauch, “with the pursuit
of personal aggrandizement and short-term political advantage leading to economic
irrationality.”

The tradition of strong centralized governance system has resulted in African dictators to
justify their autocratic rule with the almighty governors wielding executive, legislative and
judicial powers;

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Structural and artificial factors

Colonial mentality
 Colonial mentality has continued robbing Africa of its Africanness in thought and action.
For example, the propensity to seek solutions from outside even when the solutions are
starky in evidence in Africa is the result of the colonial mentality;
 Majority leaders in government and politics still use draconian colonial laws to terrorize
and pauperize their people in the interest of their own aggrandizement and self-
preservation.

Political factors
 Africa’s political independence has been compromised for taking sides in return for aid
and supper power protection.
 Political ties between colonizers and colonized have been strengthened by political
mechanisms such as the Commonwealth for Britain etc.
 Politics of poverty – Leaders assume power to amass wealth at the expense of the
electorates. The political elite, which benefits from the status quo, is the main obstacle to
development.

Economic dependence
 At independence, African economies were still tied to the economies of their former
colonial powers. For example, the development policies of industrialization were to
westernize, that is, to catch up with the West, agriculture was cash crop export oriented
and education was a carbon copy of western education geared to produce white collar job
seekers;
 Mismanagement of natural, financial and human resources;
 Low domestic resource mobilization capacity: Tax evasion, weak tax collection and
revenue generating mechanisms, capital flight through Foreign Direct Investment;
 Management of state enterprises have been either politicized or ethnicised. (Thompson,
1995).

In conclusion, we have looked at a range of competing theories and approaches to the study of
development and underdevelopment. Suffice to mention that each approach has its strengths and
weaknesses.