GCSE Mathematics For AQA Teachers Resource Free Online

Brighter Thinking
MATHEMATICS
GCSE for AQA
Teacher’s Resource
Jess Laffoley, Nathan Barker, Charmayne Bailey, Cecilia Freer, James Freeman,
Kathryn Bigg, Susanne Mallett

i © Cambridge University Press, 2015

GCSE Mathematics for AQA
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© Cambridge University Press 2015
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ii © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Contents
Contents
Introduction v
Changes to GCSE Mathematics 1
1F / 1H Working with integers 9

2F / 2H Collecting, interpreting and representing data 17
3F / 3H Analysing data 24
4F / 4H Properties of integers 31
5F / 5H Working with fractions 36
6F / 6H Working with decimals 42
7F / 7H Basic algebra 47
8F / 8H Properties of polygons and 3D objects 55
9F / 9H Angles 64
10F / 10H Perimeter 72
11F / 11H Area 78
12F / 12H Rounding and estimation 86
13F / 13H Percentages 93
14F / 14H Powers and roots 98
15F / 15H Standard form 104
16F / 16H Further algebra 110
17F / 17H Equations 119
18F / 18H Functions and sequences 129
- / 19H Surds 136
19F / 20H Basic probability 143
20F / 21H 3D objects 153
21F / 22H Units and measure 158
22F / 23H Formulae 166
23F / 24H Volume and surface area 172
24F / 25H Further probability 180
25F / 26H Inequalities 187
26F / 27H Ratio 195
27F / 28H Proportion 201
28F / 29H Graphs of linear functions 208
29F / 30H Interpreting graphs 216
- / 31H Circles 222
30F / 32H Vector geometry 229
iii © Cambridge University Press, 2015

31F / 33H Transformations in a plane 237

32F / 34H Construction and loci 244
33F / 35H Similarity 251
34F / 36H Congruence 259
35F / 37H Pythagoras’ theorem 265
36F / 38H Trigonometry 274
37F / 39H Graphs of other functions and equations 284
38F / 40H Growth and decay 295
- / 41H Transformations of curves 300
Literacy in mathematics – helping your students to do their best 307

Preparing students for exams 314
Revision quizzes
Introduction 318
Foundation quizzes 320
Higher quizzes 328
Foundation mark schemes 336
Higher mark schemes 353
Time-saving sheets
Crossword puzzle 370
Polygon diagrams 371
Angle facts 372
Required formulae – Foundation 373
Required formulae – Higher 374
1 cm squared paper 375
2 mm graph paper 376
Axis grids 377
Square dotted paper 378
Isometric grid paper 379
Isometric dotted paper 380
Nets of common 3D solids 381
Foundation exercise 31A question 1 diagram 383
Circle outlines 384
iv © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Introduction
Introduction
This book has been written to support you in delivering the AQA 8300 GCSE Mathematics specification. It accompanies
Cambridge University Press’s GCSE Mathematics for AQA student resources, including the Foundation and Higher
Student Books, Problem-solving Books and Homework Books. The Teacher’s Resource suggests how to use these
resources for maximum benefit, as well as providing general advice on teaching the topics in the specification.
STUDENT BOOK SUPPORT
The structure of the Teacher’s Resource closely matches the Student Books. The Student Books are divided into
chapters and sections, with each section covering a single topic. The Teacher’s Resource contains a chapter of teaching
guidance for each Student Book chapter, covering both Foundation and Higher tiers, and is divided into corresponding
sections.
An introduction details what your students need to know before covering the topics in the chapter, learning
outcomes and key vocabulary. The introduction also describes common misconceptions, suggesting how to address
them, and offers ‘hooks’ to introduce the topics in an engaging way.
For each Student Book section, prompting questions are provided to promote discussion of the topic and to help
students when working through the Student Book exercises. Also provided are suggested activities for starters,
plenaries, enrichment and assessment – these include links to Web resources as well as classroom activities.
At the end of each chapter, the Topic links section describes how the topics in the Student Book chapter link to previous
and future learning, and to A Level topics. The Links to other Cambridge GCSE Mathematics resources list details the
relevant sections in the Homework Books and Problem-solving Books, which you can set students as support, extension
or homework tasks.
GENERAL ADVICE AND SUPPORT
This book includes a number of chapters offering general advice for teaching GCSE Mathematics:
• The Changes to GCSE Mathematics chapter describes the main changes to the GCSE Mathematics qualification for
first teaching from September 2015.
• The Literacy in mathematics chapter contains ideas for helping students to become more literate in maths,
including advice on extracting information, problem solving and reasoning. It also contains suggestions you can offer
parents who are looking to support their child through the course.
• The Preparing students for exams chapter contains ideas for supporting students’ revision.
REVISION QUIZZES
There are also eight revision quizzes (four calculator and four non-calculator) included for each tier, along with
accompanying mark schemes. Each quiz covers multiple topics and is designed to take a maximum of 40 minutes to
complete so you can use it within a single lesson.
The quizzes contain the following icons:
– permitted time
– use of a calculator is permitted
– use of a calculator is not permitted
v © Cambridge University Press, 2015

TIME-SAVING SHEETS
Printable time-saving sheets are provided at the end of the Teacher’s Resource. These include lists of required
formulae, 2 mm graph paper, squared and isometric paper, and other useful handouts.
SCHEMES OF WORK
To help you plan and navigate your way through the course, one-, two- and three-year schemes of work are available
to download for free from www.cambridge.org/ukschools/gcsemaths-schemesofwork.
The schemes of work break the course down by Student Book chapter, with suggested teaching times, key information
and details of where to find supporting material in all of the resources in our GCSE Mathematics for AQA series.
Each scheme of work is provided as an editable Microsoft® Word document, so you can customise it to your own
requirements.
GCSE MATHEMATICS ONLINE FOR AQA
Further resources to support you and your students through their GCSE course are available on GCSE Mathematics
Online for AQA, our brand new interactive teaching and learning subscription service. GCSE Mathematics Online for AQA
includes lesson notes, games, interactive activities and quizzes, organised in the same chapter structure as the Student
Books. It also includes a test generator, reporting and progression tracking.
Please visit cambridge.org/ukschools for full details of all our GCSE Mathematics resources, including more
information on GCSE Mathematics Online for AQA.
ANSWERS
Student Book answers

Answers to all Student Book questions are available online as a free PDF. You can download the answer booklet from
www.cambridge.org/ukschools/gcsemaths-studentbookanswers.
The answer booklet is also included in the Teacher edition of GCSE Mathematics Online for AQA.
Problem-solving Book answers

Worked solutions with commentary are included in the back of the Problem-solving Books.
Homework Book answers

A booklet containing answers to all homework exercises is free to download from
www.cambridge.org/ukschools/gcsemaths-homeworkanswers.
vi © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Changes to GCSE Mathematics

CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
This chapter offers an overview of the main changes to the GCSE Mathematics qualification for first teaching from
September 2015, split to show the effect on both foundation and higher tiers.
GRADES
The new GCSE is significantly different from its predecessor. Students will now be graded on a 1–9 scale; students failing
to meet the standard for grade 1 will be graded ‘U’. Higher tier will assess grades 4–9 and foundation tier grades 1–5,
hence the overlap grades are now grades 4 and 5, but these new grades do not correspond directly to the A* to G grades
previously used. If you wish to read more about grades, the latest information can usually be found on the websites of
Ofqual and the awarding bodies.
ASSESSMENT
GCSE Mathematics is now double weighted in the league tables, and the Department for Education has stated that
assessment time must be a minimum of 4.5 hours. The course is linear and assessment is by written papers only, with no
controlled assessment or coursework.
Assessment Objectives have been updated for the reformed GCSE, with an increased emphasis on problem-solving and
mathematical reasoning.
Weighting
Higher Foundation
AO1 Use and apply standard techniques 40% 50%
Students should be able to:
• accurately recall facts, terminology and definitions
• use and interpret notation correctly
• accurately carry out routine procedures or set tasks requiring multi-step
solutions
AO2 Reason, interpret and communicate mathematically 30% 25%
• make deductions, inferences and draw conclusions from mathematical
information
• construct chains of reasoning to achieve a given result
• interpret and communicate information accurately
• present arguments and proofs
• assess the validity of an argument and critically evaluate a given way of
presenting information
Where problems require candidates to ‘use and apply standard techniques’

or to independently ‘solve problems’ a proportion of those marks should be
attributed to the corresponding Assessment Objective
1 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

AO3 Solve problems within mathematics and in other contexts 30% 25%
• translate problems in mathematical or non-mathematical contexts into a
process or a series of mathematical processes
• make and use connections between different parts of mathematics
• interpret results in the context of the given problem
• evaluate methods used and results obtained
• evaluate solutions to identify how they may have been affected by
assumptions made
Where problems require candidates to ‘use and apply standard techniques’ or

to ‘reason, interpret and communicate mathematically’ a proportion of those
marks should be attributed to the corresponding Assessment Objective.
FORMULAE
In addition, there have been significant changes to the formulae pupils receive in the exams and now the only formulae
given in the exams are:
• Perimeter, area, surface area and volume formulae
Where r is the radius of the sphere or cone, l is the slant height of a cone and h is the perpendicular height of a cone:
-- curved surface area of a cone = πrl
-- surface area of a sphere = 4πr2
4 3
-- volume of a sphere = πr
3
1
-- volume of a cone = πr2h
3
• Kinematics formulae
Where a is constant acceleration, u is initial velocity, v is final velocity, s is displacement from the position when t = 0
and t is time taken:
-- v = u + at
-- s = ut + 12 at 2
-- v2 = u2 + 2as
All other formulae will need to be memorised or students will need to learn how to derive them in an exam.
SUBJECT CONTENT
Changes to the subject content students will be assessed on are detailed below for each tier alongside references to
the Student Book chapters that contain relevant material. Please note that the language of specifications is open to
interpretation, so these changes are the authors’ conclusions only, and you may wish to conduct your own comparison
between the specification for first teaching from 2015 and its predecessor.
Additions to foundation tier

The following table lists concepts that are new to the foundation tier and indicates whether they were previously part of
the higher tier assessment. A reference is given to the DfE’s GCSE subject content and assessment objectives published
in November 2013 alongside where you will find it in both the foundation tier textbook and higher tier textbook (where
applicable). As you will see the changes to the material being assessed on foundation tier are quite substantial and
it may be the case that more teaching time is required to cover the content. For comprehensive guidance on topics
that may appear in final assessments, centres are directed to the awarding body’s content guidance documents and
Specimen Assessment Materials (SAMs), which may be updated during the lifespan of the course.

To indicate the level of challenge each concept presents the text has been left with the formatting used by the DfE
to indicate that despite the expectation that ‘All students will develop confidence and competence with the content
identified by the standard type. All students will be assessed on the content identified by the standard and the
underlined type; more highly attaining students will develop competence with all of this content.’ (DfE, 2013: p.4) So the
underlined type presents the significantly more challenging material foundation students will now face, whereas there
is an expectation all students will master the normal type.
Concept* DfE Ref** Where you can find it Notes
Calculate with and interpret standard N9 Chapter 15 Previously higher only content.
form A × 10n, where 1 ≤ A < 10 and n is an
integer.
Calculate exactly with …multiples of π. N8 Chapter 11, Chapter Previously higher only content.
23 (F) and 24 (H)
Round numbers and measures to an N15 Chapter 12 Previously foundation candidates
appropriate degree of accuracy (e.g. were only expected to round values
to a specified number of … significant to 1 significant figure.
figures).
Use inequality notation to specify N15 Chapter 12 This is new to both tiers and
simple error intervals due to truncation different to upper and lower
or rounding. bounds, which remains in the
higher tier.
Simplify and manipulate algebraic A4 Chapter 7 There is no expectation that
expressions (including those involving foundation candidates do anything
surds…) other than simplify expressions
involving surds where they treat
the surd as they would any other
variable.
Expanding products of two …binomials. A4 Chapter 16 Previously higher only content.
Factorising quadratic expressions of the A4 Chapter 16 Previously higher only content. The
form x 2+ bx + c, including the difference important thing to note here is that
of two squares; the coefficient of x2 is always 1.
Argue mathematically to show algebraic A6 Chapter 7 This extends previous objectives to
expressions are equivalent. knowing the difference between an
equation and identity to arguing
mathematically through solving
that two statements are always,
rather than sometimes, equal.
Use the form y = mx + c to identify A9 Chapter 28 (F) and Previously higher only content.
parallel… lines. 29 (H), Chapter 37 (F)
and 39 (H)
Find the equation of the line through A9 Chapter 28 (F) and This is new to both tiers.
two given points, or through one point 29 (H), Chapter 37 (F)
with a given gradient. and 39 (H)
Identify and interpret roots, intercepts, A11 Chapter 37 (F) and Previously higher only content.
turning points of quadratic functions 39 (H)
graphically.
Deduce [quadratic] roots algebraically A11 Chapter 17 Previously higher only content.
Recognise, sketch and interpret graphs A12 Chapter 28 (F) and Sketching quadratics, cubics and
of linear functions, quadratic functions, 29 (H), Chapter 37 (F) reciprocals is new to both tiers.
simple cubic functions, the reciprocal and 39 (H)
1
function y = with x ≠ 0
x

Plot and interpret graphs (including A14 Chapter 37 (F) and Previously plotting reciprocal
reciprocal graphs…) 39 (H) graphs was higher only content.
Solve quadratic equations … A18 Chapter 16, Chapter 17 Previously higher only content.
algebraically by factorising.
Find approximate solutions [to A18 Chapter 17 Previously higher only content.
quadratics] using a graph.
Solve two simultaneous equations A19 Chapter 17 Previously higher only content.
in two variables (linear/linear…)
algebraically.
Translate simple situations or A21 Chapter 17 The important section of this
procedures into algebraic expressions objective being that which
or formulae; derive an equation (or two increases the challenge of forming
simultaneous equations), solve the and solving to simultaneous
equation(s) and interpret the solution. equations.
Recognise and use sequences of A24 Chapter 18 These different types of sequences
triangular, square and cube numbers, have had more emphasis placed
simple arithmetic progressions, on them in the new specification.
Fibonacci type sequences, quadratic ‘Fibonacci type sequences’ implies
sequences, and simple geometric students now may have to work
progressions (rn where n is an integer, with sequences defined by a
and r is a rational number > 0.) recurrence relation.
Solve problems involving percentage R9 Chapter 13 Previously higher only content.
change.
Original value [percentage] problems. R9 Chapter 13 Previously higher only content.
This content covers problems often
referred to as reverse percentage
problems.
Simple interest including in financial R9 Chapter 38 (F) and Previously higher only content.
mathematics. 40 (H)
Solve problems involving direct and R10 Chapter 27 (F) and Previously higher only content.
inverse proportion, including graphical 28 (H), Chapter 29 (F)
and algebraic representations. and 30 (H)
Use compound units such as … density R11 Chapter 21 (F) and Density is previously a compound
and pressure. 22 (H) measure used in higher tier
only, however pressure is a new
compound measure to both tiers.
Understand that x is inversely R13 Chapter 27 (F) and Previously higher only content.
proportional to y is equivalent to x is 28 (H)
proportional to 1
y
Interpret equations that describe direct R13 Chapter 27 (F) and Previously higher only content.
and inverse proportion. 28 (H)
Interpret the gradient of a straight line R14 Chapter 28 (F) and Previously higher only content.
graph as a rate of change. 29 (H), Chapter 29 (F)
and 30 (H)
Recognise and interpret graphs that R14 Chapter 27 (F) and
illustrate direct and inverse proportion. 28 (H), Chapter 29 (F)
and 30 (H)

Set up, solve and interpret the answers R16 Chapter 38 (F) and Previously higher only content.
in growth and decay problems, 40 (H)
including compound interest.
Derive and use the sum of angles in a G3 Chapter 9 The important word here being
triangle. ‘derive’ as previously there was
only an expectation students
understood a proof that the sum of
angles in a triangle is 180 degrees.
Use the basic congruence criteria for G5 Chapter 34 (F) and Previously higher only content.
triangles (SSS, SAS, ASA, RHS). 36 (H)
Apply … triangle congruence, similarity G6 Chapter 34 (F) and Previously higher only content.
… to conjecture and derive results 36 (H), Chapter 33 (F)
about angles and sides…, and use and 35 (H)
known results to obtain simple proofs.
identify, describe and construct G7 Chapter 33 (F) and Previously higher only content. The
congruent and similar shapes, including 35 (H) extension to enlargements in the
on coordinate axes, by considering … previous specification is that it now
enlargement (including fractional … includes fractional scale factors.
scale factors) Negative scale factors still only
appear in higher content.
Identify and apply circle definitions and G9 Chapter 8 Previously higher only content.
properties, including: … tangent, arc,
sector and segment
Know the formulae: … surface area and G17 Chapter 23 (F) and Previously higher only content.
volume of spheres, pyramids, cones and 24 (H)
composite solids.
Calculate arc lengths, angles and areas G18 Chapter 10, Chapter 11 Previously higher only content.
of sectors of circles.
Apply the concepts of congruence and G19 Chapter 33 (F) and Previously higher only content.
similarity, including the relationships 35 (H) Note, foundation students will only
between lengths, … in similar figures. deal with one dimensional scale
factors as they apply to lengths of
similar shapes.
Know the formulae for: … the G20 Chapter 36 (F) and Previously higher only content.
opposite 38 (H)
trigonometric ratios, sinθ = ,
hypotenuse
adjacent
cosθ = and
hypotenuse
opposite
tanθ =
adjacent ; apply them to find
angles and lengths in rightangled

triangles...in two... dimensional figures
know the exact values of sin θ and cos θ G21 Chapter 36 (F) and This content is new to both tiers.
for θ = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°; know the 38 (H)
exact value of tan θ for θ = 0°, 30°, 45°
and 60°
Apply addition and subtraction of G25 Chapter 30 (F) and Previously higher only content.
vectors, multiplication of vectors by a 32 (H)
scalar, and diagrammatic and column
representations of vectors.

Enumerate sets and combinations P6 Chapter 24 (F) and Venn diagrams are new material to
of sets systematically, using … Venn 25 (H) both tiers.
diagrams and tree diagrams.
Calculate the probability of P8 Chapter 24 (F) and Previously higher only content.
independent and dependent combined 25 (H)
events, including using tree diagrams
and other representations, and know
the underlying assumptions.
Infer properties of populations or S1 Chapter 2 Previously higher only content.
distributions from a sample, whilst
knowing the limitations of sampling.
Interpret, analyse and compare S4 Chapter 3 The consideration of outliers when
the distributions of data sets from measuring spread is new to both
univariate empirical distributions tiers.
through:
– Appropriate measures of central
tendency … and spread (range,
including consideration of outliers…)
Recognise correlation and know that it S6 Chapter 3 New content to both tiers.
does not indicate causation.
Interpolate and extrapolate apparent S6 Chapter 3 Extrapolation was previously
trends whilst knowing the dangers of so higher only content.
doing.
*Concept quoted from DfE GCSE subject content and assessment objectives where appropriate
**Reference taken from DfE GCSE subject content and assessment objectives
Additions to higher tier

The following section details the changes made to the objectives for higher tier students. There are not as many
changes as there are to the foundation tier, and some of the additions are new to both and indicated as such. In the
same way that the most challenging content all students will be assessed on was indicated with underlined text, further
challenging material for students taking the higher tier is indicated with bold font. The expectation here is that: ‘only the
more highly attaining students will be assessed on the content identified by bold type. The highest attaining students
will develop confidence and competence with the bold content.’ (DfE, 2013: p.4)
Concept* DfE Ref** Where you can find it Notes
Use inequality notation to N15 Chapter 12 This is new to both tiers and different to
specify simple error intervals upper and lower bounds, which remains in
due to truncation or rounding. the higher tier.
Find the equation of the line A9 Chapter 28 (F) and 29 This is new to both tiers. Previously
through two given points, or (H), Chapter students were only expected to identify
through one point with a given 37 (F) and 39 (H) the gradient of a line in the form y = mx + c.
gradient.
Recognise, sketch and interpret A12 Chapter 37 (F) and 39 Sketching quadratics, cubics and
graphs of linear functions, (H) reciprocals is new to both tiers. Further
quadratic functions, simple challenge for higher students includes an
cubic functions, the reciprocal ability to sketch exponential functions
1 and the three trigonometric functions
function y = with x ≠ 0, they learn about at GCSE: sine, cosine and
x
tangent.
exponential functions y
kx = for positive values of k,
and the trigonometric
functions (with arguments in
degrees) y = sin x , y = cos x and
y = tan x for angles of any size.
Calculate or estimate gradients A15 Chapter 29 (F) and 30 There is an increased emphasis on
of graphs and areas under (H) interpreting the information presented
graphs (including quadratic in graphs and in addition to the new
and other non-linear graphs), requirement for students to calculate the
and interpret results in cases gradient of curves at given points they
such as distance-time graphs, will also have to interpret this in given
velocity-time graphs and situations.
graphs in financial contexts.
Find the equation of a tangent A16 Chapter 28 (F) and 29 This topic does not require calculus as the
to a circle at a given point. (H), Chapter 37 (F) and gradient can be found by considering the
39 (H) negative reciprocal of the gradient of the
radius connecting the centre of the circle
to a given point. It is a challenging addition
and requires strong knowledge of linear
equations and an ability to work with
equations of circles.
solve … quadratic inequalities A22 Chapter 37 (F) and 39 Solving quadratic inequalities was
in one variable; represent the (H) previously a topic reserved for A level.
solution set on a number line, In addition, higher students are also
using set notation and on a expected to represent their solutions with
graph. set notation and graphically.
Recognise and use sequences A24 Chapter 18 These different types of sequences have
of triangular, square and cube had more emphasis placed on them in
numbers, simple arithmetic the new specification. ‘Fibonacci type
progressions, Fibonacci sequences’ implies students now may
type sequences, quadratic have to work with sequences defined by a
sequences, and simple recurrence relation. In addition for higher
geometric progressions (r n pupils the common ratio of a geometric
where n is an integer, and r is a sequence may also be an irrational
rational number > 0, or a surd) number.
and other sequences
deduce expressions to calculate A25 Chapter 18 The addition here is finding an expression
the nth term of linear and for the nth term of quadratic sequences.
quadratic sequences.
Use compound units such as … R11 Chapter 21 (F) and 22 Pressure is a new compound measure to
pressure. (H) both tiers.
Interpret the gradient at R15 Chapter 29 (F) and 30 This addition to the higher tier introduces
a point on a curve as the (H) students to the idea that a non-linear
instantaneous rate of change; curve can have a different gradient at
apply the concepts of average different points and that these gradients
and instantaneous rate of can be found by investigating the tangent
change (gradients of chords to the curve at that point. It is not the
and tangents) in numerical, reintroduction of calculus to the GCSE
algebraic and graphical curriculum but does introduce some
contexts. important ideas that will be studied for
students continuing Mathematics at A
level.
Derive and use the sum of angles G3 Chapter 9 The important word here being ‘derive’ as
in a triangle. previously there was only an expectation
students understood a proof that the sum
of angles in a triangle is 180 degrees.

Apply and prove the standard G10 Chapter 31 There is now an expectation that students
circle theorems concerning can prove the standard results for circle
angles, radii, tangents and theorems.
chords, and use them to prove
related results.
know the exact values of sin θ G21 Chapter 36 (F) and 38 This content is new to both tiers.
and cos θ for θ = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° (H)
and 90°; know the exact value of
tan θ for θ = 0°, 30°, 45° and 60°
Enumerate sets and P6 Chapter 24 (F) and 25 Venn diagrams are new material to both
combinations of sets (H) tiers.
systematically, using … Venn
diagrams.
Calculate and interpret P9 Chapter 24 (F) and 25 The addition of Venn diagrams extends to
conditional probabilities (H) working with conditional probability for
through representation using higher tier candidates.
expected frequencies with
two-way tables, tree diagrams
and Venn diagrams.
Interpret, analyse and compare S4 Chapter 3 The consideration of outliers when
the distributions of data sets measuring spread is new to both tiers.
from univariate empirical
distributions through:
-- Appropriate measures
of central tendency
… and spread (range,
including consideration of
outliers…)
Recognise correlation and S6 Chapter 3 New content to both tiers.
know that it does not indicate
causation.
*Concept quoted from DfE GCSE subject content and assessment objectives where appropriate
**Reference taken from DfE GCSE subject content and assessment objectives
Topics that have been removed

As well as the large number of additions to the new GCSE there have also been some topics removed that were present
in the previous GCSE programme of study.
These are:
-- conversions between metric and imperial units
-- design and criticise survey questions
-- identify source of bias.
In addition trial and improvement to solve algebraic equations now appears at higher tier only.

1F / 1H Working with integers

What your students need to know

Pupils should be confident with the items in the chapter’s ‘Before you start...’ section. Specifically:
• The meanings of the words sum, quotient, product and difference.
• To be able to use formal and informal methods and algorithms, both mental and written, for the four operations of
arithmetic.
• To understand the distributive law.
• To know that multiplication and addition are commutative.
• To know that addition and subtraction, and multiplication and division, are inverse operations.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To identify the correct operations required and use • To identify the correct operations required and use
written calculations to solve worded problems. written calculations to solve worded problems.
• To calculate with all four operations of arithmetic using • To calculate with all four operations of arithmetic
positive and negative numbers. using positive and negative numbers.
Section 2 Section 2
• To apply the hierarchy of operations to accurately work • To apply the hierarchy of operations to accurately
out calculations involving two or more operations. work out calculations involving two or more
operations.
Section 3 Section 3
• To identify and write the inverses for operations and • To identify and write the inverses for operations and
apply these to check the results of calculations and apply these to check the results of calculations and
develop the skills required to solve equations. develop the skills required to solve equations.
Vocabulary
• Integers, directed numbers
Common misconceptions and other issues
• With multiplication, it is important to ensure students fully understand the distributive law, to avoid a commonly
held multiplication misconception creating errors such as 34 × 23 = 30 × 20 + 4 × 3. (Use of the ‘grid’ method, to
ensure full multiplication of all partitions, can be useful here.)
• For some foundation students, the range of possible methods they have been shown may have confused them and
they may try to follow algorithmic procedures with no true understanding. An example of this is with the column
method for subtraction, where ‘borrowing’ would be necessary. Students often ignore this and find the difference
between the largest and smallest values in the column, irrespective of order. Use of manipulatives (Dienes blocks,
Cuisenaire rods, money) to visually represent the strategies alongside the formal written methods can help.
• Students can learn procedural rules that they do not understand, which they then incorrectly apply. For example ‘two
negatives make a positive’ translates to −n − m = +(n + m). Use continuations of patterns (see below) and examples
from real life to help (e.g. imagining travelling in a lift that includes underground level floors, considering earning
and borrowing money or working out the change in temperature to a liquid after adding hot or cold liquids can all
provide useful analogies to help with the concept of adding and subtracting negatives.)

Hooks
1.
A good way to introduce key terminology and to develop problem-solving skills is to ask students how many
pairs of integers with their sum equal to their product they can find (e.g. 2 + 2 and 2 × 2 or 0 + 0 and 0 × 0.) What
m
relationship must exist between the numbers? (n + m = mn or n = for m ≠ 1) What if we remove the
m-1
restriction of specifying integers? (Obviously an infinite set of non-integer solutions can be found; some
4
examples include and 4; 1.25 and 5; −9 and 0.9; 2 and 2 + 2 .)
3
Look at ‘Calculation Question’ and ‘Just Add’ at Mathematical Beginnings. For the first question, ask students
2.
to write an explanation to the person who wrote in. For the second, students will inevitably check the addition
is correct initially. Then they might begin to consider the sense of what has been done! (foster77.co.uk/
mathematicalbeginnings)
SECTION 1F / 1H: BASIC CALCULATIONS
This section introduces the use of basic calculations and choosing the appropriate operation for worded problems.
Prompting questions
Whilst working through the exercise, good prompts for students might be:
• Can you identify which operation is required for each question?
Then work through showing full methods. Encourage discussion and comparison of solutions.
• Have students used different methods and can they describe them?
• Which are more efficient?
Exercise 1A (F) / 1A (H)

• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) What words or clues in the questions can you find to identify which operations and calculations you
need to use?
The rate of words per minute should indicate multiplication is required to calculate the number of words typed in 1.5
hours.
• Q8 (F) / Q8 (H) How can you check your solutions?
Possibilities include making a sensible estimate before calculating or use inverse operations,
e.g. (8765 − 3087) + (1206 ÷18) could be estimated as (9000 − 3000) + (1200 ÷ 20) = 6000 + 600 = 6600.
Starters, plenaries, enrichment and assessment ideas

Starters and plenaries
• NRICH Product Sudoku provides a twist on traditional Sudoku involving some restrictions where pairs of numbers
must have a specified product. It could be used to develop resilience and students’ abilities to work to given
conditions and follow instructions. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Foundation only) The Number Loving website has the activity ‘Tick or Trash QWC Comparing Prices’, which
encourages students to compare methods and create their own questions and mark scheme for the problem.
(numberloving.co.uk)
• Cross number (crossums) puzzles are an engaging way to practice basic skills. The Teacher Resources on Line (trol)
website has plenty of these in a variety of formats. (cleavebooks.co.uk/trol)
• Number Chains. Give students a starting number and then a string of operations to perform to get a final value, e.g:
106 ÷2 − 13 10% of this ×5 squared (Answer 400)
• Target boards. Show students a grid with a range of numbers and ask them to write calculations to make a particular
value on the grid, or give them calculations to do to find your target number.

Enrichment activities
• NRICH Largest Product provides a useful investigation that will ensure students become familiar with the terms
‘sum’ and ‘product’, which can be extended to non-integers. Students could be encouraged to try to generalise their
findings. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Cinema Problem is great for developing problem-solving skills and can be approached by exhaustive listings
of calculations or introduction of algebra. This offers the possibility of extension for higher-tier students.
(nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Ask students to create their own ‘cross number’ puzzle and a fully worked solution, with the calculation questions
having to use at least all four arithmetic operations. Their clues could have to include a number of problems framed
in scenarios as well as straightforward calculations to perform. This could extend to using non-integer values for
extension.
SECTION 1F / 1H: BASIC CALCULATIONS – WORKING WITH NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE INTEGERS
This section introduces the concepts of choosing the appropriate operation for worded problems and how to calculate
with directed numbers.
Prompting questions
Whilst working on the material in this section, good prompts for encouraging discussion may be:
• In 1758 the British mathematician Francis Maseres claimed that negative numbers: ‘…darken the very whole doctrines
of the equations and make dark of the things which are in their nature excessively obvious and simple.’
Maseres and his contemporary, William Friend, took the view that negative numbers did not exist. Why do you think
they felt like this? Perhaps there was a lack of immediate necessity for negative numbers at this time; today we need
them to show debt, lower temperature etc., which could have been less relevant then. Also they possibly felt negative
numbers overcomplicated things. Students may find multiplying two negative numbers surprising now but in 1758 such
concepts would be being thought about and proved for the first time.
• Why do we need negative numbers? Think of examples in real life where negative numbers are useful, (e.g.
temperature, money, numbering floors in buildings that have underground levels).
• Why do the ‘rules’ given in the chapter work?
Investigate these patterns to help:
4+2= 4−2=
4+1= 4−1=
4+0= 4−0=
4 + −1 = 4 − −1 =
4 + −2 = 4 − −2 =
4 + −3 = 4 − −3 =
4×2= −2 × 4 =
4×1= −2 × 3 =
4×0= −2 × 2 =
4 × −1 = −2 × 1 =
4 × −2 = −2 × 0 =
4 × −3 = −2 × −1 =
4 × −4 = −2 × −2 =

× 3 2 1 0 −1 −2 −3 −4
3
2
1
0
−1
−2
−3
−4

• Magic squares involving negative numbers. A useful source for this is ‘instant maths ideas’ (Number and Algebra page
54), available from the National STEM Centre. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
• To give some variation in exercise style, you could create a ‘follow-me’ loop or treasure hunt using some of the
questions from Chapter 1 (F) / 1 (H).
• Other ideas include NRICH Connect Three. (nrich.maths.org)
• ‘Negative Numbers’ song available online. Search for ‘Negative Numbers song’.
• The Number Loving website has two examples of ‘Tick or Trash’ for calculations with negative numbers as well as
‘Catchphrase’ and ‘Bingo’ games. (numberloving.co.uk)
Exercise 1B (F) / 1B (H)

• Q4 (F) would lend itself well as a starter question where students could ‘race’ to complete each question.
• (Foundation) Improving Learning in Mathematics ‘Mostly number – N8 using directed numbers in context’ available
from the National STEM Centre Archive. The activities here work on adding and subtracting negative numbers
through the context of temperature. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
• (Foundation) NRICH Balloon Game is suitable for students who struggle with the concept of adding and subtracting
negative numbers. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Foundation) NRICH Consecutive Negative Numbers will ensure students have plenty of practice at adding and
subtracting negative numbers, whilst encouraging students to look for patterns and develop their investigation.
(nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Improving Learning in Mathematics ‘Mostly number – N9 evaluating directed number statements’ is available from
the National STEM Centre Archive. This encourages students to evaluate statements using ‘always’, ‘sometimes’,
‘never’, as well as exploring operations on negative numbers using patterns in a more extended way than the
suggestions given previously. This provides plenty of opportunities for whole class assessment. (nationalstemcentre.
org.uk)
SECTION 2F / 2H: ORDER OF OPERATIONS
This section focuses on the hierarchy of operations and applying them in the appropriate order.

Prompting questions
Whilst working on the material in this section good prompts for promoting discussion may be:
• Have a whole class discussion of the section’s ‘Work it out’ element identifying which solution is correct. The
mistakes made would be helpful to fully draw out any lingering misconceptions.
• Why do you think operations have a hierarchy, in other words, BIDMAS? It would be good to tease out from
students the notions of raising a number to a power being a way of swiftly increasing a number, compared to repeat
multiplication or indeed addition.
Exercise 1C (F) / 1C (H)

• Q1 (F) To help to pick up any continuing misconceptions, use this question to make a quick multiple choice quiz
(along the lines of a ‘Who wants to be a Maths Millionaire?’ style). It could be helpful to ensure that the incorrect
multiple choice options include the answers found simply by working from left to right, or calculating a part in the
incorrect order.
• Q5 (H) If these calculations are entered into the students’ calculators, do they get the expected answer?
3× 4.52 + 62
Try with a calculation such as 4.2 + 7 + .
2
• How many different solutions have the class achieved?
• Where should they be entering brackets to ensure their calculator gives the required solution? With the range of
calculators students may be using, this is really important to ask.

Starters
• A quick starter is to ask students to write the numbers 1 to 20, then roll a dice to randomly generate numbers. The
students must then use these to make each number from 1 to 20 using the four operations, brackets and powers
(from one of the rolled numbers) as appropriate without using any number more than once. They are not allowed to
make numbers by writing the rolled numbers as consecutive digits, e.g. making 16 by writing the rolled numbers 1, 6.
• ‘Four Fours’. A similar idea to the one above, but with this students are asked to make the numbers 1 to 100 using
exactly four fours each time. This can develop the use of operations further to using square roots and factorials, and
they are allowed to write 44 or 444 with their fours if required. The Cut the Knot website has a comprehensive list of
solutions. (cut-the-knot.org)
Plenaries
• (Higher) Spot the Mistakes. Give students questions such as those below (there is the opportunity for differentiation
through your choice of questions) to identify the errors that have been made and amend each calculation so it
becomes correct.
3 + 4 × 5 = 35 8 − 10 ÷ 2 = −1 2 × 52 = 100 (9 − 6) ÷ 3 = 7
Corrections: (3 + 4) × 5 = 35 (8 – 10) ÷ 2 = −1 (2 × 5)2 = 100 9 – (6 ÷ 3) = 7
• Make a BIDMAS maze (a table with each cell filled with BIDMAS-appropriate calculations) where, when travelling from
left to right, it is possible to find a route of cells with a specified target number as an answer.
• (Foundation) Play the BIDMAS dice game. Roll a dice 18 times and ask students to place a number in each box, see
diagram below, with the aim being the one to get the highest total at the end.
a. × + b. × – c. + ×
= = =
d. + × + e. × + × –
= =
Grand Total

• (Foundation) The Number Loving website has some suitable BIDMAS activities including ‘Collect a joke’ and ‘Top
Trumps’ cards. (numberloving.co.uk)
• For a range of additional BIDMAS activities the chapter from ‘Instant Maths Ideas’ is available from the National
STEM Centre. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
Exercise 1C (H)
• Q5 (H) Develop the previous prompt based on this question with both higher and foundation students. Try giving
4 × 3.52 + 73
students a calculation such as 5.8 + 7 + . How many different solutions have the class achieved?
3
• Where should they be entering brackets to ensure their calculator gives the required solution? With the range of
calculators students may be using, this is really important to ask.
Assessment ideas
Exercise 1C (F)
• Q1 (F) To help to pick up any continuing misconceptions, use this question to make a quick multiple choice quiz
(along the lines of a ‘Who wants to be a Maths Millionaire?’ style). It could be helpful to ensure that the incorrect
multiple choice options include the answers found simply by working from left to right, or calculating a part in the
incorrect order.
SECTION 3F / 3H: INVERSE OPERATIONS
This section introduces inverse operations to ‘undo’ a previous calculation.
Prompting questions
Whilst working on the material in this section, good prompts for students might be:
• Can you give examples where use of inverse operations is helpful?
Double checking calculations, solving equations, rearranging formula.
• What would the inverse of squaring or cubing a number be?
Square root or cube root respectively.
• Can you link the idea of inverses to other areas of maths? For example, what would the inverse of a 90° clockwise
rotation about a particular point be?
A 90° anticlockwise or 270° clockwise rotation about the same point.
• Investigate the definition of a reciprocal and consider how this links to inverse operations.
A number multiplied by its reciprocal = 1, therefore 1 ÷ the original number = the reciprocal.
Exercise 1D (F) / 1D (H)

• Q3 (F) / Q2 (H) In addition to these specific questions, ask students to use inverse operations to check solutions, go
back through their own solutions to previous section exercises and use inverse operations to double check solutions
to reinforce the use of inverses as a method of checking work.

• In addition to a traditional Sudoku, NRICH Alphabetti Sudoku requires students to solve nine additional problems
with the use of inverse operations. (nrich.maths.org)
• Give students some ‘Think of a number’ problems to solve. You can differentiate this activity by varying the types
and numbers of operations you used. At this stage there is no need for any formal expression of this using algebra,
although those students wishing to do so could be encouraged. For some quick examples of this see the Transum
‘Starter of the Day’. (transum.org)

• Extend the ‘Think of a Number’ by asking students to write their own problems and give to another student to work
through.
• NRICH Twisting and Turning is a useful way to help students think about ‘undoing’. Although this is marked as a
KS3 activity it can assist with developing concepts such as inverse operations, inverse functions and in particular
reciprocals since the ‘turn’ operation is to use a reciprocal action. (nrich.maths.org)
• Twisting and Turning has two follow-on activities, More Twisting and Turning and All Tangled up, which further
develop the use of reciprocals. (nrich.maths.org)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
This topic provides a good opportunity to revisit and practise Arithmetic skills using both mental and written methods
including formal algorithms. For foundation students this may include reviewing the use of number lines and the
extended number system, beyond the natural numbers for working with directed numbers. For an additional game
to practise basic use of BIDMAS, try the NRICH The 24 Game. For students struggling with the concept of negative
numbers, revisiting a couple of KS3 problems on the NRICH website could be useful, e.g. Strange Bank Account and
Strange Bank Account Part 2. (nrich.maths.org)
Future learning
Fluency with the calculation skills from this chapter will be required for successful problem-solving and calculations
within most GCSE topics. They are also key when working with algebraic problems, for example solving equations and
rearranging formulae require the use of inverse operations.
Gateway to A-level
This is a straightforward topic at GCSE but to move successfully to KS5, confidence with calculations involving integers,
order of operations and inverse operations will be required for algebraic manipulation and equation solving. This will be
developed further to include other types of number, such as complex numbers, and modular arithmetic, which in turn
links to group theory and congruence classes.
LINKS TO OTHER CAMBRIDGE GCSE MATHEMATICS RESOURCES
Problem-solving Book
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 2 Question 1 • Chapter 2 Question 1
• Chapter 9 Questions 1, 2, 8, 9, 10 • Chapter 4 Questions 4, 10
• Chapter 10 Questions 1, 5 • Chapter 9 Questions 1, 2
• Chapter 10 Question 1
Homework Book
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 1 • Chapter 1

GCSE Mathematics Online
• Student Book chapter PDF

• Lesson notes
• 11 worksheets (+ solutions)
• 13 animated widgets
• 13 interactive walkthroughs
• 5 auto-marked quickfire quizzes
• 5 auto-marked question sets, each with four levels
• Auto-marked chapter quiz

2F / 2H Collecting, interpreting and representing data
2F / 2H Collecting, interpreting and representing

data
• How to divide (360) by a given number and then multiply, possibly rounding the result.
• How to draw a circle using a pair of compasses.
• How to accurately measure angles.
• How to draw axes, including choosing appropriate scales.
• (Higher only) How to use inequality notation for class intervals.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
• To be able to infer properties of populations or • To be able to infer properties of populations or
distributions from a sample, whilst knowing the distributions from a sample, whilst knowing the
limitations of sampling. limitations of sampling.
• To be able to interpret and construct tables, charts and • To be able to interpret and construct tables, charts
diagrams, including frequency tables, bar charts, pie and diagrams, including frequency tables, bar
charts and pictograms for categorical data, vertical line charts, pie charts and pictograms for categorical
charts for ungrouped discrete numerical data, tables data, vertical line charts for ungrouped discrete
and line graphs for time series data and know their numerical data, tables and line graphs for time
appropriate use. series data, histograms and cumulative frequency
diagrams for continuous data and know their
appropriate use.
Vocabulary
• Population, sample, representative sample, discrete data, categorical data, continuous data.
• (Higher only) Class intervals, cumulative frequency, grouped data, histogram.
• Difficulties drawing obtuse angles using a protractor.

Encouraging students to ‘sense-check’ their angle, e.g. an angle of 170 degrees should be bigger than a right angle,
can ensure they have used the correct scale on their protractor.
• Incorrectly drawing axes, in particular inconsistent scales on an axis.
Whilst providing students with pre-prepared axes can enable a greater variety of questions to be undertaken in a
lesson, there is a clear need for pupils to practise drawing axes for themselves as many find it a challenge. Projecting
some badly drawn graphs and asking what has gone wrong can be a powerful plenary.
• A common error in exams is misreading scales.
So practice with different scaled axes and a variety of data is useful.
• Using everyday meanings of words that have precise statistical meanings, for example, ‘population’.
Some pupils will have difficulties with the idea that, for example, if we are interested in the feelings of Y7 pupils
about the girls’ toilets that our population is just Year 7 girls. Using non-human examples can help here. If we are
interested in the strength of climbing ropes we make in our factory, the population is all the climbing ropes we
manufacture. This context also demonstrates the purpose of sampling: if we test every climbing rope until it breaks,
we wouldn’t have anything to sell!
• (Higher only) Plotting cumulative frequency at midpoint of class intervals.

If the class intervals represent money (e.g. a class of £10–£15, with cumulative frequency 12) it can be helpful to
think ‘the only thing we know for sure is that if I have £15 I could buy 12 of those things’. If I have £14, I cannot be sure
what I can buy. Hence we plot at the end point of each class.
• (Higher only). Drawing histograms with frequency as height (rather than area).
Students should be reminded that histograms with bars of unequal width would be unrepresentative if their height
represented frequency.
Hooks
• The classic photograph of a happy man holding a paper whose headline proclaims DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN can be
an excellent introduction to bias in sampling. A variety of versions of this photograph are available on the internet
by searching for the headline. Students naturally assume that the happy man must be Dewey (not the re-elected
President Truman). They quickly come up with a variety of valid, historical reasons (typically ‘telephone surveys in
the 40s would only include rich people who didn’t vote democrat’) for the biased sample.
SECTION 1F / 1H: POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES
Section 1 introduces the ideas of population and sampling and discusses some sampling methods. Students are likely to
be familiar with the term ‘sample’ if they’ve ever been offered a free sample at a supermarket. They’re not allowed to eat
the whole thing, just have a taste to see what it’s like.
Prompting questions
These questions should prompt open-ended discussion between students.
• I want to interview 20 people in a town, so I put a map up on the wall and throw a dart at it 20 times. I interview
whoever lives at the place the dart lands. Is this fair?
• I want to interview 10 people who live in Birmingham, so I dial 0121 and seven random digits. Is this fair?

While working through this exercise, good prompts for students might be:
• Q2b (F) / Q2b (H): How would your answer change if one fewer, or one more, person said they were interested?
It would change to 680 or 720.

Starters
2
• Reviewing fractional methods is useful here. For example, ‘quick fire’ questions like ‘what is of 30?’ could be
completed. 5
Plenaries
• Discussing real uses of sampling is a useful way to end a lesson. For example, how could customs or police officers
decide who to stop?
A discussion to be handled with great care, but an important one in our present security climate.
• Most students will be familiar with claims in advertising along the lines of ‘9 out of 10 owners prefer…’. In the small
print, the sample size will be shown. Do they think that, say, 45 people is enough to justify this claim?
• The 100 people website presents some thought provoking statistics. Pupils could collect some data from their class
and use proportional methods to increase them to 100 people. (100people.org)
• A similar mistake to ‘DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN’ with Landon and Roosevelt was made by many pollsters, but not by
George Gallup whose name will be familiar to many. Pupils could investigate Gallup’s method.

SECTION 2F / 2H: TABLES AND CHARTS
Section 2 focuses on different ways that data can be displayed to help with understanding and interpretation. Students
can sometimes be complacent about this topic as they have seen bar charts repeatedly since primary school and in
other subjects. Using the ‘assess your starting point…’ section will help establish a need to revisit the topic. Also asking
students to criticise misleading or badly-drawn bar charts is a useful way to check for misconceptions and emphasise
key learning points.
Prompting questions
These questions should promote discussion among students:
• Why is it important that the bars are the same width in a bar chart?
• Why is it important that the pictures in a pictogram are the same size?
• Why is it important to have a uniform scale?
• Why are graphs formatted so that they could be misleading?

• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H): What other diagram could be used to show the proportion of sales for the four companies?
A series of pie charts. What benefits do these bar charts have? Comparing sizes of the four categories between
companies is more straightforward.

Starters
• ‘Spot the mistake’ activities or similar, where students assess, criticise and identify errors. This promotes useful
discussion of common mistakes and encourages students to reflect on their own presentation of bar charts and
pictograms. An example of this could be a hand-drawn bar chart that has been drawn without a ruler, where the
axes have not been drawn on the grid lines of the squared/graph paper, where the scale on the y-axis is not uniform,
spaces between the bars are not equal, etc. Another example could be a pictogram where the key is not interpreted
correctly for a partial picture, where there is no key or where the pictures are of different sizes.
Plenaries
• From the same set of data, get students to create 3 or 4 different bar charts with all but one of the bar charts drawn
to be misleading. Graphs can be made misleading by changing the scale on the y-axis, not starting the scale at zero
or having unequal bar widths (introduction to histograms). If different parties want to use the same data to support
their opposing views, consider which of these bar charts they would prefer to use.
Assessment ideas
• The S5 section of the standards unit has a card sort activity to match up bar charts and pie charts (and box plots).
This could be adapted to include pictograms, frequency tables or lists of data. It is useful to have some cards that do
not match or some incomplete cards. (greatmathsteachingideas.com)
• Students draw flow charts to show what types of diagram might be reasonably constructed for a particular data
set. They should consider both the type of data (discrete, etc) as well as the purpose of the diagram (comparison,
computation of statistics, etc).
SECTION 3F / 3H: PIE CHARTS
Section 3 focuses on interpreting and drawing pie charts. Pie charts show proportions, and so are a great way to
reinforce multiplicative methods such as the unitary method.

Prompting questions
These questions should promote discussion among students.
• Is it important to always start the first sector at 12 o’clock? Does the order of segments matter?
• Draw two nearly identical pie charts to represent two countries A and B showing that around 20% of adults smoke
(and 80% do not). Which country (A or B) has more smokers? Replacing ‘A’ with, for example, China and ‘B’ with a
country with a small population (such as Belgium) should reinforce the point that pie charts show proportion not
numbers.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H): Did the angles you calculated add up to 360 degrees?
No. Why not? Because of rounding.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H): Which country has the biggest population?
You can’t tell from the pie chart because pie charts show proportions not actual numbers.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H): I interview another 30 students and every one of them says their favourite leisure activity is reading.
How would this change the pie chart?
The reading sector would get bigger and the others smaller.

Plenaries
• Students to be given a pie chart (without numerical labels) and the size of population. They should work backwards
to find the frequency of each sector. This will raise issues of bounds and accuracy.
Starters or plenaries
• These three pie charts illustrate how difficult it is to compare two sectors of a pie chart and how, generally, a bar
chart is a better representation of data. Hiding the bar charts and getting students to order the sectors is an effective
way to use this graph (later revealing the bar charts). (Wikimedia.org)
• As an extension activity, students could devise a method to draw comparative pie charts (for two data sets) where the
area is proportional to the size of the population. Doubling the population does not double the radius...
SECTION 4H: CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY GRAPHS AND HISTOGRAMS
The higher-only section starts with a discussion of cumulative frequency diagrams. One possible way of introducing
cumulative frequency is described below as a starter activity.
Histograms are a form of diagram that most students struggle to interpret and to draw. Working with unequal classes
can sometimes confuse students. These are covered in Q4b in the Chapter review and also Homework 2E and Chapter 2
Review in the Higher Homework Book.
Prompting questions
Histograms
• Is it still a histogram if the bars are the same width?
Yes! Most histograms used in reality (but not in GCSE maths exams) have classes with equal width.
• How would we plot a histogram where the final class doesn’t have a specified end point (e.g. ages, where the final
age is stated as 80+)?

Exercise 2E (H)
• Q1 (H) How many classes did you have? What were your boundaries? How did you decide on the boundaries?
The text suggests 5–10 classes, ranging roughly from 150–350, therefore class widths of about 20 is appropriate for 10
classes (or wider if fewer classes).
• Q2 (H) Why do we plot cumulative frequency points at the (right-hand) end of the class interval?
To include all possible temperatures in that class interval.
• What difference does it make if the points of a cumulative frequency diagram are joined up with a straight line
compared to a curve (an ‘ogive’)? Any predictions we make might be different. Joining with straight lines ‘linearly
interpolates’ within each group.
• Q3 (H) How can cumulative frequency graphs be used to estimate the median value and the quartiles?
There are 60 results so the median will be the 30th one. Draw a horizontal line from the cumulative frequency of 30
across to the graph. Then go vertically down to find the median time. For quartiles, do the same for the 15th and 45th
results.

Starters
By Price
£0–£50 (31)
£50–£100 (16)
£100–£500 (17)
£500–£1,000 (42)
• As an introduction to cumulative frequency, online shopping websites can provide a nice starter. For example,
B&Q’s website has a filter to narrow searches by price: it shows how many items in each price band (in the example
above it is Kitchen worktops). Project the filter for one particular category, and ask pupils questions like ‘How many
worktops can I buy if I have £50’ (31) ‘How about if I have £49’ (we don’t know, because those 31 might all cost £50).
There are also issues with overlapping boundaries, for example if a worktop does cost £50, does it appear in the first
or second class? (diy.com)
Plenaries
• Deciles are like quartiles but there are ten and not four. How could we use a cumulative frequency graph to estimate
the seventh decile? What might a centile be? What does the tallest bar of a histogram represent?
Strangely, it is the modal class.
• When could this differ from the modal class we would calculate from a frequency table? See the activities on The
Math Forum. (mathforum.org)
• Provide students with a partially completed frequency table and histogram (for example, with only one row and one
bar given) and ask them to complete both.
• Provide students with an unlabelled histogram (no scale on the y-axis) and its total frequency, and ask them to work
out the frequency of one bar.
Assessment ideas
• Students construct model answers for examination questions on histograms, showing their working clearly.

SECTION 4F / 5H: LINE GRAPHS FOR TIME-SERIES DATA
This section is introduced by an example of a line graph showing daily temperature. Line graphs are used frequently
in science and geography, so this topic creates an opportunity for cross-curricular links. Students sometimes have
difficulty recognising which chart or graph is required in the context of other subjects.
Prompting questions
Exercise 2E (F) / 2F (H)
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) Look at the graph. What would it look like if the y-axis started at zero?
The detail would be very small because it would be squashed in the very top of the graph. Using ‘index numbers’ like
this question does is one situation where it is permissible to have the y-axis not starting at zero.
• Use this same graph to predict what will happen to the numbers of buses and coaches over the next 10 years.
The general trend is one of decrease, but there have been points over the last 10 years when the number of buses and
coaches was higher than in 2002. We cannot be sure, but a steady decrease would be the most likely scenario.

• Ask colleagues for data from a recent science experiment that students in your school have completed. This data
could be represented using the techniques being developed in maths, which will generally differ from those used
in science subjects. Graphs that will also be used in a recent or subsequent topic in another subject can also be
displayed and discussed (e.g. for geography, graphs of population, weather etc.)
• Consider several predictions made from a time–series graph, discuss the relative merit of each statement and state
which predictions will be more likely to be correct.
• Time-series graphs are used regularly in the media. Students could be asked to bring in an example of a time-series
graph and make up their own questions based on it. Another student could then attempt to answer these questions
and then make up some more of their own. Examples of time–series graphs found in the media regularly include
petrol prices, stock prices, or exam results (number of pupils achieving 5 A*–C at GCSE).
• The NRICH task What’s the weather like? provides data for three different UK towns over the last 50 years and
suggestions for suitable research questions. (nrich.maths.org)
• This data was taken from the Met Office website so this investigation could easily be adapted to your local area.
(metoffice.gov.uk)
• Q7 (H) Gives traffic volume as an index number, which is the percentage change in traffic volume from 2002. An
extension would be to examine index numbers, including RPI.
• (Higher only) Another extension, and a thought-provoking exercise, is to examine a time–series graph of world
population and link it to exponential growth.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Ideas from Chapter 19 (F) / 20 (H) are important to take into account when considering methods of sampling and
potential bias.
Future learning
• Methods of analysing data, for example averages, are covered in Chapter 3.

Gateway to A-level
• Histograms at A-level introduce added complexities. Firstly, end points may be less obvious and students may need
to consider bounds. Secondly, the area of bars become proportional to frequency rather than equal to it.
• The idea of area below a curve representing (or being proportional to) frequency becomes increasingly important as
students begin considering distributions such as this normal.
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 1 Questions 1, 7 • Chapter 1 Question 1
• Chapter 7 Questions 1, 9, 10
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
• 16 (F) / 19 (H) worksheets (+ solutions)
• 7 (F) / 9 (H) 9 animated widgets
• 7 (F) / 14 (H) interactive walkthroughs
• 5 (F) / 8 (H) auto-marked quickfire quizzes
• 5 (F) / 8 (H) auto-marked question sets, each with four levels
Time-saving sheets
• 1 cm squared paper
• 2 mm graph paper
• Axis grids from -10 to 10 in x and -10 to 10 in y
• Circle outlines (for plotting pie charts)

3F / 3H Analysing data
• How to use their calculator accurately to perform calculations, especially how to divide using brackets for the
dividend (numerator) or the fraction key.
• How to find the mean, median, mode and range of a set of data.
• How to plot coordinates on a set of axes.
• How to decide whether a gradient is positive or negative.
• (Higher only) How to construct cumulative frequency diagrams.
Additional useful prior knowledge

Inequality notation for class intervals.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Calculate summary statistics from raw and grouped • Calculate summary statistics from raw and grouped
data. data.
• Compare two or more sets of data. • Compare two or more sets of data.
• Estimate quartiles from a cumulative frequency
diagram.
Section 2 Section 2
• Identify why a graph may be misleading. • Identify why a graph may be misleading.
Section 3 Section 3
• Construct scatter diagrams. • Construct scatter diagrams.
• Describe correlation. • Describe correlation.
• Draw a line of best fit. • Draw a line of best fit.
• Identify outliers. • Identify outliers.
Vocabulary
• Bivariate data, correlation, dependent variable, outlier.
• Not realising that modal is the adjective form of mode.

• When using a calculator to work out the mean, typing (for example) 14 + 15 + 15 ÷ 3 rather than (14 + 15 + 15) ÷ 3. Use
these numbers as the money that three friends each have. The incorrect mean of £34 is clearly nonsense.
• When calculating the mean from a frequency table there are several common errors:
-- Dividing by the number of classes rather than the total frequency.
Draw a frequency table showing the number of passengers (from 1 to 5) in 100 taxis. If dividing by 5 rather than
100, the average number of people in a taxi will be nonsense.

-- Simply adding up the frequencies and dividing by the number of classes.

For the frequency table showing the number of passengers in 100 taxis, if students add up the values in the
frequency column they will arrive at the total of 100. Dividing 100 by 5 (the number of classes) gives an answer of
20, which is clearly nonsense if the maximum number of passengers is 5.
-- Adding up the values in the class column and dividing by the number of classes. In our taxi example,
(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) ÷ 5. The answer won’t be so obviously wrong.
-- For a grouped frequency table, the student adds up the midpoints instead.
• Forgetting to order values before finding the median.
• Forgetting what to do if there are two numbers when working out averages: if the mode, we give both; if the median,
we find their midpoint. Justify that we can’t find the midpoint of vanilla and strawberry ice cream.
• Students thinking that the range is a type of average. The range is a measure of spread and puts the average into
context, especially when comparing data.
• (Higher) When working out quartiles, giving ‘15’ as the lower quartile, if there are 60 items rather than the value of
the 15th item.
Hooks
• Hans Rosling’s 200 Countries, 200 Years, 4 minute video shows wonderfully animated scatter diagrams that
describe the wealth and health of nations through the past two centuries. This chapter describes how graphical
representations can be used to make sense of real world sets of data and this video really shows the power of
such visualisations. In our notes on section 3 we describe how students can create such graphs for themselves.
(gapminder.org)
• Students always engage more readily if the data they are analysing means something to them. Generate some data
for the class to use such as the percentage scores from a recent homework or test (with names removed). Analyse if
they are improving their scores or find out if there is any correlation between their score on a number-based topic
compared to an algebra-based topic.
• Challenge students to answer the 60 times table or other basic numeracy questions faster than teachers. Present the
teachers’ data in a frequency table to then compare to the generated raw data for the students.
SECTION 1F / 1H: AVERAGES AND RANGE / SUMMARY STATISTICS
Section 1 reviews the three averages students must learn for GCSE. Many students struggle to remember which is which;
most classes will have a variety of good mnemonics that students will be keen to share. Students studying for higher
tier will also need to learn about quartiles. (Teachers should be aware that methods to work out quartiles are not well
defined, with at least seven different methods.)
Prompting questions
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Why is it an estimate of the mean/median/range rather than the actual value?
Because the data is grouped, we don’t know the actual values.
• The midpoint × frequency for the first row is 37.5. What does this number actually represent?
An estimate that those 15 people together had a total of 37.5 days absent from work.
• If the company had a few members of staff signed off sick for longer periods of time, they might record this in a class
with interval d > 25. How would you deal with this class when calculating an estimate of the mean?
We would have to choose a sensible midpoint. To do this accurately you would need more information about the length
of absences.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Why did you choose the class intervals you did? How will the estimated mean be affected if you made
the class intervals bigger/smaller/unequal?
The answer to this will depend on the student, but should lead to some discussion.

• How does your estimate of the range differ from the true range?
It is an overestimate.
• Will the estimate always be an overestimate?
Yes, unless there is a piece of data at the lowest and highest endpoints of class intervals.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H)If I gave you another table with the same data, but written in centimetres rather than metres, what
would happen to the mean / mode / range?
It would be multiplied by 100.
• Oh no! The health club’s height measurer is found to always give readings 2 cm too short. We add 2 cm to every
height to compensate. What would happen to the mean?
Increase by 2 cm.
• What would happen to the range?
Stay the same.
Exercise 3B (H)
• Q1 (H) If there are 30 members of a bingo club, which person(s) is the median?
The 15th and 16th.
• Why is it alright to just read off the 15th value from the graph?
Because the data are grouped, we are making an estimate. With a large number of people it would make little
difference.
• Q3 (H) How many trains took longer than the upper quartile?
24.
• How many took less time than the median?
16.
• What advantage does the IQR have over the range?
It is unaffected by any outliers.
Exercise 3B (F) / 3C (H)

• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) If Ahmed and Bill’s data wasn’t about runs in cricket but was the number of strokes in golf, how would
your conclusions change?
In golf a lower number is better so the position would be reversed.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Which would you rather take: a bus that takes on average 10 minutes with a range of 20 or a bus that
takes on average 12 minutes with a range of 1?
This question should prompt discussion between students.
• Q7 (H) The mean of these salaries is £93 300 as compared to the median of £81 500. Why is the mean so much higher?
The median does not take direct account of the two people who earn very (very) high salaries: £256 000 and £345 000.
The mean, however, does.
• Is the mode a useful measure for this data?
No, not really because most values only occur once. (Grouping the data and finding the modal class may be useful.)

Starters
• The textbook’s earnings example could be extended with some other occupations. Each of these could be written on
a card and given to ten students. For the median, the students could arrange themselves in salary order. Students
could also work out the mean. It should be clear to students that the ‘workers’ will want to use the mean in any

argument to justify a pay rise, but that the median may be a more representative measure. Indeed, it can be helpful
to think of the median as the ‘wage of the average worker’, rather than the ‘average wage’.
Plenaries
5 star: (5)
4 star: (29)
3 star: (31)
2 star: (18)
1 star: (8)
• Many online shopping websites allow customers to rate products on a discrete scale, typically 1–5. From these
ratings they calculate an average rating, usually rounded to the nearest half star. If you project the bar graph for a
product students are interested in (music? film? game?), but hide the average rating, students could calculate the
average. This also allows students to think carefully about rounding to an unfamiliar degree of accuracy, for example,
halves. When do they round up or round down?
• Show the class four different versions of a solution for the estimated mean from a grouped frequency table. Three
of the solutions are incorrect and each highlight one of the common errors discussed earlier. Ask students to spot
which solution is correct and explain what the mistakes were in the other examples. This could be done as a class
discussion or students could work together to annotate a paper copy which could then be displayed in the classroom
for future reference/as a reminder.
• The TV show ‘2point4 Children’ is named after a statistic that suggested the average number of children per family
was 2.4. Are any of the students’ families ‘average’? Is it possible to be ‘average’? You could calculate the average
number of children in your class’s families and see how close it is to the current quoted average, 1.6 or so.
• Students could look at recent news stories that report on data to see whether the type of average is specified (it
rarely is!). They could then go to the source of the data, to find for themselves how the analysis was actually done.
• Pick a future sporting event (it could be for a school team, football championship or an international event such as
the Olympics). There is only one spot left on the team and the coach is unsure which player to choose. Give students
the statistics for several players and tell them that, in a group, they need to use this data to present a case for one of
the players. Each group has a different player to represent.
Assessment ideas
• The processes introduced in this section give lots of scope for calculation errors. Presenting students with ‘answers’
to questions that contain subtle mistakes is a good way of assessing their understanding of the processes and ideas
in use.
2F / 2H: MISLEADING GRAPHS
Section 2 explains different ways that graphs may be constructed that do not give a true representation of the
underlying data. In some cases this may be through naiveté. In others, it may be an intentional distortion to enhance the
claims of a product or service, or to justify a policy.
Prompting questions
Exercise 3C (F) / 3D (H)
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) If you don’t have crime rate data for 2001–2004, how could you legitimately draw the graph? Is it valid
to join up the line?

It is probably not justified to join up the points as they imply a trend that may (or may not) be present. A graph with
three data points over ten years isn’t very convincing!

Starters
• The internet is a rich source of poor graphs, with many websites set up to dissect their failings. One with some good
examples is Statistics How To. Students are generally quick to spot how the graphs may mislead, which can then be
covered more formally using the introduction and questions in the textbook. (statisticshowto.com)
Plenaries
• Q1 (F) shows what most people expect crime rates to do, which is go up. Showing the true data (e.g. search for ‘UK
crime rates’ on the internet) can be surprising for many students (and teachers!).
• Students could seek out misleading graphs on the internet and present their favourite. The ‘junkcharts’ website is a
good starting point. (junkcharts.typepad.com)
• Give the class a data set, for example traffic accidents over the past few years. They should aim to create a graph that
overemphasises the trend using the techniques they have learnt.
SECTION 3F / 3H: SCATTER DIAGRAMS
Section 3 introduces one of the most powerful statistical diagrams, the scatter diagram. At GCSE, lines of best fit are still
done ‘by eye’. Finally, an informal idea of an outlier is discussed. Note that more detailed discussion of interpolation and
extrapolation is available in GCSE Mathematics Online.
Prompting questions
Exercise 3D (F) / 3E (H)
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) I am looking to buy a car with a 1.5 litre engine. How many miles per gallon (mpg) would you expect?
58.5… from graph.
• I am looking to buy a Hummer H1 with a 6.2 litre engine. Can you use the same graph to predict its mpg?
Not accurately since there are no data bigger than 3 litres; we would be extrapolating.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Which is the independent variable?
The maximum temperature.
• Which axis should this go on?
The horizontal (x) axis.

• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Which of the test scores did you decide is an outlier?
The 85.
• What explanations are there for this result?
It might be real! It could be misrecorded (e.g. it was actually 58 but the digits were transposed). Lots more possibilities!
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) National Rail consider trains to be ‘late’ if they arrive more than ten minutes after the published
arrival time. If the normal time for the journey is 115 minutes, how many of these trains would be considered as late?
5.
• What is this as a percentage of the trains?
25%.

• Nationally 91% of trains are ‘on time’. Should the company running the train in the question be concerned?
Yes!

Starters and enrichment activities
• Students can use the Gapminder World website to produce similar graphs to Hans Rosling’s 200 Countries, 200
Years, 4 Minutes video described earlier. They are able to do this for a whole host of other variables. Higher attaining
students can also experiment with logarithmic scales. (gapminder.org)
Plenaries
• Anscombe’s quartet consists of four sets of data that look very different when plotted on a scatter diagram, yet have
identical statistical properties (such as line of best fit, correlation coefficient, mean, etc.). Groups of students could
calculate these for just one of the four data sets. This quartet demonstrates the usefulness of graphical techniques
even with statistical packages that can calculate summary statistics from raw data. (wikipedia.org)
• The spurious correlations website is a great way to demonstrate the adage ‘correlation does not imply causation’
(tylervigen.com). This shows a variety of sets of data that show high correlation but with no obvious causal link
(e.g. ‘marriage rate in Washington DC’ against ‘number of video games sold in the UK’ is negatively correlated with
r = −0.995). However, the data sets do not have scatter diagrams so students might draw these and create spurious
predictions. Marcus du Sautoy explains another few examples of correlation versus causation at the end of this
Painting with numbers video, including the story of a US governor who believed that having books in the house
would make a child smarter. (tes.co.uk)
• For a well-plotted scatter diagram (e.g. printed for students), students should draw a line of best fit. They should then
all make a prediction from their graph. What is the range of values within the class?
• Show some very wrong looking lines of best fit, including one drawn through the origin when there is a negative
correlation. Ask students to explain what is going wrong.
Assessment ideas
• If students can make sense of the XKCD correlation cartoon, they will probably understand the difference between
correlation and causation! (xkcd.com)
• Make links with the science department. Is there an experiment that students have done recently, which would
utilise a scatter diagram with a linear line of best fit? If students have drawn scatter diagrams in science, they could
be scanned and then peer- or self-assessment could be used during the maths lessons.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• After the introduction of grouped frequency tables, this is a good opportunity to construct some cumulative
frequency diagrams. Many pupils fall into the habit of plotting the cumulative frequency diagram at the midpoint of
each class (like when estimating the median) rather than the end points.
Future learning
• Although it is rarely assessed, pupils could find the equation of the line of best fit and use this equation to predict
data values, especially extrapolated data.
Gateway to A-level
• Standard deviation: a more sophisticated measure of spread (like range and IQR).

• Linear regression: the process of creating an equation to represent a line of best fit that can be quickly used to make
predictions.
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 1 Question 2 • Chapter 1 Questions 2, 12
• Chapter 7 Question 11 • Chapter 6 Questions 1, 2, 11
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
• 3 (F) / 5 (H) animated widgets
Time-saving sheets

4F / 4H Properties of integers
• Listing the factors and multiples of a number.

• Recognising square, cube and prime numbers.
• Expressing a number as a product of its prime factors.
• (Higher only) Writing a series of numbers that have been multiplied together in index form.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To recall and understand key definitions. • To recall and understand key definitions.
• To consolidate understanding of basic place value. • To consolidate their understanding of basic place
value.
Section 2 Section 2
• To apply their knowledge of factors and primes to • To apply their knowledge of factors and primes to
express a number as a product of its prime factors. express a number as a product of its prime factors.
• To simplify a collection of numbers that have been • To simplify a collection of numbers that have been
multiplied together by writing them in index form. multiplied together by writing them in index form.
Section 3 Section 3
• To use the ‘listing method’ to find the highest common • To use the ‘listing method’ to find the highest
factor and lowest common multiple of a set of numbers. common factor and lowest common multiple of a
set of numbers.
• To use a prime factor tree to find the highest common
factor and lowest common multiple of a set of numbers. • To use a prime factor tree to find the highest
common factor and lowest common multiple of a
set of numbers.
Vocabulary
• Consecutive, prime factor, whole number
• That 1 is a prime number

• That there is no even prime number
• Students use other operations other than the correct multiplication symbol
• Students may confuse 34 as 3 × 4 rather than 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
Hooks
Kim’s game. This topic requires students to recognise and understand various types of number. A great way to introduce
or recap this knowledge is through a quick activity called Kim’s game. Ten mathematic facts are displayed on the screen.

Students get the opportunity to study the facts but cannot write anything down. A fact is removed every 30 seconds or
so. Students need to record this fact. An example can be seen below.
A prime number All numbers can

be expressed as a The only even
has exactly two
product of their prime number is 2.
factors.
prime factors.
The LCM is the smallest

number that is a The prime numbers HCF stands for
34 means
below 10 are: highest common
multiple of two or 3 × 3 × 3 × 3.
more numbers. 2, 3, 5 and 7. factor.
The factors of 60 The factors of a The first five

are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, prime number are multipliers of 13
10, 12, 15, 20, 30 itself and 1. are 13, 26, 39, 52
and 60. and 65.
SECTION 1F / 1H: TYPES OF NUMBERS / REVIEW OF NUMBER PROPERTIES
This section recaps defining basic mathematical terms and their meanings and also placing value.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What is the difference between a factor and a multiple?
Factors fit into a number without leaving a remainder.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) What is the only even prime number and why?
Two, all other even numbers are multiples of two.
• As an extension, can you use algebra to prove why the sum of two odd numbers is even (and so on with other
questions)?
Let n = a number, therefore we can say the first odd number is 2n – 1 and the second 2n + 1. If we find the sum of these
two numbers, (2n – 1) + (2n + 1) = 4n. Since 4n = 2(2n) then all values of n are even.

• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Which place value column is 100 times bigger than the units column?
Hundreds, for example: 4 × 100 = 400
• Explain why you cannot place the number 11 into the units column.
The number 11 consists of one ten and 1 unit.

Starters
• Give each student a hundred square. Identify a number on the grid and create a series of clues based on its
properties (this needs to be unique). Read the clues aloud. The students can use their grid to identify the number.
After this, students can create their own clues for a selected number.
• NRICH task ‘Factors and multiples game’. A game that can be played as a class versus a teacher or boy versus girl,
etc. Each player has to take in turn to choose a number between 1–100 that is a multiple or factor of the previous
number. This can also be used as a challenge instead where students attempt to get the longest string of numbers.
(nrich.maths.org)

• NRICH task ‘Factors and multiples puzzle’ is a challenging puzzle that asks students to arrange numbers in a
table based on different headings, for example multiple of 3. To differentiate this activity the teacher could place the
headings on the table before giving to the students.(nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH task ‘Sieve of Eratosthenes’ is an excellent way of students identifying prime numbers. This activity also
helps students to understand what a prime number is. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH task How much can we spend? is an activity based on lower common multiples. (nrich.maths.org)
• The National Stem Centre has a selection of number based activities. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
• Also at the National Stem Centre is the activity covering factors, multiples and primes ‘who dunnit’.
(nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
• NRICH task ‘Take three from five’. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 2F / 2H: PRIME FACTORS
Section 2 focuses on prime factors.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Why would it not be a good idea to divide the number by one when creating a factor tree?
This would just duplicate the previous branch of the tree.
• When creating a factor tree, does it matter which factor pair you start with as the first ‘branches’?
No
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Can every number be made using products of primes?
Yes, any integer greater than one.
• Could any two numbers have the same prime number decomposition?
No.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What is the difference between 33 and 3 × 3?
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) How many unique prime factor trees can you create for the number you identified in part a? Do they
all result in the same product of primes?
Yes, they do. It doesn’t matter which factors are chosen at first.

• Prime Factor trees song. Search ‘Prime Factors song’ online.
• Pupils get pieces of ‘incorrect homework’. They need to identify the mistakes and correct the homework.
• Show students how to apply prime decomposition to be able to easily simplify fractions and hence use this as a
‘trick’ for division. Ask them to create ‘difficult’ division questions for each other to solve (such as 1512 ÷ 54) where,
thanks to prime decomposition, they know there must be an integer solution.
• Investigate in how many ways can the number 1 000 000 be expressed as the product of three positive integers?
(NRICH ‘Factoring a Million’ task at nrich.maths.org).
• NRICH ‘Gaxinta’. (nrich.maths.org)

SECTION 3F / 3H: MULTIPLES AND FACTORS
Section 3 focuses on lowest common multiples (LCM) and highest common factors (HCF). It also focuses on how to find
the HCF and LCM using prime factors.
Prompting questions
Whilst working through the exercise, good prompts or questions for students might be:
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) Why is it useful to find the LCM for this question?
This is the most efficient way of recording the information.

• Visualisation of prime numbers. (datapointed.net)
• NRICH ‘Got it’. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH ‘Counting Cogs’ task. (nrich.maths.org)
• Cicada multiples investigation available at teachMathematics (teachmathematics.net). A video to introduce this is
available at The BBC website (bbc.co.uk). Students might like to use a Venn diagram to find the HCF and LCM of a
pair of numbers. See the example in the diagram below.
HFC and LCM of 36 and 48.
36 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3
48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
6 6
2 3 2 3
48 36 48
2
3 2 2
4 12 3
2
2 2 2 6
2 3
HCF = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12
LCM = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 2 × 2 = 192
• Students might like to investigate the fact that the HCF of two numbers must be a factor of the difference between
them. Students might like to investigate and try to explain why this is the case.
TOPIC LINKS
• Indices: Students will need to express the product of primes in index form.
• Fractions: Writing fractions in their simplest form.
• Algebraic expressions: Factorising expressions
Previous learning
• Students should be able to multiply and divide integers.

• Indices: Students should understand index notation and be able to express a series of repeated multiplications in this
way.

Future learning
• Whole numbers that are used in indices, see Chapter 14 for further information.
Gateway to A-level
• Indices
• The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets
• Crossword puzzle (for use with Chapter review question 1)

5F / 5H Working with fractions

• The meanings of the words: denominator, numerator, common denominator, multiple, factor, equivalent and
reciprocal.
• To be able to use formal and informal methods, and algorithms, both mental and written, for the four operations.
• To be able to find the LCM and HCF of a set of numbers.
• To know and be able to apply the laws of operations (BIDMAS).
• To know that ‘of’ refers to the operation ‘multiply’.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To apply knowledge of factors and multiples to simplify • To apply knowledge of factors and multiples to
fractions and identify equivalent fractions. simplify fractions and identify equivalent fractions.
• To apply and explain an algorithm to find the
median fraction.
Section 2 Section 2
• To apply the four operations to fractions • To apply the four operations to fractions .
• To apply knowledge of completing the four operations • To apply knowledge of completing the four
with fractions to solve problems. operations with fractions to solve problems.
Section 3 Section 3
• To calculate fractions of amounts • To calculate fractions of amounts.
• To express one number as a fraction of another. • To express one number as a fraction of another.
Vocabulary
• Common denominator, numerator, reciprocal.
• Students often make the mistake of adding the denominators when adding two fractions. Using the following
1 1 2
example to show them why this is incorrect will help them to understand why this doesn’t work + ≠ .
2 2 4
2 1
Students should be able to recognise that is equivalent to so they cannot end up with one half when they
4 2
added two halves together! This misconception is also applied when adding two fractions with different numerators.
2 1 3
Students may think that + = .
5 3 8
• When multiplying two mixed numbers, students might think that that they can multiply the integers and multiply the
1 1 1 1 1 1
fractions together then find the sum of the result. For example, 2 × 3 ≠ (2 × 3) + ( × ) = 6 + = 6 Instead,
3 3 3 2 6 6
students could think about how they could apply their knowledge of expanding double brackets to assist or convert
their fractions to improper fractions before they begin.

Hooks
• NRICH Countdown Fractions is a great way of assessing what students know and, if played throughout the topic,
students can see the progress they are making as they become better at it. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 1F / 1H: EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS
This section introduces equivalent fractions and then builds on this to introduce simplifying fractions.
The first part of the explanation introduces the idea of equivalent fractions by thinking about pieces of pizza. For
students that might struggle with the concept of equivalent fractions, it would be useful to have pizzas (or cardboard
equivalents) cut into different sized pieces to demonstrate this. Students can then physically work out how many sixths
make a third, etc.
Prompting questions
Whilst working through the exercises, good prompts for promoting a discussion might be:
• What types of numbers would lead to a fraction that is impossible to simplify?
• Q7 (F) / Q5 (H) All of the fractions in the question simplify. What properties of the numerators or denominators make
this possible?
Prompting questions
Exercise 5B (H)
• Q4 (H) If students are struggling to explain why it works or the concept of median fractions then direct them to
investigate with fractions that have a numerator of 1. This will help them to generalise much more easily. A proof is
offered at The Math Forum. (mathforum.org)

• For students that may struggle with visualising equivalent fractions, a fraction wall can be very useful. Students can
create their own (using squared paper) or there is an interactive version available. (visnos.com)
• Odd one out. Give students a collection of fractions where all but one of them are equivalent. Students should justify
their answer and explain it mathematically.

• Fractions and music. Students can use the link between music and fractions to contextualise equivalent fractions.
They can use the facts shown below to create their own clapping rhythm. For example, students could be given four
bars to fill with notes. They can create their clapping rhythm using this idea ensuring that they have used all four
bars.
Musical fractions
Whole
Half
Quarter
Eighth
Sixteenth
SECTION 2F / 2H: USING THE FOUR OPERATIONS WITH FRACTIONS
This section introduces adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions.
Prompting questions
Whilst working through the exercises, good prompts for promoting discussion might be:
1 2 1 2 2 2
• What is wrong and what is right about the following calculation? 3 ×9 = (3 × 9) + ( × ) = 27 + = 12 .
3 5 3 5 15 15
1
Half of the required calculations have been completed. However, the following two calculations are needed: × 9 and
3
2 2 6 1
3× . So final answer is 27 + +3+ = 31 .
5 15 5 3
• When dividing fractions, why is it possible to multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the second?
Search online for ‘dividing fractions videos’ for a variety of helpful tutorials.
Exercise 5B (F) / 5C (H)
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Why might it be better to convert mixed numbers to improper fractions before multiplying or dividing
them?
There are fewer calculations to do. For example, just multiply the numerators and then denominators.
• Q7 (F) / Q6 (H) In what order should you do the calculations? Why is it important to apply the laws of BIDMAS?
Students should apply the laws of BIDMAS so that they get the correct answer.
• Q2 (F) What arithmetic is needed here?
Multiplication and subtraction. Some students may just find out how many raisins there are.
• Q6 (H) Instead of cutting up the cakes into (24) equal parts, how could the sharing of the cake be done?
Each person could get a full quarter, the last quarter is then cut into six equal parts.


Starters
• (Foundation only) This section starts with a useful activity that provides a visual way of demonstrating how to
multiply fractions. This idea can be turned into a kinaesthetic activity with the use of some paper and colouring pens.
The PDF available from School on Wheels explains the activity very well. (schoolonwheels.org)
Starters or Plenaries
• From the Number Loving website, Adding and Comparing Fractions Top Trumps is a game for students to play.
Most students know how to play top trumps. This particular activity instructs students to compare and add fractions.
(numberloving.com)
• Improving Learning in Mathematics ‘Dissecting a square’ available from the National STEM Centre Archive.
• NRICH Fractions Jigsaw is an alternative way to practise the four rules with fractions rather than use a traditional
textbook exercise. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH ‘Peaches Today, Peaches Tomorrow’ is an excellent activity to practise finding fractions of amounts. (nrich.
maths.org)
• Music and fractions. Students can create their own musical instruments and practise multiplying fractions at the
same time. Students will need eight glass containers that are the same size. Students will need to calculate how
much liquid to put into each container based on the fractions shown in the diagram below. Students could then play
simple music with their creations!
8 4 3 2 3 8 1
1 9 5 4 3 5 15 2
C D E F G A B C
Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti Do
• The Number Loving website Adding Fraction Mystery is an activity where the answer is not as easy as just adding
two fractions together. Students will need to sort through the clues and work out how much money a person has
after paying for bills, etc. This is also a nice link to financial education. (numberloving.com)
SECTION 3F / 3H: FRACTIONS OF QUANTITIES / FINDING FRACTIONS OF A QUANTITY
This section focuses on calculating fractions of quantities and writing a quantity as a fraction of another.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Which operation should you choose when you see the word ‘of’?
Multiply.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) Why is it important to have both parts of a question expressed in the same unit?
Fractions compare proportions. These proportions must be the same in order to compare correctly.
Exercise 5F (H)
• NRICH ‘Egyptian fractions’ is a great interactivity for this activity. There are also accompanying teacher notes and
solutions that might serve as a prompt or an extension for the textbook questions. (nrich.maths.org)

• The first explanation introduces four statements to students that involve fractions. To build on this idea students
could be shown a range of images from supermarkets where the calculations are incorrect. Students can then
discuss why they are incorrect. Here is a simple example:
Clensa natural
Face cream
£2.58 £1.93
• ‘Would you rather’ activities. Pose questions such as: Would you rather two thirds of three quarters or five sixths of
four fifths? etc.
• Make a ‘card matching’ or a Tarsia puzzle (this can be done using free software) (There are many ready-made
examples available on the internet and the TES website has a good collection to choose from). (mmlsoft.com)
• NRICH Ben’s Game is an excellent fractions-based activity that requires students to record their working effectively.
It also covers factors and multiples as well as calculating with fractions. (nrich.maths.org)
TOPIC LINKS
This topic links with almost every topic at GCSE and beyond. Examples include:
• Algebraic fractions – completing the four rules
• Vectors – solving vector problems
• Probability
Previous learning
• Completing the four rules with integers.
Future learning
• Problem-solving
• General use of calculations in most topics
• Vector notation (problems often involved a fraction of a vector)
• Algebraic fractions (four rules and simplifying)

Gateway to A-level
• Vectors: Solving vector problems

• Algebraic fractions
• As a feature in most topics
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 5 Questions 1, 2, 3 • Chapter 5 Question 1
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes

6F / 6H Working with decimals

• A concrete understanding of place value.

• How to multiply and divide by powers of 10.
• How to compare decimals and arrange them in order of size.
• The fractional equivalents of common decimals.
• How to use formal or informal methods to divide numbers that lead to decimals.
• How to round numbers to various significant figures or decimal places.
• How to compare and order integers.

• How to complete the four rules with integers.
• Be able to work confidently with place value.
• Know the fractional equivalents of some decimals.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To apply knowledge of place value to convert decimals • To apply knowledge of place value to convert
to fractions and order fractions. decimals to fractions and order fractions.
Section 2 Section 2
• To apply knowledge of rounding to estimate • To be able to add, subtract multiply and divide
calculations that involve decimals. decimals.
• To be able to add, subtract multiply and divide • To use a calculator to complete more complicated
decimals. calculations that involve decimals.
• To use a calculator to complete more complicated • To be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide
calculations that involve decimals. decimals without using a calculator.
Section 3
• To convert recurring decimals to fractions.
Vocabulary
• Students may believe that when multiplying by 10 you simply add a zero (similarly taking away a zero for dividing).
This may lead to some problems when multiplying and dividing decimals, for example 1.56 × 10 becomes 1.560.
• Students might find it challenging to divide a number by a decimal less than one. They may not understand the
reason why it makes the number larger. It might be useful to ask the student to convert the decimal to a fraction and
then complete the calculation so that they see why the number gets larger.
• When estimating calculations students might round decimals that are less than one to 1. For example, if a student
was estimating the calculation 345 ÷ 0.79 to 300 ÷ 1 instead of 300 ÷ 0.8.

Hooks
• The decimal song (search the internet for ‘the decimal song’) is a fun way of introducing what a decimal is while
emphasising the important of place value.
SECTION 1F / 1H: REVIEW OF DECIMALS AND FRACTIONS
This section reviews students’ understanding of: comparing decimals, converting fractions to decimals, converting
fractions to decimals.
Prompting questions
1 . 1
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) How could you use your prior knowledge of = 0.3 to work out what would be as a decimal?
3 9
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) Why it is useful to make all decimals the same length?

Starters
• To help students to visualise the decimals when comparing them in the exercises above the number line available on
Maths is Fun is very useful. (mathsisfun.com)
• Improving Learning in Mathematics ‘Mostly Number – N1 ‘ordering fractions and decimals’ available from the
National STEM Centre Archive. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
• Converting fractions to decimals game. Students can play against other students also logged in at Math Playground.
(mathplayground.com)
2F / 2H: CALCULATING WITH DECIMALS
This introduces adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing decimals.
Prompting questions
Exercise 6B (F)
• Q1–3 (F) / Q1–3 (H) Whilst working through the exercise ask students how they decided on how many significant
figures to round their numbers to and why.
• Whilst working through the exercise students could compare their results for each question and decide whose
estimate was better.
Exercise 6C (F) / 6B (H)
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Students should round their values to 1 sf to estimate.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) This method assumes that students use the bus stop method. Students may struggle to line their
work up and lack the basic understanding to know where the decimal place should be. Instead, they might like to
24
think of the questions as fractions, for example 24 ÷ 0.6 as students will be able to find an equivalent fraction
0.6
10 24 10 240
where the denominator is an integer by multiplying by . For example × = = 240 ÷ 6 = 40.
10 0.6 10 6

• Q2 (F) / Q1 (H) The chapter focuses on the long method for addition and subtraction. Some students might use the
number line method for both of these. For subtraction, this is called the difference method and can be seen below.
12.02 34.45
7 14
0.98 0.55
12.02 13 20 34 34.45
Exercise 6D (H)
• Q3 (H) Explain how to use your fraction button on your calculator to complete this calculation. If you aren’t using a
2
calculator why might it be best to convert into a decimal?
15

• The book describes multiplying and dividing decimals by ‘moving the decimal place’ or placing it back in. If students
are struggling to comprehend this they may find it useful to use a place value grid (as shown below) to exemplify why
the numbers move. If a number becomes 100 times bigger each digit moves two columns to the left.
TH H T u t h th
thousands hundreds tens units tenths hundredths thousandths
2 8 3 4
2 8 3 4
3 1 0 6 9
3 1 0 6 9
• Exercise 6C (F) / 6B (H) ask students to provide examples of how Andy’s method could work. Students could use
technology to record an informative video exemplifying this.
• Search the internet for ‘Gelosia method’ for this way of multiplying decimals. This could be used as a procedure or
students can begin to explain why it works.
• NRICH Does this sound about right? is an activity that introduces a series of statements for students to investigate
by estimating the calculations. (nrich.maths.org)
• Stick on the Maths has the activity ‘Understanding the effect of multiplying and dividing by numbers between 0 and
1’ (Level 7, CALC 2). (kangaroomaths.com)
Plenaries
• Takeaway menu maths. Give students a local takeaway menu (preferably ones with set menus). Students can work
out whether or not the set menus offer good value for money. They can then create their own and describe the
savings.
SECTION 3H: CONVERTING RECURRING DECIMALS TO EXACT FRACTIONS
a
This section focuses on converting recurring decimals to fractions in the form of .
b

Prompting questions
Exercise 6E (H)
3
• Q2 (H) What do you notice about the decimal ? What might you need to do to this fraction in order to make
Nazeem’s theory correct? 6
3
is not simplified. All fractions must be written in their simplest form.
6
Exercise 6F (H)
• Q2 (H) All of the examples use decimals where all of the digits after the decimal place recur. In that case it is easy to
.
see how the decimal relates to the fraction. What about if not all of the digits recur? For example, 0.56 how does it
relate to the fraction now?
If all of the digits recur then the denominator will be 9 if one digit recurs, 99 if two digits recur and so on. If the second
digit recurs then the denominator will be 90 and so on.
.. .
• Q3 (H) What is the difference between the decimals 0.21 and 0.21? How is the procedure different for converting
these decimals to fractions? Why?
.. .
0.21 is 0.212121212121…
.. and 0.21 is 0.211111111111111…..
. Students will have to find a different multiple of x for each
question. For 0.21 it’ll be 100x−x and for 0.21 it’ll be 100x−10x.

Starters
• Students might be asked to prove that a recurring decimal converts to an exact fraction. It is important to point out
some algebraic conventions, for example that x is a variable and that it is important to state ‘let x =’ etc.
• The NRICH Repetitiously task will introduce converting recurring decimals to fractions. (nrich.maths.org)
• Stick on the Maths activity ‘Understand the equivalence between recurring decimals and fractions’ (Level 8, NNS1).
(kangaroomaths.com)
TOPIC LINKS
Decimals and fractions are part of almost all topics at GCSE and beyond. There is obviously a strong link between
fractions, percentages and ratio.
Previous learning
• Completing the four rules with integers

• Ordering integers
• Place value
Future learning
• Students will use a similar method to the one learnt here in Chapter 7.
• General use of calculations in most topics. There are few topics where they will not apply their understanding of this
content.

Gateway to A-Level
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes

7F / 7H Basic algebra
• How to add, subtract, multiply and divide directed numbers.

• What a power is and does, for example squaring and cubing.
• (Higher only) Laws of indices.
• (Higher only) Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions.
• How the laws of commutativity, associativity and distributivity apply to numerical operations, for example that
addition is commutative but that subtraction isn’t so whilst 3 + 5 = 5 + 3 the same does not hold for subtraction.
The language of these laws is used in the chapter and whilst it would be beneficial for students to know the formal
language of these laws, understanding what they mean for each operation will be enough for foundation students.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Interpret and work with algebraic notation including • Interpret and work with algebraic notation including
an understanding of correct, formal language and an understanding of correct, formal language and
notation. notation.
• Form algebraic expressions from worded instructions • Simplify products and quotients and apply the index
and geometric problems. laws to simplify.
• Substitute to evaluate algebraic expressions for a given • Form algebraic expressions from worded
value. instructions and geometric problems.
Section 2 Section 2
• Simplify algebraic expressions by collecting like terms. • Simplify algebraic expressions by collecting like
terms.
• Simplify products and quotients.
• Simplify products and quotients.
Section 3 Section 3
• Expand the product of a single term and binomial. • Expand the product of a single term and binomial.
Section 4 Section 4
• Factorise out common factors and recognise that the • Factorise out common factors and recognise that
HCF must be factored out for an expression to be fully the HCF must be factored out for an expression to be
factorised. fully factorised.
Section 5 Section 5
• Form expressions from word problems and use algebra • Form expressions from word problems and use
to solve problems in different contexts including algebra to solve problems in different contexts
number problems. including number problems.
Vocabulary
• Variable, expression, term, expanding


There are a huge number of misconceptions that students encounter in understanding why letters are used in
mathematics. Research into this issue was published and it is worth reading Küchermann’s chapter in detail for
background knowledge of students’ use of letters in mathematics (Küchermann, D (1981) Algebra. In K. Hart. Children’s
Understanding of Mathematics: 11–16. London: Alden Press). The most common misconceptions are listed below:
• Using a letter as shorthand in place of an object rather than to represent the number of those objects.
For example, 3b = 3 bananas rather than 3 times the number of bananas. Avoiding introducing simplifying as
shorthand for collecting objects, for example 3 apples + 2 bananas + 2 apples = 5 apples and 2 bananas will help with
this.
• Confusing like terms with terms with the same letter so wanting to simplify terms that contain the same letter
regardless of its power.
Asking students to substitute in a number for the letter, for example 3, can help them identify why x and x2 are not
like terms and consequently their simplified expression is not equivalent to their starting point.
• Students don’t realise that 3b represents the product of 3 and the value of b so when substituting, for example
when b = 2, students replace b with 2 and get 32 rather than 6.
Avoiding discussing substitution as replacing the letter with the value given and instead introduce it as an extension
to work on function machines where discussions are connected to the work on forming expressions and the meaning
of the algebra in the expressions is explicit.
Hooks
• A member of one maths department likes to start a lesson by telling students she uses algebra to cook a chicken,
moving on to showing them a cooking label and the weight of the chicken and deriving a formula from the image.
Foundation year 11 students are often heard explaining how algebra is needed to cook a chicken.
• Playing games where the points are awarded for being as quick as possible and students sum the same value several
times, for example 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 and identify that those answering the problem quickest are
counting how many of the value they have and multiplying, for example 10 × 3 = 30. You may find this a useful way to
introduce simplifying and the use of a letter as a variable by repeating the same type of sum, for example
5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 6 × 5 or 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 = 6 × 7 to conclude that any number summed 6 times is the same as 6
times that number, or n + n + n + n + n + n = 6n.
SECTION 1F / 1H: ALGEBRAIC NOTATION
Section 1 introduces the basics of the language and conventions of algebra. Students are introduced to a lot of key
vocabulary in this section and learn to formulate expressions using formal conventions. In addition, students are
required to simplify products and quotients using formal conventions in Exercise A. (Higher only) Students are also
expected to apply their knowledge of manipulating fractions and add, subtract, multiply and divide algebraic fractions
to simplify. We have found that students find it easier when they learn it as a generalisation of a number, for example
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 5 × 2 and 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 5 × 6 so any number summed 5 times, for example a + a + a + a + a = 5a.
Prompting questions
Whilst working on the material in this section, good prompts for promoting discussion may be:
• Why do we use letters in mathematics?
To represent an unknown or any number. Students may suggest that we use it like a code, for example n = number,
a = apple, etc. or that it stands for an unknown number.
• Why do we need conventions in how we write things down?
Like spelling and grammar in English, conventions and rules exist so that mathematical statements can be understood
universally.
• Q3 (F) / Q1 (H) Are we trying to find the value of the letters in these questions?
No, the value is unimportant.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Why can we use fractions to represent divisions?

One explanation is that a fraction is a ‘lazy way’ of writing a division. We are sharing the numerator into the
denominator but because we won’t have an integer solution we prefer it written in this form.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) What will happen when we multiply a negative by a negative (or any other combination involving
directed numbers)? Can you demonstrate the rules using a diagram?
Giving students a multiplication grid from −5 to 5 multiplied by −5 to 5 and asking them to fill out what they know can be
useful for highlighting these rules.
× +ve −ve
+ve + −
−ve − +
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) Repeat the above question for division. Why is it the same rules for multiplying and dividing?
Because division is multiplying by the reciprocal of the multiplier and as such they are the same thing.
• Q5–6 (F) / Q5–6 (H) Why might we want to write these multiplications and divisions more concisely and uniformly?
To reduce the number of operations applied to a number and the amount of work when simplifying.
• Q5 (F) / Q3 (H) If we multiply by 4 and then divide by 2, what have we done to the original number?
Multiplied by 2 only. Students may struggle to identify what is happening here. Suggest they try it with more than one
value and perhaps then suggest they look at multiplying by 5 followed by multiplying by 2.
• Q6 (H) Why can we add the powers when multiplying? Can you give me an algebraic example of why this is true?
For example: a × a × a × a × a = a5
• Why are these laws useful in simplifying?
To reduce the number of operations we have to apply to the value of the letter.
• Q8 (F) / Q8 (H) How do we find the area of a rectangle? How can we represent this given we don’t know the length of
the rectangle?
Multiply the base by height.
• How can we write the length of the rectangle in part a using the unknown?
Add the two lengths to get x + 6.
• How else could you find the area of this rectangle?
Find the area of the two individual rectangles and add them.
• What does this tell you about 2(x + 6) and 2x + 12?
They are equal. Note: these last few questions can be replicated for parts b and c.
• What makes the shape in part d different? Can we form two equal expressions for this shape?
No, it is compound so we can just find base times height.
• Are there any squares in these diagrams? How do you know?
In parts b and d, we have x × x = x2; the side lengths are equal so it is a square.
• Q1–2 (F) / Q1–2 (H) What word do we use to remember the order in which operations should be completed?
BIDMAS – importantly all indices should be dealt with first, and all products should be found before sums are calculated.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What do we mean by evaluate?
I am interested in the value of the letter(s) and given it want to know the value of the expression.

• The matching task (Exercise7A (F) Q3) could be made into cards to create an appropriate starter or plenary.
Removing one or more of the cards could increase the challenge of this problem and also provide appropriate
differentiation with the addition or subtraction of pairs.

• Another ‘quick’ problem that encourages the use of forming expressions to solve a problem is the NRICH activity
How many eggs, which may be faster than students’ trial and improvement methods. (nrich.maths.org)
• The area problems in Exercise 7A (F) Q8 / Q8 (H) make an excellent introduction to expanding brackets and forming
identities (Sections 3 and 4). Investigating these shapes and starting with some where the length isn’t a variable, as
shown in the diagram below
5 2
3 15 6
• Where we can deduce that 3(5 + 2) = 15 + 6 and hence 3(x + 2) = 3x + 6 if we then change the problem to give one of the
lengths as an unknown or variable x, for example as shown in the diagram below.
x 2
3 3x 6
Students could work on several problems with the same structure, where the value of x is the only change, to support
the idea of a letter representing a variable.
• There are many investigations that can support students’ development in forming appropriate expressions to
generalise their findings. An effective 100-square grid can be found at this NRICH activity Crossed ends. When
students have worked on expanding two brackets they can also look at a similar problem using a 100-square grid
where they compare the product of the opposite corners of a square drawn on the grid. There are many shapes that
make interesting number problems on a 100−square grid. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 2F / 2H: SIMPLIFYING EXPRESSIONS
Section 2 focuses on like terms and simplifying expressions by collecting these like terms. (Higher only) More key
vocabulary is introduced in this section and further emphasis is placed on simplifying products and quotients for higher
students.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What do we mean by like terms? Can you give me any examples of them?
For example Q2a and Q5a whereas 3x and x2 are not like terms.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Why are x and x2 not like terms? Can you give any examples where they would be equal?
Because 2x is 2 lots of x whereas 2x 2 is 2 lots of x2 and x and x2 are different values.
• Q2–4 (F) / Q2–4 (H) What do we mean by simplify?
I like the informal definition of writing things in the shortest way possible to make it easier to read.
• Are we interested in the value of the letter when simplifying?
No, it can take any value.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What term does the positive or negative sign apply to in the expression?
The one immediately after it.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) How could you identify different terms when simplifying expressions?
Using different colours or symbols to categorise them in the original expression. Please note that the use of colours
should not be employed in an exam due to scanning reasons. You could get students to draw different shapes around
the like terms instead, for example squares and triangles as shown in the diagram below.
3a + 2b + 2a – b = 5a + b
5a + b

• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) What are ‘like’ terms to be simplified in products?

We can simplify using index laws and find the products of numbers.
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) How do I simplify fractions?
I cancel common factors.

• The first question in Exercise 7C (F) / 7C (H) could be turned into a card sort and used as a starter or plenary
categorising task where students sort the cards into like terms and not like terms.
• Toy train sets can be used to introduce the idea of simplifying where the variable is the length of the track piece.
Given that there are only a few different types of track pieces, a track can be made up using two or more pieces and
its total length represented by an algebraic expression. (Note: you only need pictures of toy train tracks to do this
task; having an actual set only enhances this task for weaker students.)
• A similar, far more challenging NRICH task Perimeter Expressions is based on lengths of proportional sizes of
paper (having only used cuts that cut a piece exactly in half). It is very useful for developing students’ awareness of a
variable as all paper sizes are proportional and students completing this task with different sizes of A paper can bring
out some generality.(nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 3F / 3H: EXPANDING BRACKETS
This section focuses on expanding single brackets and applying the laws of BIDMAS to collect like terms. An effective
method for teaching students to expand brackets is by using the ‘box method’, which demonstrates the expansion in
finding the perimeter and areas of shapes (see examples of this in Exercise A). This method creates a solid foundation
from which students can extend these ideas to the expansion of two binomials.
Prompting questions
• Q2–3 (F) / Q2–3 (H) Can you use diagrams to represent the bracket being expanded?
Use the area problems in Exercise 7A (F), Q8 / 7A (H), Q8 to demonstrate this.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) Why can substitution help show that equations are not identities?
Because identities are true for all values so we only need to find one it doesn’t work for.

Starters
• There are many tasks, such as NRICH Your number is, which are good for giving students a purpose for algebra and
make an appropriate starter. If you want to really challenge your students, asking them to invent their own ‘think of a
number’ problems will stretch their manipulation skills and their understanding of inverse operations.
(nrich.maths.org)
• The questions in Exercise 7D (F), Q1 / 7D (H), Q1 could be produced as cards and used as a starter or plenary in
which students sort them into two piles (correct and not) or turned into a ‘tick or trash’ PowerPoint.
Assessment ideas
• Expanding brackets offers many opportunities for matching exercises and there are many examples of Tarsia puzzles
(and other similar tasks) available on the internet.

SECTION 4F / 4H: FACTORISING EXPRESSIONS
Section 4 introduces students to factorising the product of a term and a binomial by finding the HCF of the terms in the
expression.
Prompting questions
Exercise 7E (F) / 7E (H)
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What is the HCF of both terms in the expression?
For example for part e, the HCF is 5xy.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) What is the HCF of all the terms of the expression? Is x − 2 a factor of the expression in part d?
Yes. We do not need to factorise first and this leads us into further ideas of factorising in Chapter 16.

• Setting up a worksheet that consists of three columns where the first column contains a series of single bracket
expansions to be found and the other two are blank. Students fold over the paper to hide the right-hand column
and students write the expansion of the factorised expressions in the middle column. The students unfold the last
column and fold over the left-hand column. Students are required to then factorise the expanded form in the centre
column. This task is very good for helping students identify the difference between factorised and fully factorised
form and they definitely remember less of the original questions than you’d think.
SECTION 5F / 5H: SOLVING PROBLEMS USING ALGEBRA
Section 5 is a consolidation of all the material covered in the chapter and offers a selection of ‘typical’ algebraic
problems, including magic squares and addition pyramids, as well as links to geometry with area and perimeter
problems.

• A nice extension to the pyramid task is to tell students you can work out the top number in their pyramid, given their
starting number, where the base of the pyramid is four consecutive numbers. An example pyramid is shown below.
3 4 5 6
Ask students to find the rule that allows you to calculate the solution so quickly.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
There are a few prior connections for this topic:
• The order in which operations are completed (BIDMAS). Opportunities for revising these rules come through
substitution and remembering that for 2x2, x is squared before it is multiplied by 2.
• (Higher only) Knowledge of how to add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions. If students previously used informal
methods to add and subtract fractions, based on identifying the lowest common multiplier of both denominators
and finding appropriate equivalent fractions first, this chapter provides opportunities for them to establish formal

a c ad + bc
methods that will increase speed and accuracy, for example + ≡ . However, while this might be
b d bd
appropriate for weaker Higher candidates, those looking to continue with further study at A level will be better
prepared for advanced rational functions work if they continue to combine fractions by manipulating their fractions
so they have a common denominator. Applying the rule above can make the final stages of simplifying more
demanding than necessary when polynomials of degree 3 or more are involved and need factorising. It is also better
for students to think of multiplying fractions as multiplying and dividing by 1, for example
3x 1 3x 1 x +4 3x 1 x ( x + 4) 3 x -( x + 4) 3 x - x - 4 2 x - 4
- = - × = - = = = rather than using the rule
( x + 4)2 x + 4 ( x + 4)2 x + 4 x + 4 ( x + 4)2 ( x + 4)2 ( x + 4)2 ( x + 4)2 ( x + 4)2
above which necessitates additional factorising and cancelling in the final step.
Future learning
The obvious extensions to this topic are the later algebraic manipulation chapters, that is Chapter 16, Chapter 17 and
Chapter 22 (F) / 23 (H). Students will continue to simplify and substitute into more complex expressions as well as
expand more than one bracket.
Students will also need strong foundations in this chapter in order to successfully solve algebraic equations and
understand how many (if any) solutions exist.
In addition to the above, understanding the place of a letter as a variable will be instrumental in later sequence and
functions chapters.
Gateway to A-level
• At A-level, the demand on students algebraic manipulation skills is high, particularly when working with fractions
and solving equations. Their knowledge is extended beyond laws of indices to include laws of logarithms and
students are expected to be able to manipulate expressions with ease. You may observe that students with weak
conceptual understanding of the use of algebra and functions in mathematics struggle greatly with the A-Level
course and will happily cancel a variety of things when simplifying or expanding brackets incorrectly, for example
sin q sin or x + 3 3 or 2x (5 – x) = 10 x – x and so on. This prevents them working with a variety of new material
= =
cos q cos x - 5 -5
as they can’t start the problem correctly and limits their ability to be successful in the course. Having a strong
conceptual understanding regarding variables and the difference between an identity and an equation will be
important when students prove identities in trigonometry.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes

8F / 8H Properties of polygons and 3D objects

• Use correct geometrical terms to talk about lines, angles and shapes.
• How to identify 2D and 3D objects.
• Be able to describe the symmetrical properties of various polygons.
• Be able to classify and identify triangles and quadrilaterals.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Know the names and features of common polygons and • Know the names and features of common polygons
polyhedra. and polyhedra.
• Know how to describe and label common features • Know how to describe and label common features
(congruent, parallel, etc.) of plane figures. (congruent, parallel, etc.) of plane figures.
Section 2 Section 2
• Identify and describe line and rotational symmetry in • Identify and describe line and rotational symmetry
plane figures. in plane figures.
Section 3 Section 3
• Know and use properties of triangles, including their • Know and use properties of triangles, including their
interior angle sum. interior angle sum.
Section 4 Section 4
• Know and use properties of quadrilaterals, including • Know and use properties of quadrilaterals, including
their interior angle sum. their interior angle sum.
Section 5 Section 5
• Know and use properties of 3D solids. • Know and use properties of 3D solids.
Vocabulary
• Plane shape, polygon, regular polygon, irregular polygon, polyhedron, reflection, line of symmetry, rotational
symmetry, adjacent, bisect, congruent, equidistant
• Arithmetic errors, for example 42 and 58 being complements to 90.

Students should be encouraged to check their answers, for example by adding them together again.
• Not identifying shapes because they are not in ‘standard position’ (e.g. an isosceles triangle where the base
angles are not at the ‘bottom’).
It is useful, when drawing figures on the board, to frequently draw them in non-standard position.
• Confusion between ‘parallel’ and ‘perpendicular’.
The two letter ‘l’s in parallel (which ARE parallel) can be a useful mnemonic for which is which.
• A lot of the content of this chapter will have been met by students in previous years, which can lead to
complacency and/or arrogance in some.
However, it is vital that students realise the importance of revisiting this content and learning all of the facts, as this
will allow them to access a multitude of exam questions.

Hooks
• Use photographs, such as those in Section 4, as a starting point for discussion. What shapes can they see in the
photographs? It will be even more of a hook if the photographs are of somewhere they recognise easily, for example
somewhere in the school or local area.
• Show students some exam style questions that rely on understanding/recalling properties of shapes to get started.
For example, a question on setting up and solving an equation based on a diagram of an isosceles triangle (see
below). This will establish a need to revisit this topic.
Question taken from November 2013 Edexcel Linear Foundation and Higher papers
ABC is a triangle.
A
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn
3x 5 19 x
B C
2x
Angle ABC = angle BCA.
The length of side AB is (3x − 5) cm.

The length of side AC is (19 − x) cm.
The length of side BC is 2x cm.
Work out the perimeter of the triangle.

Give your answer in centimetres. (5 marks)
SECTION 1F / 1H: TYPES OF SHAPES
This section should be familiar ground to most students, but it is important that their use of terminology is precise and
accurate. In particular the correct usage of the  and ⊥ symbols, and unambiguous description of angles, should be
a focus. Many students struggle with the ‘three letter’ notation for angles and forget that the middle letter is the one
at the vertex. It is important to stress, too, that angles should be written with upper case letters to prepare the way for
standard notation for non-right-angled triangles in trigonometry.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Take a regular hexagon and divide it into two equal parts with a single cut. Describe for me what
shape(s) might be created.
Two trapeziums.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Bring up a street map of midtown Manhattan (in New York, e.g. search for ‘Empire State building’). Tell
me a street that is perpendicular to 5th Avenue… that is parallel to 35th Street… a road that is neither perpendicular
nor parallel to 31st Street.

• In how many different ways could you describe this angle?

• Q3a (F) / Q3a (H) When is it ok for me to refer to angle B rather than ABC?
When it is opposite side b.

• Dan Meyer’s pick a point provides students with justification of the need to label geometrical objects. In particular
extending the final slide (with letters on points) to draw on some angles shows easily that angle B may be ambiguous
but PBD is less so (see below!). (blog.mrmeyer.com)
• Whilst naming angles, an opportunity is provided for students to estimate angles. It also provides an opportunity to
highlight that there are two angles at PBD (e.g. one acute, one reflex).
Assessment ideas
• The Bowland Maths three of a kind assessment task is a good activity for getting students to think about properties
of similar shapes that form a pattern. (bowland.org.uk)
SECTION 2F / 2H: SYMMETRY
This section introduces the concepts of line symmetry and rotational symmetry. When drawing lines of symmetry
students frequently either stop at one line of symmetry, or add in too many. Changing the orientation of some shapes
into non-standard positions (e.g. a square without any of its sides horizontal or vertical) can cause students further
difficulties.
The book’s idea of folding paper can be very helpful to many students. With good quality tracing paper and a forgiving
photocopier, you should be able to copy shapes onto tracing paper, which can be folded and held up to the light to
confirm the two ‘halves’ are the ‘same’. In pairs, with two pieces of tracing paper, students can rotate the shapes to
count how many times they look the same. Adding an ‘up’ arrow can be helpful for keeping track of the starting place.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How many lines of symmetry does this rectangle have (many students will include the diagonals)?
When are the diagonals of a rectangle lines of symmetry?
When the rectangle is square.
• How many lines of symmetry does this parallelogram have?
Probably none.
• When does a parallelogram have lines of symmetry?
When it’s a square.
• How many lines of symmetry does a circle have?
An infinite number.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) How many lines of symmetry does a regular pentagon have?
Five.
• A regular octagon?
Eight.
• A regular dodecagon?
12.
• A regular icosagon?
20.
• What is the smallest/biggest order of line symmetry a shape can have?
0/∞.

• How is this different to rotational symmetry?

Minimum is 1.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Why do all shapes have rotational symmetry of at least order 1?
Because they can all be rotated a full 360 °. It is impossible to have a shape with rotational symmetry of order 0.

Starters
• The mirror scene from the Marx Brother’s film ‘Duck Soup’ can be a good stimulus for discussing reflection, including
the situation found in mathematics that is impossible in the real world of crossing through the mirror. Search the
internet for ‘Mirror scene Duck Soup’.
• Once students are comfortable with the two described types of symmetries, combining both within the same
question can provide good practice. For example, students could be given a selection of traffic signs that need to be
classified. These could be placed on an enlarged two-way table on A3 paper (orders of rotational symmetry as the
rows; line symmetry as the columns).
• Kim Scott’s ambigrams, for example his half-words, have some great suggestions for classroom activities.
(scottkim.com)
SECTION 3F / 3H: TRIANGLES
This section introduces two ways of classifying triangles, firstly by the number of sides of the same length and second by
the size of the largest angle. Many students will find it difficult to appreciate that a particular triangle can be classified in
(at least) two different ways, for example a right-angled isosceles triangle.
Prompting questions
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Two angles of a triangle add up to 75°. What is the size of the third angle?
105°
• Dante claims that he can construct a triangle with angles 45, 70 and 80°. Can he do this?
No, the angles must add up to 180°.
• What if the triangle was drawn on a globe with one vertex on the North Pole and two on the Equator?
This ‘triangle’ could, for example, have three 90° angles.
• Can a triangle have more than one right angle?
No.
• What about more than one obtuse angle?
No.
• Can a triangle have a reflex angle?
No.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) If one of the angles in a right-angled triangle is 31°, what is the other (non-RA)? 59° What kind of
triangle is one with two 45° angles?
A right angled isosceles triangle.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) My triangle has three angles which are consecutive numbers. What are its angles?
59°, 60°, 61°.
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) My isosceles triangle has two vertices at (0, 0) and (10, 0). What might the third vertex be?
(5, x) where x is greater than 0.


Starters
• A starter activity could involve students renumbering a dart board. The three darts need to hit three numbers that
could be the angles in a triangle. Alternatively, project a target board grid and students can write down possible
combinations of angles on a mini whiteboard. As well as asking students which three numbers could be the angles in
a triangle, you can ask which three angles could be in an equilateral triangle, an isosceles triangle or a right angled
triangle. An example target board is shown below.
20 110 60 15 70
35 85 90 20 60
140 45 35 15 5
45 30 60 150 90
• Students could investigate the various ‘centres’ of a triangle (circumcentre, incentre, etc.). Search the internet for
the video ‘Journey to the Centre of a Triangle’, which demonstrates these nicely without the exact procedures being
revealed. Students could then work out how to find these centres using a compass and pencil.
• The TES activity ‘Triangle properties’ asks students to arrange given triangles into a Carroll diagram or Venn
diagram to illustrate that triangles can be classified using their angles or their sides. Alternatively, present the
students with a blank table and ask students to draw an example of a triangle (if they can) in each box. This can be
used as a homework activity. (tes.co.uk)
• True or False. Present students with a series of diagrams of triangles and ask students to sort triangles into those that
are true triangles (angles that add up to 180°) and false triangles (angles that don’t add to 180°). An extension is to
classify the true triangles. This activity could be done as a card sort or as a quick-fire starter/plenary by projecting the
pictures.
• There are many NRICH problems that you could use to support this topic. A few are listed below:
-- NRICH Notes on a triangle uses a René Jodoin film as a prompt for students to think about a whole host of
properties of triangles and other shapes. (nrich.maths.org)
-- NRICH Terminology uses angle properties of an equilateral and isosceles triangle, as well as angles along a
straight line, to form some algebra. (nrich.maths.org)
-- In NRICH Cyclic quadrilaterals, the first part of each of the questions in requires students to draw isosceles
triangles on different dotty circles, and working out the angles. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 4F / 4H: QUADRILATERALS
This section focuses on properties of named quadrilaterals, in particular the nature of the sides, interior angles and
diagonals. Manipulatives (for example Geo Strips) can be helpful when looking at these properties. Students are often
uncomfortable with the idea that a given shape may have multiple names, for example that a square is also a rectangle.
Prompting questions
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) With the definitions of various special quadrilaterals, get students to test a square to see whether it is
also a trapezium, a kite, a parallelogram, a rhombus and a rectangle.
Yes to all!
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Draw an arrowhead (chevron/dart). Which (if any) of our definitions of quadrilateral does this match?
A kite, if one of the diagonals is allowed to be extended.

• Draw a square shape but with no side lengths or indications that its sides are congruent. Ask what information needs
to be added to be confident it actually is a square (and not a rhombus or a rectangle).
All sides and diagonals equal, angles 90°, opposite sides parallel, diagonals bisect angles and each other, and are at
right angles.
• Draw a square, rotated by 45° so that its diagonals are horizontal and vertical. What is the mathematical name for this
shape?
It is still a square, (but is also a rhombus and a rectangle and a parallelogram!). Diamond would not be an acceptable
response.

Starters
• The target board starter, as described above in section 3, can be adapted for use with quadrilaterals or other
polygons
• Quadrilateral Rummy, in the book ‘Geometry Games’ available from the Association of Teachers of Mathematics
(atm.org.uk). Another activity is NRICH task Quadrilaterals Game. (nrich.maths.org)
• The NRICH task Quadrilaterals asks students to find as many different quadrilaterals as possible by joining dots
on the circumference of a circle (nrich.maths.org). The problem initially starts with a circle with eight evenly spaced
dots, but is easily adapted for other numbers of dots. This problem can be used with students of all levels to revisit
vocabulary (F&H), then using the angles of isosceles triangles to (F&H) work out the angles in each quadrilateral and
start to explore the properties of cyclic quadrilaterals. (Higher only) A slightly more structured version of this activity
is NRICH task Cyclic Quadrilaterals. (nrich.maths.org)
• The true or false activity, as described above in section 3, can also be adapted for use with angles in quadrilaterals or
any other angle facts
• The TES activity Revision cards allows students to match up the properties of special quadrilaterals with their
names/pictures and create revision cards (tes.co.uk). Another variation is a card sort from MrBartonMaths called
‘Properties of quadrilaterals group activity’. (tes.co.uk)
SECTION 5: PROPERTIES OF 3D OBJECTS
This section reviews the basic terminology associated with 3D objects, especially polyhedra. In addition, it considers
some properties and naming of prisms.
Prompting questions
Exercise 8F (F) / 8F (H)
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Tell me the name of a solid that has four faces.
Triangular pyramid
• Five faces?
Square pyramid
• Tell me the name of a solid that has eight vertices?
Cube or cuboid
• Ten vertices?
Pentagonal
• Prism fewer than eight?
Hexagonal pyramid
• Tell me a mathematical name for the container of a tube of sweets.
Answers include well known chocolate brands that are a triangular prism shape and a cylinder.

• Q3 (F) If I held up a sphere in front of a light source, what shape would its shadow be?
A circle.
• How about a square?
A cube.
• How could I hold a cube to give me a hexagonal shadow?
Hold it so one of the vertices is towards you.
• Q4 (F) Consider a cone. How many faces does it have?
One, the (flat) circle.
• Is the curved part a face?
No.
• Is the apex a vertex, even if it doesn’t connect edges?
Yes, this shows the issue of defining an edge as connecting two vertices.
• Does it have any edges?
Note that Euler’s polyhedron formula doesn’t help clear this up since a cone isn’t a polyhedron.

• Having physical polyhedra available is invaluable. As an enrichment activity, students could make these for display in
the classroom. They hang nicely from the ceiling, making an effective (and useful) display.
• (Higher only) Euler’s polyhedron formula provides an opportunity to consider the relationship between faces,
edges and vertices of a solid. Some students could also consider which solids do not have a Euler characteristic of 2.
(plus.maths.org)
• Students could justify why only five Platonic solids are possible by considering the possible polygons that might
meet at each vertex, view mathsisfun for supporting material. (mathsisfun.com)
• Classrooms could be decorated during an end of term activity. A suggestion is to construct plaited origami polyhedra
as demonstrated in NRICH Plaited Origami Polyhedra?. (nrich.maths.org)
• Fully coloured great dodecahedron can provide a wonderful exercise in visualisation and description. Students need
to carefully describe the shapes or solids that they see to other students. In the example below, some will see a star
on a blue background, others on a purple, etc.
• NRICH Which Solid? encourages students to identify mystery solids using as few direct questions as possible. This is
good for encouraging students’ precision with mathematical language. (nrich.maths.org)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• This topic provides ample practice for mental methods of addition and subtraction.

• Students could also practise measuring lengths and angles by checking the precision of some hand-drawn shapes: is
a shape with four sides varying between 6.9–7.1 cm and 89–91° really a square?
Future learning
• In Chapter 9, students will develop their understanding of angles, particularly with parallel lines and exterior angles
of polygons.
• Isosceles triangles are vital in future work with circle theorems covered in Chapter 31 (H).
• Equations of parallel and perpendicular lines are considered in Chapter 17.
• Calculating angles and lengths of sides of triangles is developed using Chapter 35 (F) / 37 (H) and Chapter 36 (F) /
38 (H).
• In Chapter 38 (H), students will learn to use an angle and side lengths of triangles.
• Volume of 3D solids in Chapter 23 (F) / 24 (H).
• Chapter 31 (F) / 33 (H) extends the symmetry work in this chapter. Students will need to set up and solve equations
involving properties of shapes. Linear examples are considered in Chapter 17.
Gateway to A-level
• In Calculus, students will learn to use perpendicular and parallel lines when working out the equations of tangents
and normals. Later in Calculus, students will learn to calculate the volumes of solids created by revolving a curve
around an axis through 360°.
• Students will learn to classify functions as ‘odd’ or ‘even’ based on the symmetry properties of their graphs.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets
• Polygon diagrams

9F / 9H Angles
• The sum of the interior angles in a triangle.

• Notation conventions for labelling angles and lines; including naming a line, for example DE, and an angle, for
example ∠FED.
• Properties of shapes.
• Ability to use basic arithmetic to find complements to 180 and 360 degrees.
• (Foundation only) How to form and solve linear equations with the unknown on one side of the equation.
• (Higher only) How to form and solve linear equations where the unknown is on both sides of the equation.
• How to measure an angle using a protractor.

• What a variable is and how it can be used to form a formula.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Recall knowledge of basic angle facts including: • Recall knowledge of basic angle facts including:
vertically opposite angles, angles on a line and around vertically opposite angles, angles on a line and
a point. around a point.
• Application of basic and parallel angle facts to find the • Application of basic and parallel angle facts to find
size of angles in various scenarios. the size of angles in various scenarios.
Section 2 Section 2
• Recall knowledge of parallel line angle facts including: • Recall knowledge of parallel line angle facts
alternate angles, co-interior angles and corresponding including: alternate angles, co-interior angles and
angles. corresponding angles.
• Application of basic and parallel angle facts to find the • Application of basic and parallel angle facts to find
size of angles in various scenarios. the size of angles in various scenarios.
Section 3 Section 3
• Understand a proof for the sum of the interior angles of • Understand a proof for the sum of the interior angles
a triangle being 180 degrees. of a triangle being 180 degrees.
• Understand a proof for the exterior angle of a triangle • Understand a proof for the exterior angle of a
being equal to the sum of the opposite interior angles. triangle being equal to the sum of the opposite
interior angles.
Section 4 Section 4
• Calculate the sum of the interior angles of any polygon. • Calculate the sum of the interior angles of any
polygon.
• Calculate the size of a single interior angle of a regular
polygon. • Calculate the size of a single interior angle of a
regular polygon.
• Calculate the size of a single exterior angle of a regular
polygon. • Calculate the size of a single exterior angle of a
regular polygon.

9F / 9H Angles
Vocabulary
• Vertically opposite angles, transversal, corresponding angles, alternate angles, co-interior angles, interior angles,
exterior angles
• (Higher only) supplementary angles
• Students struggle with formal language and notations in geometry.

For example when a vertex is labelled B, students refer to the angle as B forgetting that there are two possible angles
this could be, one less than 180 degrees and the other greater than 180 degrees as a minimum. Having starters based
on notation and highlighting angles and lines given their label can help identify and recognise these errors at the
beginning. An example is shown below.
A
F
E
B G
H
D
C
• Students fail to use the correct reasoning, for example stating ‘because they are ‘Z’ angles’ rather than
‘because alternate angles are equal’.
Another example of this is students who think ‘opposite angles are equal’ is enough rather than using ‘vertically
opposite angles are equal’. Learning these reasons is not easy and very challenging for students with weak literacy.
This is a fundamental requirement for success with this topic and time should be spent learning the definitions by
heart. Having A4 sheets around the room reminding students of these useful facts for frequent use in lessons can
be useful, and they may also serve as a memory prompt if students have a visual memory based on where they are
placed in the room. In addition, you could try testing the reasons like you would a spelling test.
• Students often struggle to cut up the polygons when working on the investigation in section 4.
Students will happily say that there are four triangles in a square because when they join up the vertices with
diagonals they get the following as shown in the diagram below.
• By telling students they must cut the polygon up into triangles using the minimum number of lines possible or by
telling them no additional lines may cross each other tends to help solve this problem.
• Students have problems when misunderstanding what the exterior angle of a polygon is, thinking that it is
actually the whole outside angle at a vertex of a shape rather than the angle formed by extending the edge of
the shape.
Therefore thinking that the interior and exterior sum to 360 rather than 180 degrees. This is a definition that just
needs to be reinforced regularly.
• Students get lost in their working and don’t know what their values mean or clearly define their answer.
Encouraging students to always set up an equation, clearly stating what their unknown is and building on the good
practice from Chapter 17, will help improve this. It is about modelling good practice too, and not taking short cuts
when time is short with an example at the board.

Hooks
• A nice starter to this task, which recaps one of the first angle facts students need to know, is the following NRICH
task Round and Round and Round’. Having watched the first two stages you can pose a question based on where
the dot would end if it turned 30 000 degrees. (nrich.maths.org)
• A fun game that students should really enjoy is the following NRICH Estimating angles game. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 1F / 1H: ANGLE FACTS
Section 1 considers the basic angle facts students need to know, including the sum of angles on a straight line, sum of
angles around a point and that vertically opposite angles are equal. Problems challenge students to set up and solve
linear equations.
(Higher only) Extension problems require students to solve equations with unknowns on both sides of the equality.
Prompting questions
• When skateboarding or scootering, what does it mean for you to have done a 360 or 180? How does this help us with
knowing what angles around a point or on a straight line sum to?
If you do a ‘180’ you have turned around so looked from one end of a straight line to the other end of the line. If you do a
‘360’ you turn all the way around so angles around a point sum to 360 degrees.
• What is your unknown? What do you know about the angles in the diagram? Can you set up an equation to show
things that are equal?
These are general prompting questions without a specific answer.
• Q4a (F) / Q4 (H) How many unknowns do you have? Can you identify which one will be easiest / which you have
enough information to find?
These are general prompting questions without a specific answer depending on the angle facts use. Students may
suggest one angle is easier to find than another. These questions are designed to encourage students to break the
problem down into smaller parts.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H): What do we know about angles on a straight line? Why does this contradict the image you have?
Angles on a straight line sum to 180 degrees and these angles do not.

• Spot the error reasoning. A starter or plenary could be examples asking students to spot the error, for example
‘opposite angles are equal’ where the writer has forgotten to state ‘vertically’
Assessment ideas
• Asking students to make ‘how to’ revision guides, including: rules, language to remember and examples, makes a
good homework assessment task that comes in useful in future revision lessons.
SECTION 2F / 2H: PARALLEL LINES AND ANGLES
Section 2 focuses on the three angle facts based on angles formed from a line transversal to parallel lines: corresponding
angles, alternate angles and supplementary angles. Students must use these rules to find missing angles and reason
correctly to support their solutions.
(Higher only) The additional challenge for higher students in this chapter is understanding a proof that co-interior
angles are supplementary. In addition to finding missing angles students also need to use these new rules to decide
whether diagrams have parallel lines or not.

9F / 9H Angles
Students tend to struggle to recall the facts correctly, particularly given there are three of them. You may find it useful
to focus on only one parallel line rule, for example ‘alternate angles are equal’. Armed with that and ‘vertically opposite
angles are equal’ and ‘angles on a straight line sum to 180 degrees’, students are able to correctly reason, with a few
more steps, any angle they are trying to find.
Prompting questions
• What letters are you looking for to use angle facts? Z, C, F shapes to find angles.
• What are the geometric reasons for these letters? Alternate angles are equal, corresponding angles are equal and co-
interior angles are supplementary.
• What other angle facts aside from those in this section might be useful here? Angles on a straight line sum to 180
degrees and angles around a point sum to 360 degrees.
• How many unknowns do you have? Can you identify which one will be easiest or which you have enough information
to find? Often a good rule of thumb here is to work through the unknowns alphabetically.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) Can you label any parallel lines? Can you extend any straight lines to make the letters you are looking
for clearer?
Encourage students to label and extend the vertical lines to help identify the angle fact to be used.
• Q8 (F) / Q8 (H) Can you point to
∠CEG?
Make sure that students know what this notation means and don’t think it just means the angle at E as there are many
to choose from (this can be repeated for Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) as well).
• Q11 (H) What must be true for two lines to be parallel?
The three parallel angle facts.

Assessment ideas
• Again, asking students to make ‘how to’ revision guides, including: rules, language to remember and examples,
makes a good homework assessment task that comes in useful in future revision lessons.
SECTION 3F / 3H: ANGLES IN TRIANGLES
In Chapter 8, students learned that the sum of the interior angles in a triangle is 180 degrees, whilst covering properties
of shapes. This section offers two proofs: the sum of angles in a triangle and that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal
to the sum of the two opposite interior angles. Students then use these two rules to solve additional angles problems.
Prompting questions
• Are there any properties unique to your type of triangle that could be useful? Is it an isosceles, equilateral, right-
angled or scalene triangle?
In some triangles we have additional information such as knowing two base angles are equal or all angles are equal,
which can help in problem-solving.
• Q2–5 (F) / Q2–7 (H): How many unknowns do you have? Can you identify which one will be easiest or which you have
• Q9 (H): What do we need to form a convincing proof?
Logical argument using formal geometric reasoning, clearly labelling our angles and lines.
• Have you got more than one triangle involved in your diagram? How are they connected?
Some are similar so share the same angles, others are just next to each other so other angle facts, for example angles
on a straight line sum to 180 degrees, can be used in addition to solve the problem.

Plenaries
• ‘Angles noughts and crosses’ works well as a whole class plenary where the class are split in half to play as a team
against each other. This is an opportunity for discussion and splitting the class into two teams adds a competitive
element to increase motivation. Given simple diagrams students have to identify the angle and give the correct
geometric reason for it. Standard game rules apply so suggest a tricky one for the centre of the grid. This could also
be combined with rules from other sections in this chapter.
Assessment ideas
SECTION 4F / 4H: ANGLES IN POLYGONS
Section 4 takes the knowledge about the sum of the interior angles in a triangle and extends it to a general rule for
the sum of the interior angles of any polygon through an investigation (Exercise 9D). This is then extended to derive a
rule for the sum of the exterior angles of polygons. The ‘work it out’ section makes a good peer assessment task with
prompts for promoting good discussion about common errors students will make.
It is worth noting that students often find it very challenging to draw polygons with more than four sides so if using the
investigation in Exercise 9D, having a sheet of pre-printed polygons for students to annotate would be advisable.
As in Section 2, this material is something students tend to find very challenging to remember. To counteract this you
may prefer to focus on one rule: that exterior angles sum to 360 degrees. From this students can, with a few extra steps,
solve any other polygon angles problem.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How many triangles are in your polygon? Have you used the minimum number of lines possible?
There should always be two fewer triangles than the number of sides, you may wish to ask students to reason why this
must always be the case.
• Have you crossed any of your lines to find the number of triangles?
They shouldn’t have or they are adding more angles to the sum (they would need to take away 360 degrees for each
internal crossing).
• Q3–5 (F) / Q3–5 (H) What patterns have you spotted?
For example, the number of triangles goes up by one each time.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) Can you write your formula down in words?
Number of sides, subtract 2, multiplied by 180 degrees for each triangle and divided by the number of angles in the
shape.
• What is the variable of the formula?
The number of sides.
• What stays constant in each calculation you do?
Subtracting 2, multiplying by 180, etc.

9F / 9H Angles

• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What do I know? Can I use any of the formulae I have learned for interior and exterior angles?
You can use both for any question, but often one will be quicker than the other. For interior angles use 180(n – 2), for
360
exterior angles use (where n is the number of sides).
n
• Q3–5 (F) / Q3–5 (H) Is my shape regular or irregular? How does that effect how I can solve the problem?
Irregular shapes limit the amount of options we have when solving.
• Q5 (F) Can you define your unknown using algebra and set up a formula?
Suggest that students sum the angles and equate to the sum of the interior angles etc.
• Q6 (F) Can you draw a sketch to help you see what is going on?
This may be required for students to see a way ‘into’ the problem. It may also help by making them consider whether the
polygon is regular or not.

• Tessellations make an interesting investigation, and students could now think about how angle facts can help them
know whether a regular shape tessellates or not.
• Here are some interesting additions to the problem:
• NRICH Semi-regular tesselations – tessellating two or more regular polygons together. It also has a very good
interactive program for testing ideas. (nrich.maths.org)
• Another interesting investigation is why we can tessellate any quadrilateral. See, for example, the cut-the-know task
'Simple Quadrilaterals Tessellate the Plane'. (cut-the-knot.org)
• For students who enjoy tessellating you may wish to extend them by looking at Penrose tilings and further
consolidating their knowledge of angles.
• This is a good opportunity to explore what shapes you get if you take your interior angle of a regular polygon
180(n - 2)
formula: and use non-integer values. What does a 2.5-agon look like? You can use graphing software or
n
traditional protractor and pencil methods to explore these shapes. If you have a particularly able class you could ask:
What does a π−agon look like?
Assessment ideas
Chapter review 9
The first question of the chapter review would make a good starter to a revision lesson on this topic if projected on the
board or printed out for students to work on.
Prompting questions
Whilst working through the chapter review, good prompts for students might be:
• Q3–6 (F) / Q3–6 (H) Are you dealing with a specific shape? Is it regular or irregular?
This information is given in different ways for different questions and students need to get used to reading this
information from a diagram or in the set up to a question.
• Q8 (F) / Q6 (H): How many unknowns do you have? Can you identify which one will be easiest / which you have
y is probably the easiest angle to find first using their angle facts.
• Q10 (H): Have you got any parallel lines in your diagram?
You may have to use properties of shapes to help you here.
• Can you extend any of the lines in your diagram to help you spot anything you hadn’t previously?
Encouraging students to extend parallel lines to make the angle facts they can apply in polygon problems often makes a
big difference to their ability to see what can be done.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• This chapter connects directly to Chapter 8, in which students learned about properties of shapes and that interior
angles of a triangle sum to 180 degrees. It also uses the concepts learned in Chapter 17 regarding the solving of
equations, in particular linear equations.
Future learning
• Angle facts will be revisited in Chapter 33 (F) / 34 (H), in which students will use alternate angles, co-interior angles
and corresponding angles to geometrically reason about congruence and similarity. Angle facts will also support
problem-solving in Chapter 36 (F) / 36 (H). In Chapter 31 (H), students will be able to use basic facts, from sections 1
and 3, to investigate and deduce new theorems based on angles formed by chords and tangents in circles.
Gateway to A-level
• These basic facts are still used in problem-solving at A-level. ‘Vertically opposite angles are equal‘ and ‘the sum of
angles on a straight line is 180 degrees’ are both used in vectors work, and numerous basic facts and circle theorems
are used in coordinate geometry problems on the (x, y) plane. In addition, students will extend their knowledge of
complementary angles in Trigonometry and Complex Numbers in order to solve equations and correctly use Argand
diagrams.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

9F / 9H Angles

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets
• Angle facts

10F / 10H Perimeter

• Properties and labels associated with circles.
• How to convert metric units.
• How to form algebraic expressions and formulae from geometric problems.
• How to change the subject of a formula.
• Simplifying by collecting like terms.
• Angles around a point sum to 360 degrees.
• How to round to a given or appropriate accuracy.
• Using formula for average speed.

• Simplifying and expanding single brackets.
• (Higher) Knowledge of averages and compound percentages.
Learning outcomes
Foundation and Higher
Section 1
• Calculate the perimeter of a given simple shape, including using properties of triangles, quadrilaterals and regular
polygons.
• Understand that the perimeter of a shape is its boundary and what a boundary is for a composite shape where a
smaller shape has been removed from the centre of a larger shape.
• Calculate the perimeter of composite shapes.
• Form expressions and equations for the perimeter of a given shape and solve their equations to find unknown
lengths.
Section 2
• Know and use a formula (either C = pD or C = 2pr) for the circumference of a circle to find the value of one variable
given any other, for example D given C.
• How find the arc length of a given sector and hence the perimeter of this shape.
Section 3
• Use known perimeter formulae from section 1 and 2 to solve contextual problems.
Vocabulary
• Perimeter

10F / 10H Perimeter
• Students struggle to work with formulae involving pi, particularly where rearranging is required.
This is because students treat pi as an unknown rather than an irrational number. Suggesting students replace pi
with 3.142 should not affect the accuracy of their solutions too much when working with length and can help some
students whose solving/rearranging skills are weak.
• Students struggle to find pi when working with different equipment and don’t realise they can use an
approximation on most calculators.
If you do not have class sets of calculators for students to use you tend to be reliant on students bringing in their
own equipment and often this is borrowed from a friend or shared in class, which means students struggle with the
different options to use pi on different calculators. Students should be encouraged to invest in and bring their own
calculator. Ask them to write down the steps for getting pi on their calculator in their books at the beginning of a
series of lessons on circles.
• Students miss lengths when calculating the perimeter of a given shape; this is a more prominent problem
when students are working with composite shapes.
Encourage students to sketch the shape they are finding the perimeter of to combat this and label every length. In
addition, encourage students to write out the sum they are calculating so that missed lengths can be more easily
identified.
• Students don’t include all boundaries in the perimeter.
This tends to happen when working with composite shapes where a section has been cut out of the middle of a
larger shape or when working with circle sectors. Reminding students that the perimeter is the boundary of the
shape and using analogies such as: ‘Imagine the shape is a fish tank, where would the glass have to go to keep the
water in?’ In addition, asking students to shade in the composite shape they are finding the perimeter of can help
with this.
• Students confuse area with perimeter.
This is a common problem when students just learn a series of formulae for different shapes. Reinforcing the idea of
perimeter as a boundary and in most cases a sum (even though the circumference of a circle is the sum of a length an
irrational number of times, students don’t often seem to see it this way) can help some students. It is also important
that students spend some time working on a series of problems requiring both area and perimeter to solve them.
• Students confuse diameter and radius or don’t see the solution through when there are multiple steps to the
problem.
Sometimes this can be perpetuated by having two formulae for the circumference of a circle; at other times having
two formulae can prevent it. Encourage them to always work with sketches of the circle they are working with and
keep track of their working by laying it out as a column and annotating each step as they solve the problem, as
shown below.
• Students confuse perimeter with arc length and either miss the two radii when finding the perimeter or
include them when they are given the task of calculating the arc length only.
You could try working on a series of problems that require both and having starters that ask students to identify the
difference between the arc length of a sector and the perimeter either through a matching exercise or a filling in the
gaps task. In addition students could have a simple highlighting task given a series of sectors where they highlight
either the arc length or perimeter as directed.
Hooks
• In section 2 the notes introduce pi as the ratio that connects the diameter and circumference of a circle. You might
like to give students time to investigate this for themselves and have a collection of cylinders for students to

measure. Paper measuring tapes can be very helpful as a resource when students conduct this investigation but a
piece of string and a ruler can also be used.
• When working with sectors you may prefer to start with area, considering the area of a slice of pizza for example
where the circle has been cut into equally sized sectors. You can use this to deduce the idea of fractions of the whole
to find the area of a sector and from this connect to arc length.
SECTION 1F / 1H: PERIMETER OF SIMPLE AND COMPOSITE SHAPES
Students focus on a variety of perimeter problems of simple polygon shapes, including simple composite shapes.
Students find the perimeter of these shapes using properties and given information through notation (e.g. equal sides
marked) to find unknown lengths. An emphasis on viewing the perimeter as the boundary of the shape is used to
support students when working with composite shapes. Students also form expressions given relationships between
the sides of a shape and use these expressions to form equations that they can then solve to find unknowns.
Prompting questions
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) What do the units of the measurements have to be in order to calculate with them?
The same, so some conversions may have to take place first.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Sketch the shapes first and label all lengths you know. What properties of the shape are useful to use
in forming an expression for the perimeter?
Look out for words like ‘regular’ and think about what lengths are the same.
• Q10 (F) / Q10 (H) Which side lengths are often unknown on a trapezium?
The sloped edges.
• What mathematics do we need to find the length of these edges?
Pythagoras’ theorem or trigonometry if given an angle.
• Can we always find the perimeter of a trapezium?
No, not if we don’t have enough information. We need more than just the height; we need to have either an angle or
additional information relating to how the length of the base is split into the base of the triangle(s). This problem is
useful for highlighting to students that not all trapeziums are isosceles trapeziums.
• Q10 (F) / Q10 (H) Is there any information in the question that is unnecessary?
The diagram gives a maximum distance for the fence posts but the question is setting them 2.8 m apart.
• Q11 (H) Sketch the paths run by each group of runners. Can you label every length? What formula can you use to
calculate the average speed?
s=d÷t
• What do the units have to be for total length if working with kilometres per hour?
Kilometres, so they will need converting from metres.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Can you sketch the shapes given from the information to identify which lengths are needed to
calculate the perimeter?
Try highlighting all boundary lines to calculate the total perimeter.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Do lines drawn inside the shape count as boundary lines?
No, they just indicate properties, which can help us find additional shapes.

• NRICH Can they be equal? is a simple task that focuses on rectangles only but helps reinforce the concept that area
and perimeter aren’t connected. (nrich.maths.org)

10F / 10H Perimeter
• NRICH Changing Areas, Changing Perimeters is another simple perimeter task that gets students to consider what
increases the perimeter of a shape and how this connects to similar ideas of area is here. For stronger classes this is a
nice starter task that could reintroduce the topic: Perimeter. (nrich.maths.org)
Starters
• (Foundation) Students are given a square that is cut up into smaller rectangles of varying sizes and asked to form a
shape that has the largest perimeter. This task may seem simple but some students will not rotate their rectangles so
that the longer side is part of the perimeter of the final shape.
• A series of flash cards where shapes are presented and they must name the shape and any properties they know
about their side lengths, for example, a square has all sides the same length whilst an isosceles triangle has only two
sides the same length; how do we denote this on each shape?
SECTION 2F / 2H: CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE
Section 2 focuses on circles and sectors of circles. The first subsection looks at the two formulae for the circumference
of a circle (using either the radius or the diameter) and how they are related to each other. In addition to this, students
use their solving/rearranging skills with the formulae to find either the radius or diameter given the length of a
circumference. The second subsection considers sectors of a circle and connects the formulae for the circumference
with fractions of a whole given in terms of the angle formed between both radii to form an additional formula for the
perimeter of a sector.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What can you say about the length given in terms of x?
It is a variable length so an expression for the perimeter will need to be given instead and the expression should be in
simplified form.
• Can you sketch the problem being described to help support your workings?
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) What boundaries are involved in the perimeter the disc has been cut out of?
The boundaries include both the edges of the square and the circumference of the circle.
• Q6–8 (F) / Q6-8 (H) Start by filling out the information you have into the circumference formula. What do you need to
do to find your unknown length?
Solve.
• What is pi?
A number, so we can treat it the same way we would any other value.
• Q9 (F) / Q9 (H) How far does the end of a minute hand on a clock travel in one hour? What maths can you do to find
the distance it travels?
A full circle so find the circumference.
• Have you rounded your solution to an appropriate number of decimal places?
Students should round to the same accuracy as the values given or to 1 more degree accuracy but state what they have
rounded to.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Have you been given the angle inside the sector or outside? How might you find the angle required?
Students need the angle inside the sector and can use complement to 360 degrees to find it.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) What is the difference between the perimeter and arc length of a sector?
The perimeter includes both the arc length and the radii.
• In part f, what is the angle indicated by a small square?
A right angle, so 90 degrees.
• Q2 (H) What parts of shapes do you have in parts g−j of the question? Can you split the shapes up and label all
lengths you know?
Encourage students to deal with each part of the shape separately to prevent confusion between the radius and
diameter, which in some diagrams are represented by the same length for different parts of the composite shape.
• Which lengths form the boundary of the shape? Which ones will be unnecessary?
If students use the advice given in the point above they may include more than the boundary lines, suggest they use a
highlighter to keep track of the lengths they need.

• NRICH Arclets is a nice way to explore the mathematics students have been working on in this chapter and revisit
some of the angles facts they know, as well as further develop their generalising skills. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Rollin’ Rollin’ Rollin’ is a problem that is nice for showing students that their initial ideas may not always
be correct and links into some other work students have done on loci if they map the path the centre of the moving
circle makes as it rolls around the static circle. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Triangle and Petals is another lovely task in a similar vein to the one in the previous point that considers the
path a shape makes when rolled around one that is equal to it. It gives students opportunities to recap their work on
regular polygons and angles and makes a lovely investigation assessment task. (nrich.maths.org)
• To increase confidence in using the arc length and perimeter formulae to find any unknown variable, a card sort can
help support students and offer appropriate differentiation as they can work in their preferred method to match the
cards. By removing half of a pair you can force the use of solving when finding the radius or angle.
SECTION 3F / 3H: PROBLEMS INVOLVING PERIMETER AND CIRCUMFERENCE
Section 3 places a greater emphasis on perimeter problems for composite shapes, drawing on the new material in
section 2 and the revision material in section 1. These problems are often longer with more parts and students will have
to identify what information they need from a series of diagrams.
Prompting questions
• What information do you need to solve the problem? Can you identify it in the problem?
Encourage students to sketch the problems and label information required. The use of highlighters may be
advisable here.
Whilst working through the exercise, a good question for students might be:
• Q5 (F) / Q6 (H) Can you sketch the problem in 2D and label all known values?

Starters
• The questions used in the review exercise would work well as starters (of one or two questions) to future lessons to
keep the ideas of this chapter fresh.
• NRICH Weekly problem 18 – 2014 is a similar starter problem based on the London Eye, which could be a simpler
intro to the series of questions at the end of the exercise. (nrich.maths.org)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
Students are required to use their knowledge of properties of shapes and angle facts to solve many problems in this
chapter; particularly the more complicated the problems get. This chapter doesn’t directly follow on from any previous
learning but it used a wealth knowledge gained on geometric shapes to produce formulae for different 2D shapes’
perimeters.
10F / 10H Perimeter
Future learning
Perimeter is directly extended in another chapter in this book but students will continue to use and revisit the ideas
covered in this chapter, gaining new skills to find the perimeter of shapes such as Chapter 35 (F) / 37 (H) and
Chapter 36 (F) / 38 (H). In addition sectors will be revisited again in Chapter 11 where the same principles will be applied
to the area of a sector and further investigation into properties of circles will be covered in Chapter 31 (H).
Gateway to A-level
Arc lengths of curves are an abstract extension to the GCSE topic of perimeter and appear in the Further Mathematics
curriculum. Students will also revisit arc length of a circle by combining the Mathematics of Section 2 with new
knowledge of radians.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes

11F / 11H Area

• Properties and definitions of polygons, particularly triangles and quadrilaterals.

• Properties of circles.
• Convert metric units of length.
• Convert metric units of area.
• Substitute into algebraic formulae and expressions.
• Solve linear and quadratic equations formed from area formulae to calculate the value of the unknown (and
recognise that where lengths of shapes are involved the value of the unknown must be positive).
• (Higher only) Simplify algebraic expressions including expanding the products of binomials and cancelling common
factors in fractions.
• (Higher only) Knowledge and use of Pythagoras’ theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse.
• Know that finding the square root gives the initial value that had been squared.
• Rearrange a formula to change the subject (some students prefer this option to substitution followed by solving,
particularly where there is a repetition in the calculation).
• Know that multiplication is commutative and hence products can be calculated in any order (area of a triangle)
but that laws of distributivity must be held and hence the sum of the two parallel sides must be found first when
calculating the area of a trapezium.
• Appreciate that dividing by a value is the same as multiplying by the reciprocal of the value for example multiplying
by a half is equal to dividing by 2.
• Calculate fractions of amounts.
• How to calculate the perimeter of a shape.
• Know and use formula for circumference of a circle.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Know and use the formulae for calculating the area of • Know and use the formulae for calculating the
rectangles, triangles, parallelograms and trapeziums. area of rectangles, triangles, parallelograms and
trapeziums.
• Identify how composite shapes have been formed using
these four shapes and use the formulae to calculate the • Identify how composite shapes have been formed
total area of the composite shape. using these four shapes and use the formulae to
calculate the total area of the composite shape.
• Form algebraic expressions for the area of a shape
given expressions for lengths of the shape.

11F / 11H Area
Section 2 Section 2
• Know and use the formula for calculating the area of a • Know and use the formula for calculating the area of
circle. a circle.
• Adapt this formula to find the area of a sector given • Adapt this formula to find the area of a sector given
the angle formed at the centre between the radii using the angle formed at the centre between the radii
fractions of the whole. using fractions of the whole.
Section 3 Section 3
• Split composite shapes into the sum of known shapes • Split composite shapes into the sum of known
from sections 1 and 2. shapes from sections 1 and 2.
• Recognise that the area of some composite shapes • Recognise that the area of some composite shapes
can be found by subtracting known areas from a larger can be found by subtracting known areas from a
shape. larger shape.
Vocabulary
• Sectors, composite shapes
• Students do not state the units when finding the length of an unknown.
In some cases this is due to a lapse in accuracy but in others this is because they do not understand that the units
must be the same for all measurements when calculating with them, and hence they can deduce the unit of the
length they are finding given the square units used for the shape’s area. To combat this, often the most successful
idea is to constantly reinforce good practice – always stating the units of every measurement used, even when it
takes longer to go through an example, and penalise those who do not follow this by circling their work. You could
even introduce a short-hand like common literacy marking abbreviations for spelling and grammar.
• Students don’t use the perpendicular height when calculating the area of a triangle or parallelogram – they
use the length given for the sloped side.
This may be due to one of the following reasons: either the orientation of the shape confuses students and they use
the sloped length as the value of the base or the shape given has its perpendicular height labelled outside of the
shape due to the side chosen as base (like the third example of a perpendicular height given in the section notes
where we have an obtuse angled triangle and the chosen base is not the longest side). We encourage students who
suffer from this to rotate the page so that the base (identified from the given right angle) is always horizontal and
hence the height is the vertical distance given.
• Students don’t recognise right-angled trapezia as a trapezium, instead thinking that all trapezia have two
sloping sides.
When giving notes on trapezia you can give two diagrams, one the more traditional isosceles trapezium and the
other a right-angled one. Encourage students to highlight the parallel lines to spot them. Appropriate starters based
on properties of shapes can also be used to reinforce this for example ‘Who am I?’ or ‘Guess who?’ with different
shapes in different colours. Another method is revealing part of a concealed shape to show different properties one
at a time so that students are reminded through an indirect method that a right-angled quadrilateral with a pair of
parallel lines is still a trapezium.
• Students struggle to remember the different formulae for finding area.
This may be due to the different labels given lengths in each formula for example length and width vs base and
height. There are several videos available online to assist in memorising the formulae, including ‘The circle song’ and
‘The trapezium song’. Having one ‘area formulae’ page in their books or their own handmade revision card that can
be laminated using bright colours and highlighters with supportive diagrams is useful for future lessons as a time
saver.
• Students confuse the order of operations when calculating the area of a circle so they calculate (pr)2 rather
than pr 2, for example.
For students who struggle with this we have found they prefer the formula A = p×r×r or A = p×r2. The addition of the
multiplication sign seems to prevent confusion with the order of operations here.

• Students struggle to identify the known shapes that make the composite shapes and miss parts of the shapes
out of their calculations.
Encourage students to sketch the composite shapes in their books and label the known shapes that make it up (as
seen in the first example in the notes section of the chapter). Ask them to state what they intend to do symbolically
to prevent the error of adding when subtraction is required and vice versa, as shown in the diagram below.
Find the shaded area
circle
3 cm shaded area square circle

12 cm

square 12 12 32
144 9
115.7 cm2 to 1 dp
Hooks
• Area is a topic that students have often seen several times before they reach their GCSE course. However, weaker
students, in particular, frequently have a poor grasp of what it means to measure area. Reintroducing this topic
therefore allows opportunities to be creative in terms of the units used to measure a 2D space. For example, the
space a student’s hand measures on an A4 page could be measured in terms of dots, the workspace on the table
could be measured in terms of pencil cases. These ideas could then be extended to set measurements for example
10 x 10 cm squares or a metre square before focusing on the formal formulae for finding the area of triangles,
quadrilaterals and circles in this chapter.
SECTION 1F / 1H AREA OF POLYGONS
Section 1 focuses on the area of rectangles (squares), triangles, parallelograms and trapezia. Each formula is considered
and its links to the other formulae stated, for example, the area of a parallelogram coming from the sum of two identical
1
triangle areas and hence 2 × 2 × b × h = b × h.The first subsection focuses on rectangles and triangles only and extends
students to consider composite shapes formed using these two types of shapes. Students may struggle to identify the
perpendicular height in some of the diagrams and should be encouraged to reorient the page by identifying the right
angle so that the perpendicular height is always vertical. The second subsection extends these two formulae to include
the formula for the area of a parallelogram and from this the formula for the area of a trapezium. Interspersed
throughout the section’s exercises are also problems that focus on contextual area problems that require additional
skills, including conversion of metric units.
Prompting questions
• Q3 (F) / Q2 (H) How do we identify which length is the height?
We look for the right angle.
• Try rotating the page so that the base is horizontal. Which of the given lengths is the base of your triangle? Which is
the height?
• Q3 (F) / Q2 (H) What formula are you using?
1
Area of a triangle so A = 2 bh.
• Write down the formula you are going to use and fill in the value of the variables you know. What can you do to find
the length of the unknown?
Solve.

11F / 11H Area
• Q5 (F) / Q4 (H) What shape(s) is a kite made up of?

Two triangles or four right-angled triangles.
• Can you sketch these triangles separately and label their dimensions?
• What property do kites have that can help you?
It has a line of symmetry so two identical triangles.
• Can you sketch the single triangle you need to find the area of?
Should be a triangle with base 10 cm and height 2.5 cm.
• Can you form a formula for the area of a kite given what you have discovered in this question?
Half the product of the diagonals.
• Q6–7 (F) / Q5–6 (H) What has to be the same when working with lengths and areas?
The units.
• Q8 (F) / Q7 (H) How can I find two thirds of 2.7 m?
Find one third by dividing by 3 and then multiply by 2 to find two thirds.
• Q8 (H) For part e, can you sketch the flag and notate your assumed proportions? To find the area of the golden arrow
is challenging, think instead about what you can do to the area of the whole flag using the previous parts. (Students
can subtract the earlier parts of the question from the total area of the flag to leave the arrow.)
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How do we identify which measurement is the height?
We look for the right angle.
• Try rotating the page so that the base is horizontal. Which of the given lengths is the base of your parallelogram?
Which is the height?
• Q3 (F) / Q3–5 (H) What formula are you using?
1 1
Area of a parallelogram or rectangle so A = bh, area of a triangle so A = 2 bh, or area of a trapezium so A = 2(a + b)h.
• Write down the formula you are going to use and fill in the value of the variables you know, what can you do to find
the length of the unknown?
Solve an equation.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) What piece of information do I need to calculate the amount of fencing needed?
The perimeter.

Starters
• Ask students to find as many triangles as possible with an area of 2. This task can be completed on square dotted
paper (perhaps as a preparatory task for Pick’s Theorem, see below) and hence deduce that there are an infinite
number of triangles that can be drawn on square dotted paper. This is a nice task for students who struggle to
calculate the area of triangles when the slope requires the perpendicular height to be labelled outside of the shape.
• (Foundation) The first question in exercise A is a nice discussion point for a class at either the beginning or the end of
a lesson. Students could then be invited to offer their own suggestions of careers that may involve area calculations.
Plenaries
• Matching shapes to their area formula or true and false quick fire area problems given a diagram of a simple polygon
and its area.

• The flags in Exercise A could be printed as A4 hand out sheets and given a scale so that students can find the areas
of the flags using their measurements and converting the lengths using the given scale (see Chapter 21 (F) / 22 (H))
rather than using the measurements given in Exercise A. This also means this task could be extended to foundation
students also.
• NRICH Pick’s Theorem is an excellent task for exploring the area of simple shapes and building students’ confidence
with areas involving part squares given the supporting grid. If you give students a series of areas to find and set
them tasks based on finding as many shapes as possible with 12 perimeter dots students will get purposeful practice
in using the polygon formulae from this section and work on composite shapes. In addition this is a good task for
developing students’ pattern spotting and justification skills. (nrich.maths.org)
• Some parallelograms cannot have a triangle cut off the end and joined at the other to form a rectangle. These
parallelograms need to be cut along the diagonal and the two triangles joined along the original sloping sides and
then this method repeated until a right-angled triangle can be removed and added to the other sloped side to form a
rectangle.
• It is fairly simple to create an animation to show this using PowerPoint and students often can deduce their own
formula based on seeing the animation first.
Assessment ideas
• Getting students to mark and correct another fictitious student’s work with obvious common errors such as using the
sloped edge rather than the perpendicular height when calculating the area, not giving the units with their answer,
and so on. Students then have to make a list of the errors they found and how common they were. If students
have recently had a homework task you could create this worksheet from their work or introduce peer assessment
following the task.
SECTION 2F / 2H AREA OF CIRCLES AND SECTORS
Section 2 focuses on area of circles and sectors. The formula for the area of a circle is given alongside a recap of the
connection between the radius and diameter. Sectors are treated as fractions of the whole and a formula for the area of
a sector given the angle formed at the centre of the circle between the two radii.
Prompting questions
• Q1–2 (F) / Q1–2 (H) Have you been given the radius or the diameter? How does this affect your calculations?
If given the diameter students need to divide by 2 first.
• Q3–4 (F) / Q3–4 (H) What is the area of the whole circle? What fraction of the circle do I have? How do I find that
fraction?
By finding the angle at the centre out of the whole 360 degrees.
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) Which circle are you using to find the area of the landing zone? What do you know about it?
The one given by the sector with the radius 80 m.
• Which circle are you using to find the area of the starting circle? What do you know about it?
That the diameter is 2.5 m.
• Q8 (F) / Q8 (H) What other formula related to a circle can you use given the piece of information you have been
given?
The formula for the circumference: C = pD
11F / 11H Area
• How can this help you find the area?

It can help you find the radius, which is needed to find the area.
• Q9 (H) Can you sketch a plan of the tube to identify what information you know about the circle formed at the top of
the tube? Which value is going to be easier to find first, the diameter or the circumference?
The circumference is the larger of the two arcs shown in the diagram. Once students have identified this they should
realise the circumference is needed first. You may wish to suggest students attempt to construct the tube out of paper to
help them spot this themselves. These questions can be repeated for the base of the tube.

Starters
• Simple starters based on circle sectors where the circle has been cut into equal sections (e.g. a pizza or clock) so that
students are finding a quarter or sixth of a whole can be appropriate when wishing to recap the formula for the sector
of an area because most students are not reliant on a formula when simple fractions are involved.
Plenaries
• ‘Spot the error’ plenaries work very well in circles work where examples involving common errors such as
multiplying by p before squaring are given for students to spot and correct.
• The NRICH ‘Curvy areas’ task is particularly good for exploring compound shapes involving circles and parts of
circles. It also has opportunities to revise constructions at the same time. You may find that students are surprised
when the areas are all equal. Students can then get experience in generalising these types of problems based on the
number of sections the diameter is split into. (nrich.maths.org)
• The following task NRICH ‘Bull’s eye’ is a simple investigation for students who have recently learned to calculate
the area of a circle. The problem could be simplified for weaker students by just asking students for the area of each
ring first. A suitable follow up problem in a similar vein is. To simplify the problem for weaker students you could give
the square dimensions, for example 12 1212 cm. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Matching activity based on being given different pieces of information about three or four and cards with spaces
to fill in for missing information. A group could include: diagram, radius, diameter, circumference, area. Additional
challenge could be given by repeating this task with circle sectors included too where cards could include: diagram,
radius, arc length, perimeter, area, angle formed at centre between both radii.
SECTION 3F / 3H: AREA OF COMPOSITE SHAPES
Section 3 focuses on different ways in which students can find the area of a composite shape by either summing
the area of recognisable shapes that form the shape or by subtracting known shapes from a larger known shape. By
encouraging students to sketch the composite shape and label the parts of the shape they know, in addition tracking
their working with clear labels, students can have a lot of success with this section, even with the most challenging
composite shapes. The second exercise in the section places a deeper focus on contextual area problems and extends
the challenge with additional arithmetic and money calculations.
Prompting questions
• Q1–2 (F) / Q1–2 (H) What shapes can you see in each diagram? Draw on the boundary lines of each shape and
consider the dimensions of each shape you are using. What are you doing in each case, summing the individual parts
or subtracting one shape from another?
Encouraging each student to draw each shape they are calculating the area of separately and labelling the dimensions
of each shape can be supportive in helping students make the correct calculations.

• Q1g (F) / Q1g (H) Two semicircles have been placed together to create this composite shape, what can you tell me
about the radius and diameter of each one?
The radius of the larger semicircle is 4.3 cm, which is the diameter of the smaller semicircle. Hence this value needs to be
doubled and halved to find the other lengths.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) If I have two equal semicircles or four equal quarters of a circle what do I have overall?
A whole circle.
• Q4 (H) What is the perimeter of a composite shape?
The total boundary.
• What do the marks on the triangle in the centre of the semicircles mean?
That the triangle is an isosceles triangle and hence the angle formed by the centre line and the base of the triangle is a
right angle.
• Why is this useful to us?
Because we have right-angled triangles and we can use Pythagoras to find the length of the hypotenuse, which is the
diameter of the other two semicircles.
• Q1–9 (F) / Q1–10 (H) What information have you been given? What do you need to do?
Following the problem-solving structure in section 3 of the textbook will support students who don’t know where to
start. Repeated exposure to these longer more challenging problems will improve students’ ability to tackle these
problems long term.
• Can you use estimation skills to find an estimate value for the solution to check your working? What is the value of p
roughly?
p is roughly three so estimations can be formed based on this value.

Starters
• Giving students a selection of composite shapes and asking them to list the known shapes that are used to form
it without any workings or calculations can be quite a fun game at the beginning of the lesson and students can
become very competitive.
• The task NRICH Floored can be used to promote thinking about the shapes that are involved in a design and how
they can be made using shapes we all know about. You could try this activity as it stands or change the floor pattern
depending on the class you wish to use it with. You may even consider using measurements in the first instance for
those students who have less confidence when looking at proportion. (nrich.maths.org)
• The NRICH ‘Dividing the Field’ activity looks at dividing a trapezium into two parts that have equal area and each
piece is also a trapezium. This is a nice activity to reinforce the formula for calculating the area of a trapezium and
thinking about composite shapes. (nrich.maths.org)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
This can be a nice topic to revisit constructions (Chapter32 (F) / 34 (H)), particularly when working with circles and
sectors. You could set tasks where students design their own piece of artwork based on circles and sectors and calculate
the area of the different colours. In addition many of these area problems can be based on scale drawings in which the
material from Chapter 21 (F) / 22 (H) can be revisited alongside the use of measurement conversions from this chapter.
There are also many opportunities to work with the perimeter of shapes (Chapter 10) as well as the area and explore the
connection (or lack of it) between them.

11F / 11H Area
Future learning
The formulae learned and used in this chapter will be used again in Chapters 23 (F) / 23 (H) for calculations to find the
area of surfaces of a 3D shape.
Gateway to A-level
Students will start to study calculus at A-level and will learn how to use integration to calculate the area under a curve. It
is here that many will first consider area to actually be the sum of infinitely thin strips rather than the number of square
units that fill the space.
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 7 Questions 3, 4
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes

12F / 12H Rounding and estimation

• Have a strong understanding of place value.

• Be confident with using decimals, particularly involving division.
• Be able to make estimates for calculations to decide if a solution is reasonable.
• To have an understanding of inequality notation (in order to help understanding of bounds).
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To be able to round to the nearest positive integer • To be able to round to the nearest positive integer
power of ten and apply this to some real-life examples. power of ten and apply this to some real-life
examples.
• To round values to a specified number of decimal
places. • To round values to a specified number of decimal
places.
• To round values to a specified number of significant
figures. • To round values to a specified number of significant
figures.
• To truncate values and understand when this is useful
to apply in context. • To truncate values and understand when this is
useful to apply in context.
Section 2 Section 2
• To apply the ability to round to one significant • To apply the ability to round to one significant
figure in order to estimate answers to more complex figure in order to estimate answers to more complex
calculations without using a calculator. calculations without using a calculator.
Section 3 Section 3
• To use inequalities and identify the lower and upper • To use inequalities and identify the lower and
bounds for measurements and use these within upper bounds for measurements and use these
calculations to find maximum and minimum solutions. within calculations to find maximum and minimum
solutions.
• Calculate the upper and lower bounds of a
calculation (for discrete and continuous quantities).
Vocabulary
• Rounding, degree of accuracy, significant figure, round to significant figures, truncation, estimate, lower bound,
upper bound, error interval
• (Higher only) discrete values, continuous values, supplementary angles
• That estimation just means writing a ‘rough guess’ that doesn’t involve any calculation.
• That rounding is an arbitrary process that simply follows the rule of ‘5 or more round up’, as opposed to
understanding the reason for this.
To help resolve ask students to consider the two possible answers from rounding up or down on a number line and
identify their halfway point to make the decision about rounding.

• That multiplication always gives a larger answer.

Include examples of multiplication with numbers less than 1 to challenge this perception.
• That division always gives a smaller answer.
Again, provide examples of division with numbers less than 1 to counter this.
• That rounding to decimal places means the same as truncation.
Activities from section 1 will clarify this.
• That 24 673 to two significant figures is 25 rather than 25 000 so that rounding to significant figures ‘loses’ the
unnecessary digits and place value is not maintained.
Encourage students to say the number out loud before rounding, to hear the place value expressed, for example
‘Twenty four thousand, six hundred and seventy three rounded is twenty five to 2 sf’. This helps prompt them to
realise their answer is not reasonable where place value has been lost.
• That when a solution is required to a specified degree of accuracy all answers obtained partway through the
calculation should be rounded to this degree. Encourage use of fractions, surds and irrational numbers through
calculations, or use of a calculator memory button, to minimise rounding until the final answer.
• That when rounding to decimal places some students erroneously think that each digit is rounded in turn with
a compounding effect, for example, rounding 3.4547 to two decimal places becomes 3.455 then 3.46 instead of
the correct answer of 3.45 (2 dp).
Again representing numbers on a number line can help provide a visual stimulus, with the halfway value clearly
identified to avoid this type of error.
Hooks
• The Estimation 180 website has a different estimation, using an image as a prompt, for 200 different days. It
provides an excellent way of developing number sense in students and would provide a suitable introduction to
ground this topic. (estimation180.com)
SECTION 1F / 1H: APPROXIMATE VALUES
This section has four sub-sections, covering rounding to the nearest positive integer power of ten; rounding to a given
number of decimal places; the terminology of significant figures and how to apply rounding to these; truncating
numbers at specific levels of accuracy, rather than using formal rounding techniques, and exploring when this might be
applicable.
This section recaps much content that should have been covered in previous years therefore establishing the areas
your students are confident with is particularly important as it is easy to assume they should already understand, but
in fact may have gaps or misconceptions. Equally, more able students could become quickly disengaged revisiting
material they understood some years ago. Since the book provides for a wide range through exercises A to D, using the
Launchpad questions and then allowing students to select their starting points for some individual work would seem
particularly relevant for this topic. Drawing special attention to the truncation method and its relevance is important,
since this may not have been formally taught previously yet can be incorrectly used by students thinking they are
rounding to a given number of decimal places.
Prompting questions
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Can you suggest possible real-life examples for the figures you are rounding?
Obviously there is a multitude of possible answers here, but it could be good to use items in the classroom (they might
be measurements of length, for example objects around the classroom such as mini whiteboards, pencils, etc).
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Can you draw number lines as they are shown below to demonstrate why your rounding is correct?
£27.60
£27.00 £27.50 £28.00

• How might the media use rounding to persuade the public? For example, which sounds more dramatic: The UK
national deficit was £107.7 billion, or £108 billion in March 2014? What is the increase in pounds if I round this to
£108 billion? My original figure was presumably rounded anyway. What is the maximum possible increase that this
rounding could have added on to the actual figure?
£108 billion sounds more dramatic, being an increase of 300 million. The lowest value that could have been rounded to
107.7 billion would be 107 650 000 000 so the maximum increase if rounded to £108 billion is 350 million! An additional
point to make here is that in real life, numbers do tend to be rounded up, and not necessarily by mathematicians so they
may not stringently be following the rules!
Whilst working through this exercise, good prompts for students might be:
• What examples can you think of where amounts might be rounded to 1 or 2 dp? Often seen in measurements such as
weight and distance.
• When might rounding to decimal places be more or less appropriate?
A less appropriate example might be rounding certain measurements that are hard to measure a decimal part, for
example, angles or where very large numbers are involved and the decimal part is insignificant. Also these can be
confusing in measurements not based on a base ten system, for example, 0.25 hours might be better converted as 15
mins.
• If I were drawing a scale map, where 1 cm = 1 km, what effect would rounding to the nearest centimetre have?
The real-life measurements could be smaller or greater by up to 500 metres. Questions like this are useful to help
students begin to think about bounds, which come in a later section.
• What is 1.899 rounded to 2 dp? What about 1.999? Why do examples like these make us think more?
1.90 and 2.00. As a result of the nines we need to show the zeros to be clear we have rounded to the required number of
decimal places.
• What is −2.75 rounded to 1 dp?
This should raise questions since the answer depends on the method being used and it would be a good opportunity for
students to research into different rounding methods such as half away from zero and half towards zero.
• Which method do you prefer and why?
If we agree on a ‘half round up’ method, which is applied with the positive numbers, we would get −2.7 (1 dp) although
rounded to the nearest integer we’d get −3. There are different systems and applications that might well advocate
rounding towards zero, so rounding away from zero this is −2.8 to 1 dp.
Whilst working through this exercise, good prompts for students might be:
• When would using rounding to significant figures be useful?
This can be helpful with very large and very small numbers, when specifying a number of decimals places is irrelevant.
In general, rounding to 3 or 4 significant figures should always give a reasonable answer, whereas rounding to four
decimal places may not.
• If 2500 is the answer to a ‘Round this number to’ question, what might the question have been?
A range of possible answers, depending on levels of accuracy used. I’d ask students to state their rounding accuracy
to each answer they give to help check their understanding. This thought process leads nicely to the topics of bounds
covered in Section 3, so does not need much detail at this stage but having exposed students to this thought process will
help them later on.
• Ask students to give examples of numbers that they find more difficult to round, for example, 1.0005 to 2 significant
figures or 0.000873 to 1 significant figure. Discuss their queries to bring out any common misconceptions.
• Thinking challenge: Write down two different numbers that are the same when rounded to:
-- the nearest thousand and 1 significant figure (e.g. 2580 and 3100)
-- the nearest hundred and 2 significant figures (e.g. 195 and 203)
-- 2 decimal places and 2 significant figures (e.g. 0.345 and 0.353)
-- 5 decimal places and 3 significant figures (e.g. 0.001 229 99 and 0.001 234)
-- 1 decimal place and 8 significant figures (e.g. 240 175.168 and 240 175.172)


• Why do we truncate numbers rather than rounding them?
• Give some examples to demonstrate when truncating is a relevant form of rounding.
Used in computing, some answers on calculators, and also tax returns as detailed in the point below.
• Provide some functional examples where truncating has taken place, for the students to decide if they are or are not
appropriate, for example, the number of tiles required for a kitchen wall
Depending on the number of calculations involved they are likely to be short of tiles or number of glasses that can
be filled from a bottle. This is appropriate as truncation will give the number of whole glasses, the sample size for a
stratified sample (again this is an appropriate use since you can’t have a decimal part of a person), number of degrees
needed for a category in a pie chart (truncation throughout could leave you a few degrees short of 360 so rounding to
the nearest integer is more useful).
• When I fill in my tax return each year, the software uses truncation for all the values I enter, so for example an annual
bank interest income of £25.83 is recorded as £25 and then tax is calculated. What do you think of this system? Who
benefits – me or the tax office?
Me – perhaps surprisingly!

• How many potential examples of rounding can students find in today’s news headlines?
• (Foundation) Improving Learning in Mathematics ‘Mostly Number N3 Rounding Numbers’, available from the
National STEM Centre Archive, will help students who find rounding to integers difficult to consolidate rounding to
the nearest power of ten. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
NRICH Does this sound about right? A good activity to ensure students are able to identify realistic estimations in
context. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Foundation) A quick starter: Can we afford our shopping? Give students a budget and then read out a range of items
to buy and their prices. Ask students to keep an approximate running total in their head to decide approximately how
much they should pay. Will any items need to be put back on the shelf?
• (Foundation) For students who still struggle with the concept of place value and decimal intervals, the Interactive
Teaching Programs from the old Primary Numeracy Strategy can be very helpful, particularly ‘Place Value’
and ‘Decimal Number Line’ (taw.org.uk). Another good visual tool is the Maths is Fun number line ‘zoom tool’.
(mathsisfun.com)
• Make a card matching or a Tarsia puzzle (this can be done using free software available from Hermitech Laboratory)
to match amounts rounded to specific levels of accuracy. There are also many ready-made examples available on the
internet and the TES website has a good collection to choose from. (mmlsoft.com)
• Create a ‘follow me’ loop where students read out a number and a rounding level of accuracy and the student with
the answer on their card replies and gives the next question.
• The Number Loving website has a selection of card sorts and games, ‘treasure hunt’ and ‘tick or trash’ activities
that could be used for group and class activities to consolidate and practise techniques beyond the textbook
exercises. (numberloving.com)
SECTION 2F / 2H: APPROXIMATION AND ESTIMATION
This section covers estimation techniques using a calculator.

The worked example material includes a question with three different possible estimations and their calculations.
It would be useful for students to make connections with this type of problem and the number based ones that are
predominant in the exercise, so asking students to write a possible scenario for the estimations, with sensible alternate
calculations, could be a good way to develop higher order thinking around this topic.

Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Are your answers to the estimations over or underestimates?
Since this is not always easy to predict, you could ask students to work out the precise answers to the calculations to
double check.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What are the percentage errors for each calculation?
(Part a), percentage errors are: A +9.4%, B −6.5% and C +3.9%, all to one decimal place. (Part b) A +3.3%, B −3.6% and
C +10.2%, all to one decimal place.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) Why do you think rounding each number to 1 significant figure is suggested?
It’s good for a general rounding level when estimating since it is not affected by the magnitude of numbers involved; it
will always take into account place value, unlike if decimal places are specified.
• What are the limitations of this?
Can make estimations very inaccurate, especially for large numbers as shown previously?
• Can you give me an example where the actual answer is very different from the estimated answer? Can you give me
an example where they are very similar?
Ask students to calculate the actual answers and compare to their rounded ones to see this. When figures given are very
close to the upper or lower bound for rounding this will create larger differences. This could link nicely to section 3.
• Given the students’ observations from Q1 (F) / Q1 (H), what are the potential issues of rounding partway through a
calculation?
They should see from checking the over and under-estimates and percentage errors that premature rounding can
greatly affect the answer in some cases.

• MARS Assessments ‘Division’ is a quick task that will help to ensure students read worded problems carefully
before applying estimation techniques. (mathshell.org)
• Marking some ‘other students’ work. Provide some questions and written solutions where some answers are perfect,
but others contain errors or inconsistencies such as a change to the rounding accuracy level. Ask students to mark
the work and identify these.
SECTION 3F / 3H: LIMITS OF ACCURACY
This section introduces bounds of accuracy and error intervals and in the higher textbook leads into associated
calculations from these. This section in the higher textbook also considers working with discrete and continuous
quantities.
Before moving onto this section ensure students are confident with using inequalities. Connect their understanding by
considering the previous sections, where they obtained over-estimates and under-estimates through their calculations,
since using bounds will enable them to find the maximum and minimums of such calculations.
Prompting questions
• If a student’s height is 1.7 m, what might their exact height be?
Any height in the error interval 1.65 ≤ h < 1.75, that is lower and upper bounds 1.65 and 1.75 m
• Why is using the π button on the calculator better than assuming a value of three?
The calculator value is not rounded and so will ensure accuracy during calculations (this is lost by premature rounding.)

Exercise 12G (H)

• Q1 & Q4 (H) How would rounding figures up or down affect calculations involving subtraction?
To maximise the answer to A − B do upper of A − lower of B, to minimise answer use lower of A − upper of B.
• Q2 & Q3 (H) How would rounding figures up or down affect calculations involving multiplication?
To maximise the answer, use all upper bounds, to minimise answer use all lower bounds.
• Q5 (H) How would rounding figures up or down affect calculations involving addition?
To maximise the answer use all upper bounds, to minimise answer use all lower bounds.
• Q7 (H) How would rounding figures up or down affect calculations involving division?
Again this depends on the magnitude of the numbers involved in the calculation. For numbers A and B where both are
greater than 1, for the maximum of A ÷ B do upper of A ÷ lower of B; to minimise use the lower of A ÷ upper of B.

• NRICH Time to Evolve. This encourages students to make sensible estimates through their calculations.
(nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) NRICH More or Less? This asks students to consider a range of scenarios whether a particular
estimation would be over, under or exact. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) Nuffield Foundation ‘Errors’. This uses examples in the context of shape and space to help students
understand how big errors may be. Students are required to find the upper and lower bounds of measurements,
given the level of accuracy used, and consider how possible errors accumulate. It is available from the National
STEM Centre Archive. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
Place value and rounding through KS2 and KS3
Future learning
Approximation and estimation are skills that are used regularly during GCSE. Whilst they are particularly useful for
a simple check that solutions are of a correct magnitude, and for ensuring accuracy during calculations by avoiding
premature rounding, the have direct applications within the following topics:
• Using standard form notation (since this requires use of significant figures), see Chapter 15.
• Trial and improvement (since this requires finding approximate solutions to a specified degree of accuracy, where
working at least one degree of accuracy during the preceding calculations is necessary), see Chapter 15.
• Inequalities (since writing error intervals using these), see Chapter 21 (F) / 22 (H).
• Handling continuous data (where writing intervals is also required), see Chapter 35 (F) / 37 (H).
Gateway to A-level
Estimations and approximation will continue to have general applications within a range of calculation types through
A-level, both in Mathematics and any subjects where calculations are required. There are many cross-curricular links
where accuracy is important, for example calculating concentrations in Chemistry, or use of formula within Business
Studies or Economics. Within the Mathematics content, they have specific application in the Taylor and MacLaurin series
and solutions by iteration.

Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

13F / 13H Percentages


• How to express a fraction in its simplest form.
• How to express a percentage as a decimal.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To be able to convert between fractions, decimals and • To be able to convert between fractions, decimals
percentages. and percentages.
Section 2 Section 2
• To use fractions, multipliers or calculators to calculate • To use fractions, multipliers or calculators to
percentages of amounts. calculate percentages of amounts.
• To be able to express a quantity as a percentage of • To be able to express a quantity as a percentage of
another. another.
Section 3 Section 3
• To calculate percentage increase or decrease. • To calculate the original amount given an increase
or decrease.
• To calculate the original amount given an increase or
decrease. • To calculate percentage increase or decrease.
• Students may believe that when multiplying by 10 you simply add a zero (similarly taking away a zero for
dividing).
This may lead to some problems when converting a percentage into a decimal and vice versa.
• Since dividing by 10 is the correct calculation for finding 10% students might think that this works for any
percentage, for example to find 20% divide by 20.
This could be because students fail to see a percentage as a part of 100. They might not understand that they would
have to divide the quantity by 5 because there are five 20s in 100.
• When writing a quantity as a percentage of another, students might fail to see that the quantities are in
different units.
• When calculating percentage increase or writing a quantity as a percentage of another, students might fail to
understand that a percentage can be higher than 100%.
For example, when writing 80 as a percentage of 50, students might not understand the answer of 160%. Instead,
they might calculate 50 as a percentage of 80 and get 62.5%.
• Students might misunderstand how to calculate a decrease followed by another decrease.
For example, they might think that if you receive 50% off followed by another 50% you will not have to pay for the
item!
• Students may think that because 100 reduced by 25% is 75 that 75 increased by 25% is 100.
They may fail to see that 25% of 100 is not the same as 25% of 75.
• Students might think that if 100 is reduced by 20% that it takes it down to 80.
However, they then believe that to get from 80 to 100 you merely add on 20% rather than the 25% it should be.

Hooks
• Introduce students to where they might see percentages in their day-to-day life. This video available from the
National STEM Centre shows many examples. After this you could show photos that display discounts that
have been calculated incorrectly. Students can then discuss and correct these. An example is shown below.
get
50 %
off
or half price,
whichever is less.
SECTION 1F / 1H: REVIEW OF PERCENTAGES
This section reviews the student’s understanding of the equivalence between fractions, decimals and percentages.
Prompting questions
2 .
• Q6 (F) / Q5 (H) This question mentions the fraction . What is the difference between 2.6 and 2.6 (and even
2.66667)? 3
2.6is a recurring number.
• Q9 (F) / Q7 (H) Why might it be useful to have all of the quantities written in the same form, for example all
percentages?
In order to compare them.

• To convert a percentage to a fraction or a decimal, students might find it helpful to have access to a place value grid.
• NRICH Matching fractions, decimals and percentages is a game similar to pairs that gets students to match
equivalent fractions, decimals and percentages. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Doughnut percents is a silent group work activity that asks students to match equivalent fractions, decimals
and percentages. (nrich.maths.org)
• National Stem Centre SMILE Mathematics. Equivalent fractions, decimals and percentages (final page of
pack 1). Students are required to match a percentage with a pictorial representation and a decimal fraction.
• Just Maths ‘FDP who dunnit’? Students are required to work through the clues to work out who dunnit. The
clues range from ordering fractions, decimals and percentages to working out whether a statement is true or
not. A great activity that gives students a purpose for converting between fractions, decimals and percentages.
• Just Maths ‘Extreme fractions, decimals and percentages!’ is a collection of questions with a real-life context.
(justmaths.co.uk)

SECTION 2F / 2H: PERCENTAGE CALCULATIONS
This section introduces various ways to calculate a percentage of an amount and how to write one number as a
percentage of another.
This chapter gives the students three different ways of calculating a percentage of an amount. The second method is
called the ‘decimal method’. Students might like to know that this is called the multiplier method and is very useful for
completing questions with multiple calculations.
Prompting questions
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) In part i, how are you going to make sure you are accurate when calculating this problem?
Don’t round any numbers until the end.
• For each question, students could discuss how to round their answer and decide why.
Exercise 3C (H)
• Q1 (H) Prompt students to look carefully at the amount of crimes reported and the context in which they were
reported.
They should notice that the largest increase came from the area with the smallest population.
• What extra information would you like to answer this question?
Students might find it useful to know the average population in each of the contexts. This will help students to come to a
more informed decision. They also might like to think about the types of crime committed.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Why is it important to make the units the same?
To write one number as a percentage of another the units must be the same.
• Q9 (F) / Q9 (H) Students might find it interesting to investigate the label further. What percentage of the ingredients
per serving are listed?

• Just Maths ‘Ever Wondered Why?’ This is a code breaking activity that helps students to practise calculating
percentages of amounts. (justmaths.co.uk)
• Just Maths ‘Percentages of amounts Top Trumps’. (justmaths.co.uk)
• Just Maths ‘Percentages of amounts connect four’. (justmaths.co.uk)
• NRICH One or both is a challenging activity where students have to work out how many people took an exam, if they
know how many people passed both, and the percentage of students that passed each exam. (nrich.maths.org)
• The ‘Percentage Snake Board Game’ from Mr Barton Maths. (mrbartonmaths.com)
SECTION 3F / 3H: PERCENTAGE CHANGE
This section focuses on increasing and decreasing an amount by a given percentage and finding the original amount if
you know the increase or decrease.
The reverse percentages section shows students how to calculate a reverse percentage algebraically. If students are
struggling there are a couple of other ways that you can demonstrate this. If the bike had 10% off then £108 represents
90%, students can now think about the helpful percentages they can find, for example 1% or 10%. For example,
students could divide £108 by 9 to find 10% and then multiply this value by 10 to find 100%. Another way that students
could calculate this is to divide by the multiplier instead. For example, if £108 represents 90% then the original value can
be found by completing the calculation £108 ÷ 0.9.

Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) If you did the calculation 48 × 0.14, what have you calculated and what calculation would you have to
do to complete the question?
You’ve calculated 14% of 48, which you then need to add on to 48.
• Q3a (F) / Q3a (H) Explain why the calculation 68 × 0.86 represents the question £56 decreased by 14%.
0.86 is 100% decreased by 14%.
• Q9 (F) / Q9 (H) Explain why the following calculation would work for the first part of the question: 2500 × 0.9575.
100% reduced by 4.25% is 95.75%. 95.75% written as a decimal is 0.9575
• What single calculation could you do to find the value of the shares at the end of month 2?
2500 × 0.971 862 5 (2500 × 0.9575 × 1.015).
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) For all of these questions what percentage would be useful to calculate first? How would you find this
percentage?
It is useful to find 1%. To calculate this divide the value by the percentage you were given, for example if 8% is 120 g then
1% is 120 ÷ 8 = 15 g.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) What percentage of the original price did Misha pay for the DVDs?
80%.

• From Mr Barton Maths Increase and Decrease Bingo is an activity that tests students’ knowledge of writing an
increase or decrease as a multiplier. (mrbartonmaths.com)
• Stick on the Maths ‘Percentage Increases and Decreases’ is an activity that requires students to match a statement
to an answer. (kangaroomaths.com)
Assessment ideas
• The Percentages Project is a project that tests all objectives and focuses on students’ financial literacy.
• Improving Learning in Mathematics ‘Mostly Number; N7 Using percentages to increase quantities’ is an activity
that requires students to increase or decrease an amount of money by a given percentage. The students then need to
match this to the same calculation written in words, as a fraction and as a decimal. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
• National Stem Centre ‘MP3 Player’ task has many objectives (graphs, probability and functions) as well as
percentage increase and decrease. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Completing the four rules with integers

• Multiplying and dividing with decimals
• Multiplying and dividing by powers of 10
Future learning
• General use of calculations in most topics

• Probability
Gateway to A-level
• Probability
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes

14F / 14H Powers and roots

• How to add and subtract integers mentally.

• How to find the squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots of numbers.
• How to find the reciprocal of a number.
• How to use the power, root and reciprocal buttons on a calculator.
• The difference between the words ‘evaluate’ and ‘simplify’.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To write a series of numbers multiplied together in • To write a series of numbers multiplied together in
index form. index form.
• To write an exponent on a calculator. • To write an exponent on a calculator.
• To understand zero and negative indices. • To understand zero and negative indices.
Section 2 Section 2
• To apply the laws of indices for multiplying and • To work with fractional indices and understand the
dividing, and for powers of indices. link to surds.
• To apply the laws of indices for multiplying and
dividing, and for powers of indices.
Section 3 Section 3
• To calculate roots of a number fraction. • To estimate powers and roots of a number.
• To solve problems involving powers and roots. • To solve problems involving powers and roots.
Vocabulary
• Index, index notation
• When squaring a number, students might double the number rather than multiplying it by itself, e.g. 72 = 14. To
address this you could pose two calculations to the students. One that calculates 7 × 7 and the other 7 × 2. Students
can discuss which they think is correct and why.
• If students are taught rules such as: an × am = an+m then they may incorrectly believe that an × bm = a + bn+m or abn+m.
Asking students to evaluate the questions as well as simplify can overcome this. Students could be provided with all
of the possible misconceptions and after they evaluate them using a calculator they will understand why they are not
correct.
1
• When students are dealing with negative indices they might write the number 5−1 as −5 rather than . If this is the
case it would be helpful to recap their understanding of reciprocals. 5
Hooks
• Indices song (search online for ‘indices song’). This is a light-hearted way of introducing or reinforcing the topic. It
also highlights some of the common misconceptions.

• NRICH Powers Countdown is a twist on the popular numbers game. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 1F / 1H: INDEX NOTATION
Section 1 focuses on how to write a number in index form and how to input a number in index form into a calculator. It
also explains what negative indices are.
Prompting questions
Exercise 14A (F)
• Q1 (F) Can you think of any different ways to ask these questions?
The different question parts ask the same sort of question in different ways so students could suggest alternatives
depending on which part of the question they are considering.
• Q4 (F) Why is part n easier than part o? What can you do first to make part n even easier?
Simplify first.
• Q4q (F) Explain how you should apply the order of operations to this question.
Calculate the powers first, then multiply then add the two values together.
Exercise 14A (H)
• Q2a (H) What patterns can you identify in the powers of two? Can you use this to fill in the gaps?
Students should notice that from zero when the power increases it doubles the previous value. When the power
decreases then the answer halves.
• Q2b (H) What is the mathematical name for what you have noticed?
The negative and positive values of the same number are reciprocals of each other.
• Q1 (H) Why is part n easier than part o? What can you do first to make part n even easier?
Simplify first.
• Q1q (H) Explain how you should apply the order of operations to this question.
Calculate the powers first, then multiply then add the two values together.
• Q3d (F) / Q3d (H) Explain why it would be incorrect to simplify this question to 316 before evaluating the answer.
Because you can only simplify like this when multiplying terms with like bases.
• Q2d (F) / Q2d (H) 3−2 is the reciprocal of what?
3−2 is the reciprocal of 32.

Starters
• Transum starter ‘Can you spot the mistake?’ is a great quick starter that consolidates the students’ understanding
of powers. The mistake is actually in the text! (transom.org)
• A set of thought-provoking indices resources by Susan Wall are available from the National STEM Centre website.
These include true or false, odd one out and matching type activities and encourage student collaboration.
• The NRICH Power Mad activity gets students to investigate a range of patterns in powers. (nrich.maths.org)
• The NRICH A Biggy task will stretch students to think more deeply about the properties of numbers that have been
raised to powers. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 2F / 2H: THE LAWS OF INDICES
This section focuses on the following index laws:

• Multiplying numbers in index form
• Dividing numbers in index form
• Powers of indices
• (Higher only) Fractional indices
This section introduces all of the index laws students are required to know. Although the summaries are helpful to
students it is important that they understand why the laws work so they do not use them incorrectly.
Prompting questions
• Q1d (F) / Q1d (H) What is the power of 5 when it is written on its own?
5 = 51
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Why do you think other students might make a mistake with parts i, j and k of this question? What
wrong answer do you think they might give?
Students might apply their knowledge of negative numbers incorrectly, for example for Q2j they might get an answer of
102 by simply subtracting the powers. Since subtracting a negative is the same as adding a positive then they should get
1010.
Exercise 14E (H)
• Q2e (H) Why is it useful to write 3 3 as an index before simplifying?
( ) = 3 ..
1 4 4
Students can then simply multiply the indices when they are written in index form, for example 3 3 3
• Q3g (H) What three steps should you complete to answer this question?
First find the reciprocal of 125. Then find the cube root, then find the 4th power of the result.
Starters, plenaries, enrichment and assessment ideas<end B head>

• Number Loving’s ‘True or False Indices’ is a quick starter to check students’ understanding of use of powers and
the basic index laws. Also from this site ‘Simplifying Indices Catchphrase’ makes a nice plenary where the whole
class can contribute to solving questions and reveal a picture representing a known phrase. (The easiest way to find
particular resources is to select KS4 and then click ‘find’ to get a full list in alphabetical order.) (numberloving.co.uk)
• Teachit Maths ‘Power of y eliminator’ is a good exercise to practise using the first three laws of indices to find a
coded message. Registration to be able to download the pdf files is free. (teachitmaths.co.uk)
There is a readymade Tarsia matching cards activity from Mr Barton Maths and bingo activities for simplifying
indices. (mrbartonmaths.com)
• Improving Learning in Mathematics ‘Using Indices – N12’ available from the National STEM Centre archive contains
a range of activities to develop the students’ understanding of the index laws. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
• NRICH ‘Negative Power’ is an interesting investigative problem involving negative indices and raising a power to a
power. (nrich.maths.org)
• ‘Powers and Roots pack 2’ from the National STEM Centre archive is a pack of SMILE activities exploring powers and
indices and applying these in standard form. This could provide opportunities for additional practice and making
connections to applications of indices. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)

SECTION 3F / 3H: WORKING WITH POWERS AND ROOTS
The foundation version of section 3 focuses on finding the root of a number and recognising that finding the roots and
working out powers are inverse operations. The section then goes on to look at problems in context.
The higher version of Section 3 focuses on estimating the value of powers and roots and then on answering problems in
context.
Prompting questions
Exercise 14E (F)
• Can you complete the table without using a calculator? What patterns do you notice?
The powers increase by one as they move to the right. For base 2 the values for each increased power are doubling.
• What happens in each consecutive cell as you move to the right or left?
Base 2 is × 2 moving to right, ÷ 2 moving left. For base 3, 4 etc. moving right is multiplying by the base, moving left is
dividing.
1 1 1
• How could , , be written involving powers of 2?
2 4 8
1 1
( 2 ) ,( 2 ) , ( 21 ) , etc. which would bring out discussion about the negative powers being reciprocals.
1 2 3
This should elicit
• Why doesn’t this exercise ask you to find any sixth roots of numbers? How could you extend your table to be able to
do this?
The table only goes up to raising to the power of 5. You can extend the table by an extra column and use the rules
discussed above to fill in the values. Then it would be possible to answer questions such as what is 6 64 ?
Exercise 14F (H)
• Q1 (H) What square, cube etc. numbers do you know that are close to the values in the question?
For part a students know that the square root of 64 is 8 and that the square root of 81 is 9. Therefore, they know the
answer will lie between 8 and 9.
• Q4 (H) If m = 1, then what is a? Now, find a as m increases.
If m = 1, a = 81. Students can use this as a useful starting point.
Exercise 14G (F) / 14G (H)
• List as many examples of formulae you can think of in maths or science that use indices (e.g. πr2).
This could lead to an interesting discussion about which formula are more complicated to use and why, which leads in
nicely to the types of problem covered in this exercise.
• Q1 (F) Which button on your calculator will work out the side lengths of a square if you know the area?
Square root button.
• Q4 (F) If the answer to the question has units m2, why might it be easier to convert the length of the plastic to metres
before beginning the question?
Converting units of area is more difficult than converting units of length. Students are much more likely to succeed in
this question if they convert before starting.
• Q9 (F) / Q3 (H) What effect does changing the interest rate for the five years to 2.5% or 10% have on the final total
from the investment of £2500? Does this surprise you?
Now try changing the investment term from 10 years to 5 or 15. Use these investigations to write some financial advice
on wise investments.
5% 2.5% 10%
5 years £3190.70 £2828.52 £4026.28
10 years £4072.24 £3200.21 £6484.36
15 years £5197.32 £3620.75 £10443.12

• Aplus Click Maths contains a wide variety of multiple choice questions on algebra, many of which involve indices
and powers. To give you a sample of what you will find, here are two examples: a: 278 = 81n, find n, and b: the last digit
of 333 = ? (aplusclick.com)
• (Higher only) For a challenge that extends toward A-level, try the RISP Task 35 Index Triples, which investigates
the effect of the order when writing numbers to the power of each other. (risps.co.uk)
• Explore past functional maths paper questions (from Exam Board websites) for questions involving use of formulae
where indices play a part, possibly in connection to area, volume, percentage calculations and units.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• From KS3 students should be confident with square and cube numbers, and know the first 15 squares, six cubes and
their corresponding roots. Geometrically students should recognise the link between squaring a number and finding
the area of a square from its length. Similarly they should make the link between the volume of a cube and its edge
lengths.
Future learning
• At GCSE the laws of indices will be required for successful calculations in standard form see Chapter 15.
• (Higher only) Indices link closely with surds (Chapter 19) since these are fractional indices and the laws can be used
to justify statements such as a × a = a.
• Indices are also applied in various formulae, such as volumes of cubes and spheres, direct and indirect proportion
and calculations of compound interest.
Gateway to A-level
• Students will learn to differentiate and integrate terms that involve indices and they will develop the laws of indices
to work with logarithms, which are used extensively at A-level and beyond, for example linking to e, infinite series
and solving differential equations. Indices are present in topics such as geometric series and binomial distribution,
and the ability to manipulate expressions involving indices is an important algebraic technique.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes

15F / 15H Standard form

• How to multiply and divide by powers of ten, applying their understanding of place value.
• How to use the four arithmetic operations to calculate efficiently with decimals.
• How to round to a given number of significant figures.
• That multiplication and division are commutative.
• How to use the index laws when multiplying and dividing.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To apply understanding of multiplying and dividing by • To apply understanding of multiplying and dividing
powers of ten to convert numbers to and from standard by powers of ten to convert numbers to and from
form. standard form.
Section 2 Section 2
• To use a scientific calculator efficiently for standard • To use a scientific calculator efficiently for standard
form calculations. form calculations.
Section 3 Section 3
• To apply the laws of indices to multiply and divide • To apply the Laws of Indices to multiply and divide
numbers in standard form without the use of a numbers in standard form without the use of a
calculator. calculator.
• To apply understanding of place value, and previously • To apply understanding of place value, and
learned conversion between standard form and previously learned conversion between standard
ordinary numbers, to add and subtract numbers in form and ordinary numbers, to add and subtract
standard form. numbers in standard form.
• To solve problems, including contextualised ones,
involving standard form.
Vocabulary
• Place value, indices, standard form
• A × 10n + B × 10m = A + B × 10n+m (and ditto for subtraction).

Practise converting numbers back to ordinary form and then performing the calculations, to ensure students see
that this is not true.
• A × 10−n = −A × 10n.
Use the number line with continuing patterns, suggested in the general prompting questions for section 1, to
reinforce that 10−n is not a negative value. Enter examples on calculators to verify this and also to provide extra
calculator practice.
• Students may still hold misconceptions related to the first index laws, thinking that 10n × 10m = 10nm rather than
10(n + m) and similar for division.
Again by encouraging students to see the patterns on the line in the general prompting sections, they can use these
to test what the product of pairs of powers of ten are and deduce the correct rule for themselves.

• Some students may not fully appreciate the need for standard form, particularly in writing numbers such as
300 as 3 × 102.
The following link is a controllable applet that will allow students to appreciate use of standard form in the context
of our universe. (htwins.net)
Hooks
• ‘Powers of Ten’ video (search online for ‘powers of ten sped up video’). This very short clip shows increasing
distances in metres by an extra power of ten moving out from a picnic cloth into the atmosphere and space beyond
(some versions also show smaller and smaller distances down to atomic level). There are other, longer, alternatives
available but this will give a good starting point for discussions about representing very large numbers.
• The ‘Galaxy Song’ by Eric Idle. This song contains a plethora of facts about the universe, incorporating very large
numbers. Students could initially note down all the numbers they can from listening to the song. There are a range
of compound measures used that could provide an interesting exercise to compare values by converting them to the
same measure, for example miles per second and miles per day. They could also research to see if all the information
is accurate. Note: The original Monty Python version contains some images that are not really suitable for this age
group, and the final line of the song has one word you’d probably want to avoid. There are versions online that
simply show computer images of space to accompany the song. Alternatively you may wish to play the song without
showing the accompanying video.
SECTION 1F / 1H: EXPRESSING NUMBERS IN STANDARD FORM
Section 1 introduces writing numbers in standard form and converting numbers in standard form back to ordinary
numbers.
Prompting questions
Exercise 15A (F)
To check students’ grasp of working with indices and powers of ten before they work through the exercises, some good
prompts might be:
• Use a scale like the one shown below to develop understanding of powers of ten in index form and also to
demonstrate that negative powers involve division
10 100 1000
102 103 104
Ask students:
• What patterns can you see in the diagram?
Increasing power by 1 for each move to the right, multiplying by 10 each time. Going left, powers decrease by 1 and each
value is the previous value divided by ten.
• Can you add extra values?
1
Ensure 100 = 1 and 10-1 = etc. are added
10
• What changes each time as you move along the diagram to the right?
Each new value is 10 times bigger than the previous one. The power increases by 1.
• What changes each time as you move along the diagram to the left?
Each new value is 10 times smaller than the previous one. The power decreases by 1.
• What are the rules for moving right or left?
Multiply or divide by 10.


• Q2k (F) / Q3k (H) Why is the solution to this not 3.5 × 10−3?
It’s key for students to recognise the importance of the place holding 0 between the 3 and 5 and see that as a result the
answer is 3.05 × 10−3.
• Q2m (F) / Q3m (H) Why would an answer of 34 × 103 be incorrect, since this equals 34 000?
It’s not in the correct standard form notation.
Exercise 15B (F) / 15A (H)
• Q2c (F) / Q3c (H) Can you give a real-life example where this number might be used?
Obviously there are many responses to this, but since the number is × 103 this number could be an example of a metric
conversion of kg to g, km to m etc.
• Q3f & g (F) / Q5f & g (H) Using the two facts here, how far would the total journey from Jupiter to the sun and then to
Earth be?
Since this type of calculation will appear later in the chapter this could be a good point to see if students convert to
ordinary numbers first or try to use the standard form format, for example 7.78 × 108 + 1.5 × 1011 = 1.50778 × 1011.

• The introduction to the section describes how to write numbers in standard form. Ask students the names of
numbers such as 1 000 000, 1 000 000 000 and 1 000 000 000 000 first as a good way to check their knowledge of place
value for large numbers and introduce the structure of naming these numbers, for example million, billion, trillion,
quadrillion etc. It can be interesting to discuss why the British system used to define one billion as one million × one
million and why we changed this.
• NRICH A Question of Scale is an interactive sorting activity to link physical objects with their length in powers of
ten. (nrich.maths.org)
• A quick starter: Write today’s date
1
(or a birth date) in a creative way using index notation and standard form.
For example, my birthdate is16 2 / 23 / 1.97 × 103.
• Improving Learning in Mathematics ‘Mostly Number N4 Estimating length using standard form’ available from the
• Converting standard form to ordinary numbers. Research data for very large and small numbers such as the diameter
of an atom, size of the smallest virus, number of atoms in a human body, diameter of the Earth etc.
• Instant Maths Ideas (Standard Form) available at the National STEM Centre Archive. This excellent resource
provides additional ideas or consolidation of the suggestions above and the exercises in this chapter.
SECTION 2F / 2H: CALCULATORS AND STANDARD FORM
Section 2 focusses on familiarising students with the buttons they need to use on their own scientific calculators; and
understanding significant figures.
Prompting questions
• How do you enter numbers in standard form? Does anyone near you have a different style button to do this?
If so, this is why being familiar with your own calculator is so important.
• Does your calculator require the buttons to be pressed in a different or surprising order?
The order of entry is dependent on whether students have modern line display calculators or older or cheaper varieties.
Stressing the importance that they find out how to use their calculator is vital.

• Is the answer the same if you use the standard form button as if you type in × 10n? Why?
In theory, it should be but again this can depend on the calculator make and ensuring values are entered in the required
order for the operations.
Exercise 15D (F) / 15C (H)
• Q2a (F) / Q2a (H) What is the difference between 42166 and 4216 × 106?
Interchanging between powers of ten and general use of indices may bring to light any lingering misconceptions and
confusion between these so it’s worth challenging at this point.
• Q2i (F) / Q2i (H) Is 5.25 × 108 the same value as 5.25 x 10 ? Explain your answer.
8
The second version is rooting the power of ten, which will reduce the magnitude to × 104. This could link back to the
1
index laws. It is an example of the third law where (am)n = anm since square rooting is raising to the power of .
2

• Students draw a step by step ‘storyboard’ for entering a specific calculation on their calculator. These could be
displayed on a ‘working board’ for the duration of the topic.
• The Number Loving website has a selection of ‘catchphrase’, ‘top trumps’ ‘tick or trash’ and ‘collect a joke’ activities
that could be used for group and class activities to consolidate KS4 and the topic ‘Integers’. (numberloving.co.uk)
SECTION 3F / 3H: WORKING IN STANDARD FORM
Section 3 applies the use of standard form to a range of situations, for example, multiplying and dividing numbers in
standard form; adding and subtracting in standard form; and solving problems using standard form (Higher only).
Prompting questions
Exercise 15E (F) / 15D (H)
• Q2a (F) / Q2a (H) Explain why you can rearrange the terms of the question (2 × 1013) × (4 × 1017) to (2 × 4) × (1013 × 1017).
Why is this method of calculation more efficient?
Multiplication is commutative, and this is useful as we can then see the application of index laws to work easily with
these numbers.
• Q4a (F) / Q4a (H) What makes the question (3 × 1012) × (4 × 1018) more challenging than (2 × 1013) × (4 × 1017)?
Since 3 × 4 gives 12 students may write an answer of 12 × 1030, so this will highlight any students not yet secure with the
precise format required when writing a number in standard form.
• Q5 (F) Q5 (H) Google gives the speed of light as 299 792 458 metres per second. What is the difference between this
and the value given in this question?
3 × 108 − 299 792 458 = 207 542 metres per second.
Exercise 15F (F) / 15E (H)
• Standard form is often used in conversions when using large and small units. How would you represent 1 megawatt
in watts?
The prefix mega means one million so this is 1 × 106 watts.
• How would you represent 1 nm in metres?
nm are nanometres and the prefix nano means one billionth, so this is 1 × 10−9 metres.
Exercise 15F (H)
• While working through this exercise, good prompts for students might be:
• Q2a If you round 230 to four significant figures, rather than three as requested, how does this affect the value?
1 073 741 824 to 3 sf is 1 070 000 000, and to four sf is 1 074 000 000, which makes a difference of 4 000 000. This is a good

example to get students to consider the potential impact of premature rounding when working in standard form since
1.07 × 109 and 1.074 × 109 may appear deceptively similar. However, in the context of calculations with other very large
numbers, the rounding may not have a significant effect on the solution.

• Before introducing the methods for multiplying and dividing numbers in standard form, it could be useful to give
students some revision exercises on using the first two index laws (for multiplying and dividing by powers of ten) if
they have not practised this for some time.
• A group task, done in silence to encourage awareness of others’ requirements and cooperative learning, where each
group member has to collect a set of four matching cards (one in ordinary form, one in standard form, one with
the same value as the solution from addition or subtraction of two numbers in standard form, and one that is the
solution from multiplication or division). 16 cards are dealt (four per person) and are laid in front of each person
for all to see. Each group member may hand a card to another, being given one in return, until all members have a
‘happy families’ set of cards so that there are matching ones of each category. An example matching set could be
50 000, 50 000, 5 × 104, 5.04 × 104 – 4 × 102 and (2 × 107) ÷ (4 × 102). The aim is to be the first group to complete these
successfully in the class.
• NRICH ‘Big and small numbers in the Living World’ combines estimation and large numbers with problem-
solving skills to help contextualise the use of standard form. (nrich.maths.org)
• ‘Space Math’ from NASA, available from the National STEM Centre Archive, provides many activities and questions
in a space context that involve using standard form. Each of these booklets contains a table at the start showing
the content covered by each activity. Scientific notation features in many of them, particularly space math IV.
• ‘Little Green Men – The Long Way Round’, available from the National STEM Centre Archive requires students to
make calculations based on the distances in the galaxy. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
Assessment ideas
• MARS Assessments ‘A Million Dollars’. A useful written task to assess understanding. This is designed for an
American audience therefore the units are imperial, so brings in conversions between units such as yards to inches.
(map.mathshell.org)
MARS Assessments ‘Giantburgers’. A useful written task to assess understanding and problem-solving skills. (map.
mathshell.org)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Place value and rounding through KS2 and KS3.

• Significant figures.
• Index laws for multiplication and division.
Future learning
• Speed of light (within compound measures e.g. speed, distance and time).
• Further indices laws (fractional).
Gateway to A-level
• Indices.
• Applications within Physics, Chemistry and Biology.

Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes

16F / 16H Further algebra

• How to simplify expressions by collecting like terms including those with different powers.
• How to simplify products of expressions.
• (Higher only) How to find the HCF of one or more expressions.
• (Higher only) How to simplify fractions by cancelling common factors.
• Area formulae.
• (Higher only) Volume formulae.
• Pythagoras’ theorem.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Know what a quadratic expression is. • Know what a quadratic expression is.
• Expand the product of two binomials. • Expand the product of two binomials.
Section 2 Section 2
• Factorise expressions in the form x2 + bx + c. • Factorise expressions in the form ax2 + bx + c.
Section 3 Section 3
• Form algebraic expressions to solve problems. • Simplify and manipulate algebraic fractions.
Section 4
• Form algebraic expressions to solve problems.
Vocabulary
• Binomial, binomial product, quadratic expression, trinomial, perfect square, coefficient, constant.
• Common algebraic misconceptions related to finding the product of expressions follow through to this
chapter, for example x × x = 2x
In cases like this substitution to offer a counter example may work best to help students identify this mistake.
• Missing the product of one or more pairs of terms when expanding the product of two or more polynomials.
The use of arcs to track their product pairs, for example ‘smiley face method’ or ‘moon method’, is a method
students may use when suffering from this issue. Working with products as areas of rectangles and filling in the area
of each sub-rectangle can be more time consuming to use but can help students who often miss product pairs in
their calculations. (Higher only) This is often a more pressing issue when the product of two polynomials is being
found, one of which has more than 2 terms. However, for students who are more comfortable with the arcs method,
recording the products on each arc is a good way of making sure no product pair is missed.

• Confusing product with sum, particularly when negatives are involved.

This is a misconception that may come through using the box method to expand products. You could advise students
to write down the polarity of the second term when setting up their grids as shown using the grid below.
× x +4
-2
This can sometimes result in students writing 2 in the bottom right hand corner because they have found the sum of
4 and −2 rather than the product. To combat this encourage the use of a multiplication cross in the top left corner; as
well as the use of smaller superscript polarity signs for example −2 and +4.
• Squaring both terms in a perfect square rather than expanding the binomial product.
Encouraging students not to work mentally and write down all steps of their working helps prevent this, and
students should always be encouraged to start with the following: (x + 3)2 = (x + 3)(x + 3).
• Factorising quadratics is a concept more procedural students may struggle with.
This is because there is not a formula or procedure that provides the factorisation without conscious thought. These
students are often reluctant to write down any working other than that which leads them to the correct answer so
encourage the use of a factor pairs sum table alongside their working, as shown below.
Factors of 12 Sum
1, 12 13
2, 6 8
3, 4 7
• The polarities of the constant terms of the linear factors also cause students problems.
Rather than encourage students to learn a series of rules, you could focus on the polarity of the factors so that when
students have identified a negative coefficient in the given quadratic they then test more factor pairs, see table
below.
or, when the

Factors of −12 Sum coefficient of x Factors of 12 Sum
is negative:
−1, 12 11 1, 12 13
1, −12 −11 −1. −12 −13
−2, 6 4 2, 6 8
2, −6 −4 −2, −6 −8
−3, 4 1 3, 4 7
3, −4 −1 −3, −4 −7
• (Higher only) Students often forget to factor out the coefficient of x2 when completing the square.
There are different approaches to factoring out a including those that factor a out of all 3 terms and those that just
focus on factoring it out of the x2 and x terms and dealing with the constant in the final stages of manipulation. So
b c b
• students either do a( x 2 + x + ) or a( x 2 + x ) + c . You may find the second method to be better for students who are
a a a
less successful at dealing with fractions as it often reduces the amount of manipulation they have to do. However,
neither method particularly increases the success rate at dealing with factoring out a. The most successful method
may be to encourage students to check their work by expanding their expressions once done.

Hooks
• Introduce the expansion of brackets by connecting the ideas to multiplying two 2-digit numbers. Start with the
example 14 × 27 and connect it to long multiplication methods that make use of a grid to connect the product to an
area. Generalising the problem to a variable length can help students make the connection between these ideas and
identify how binomial products can be expanded.
SECTION 1F / 1H: MULTIPLYING TWO BINOMIALS
Section 1 introduces and focuses on expansion of double brackets. Students are introduced to some new terminology
relating to polynomials and opportunities for creating conceptual links to long multiplication and areas of rectangles are
offered. Students are also introduced to special cases of quadratics: perfect squares and the difference of two squares.
(Higher only) This conceptual idea extends to the product of three or more binomials and consequently an ability to
extend their method of expansion to expand the product of a binomial and trinomial is required.
As well as defining binomials to students it is also worth at this point considering what a polynomial is as later
expansions will produce quadratics and, for higher tier students, cubics. (Higher only) It is important that students
understand that a quadratic is not just an expression where the highest power is two but also one where all powers are
positive integers.
Prompting questions
• Why do I have to find the product of all possible pairs of terms?
Use a diagram and compare to finding the total area of the rectangle.
• What do I mean by ‘expand the binomial product’?
Multiply out the brackets to find the product of both binomials.
• What do we mean by a perfect square?
A number or expression found by multiplying the same expression by itself.
• Do we need to remember the generalised patterns for perfect squares?
No, because we can always expand the binomial product but it is useful to recognise the expanded form of a perfect
square in the next section.
• Q4–5 (F) / Q3 (H) Why does it not matter what letter is used?
Because we can use any letter to represent a variable.
• Q4 (F) / Q3 (H) What will happen when I multiply a negative by a negative (or any other combination involving
directed numbers)? Can you demonstrate the rules using a diagram?
Giving students a multiplication grid from −5 to 5 multiplied by −5 to 5 and asking them to fill out what they know can be
useful for highlighting these rules.
× +ve −ve
+ve + −
−ve − +
• Q6–7 (F) / Q5 (H)What do you have to remember when you are given a binomial squared for example (x + 3)2?
That it is the product of the binomial multiplied by itself. By remembering BIDMAS we know that brackets come first so
we can’t just bring the power in to act on every term within the bracket.
• Q4 (F) / Q2 (H) How have you arrived at the shortcut rule for the difference of two squares?
Hopefully by identifying patterns in what has been expanded.

• Can you draw a diagram to explain what is going on?

For foundation students you may wish to suggest an example case first
• Q4 (F) / Q3 (H) What is squared when you apply the rule? What if I had the binomial product (2x – 4y)(2x + 4y)?
Everything, not just the variable, so 4x2, not 2x2.
Exercise 16C (H)
• Q1 (H) What could the product of three binomials represent? The volume of a cuboid.
• Q2 (H) Could you use a grid in 3D to show the product pairs required for this expansion? Why might this not be a
sensible way of expanding the polynomial product?
Because it is hard to fill in a 3D grid. Multiplying a quadratic by a linear expression is far easier.
• Q2 (H) Why is the order I expand in unimportant?
Because multiplication is commutative.
• Q3 (H) Why would it be easiest to start with expansions that form perfect squares of the difference of two squares?
Because if you can spot patterns it could make your work quicker and reduce the number of product pairs in the next
part of the expansion.

Starter or plenary
• Having a series of binomials or binomial products on cards and asking students to categorise them can help students
identify their own patterns and rules regarding positives and negatives and assist them in making the correct choices
regarding negatives when factorising in the next section.
• Exercise 16A (F) Q6 / 16A Q4 (H) could be used as a starter to a lesson that is moving on to factorising by giving
students different statements to fill in the gaps on and share their findings with the class.
• The ‘work it out’ problem in section 1 is a lovely plenary for students and you could ask them to make a list as a class
of common errors students make when expanding.
• By considering the problems in Exercise 16A as areas of rectangles students can spend time working on forming
equivalent expressions to represent the total area both as a product and a sum. Structured support sheets can be
used for less able students with the rectangles pre-drawn and gaps to fill in to guide them. Use of the identity symbol
to form appropriate statements about both the area represented as a product and as a sum will further consolidate
these concepts from Chapter 7.
• The diagram given to support the explanation of an expansion relating to the difference of two squares could be
assigned as an investigation in which students find the area of the shape formed between two perfect square
numbers and attempt to generalise their findings. Asking them to form an appropriate diagram to explain a perfect
square would be an appropriate useful extension and plenary to this task.
Assessment ideas
• Matching tasks are good assessment and investigation tools for this topic. By removing some pairs you can
encourage students to start factorising through logical guesswork and pattern spotting and differentiate
appropriately for students in your class. The scale of the task (how many pairs are involved) could make this an
appropriate starter or plenary as well as a main task in a lesson.
SECTION 2F / 2H: FACTORISING QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS
Section 2 introduces and focuses on factorising quadratics after a brief recap of the factorising covered in Chapter 3.
The section starts with ‘how to’ guides for factorising quadratics in the form ax2 + bx + c where the value of a is 1. When
introducing factorising to students it is worth offering students some practice with just positive coefficients initially to
prevent confusion with the added complexity. What follows is then an explanation of the short cut for factorising the
difference of two squares by spotting that the identity can be used.

(Higher only) For higher students the section continues to look at factorising quadratics where the coefficient of x2
is not 1. First through factorising out the coefficient where it is a common factor of all terms and then by considering
the extension to the step by step guide introduced earlier in the chapter by considering this time what the product of
the two constant terms in the binomials must now be. In addition to this students are also encouraged to look for the
special case where they have a perfect square, in some cases disguised by an additional factor.
It is also worth considering the use of the multiplication grid when factorising. A useful visual tool is using the
‘Battenberg grid’. For example, for x2 + 8x + 12 the yellow parts of the grid were filled in and the challenge became about
finding the values for the pink cells and consequently the two factors. This helps to support students who struggle to
understand why we are looking at the product and sum. It also offers additional support for those who struggle with
negatives and which way around they go as well as how to deal with a coefficient of x2 that isn’t 1 through trial and
improvement methods.
x
x x2
12
When students start looking at factorising quadratics where a = 1 (but is still positive in this section) it is worth
considering the general case with students and why it is more complex this time. In the textbook students are merely
told that the product is now ac, which, although a quick, sufficient method, it does rely on them remembering which
two letters are involved and is not necessary for success if students just learn to play with factors of the numbers
(and most quadratics they work with have a prime coefficient of x2 or one with very few factors, for example, four). An
explanation of why follows:
When we consider the expansion of (x + d)(x + e) = x2 + (d + e) x + de we can conclude that by comparing to the general
form ax2 + bx + c that a = 1 and b is the sum and c is the product of two unknowns. These two clues are enough for us
to work out logically what those two numbers must be. When we have the following expansion things are much more
complex: (fx + d)(gx+e) = fgx2 + (dg + ef)x + de. This is because we now have four unknowns: d, e, f, g, which makes it
harder to find the unknowns now f, g = 1. In this case to form two statements about our four unknowns that are most
useful we consider that the sum of the coefficients of x gives us dg + ef = b but that the product of these two numbers is
no longer the constant term c. If we find the product of the two values we are summing to find the coefficient b we get
fgde = ac the product of the coefficient of x2 and the constant term of the quadratic. (Higher only) By considering the
general case and comparing to when fg = 1 more able students should be able to identify that actually they are always
doing this but ac in the first case is just 1 × c = c.
Prompting questions
• What is a quadratic expression?
A polynomial where the largest power is 2.
• What do we mean by factorise?
Undo the expansion of brackets to write the quadratic as a product of two linear expressions.
• What happens when you expand the product (x + a)(x + b)?
If we always get a quadratic in the form x2 + bx + c what can you tell me about b and c? b = a + b and c = ab.
• What are possible pairs of numbers you could multiply to make −12?
Confirm to students that they need to consider two pairs instead of 1 now, for example, 3 × −4 and −3 × 4.
• Q2–5 (F) / Q1–3 (H) Can you write down what the sum and product is for each of the quadratics in these questions?
• Q1 (F) / Q1–2 (H) Is an expression in the form x2 − c still a quadratic?
Yes, it just means the coefficient of x is 0.

• What do both numbers have to sum to when we have a quadratic in the form x2 − c?
b=0
• What does that tell you about what both numbers must be?
The same number but one positive and one negative.
• Q3 (F) / Q5 (H) Will factorising the difference of two squares always make your Pythagoras calculation easier?
No, it depends on how large the v alues are.
• Q5 (H) What two numbers can I multiply together to make −7? 7 and − 7.
Exercise 16F (H)
• Q1 (H) What is the product and sum of the two values you are looking for?
• Q4 (H) What part of the expression is making the factorising hard?
The repeating linear expression. Replace x–3 with another letter to make the quadratic easier to identify. Note: This is
a type of problem many A-level students struggle with. You might call them quadratics in disguise and advise students
to use a substitution to make the expression more recognisable as a quadratic before replacing their substitution in the
last line. This is a concept that often requires a lot of practice and exposure to applying similar techniques, even to the
most able students.

Starters
• ‘Product’ or ‘sum’ diamonds (such as those found on the website 10 ticks.co.uk) in which students fill in various
gaps and finish with identifying the pair of numbers required to form the correct product and sum are shown below.
Product
5 8
Sum
Product 60
6
Sum
Product 12
Sum 7
Plenaries
• Ask students whether they think all quadratics can be factorised. Asking them then to provide you with their own
combination of coefficients that are unfactorisable can facilitate further discussions of rules and patterns and work
to come on this concept. This can be easily differentiated for higher and foundation students: foundation students
may suggest one where the coefficient of x2 is not 1 whereas higher students may suggest one with fractional or
irrational roots or even one with imaginaryparts.
• Can you give me three different quadratics to factorise? One where the constants of both linear factors are positive,
one where both are negative and one where they are different polarity.
• An investigation in which students are given four linear factors and asked to find all possible quadratics from them,
for example (x + 3), (x – 2), (x – 3), (x + 5) to encourage them to find their own rules about the values of a, b and c for
ax2 + bx + c

• ‘Finding Factors’ from NRICH is a nice problem that could be used as an introduction to factorising quadratic
expressions or to develop fluency in this skill. Once the pupils have played with this idea, they may want to create
their own grids to give to another student to try. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) NRICH has a collection of short problems that make use of expanding and factorising quadratics.
They could be used individually or made into a race for pairs of students to solve. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• A series of matching task competitions in which students identify common patterns (product and sum) to assist them
in speed.
• Assess students’ understanding and create appropriate revision material by setting students the task of writing a
‘how to’ guide similar to the one given in the textbook.
• ‘Factorisable Quadratics’ from NRICH encourages students to think about whether all quadratics can be factorised
and to develop a better understanding of the effect that changing the coefficients has on the factorised form. A
selection of the questions can be used with Foundation students (where the coefficient of x2 is 1) or with Higher
students (for any coefficient of x2). The students can try some of the suggested examples and then swap to assess if
each has found all possibilities. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 3F: APPLY YOUR SKILLS
Section 3 offers a series of problems for foundation students to apply their new manipulation skills to.
Prompting questions
Exercise 16E (F)
• Q3 (F) Can you draw a diagram to support your workings?

Starters
• Q1 (F) makes a suitable starter for assessing what students have learned in this chapter.
• Enrichment activities
• NRICH has a collection of short problems that make use of forming algebraic expressions. They could be used
individually or made into a race for pairs of students to solve.(nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 3H: ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
Section 3 revisits some of the manipulation skills students worked on in Chapter 7 for working with and simplifying
fractions in addition to simplifying problems involving quadratics. Many conceptual problems students face have been
covered in the teacher notes for Chapter 7.
Prompting questions
Exercise 16J (H)
• Q1 (H) What can we cancel when simplifying?
Factors not terms.
• How can I find the factors of a quadratic expression?
Factorise.


Assessment ideas
• Asking students to write incorrect solutions (or using their incorrect solutions scanned from a homework task) and
peer marking is good for getting students to identify common errors such as the ones highlighted in the textbook.
SECTION 4H APPLY YOUR SKILLS
Section 4 offers a series of problems for higher students to apply their new manipulation skills to. Encourage students
to write down all working and use diagrams to support their working where possible as mistakes are often related to
problems with negatives and lost terms.
Exercise 16K (H)
• Q5 (H) Can you draw a diagram to support your workings?
• Q7 (H) Can you add or subtract something to make the values nicer to work with?
Think about what is needed to round it to the nearest whole number.
• Q8 (H)What can you tell me about any number that is squared?
It is positive.
• What therefore is the smallest value that the expression can have?
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• The connections back to Chapter 7 are obvious as these ideas are just extended to quadratics in this chapter.
However, more opportunities for generalising students’ long multiplication methods are offered here and students
are better equipped to consider more challenging ‘I think of a number…’ problems.
• There are several problems in this chapter that require knowledge of Pythagoras’ theorem and these exercises could
be used to revisit this topic with a focus on how non-calculator skills including difference of two squares and surds
can be employed to solve problems without requiring the use of a calculator.
Future learning
• Students will need to use the manipulation skills they have learnt in this chapter to solve quadratics in Chapter 17.
Students will learn how completed square form and factorised form can be used to solve quadratics. In addition for
the strongest students an ability to understand how completed square form helps to derive the quadratic formula
would be appropriate.
Gateway to A-level
• At A-level these manipulation skills are essential, students will be required to manipulate quadratics with ease
between various forms and understand how these different forms connect to features of a quadratic’s graph and
their knowledge of transformations. They will also learn how to long divide polynomials in order to factorise
expressions of a higher degree than two.
• Students who work with grid expansion methods can adapt their grids to divide. Those that don’t have a conceptual
understanding of how the grids support multiplication, and hence division, often struggle to learn a long new
algorithm, both in traditional format and employing the use of a grid. A fluency of expansion of two or more
binomials, trinomials and larger expressions will be required.
• A-level students often struggle with simple expansions, concluding for example that (x + 5)2 = x2 + 25 or
(x + 3)(x2 + 4x + 2) = x3 + 3x2 + 12x + 6. The second example is the reason that students should use grids to multiply
rather than arcs to show the products when expanding brackets. Once students have automaticity with expansions
and have grasped that they find the product of all possible pairs of terms and sum them, then the use of grids can be
stopped.
• Students who use a method of tracking their products through the use of arcs often miss one or more products,
particularly when there are more than two terms in one of the brackets, as in the example above. Many students,
particularly less able students, continue to use this method for the duration of the A-level course.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes

17F / 17H Equations
17F / 17H Equations

• Use variables correctly to form algebraic expressions.

• (Foundation only) How to factorise quadratics in the form: x2 + bx + c.
• (Higher only) How to factorise quadratics in the form: ax2 + bx + c.
• (Higher only) How to simplify fractions by cancelling common factors.
• Inverse operations.
• How to graph linear functions.
• How to graph quadratic functions.
• Angle facts including sums of angles in polygons.

• Area and perimeter formulae.
• Speed, distance, time formulae.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
• Ability to form equations from a variety of problems • Ability to form equations from a variety of problems
including geometric scenarios. including geometric scenarios.
Section 1 Section 1
• Solve linear equations. • Solve linear equations.
• Understand identities are equations in which there are • Understand identities are equations in which there
infinite solutions as they are true for all values x can are infinite solutions as they are true for all values x
take. can take.
Section 2 Section 2
• Form and solve quadratic equations. • Form and solve quadratic equations.
• Understand that different types of equations. have a • Understand that different types of equations have a
different possible number of solutions. different possible number of solutions.
Section 3 Section 3
• Solve linear simultaneous equations. • Solve linear simultaneous equations.
• Solve linear and quadratic simultaneous equations.
Section 4 Section 4
• How to read and interpret graphs in various contexts. • How to read and interpret graphs in various
contexts.
• How to use graphs to approximate solutions.
• How to use graphs to approximate solutions.
Section 5
• Use iterative methods to approximate solutions.
Section 6
• Using equations and graphs to solve problems.

Vocabulary
• Unknown, linear equation, variable, roots, solution, simultaneous equations
• Incorrect use of the equality sign so that when solving 2x + 3 = 7 students write 7 – 3 = 4 ÷ 2 = 2.
Whilst this may not seem problematic because students are still attaining the correct answer, students who are
notating their working in this way tend to be working on a reverse operation principle without recognising that they
are applying the same operation to both sides of the equation. These students tend to have problems later when
faced with unknowns on both sides. Visualising the problem as a balancing scale and even using diagrams to support
students’ working alongside the algebra, where x represents a bag of unknown value, can help here (see diagram
below).
In addition to using the analogy of balancing scales, it is worth revisiting some problems involving the use of an
equality sign, for example:
5 +13 = +12 , to assess whether students are using the equality to show the next step and hence write 18 in the box
or recognise it as showing an equivalence and hence write 6 in the box.
• Lack of understanding that adding a negative is equal to subtraction and so on.
This may be evident in the ‘before you start’ section in which students are asked to fill in the gaps to make their
knowledge of inverses evident. An example to highlight this is 7 + = 0 in which students have to recognise that
adding −7 is the same as subtracting 7. Revisiting the rules of addition and subtraction of negatives will help support
this.
• Students are often unwilling to check their working by using substitution.
The following misconceptions and issues that arise can be supported by encouraging frequent checking of solutions
through substitution. There is no simple solution to this other than constant reminders and modelling good practice
(even if it does take an additional couple of minutes to talk through).
-- Not applying an operation to every term on both sides of the equation but to selected terms, for example
3x + 15 = 18 → x + 15 = 6
A reminder that to multiply or divide every term in the whole equation to keep the equation (scales) balanced
should help students avoid this error. When solving by factorising, misunderstanding that it is the factor that
must equal zero rather than replicating the constant terms as factors for example for (x + a)(x + b) stating
the roots are a and b rather than –a and –b.

17F / 17H Equations
-- Leaving their solutions to simultaneous equations incomplete by forgetting to find the value of the second
variable.
• Wanting to give exact or decimalised answers rather than working on their solutions in fractional form.
For example, given 3x = 10 students are reluctant or unsure of how to divide 10 by 3. Few students are confident that
10
3
is an acceptable form for their solution and many want to round to 3.3 (which of course causes problems when
using substitution to check their values of x). Exposure to examples involving fractional answers and discussions
about fractions as ‘lazy’ divisions can be very helpful.
For issues based on factorising and completing the square (Higher only) see the notes for Chapter 16.
• Failing to find all solutions, particularly when solving a quadratic that is the difference of two squares or when
a factor is x.
Encouraging students to always factorise and apply the zero factor principle often helps prevent this issue. When
students apply the iterative formula method they do not use technology to support them. Students need to be
taught to use the ‘ans’ key on their calculator to prevent issues with rounding and reduce amount of work they have
to do.
• Students confuse the decimal search and bisection method.
The meaning of the word bisection can be used to help students remember this.
Hooks
• Diagrammatic problems in which the game is to find the value of a symbol can often help draw students in. Using
problems where the scales are set up as a mobile where each strand is equal allows students to realise they can use
knowledge of equivalence (in this case removing the same object) to solve the problem.
• Introduce the need for simultaneous equations by considering two different shopping receipts in which the value of
the products is unknown (as shown in the diagram below) but the total value of the shopping is known. The addition
of refunded items makes for an interesting investigation in which strategies for solving can be formed by students
investigating.
Bread Roll 2 Bread Roll

Strawberries 2 Strawberries
Total: Strawberries
Strawberries
£4.40 Total:
£5.00
SECTION 1F / 1H: LINEAR EQUATIONS
Section 1 explores different types of linear equation including: simple linear with one unknown on one side
(Foundation only), solving with unknowns on both sides, working with equations that involve manipulation of fractions
to solve (Higher only), and forming and setting up equations first from information given. In addition to the above,
students are offered opportunities to further consolidate their knowledge of identities by attempting to solve identities
to recognise that they are true for all values of x rather than the same as equations that are only true for some values.
Prompting questions
Exercise 17A (F)
• Q4 (F) What other options are available to you other than expanding the bracket?
Dividing both sides by the constant factor.
• Q6 (F) Why is –x = −2 not an acceptable solution?
Because we want to know what x is, not what −1 times x is.


• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What should you try to do first when there are unknowns on both sides?
Use the expression ‘pay your debts’. In other words, add any negative x terms when needed first to reduce problems with
finding negative x later. This may require expansion of brackets first.
• What can you add or subtract to both sides of the equation to ‘undo’ a term?
The same thing that will cancel with a term on one side.
• Can you represent your problem with balancing scales?
See example in misconceptions question for using diagrams.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Why might you want to expand the brackets first rather than divide by a constant factor?
If there is more than one bracket, both with different constant factors.
• Q4 (F) What don’t you like about your solution? Does your equation even have a solution? What could this mean?
Identities work for all values for the unknown so we can always reduce the equation to 0 = 0.
Exercise 17B (H)
• Q1 (H) What has to be the same for us to be able to add fractions?
The denominator.
• How can we find a common multiple of both denominators?
Multiply the denominators together.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What is your unknown? What does your letter represent?
• Could you draw a diagram to represent your working?
• Q1e (F) / Q1e (H) How can we represent any two consecutive numbers? (x, x + 1 or x − 1, x etc.) Does it matter which
option we choose?
No, the algebra will still give the same solution. Suggest students attempt both methods to see.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What formulae are useful to us in this problem? What equations can you form from the information
we know?

Starter
• NRICH Your Number Was is a simple introduction to solving linear equations by applying inverse operations to
undo. (nrich.maths.org)
• ‘What is wrong with the answer?’ starter or plenary short task. Given you are asking students to constantly check
their work for errors this further reinforces this idea. Giving them their teacher’s ‘homework’ to mark is a simple task
that takes very little time to write.
Enrichment Activities
• NRICH Good Work If You Can Get It is a challenging problem in terms of forming and solving. There is a lot of
information to get through and students will need to define their own variables for the amount given to each man
and the total amount. The trick to solving comes from knowing the fraction of the total amount that each man is due
based on the number of days he worked. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• NRICH ‘Addition Equation Sudoku’ is suitable for students who enjoy Sudoku puzzles and offers a nice homework
or assessment task as it includes the need for defining the unknowns before solving. (nrich.maths.org)

17F / 17H Equations
• Comparing students’ solutions when they have opted to define their initial unknown in different ways, (e.g. defining
x as the largest angle rather than the smallest) promotes the idea that the initial decisions aren’t as important as
seeing their ideas through and that they may have different working but the same answers as others.
SECTION 2F / 2H: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Section 2 focusses on solving quadratic equations drawing on all the methods for factorising and manipulating
quadratic expressions from (Chapter 16) Further algebra. Students again work on their forming and setting up equations
skills but this time due to the number of solutions must recognise that not all their solutions are valid in the context of
the question. It is important that students do not rely too much on using the square root function as an inverse, thinking
for example that 9 = 3 or −3, as it is defined for a positive range of outputs only. It is instead better to talk about what
values could be squared to give a required value and using ± as is used in the quadratic formula. This will be very
important for later work in functions covered at A level.
(Higher only) The method for completing the square is used to deduce the quadratic formula and students are asked to
consider the number of roots based on the graphical representation of the equation.
Prompting questions
• Q2–3 (F) / Q1–2 (H) What should I do first when I have a quadratic equation equal to 0?
Factorise.
• What does one of the numbers have to be if the product is 0?
The only way to get 0 with multiplication is to multiply by 0.
• Q4 (F) What if the solution is not 0? What if my quadratic is 8? How many different ways are there of making 8?
The point is too many so it must be equal to 0 for factorising to be used to solve.
• What must you always do at the end of your solution?
State the values x can take.
• What does a quadratic look like when plotted on a graph? How does this help us with knowing how many solutions
there are?
The number of solutions is the number of intersections with the x-axis. Showing and discussing various examples could
help students understand that not all equations have solutions.
• How many solutions are possible when solving a quadratic equation?
One, two or none depending on how many different factors the solution has.
• Q5 (F) / Q4 (H) What should I do if I do not have a quadratic equal to 0?
Rearrange so that it is in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
• Q4 (H) If my equation doesn’t look like a quadratic equation? What should I do then?
Rearrange so that it is equal to 0 and then you will know what type of equation you are solving.
Exercise 17E (H)
• What are the values for a, b and c for this quadratic?
Encouraging students to start with a =, b = and c = will reduce the number of errors and prevent problems with negatives
being missed.
• What is your unknown? What does your letter represent?
• Could you draw a diagram to represent your working?
• Q2–3 (F) / Q3–6 (H) What formulae are useful to you in this problem? What equations can you form from the
information you know?
General area formulae and (Higher only) Pythagoras’ theorem are required.

• Q2 (H) What does Pythagoras’ Theorem state?

The sum of the squares of the two shorter sides is equal to the square of the hypotenuse in a right angled triangle.
• Q2–3 (F) / Q3–6 (H) If we are dealing with a value squared what type of units or problem are we dealing with?
Area.

• NRICH How old am I? is a challenging problem that requires students to have good setting up equations skills.
(nrich.maths.org)
Assessment Ideas
• There are numerous past exam questions that have involved forming and solving quadratics based on information
about an area of a shape. Combining these problems with those based solely on perimeter, and hence linear
equations, is good for getting students to recognise what the different dimensions can mean in a contextual
question.
SECTION 3F / 3H: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
Section 3 introduces students to the idea of having two unknowns and using two pieces of information to solve
them simultaneously. The hook given above is a nice way to start this topic and can be used to varying degrees as an
investigation if needed. Students learn two methods for solving: substitution and elimination. Once students know they
can eliminate they are often reluctant to substitute but it is often the better method, particularly once multiple solutions
are involved so the order the substitution and elimination methods are introduced should be considered. The idea of
using graphs to find solutions is first raised in this chapter and students should think about what it means graphically for
equations like 3x + 9 = 0.
(Higher only) Work on solving simultaneously is extended to include quadratic and linear simultaneous equations tying
together the work from the rest of this chapter.
Prompting questions
Exercise 17F (F) / 17G (H)
• Q2 (F) Do you need to do any rearranging first to change the subject? Have you got a value for both x and y? How can
we check our solutions?
Using substitution.
Exercise 17G (F) / 17H (H)
• Q1–3 (F) / Q1–4 (H)Line the statements up, with the variables lined up vertically, like you would a long addition or
subtraction. Does this help you see whether you should be adding or subtracting?
• Repeat the question using the substitution method from the previous exercise. Do you get the same answer?
You should!
• Q2 (F) / Q2–3 (H) Why might the elimination method be the better option?
Should be quicker and prevent rearranging if the subject of the formula can form a direct substitution.
• Q2 (F) / Q3 (H) Multiply through by a factor to have the same number of xs or ys so that elimination is possible.
• Why can I multiply the whole equation by a variable?
At this point you may wish to give the analogy of buying shampoos and conditioners (or any other products). If s is the
price of shampoo and c the price of conditioner then s + c = £2.50. If I buy twice as much then I have 2s + 2c = £5.
Exercise 17H (F) / 17I (H)
• What are your two unknowns? Can you define the variables?

17F / 17H Equations
• What do you know about your two unknowns? Can you write the sentences out in full English and then adapt by
replacing ‘the number of…’ or ‘the unknown number’ with your variable?
This section is very challenging for foundation students and it requires strong forming and solving skills.
Exercise 17J (H)
• Can you sketch your functions to identify how many solutions you will have?
• How can you tell how many solutions you have from your algebra?
Whether the quadratic gives two roots, one or none.

• NRICH What’s it worth? has a huge number of possibilities for challenging students of different levels with the
randomly generated worksheet file attached. The different solutions offer probes for group discussion about working
systematically and elegantly. If you wish you could ignore the last solution as it is a unique method to this problem
(but great fun for a plenary!). (nrich.maths.org)
• Once students are confident with ideas relating to solving simultaneous equations NRICH Matchless is a nice
problem for them to attempt. The challenge here is that students will need to set up the equations to begin with
before forming their own simultaneous equations. You may wish to remove some cards for some groups to promote
a discussion of the amount of information required in class. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) NRICH Intersections is suitable for the most able students to force them to consider what is actually
going on to make the following equations so different. In addition, it requires strong manipulation skills and
attention to detail to prevent errors. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) NRICH Surds is another activity suitable for the most able students who are fluent with surds and
can recognise that the first statement forms an equation in one variable before the simultaneous equations can be
tackled. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH All-variables Sudoku is similar to the sudoku puzzle in section 1 and requires simultaneous equations to
solve it. (nrich.maths.org)
• Giving students a series of equations to be solved and asking them to sort them into always, sometimes and never
true and within sometimes into the number of solutions to help them understand that the order of the polynomial
does not necessarily dictate the number of solutions. This also helps consolidate material on identities and works
best when a mix of linear and quadratic equations are used.
• To update the chickens and goats example you may wish to turn the problem into a ‘potions class’ inspired by a well-
known story about a wizard school and compare spiders and lizards perhaps.
SECTION 4F / 4H: USING GRAPHS TO SOLVE EQUATIONS
Section 4 recaps prior learning on graphical representations of functions to extend to using this information to estimate
solutions by reading off the graph. The example has no context so students may need some support when working on
the first couple of questions of Exercise I / K given that it is based on a distance–time graph and you may wish to use this
as a second example.
Prompting questions
• What does each axis of your graph represent?

• So is your question about a value on the x-axis or y-axis or neither?
• How do we find the equation of a straight line from the graph?
We use y = mx + c and find the y-intercept (c) and the gradient (m).
• Why might we prefer algebraic solutions over a graphical solution?
Because of accuracy and rounding where the solution may be irrational.

Exercise 17I (F) / 17K (H)

• Q2–3 (F) / Q1, 3 (H) How do we find the average speed of a moving object?
Distance divided by time
• Q7 (F) / Q6 (H) What is special about the coordinate where two straight lines meet?
It is the point of intersection and the solution to the pair of simultaneous equations formed by the two lines.
• Q8–9 (F) / Q7–8 (H) How many times can a quadratic curve cross the x-axis?
Maximum of two but also none.
• What equation are we solving when we consider the x-axis intercepts?
• How many different ways can a straight line and a quadratic curve meet?
Twice, once or not at all.

• NRICH What’s that graph goes beyond the graphs and problems covered in this section as does the STEM activity
Standards Unit: A6 – Interpreting Distance–Time Graphs. A similar structure of task could be designed to cover all
the functions in this section to create a mixed matching exercise that asks students to match scenarios to graphs as
well as read information off them. (nrich.maths.org and nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
SECTION 5H: FINDING APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS BY ITERATION
This section considers three different methods for approximating solutions of equations: the iterative formula, the
decimal method and the bisection method. It is worth considering the order in which you introduce these methods.
That is that some students may find it easier to start with the graphs and change of sign (decimal and bisection)
methods first. You may also wish to start the section with an exploration of trail and improvement methods to solve
non-linear and non-quadratic functions to support students in understanding why iterative methods are required.
Exercise 17L (H)
• What is the first value of x you are going to substitute into the iterative formula?
The one given as x1.
Exercise 17M (H)
• Q2 (H) What is the difference between decimal search and bisection methods?
Decimal search goes up in equal intervals, bisection method cuts the interval in half and checks the median value each
time. Students have come across bisect before and the meaning of the word should be explored as a way of helping
them remember.

Starters
• Identify the interval for one or both roots of a quadratic equations using change of sign or trial and improvement
methods. Students can then use the quadratic formula to verify that the solutions lie in the intervals given.
Enrichment ideas
• The student book does not consider why the iterative formula can be used and how the given formula is connected
to the equation being solved through rearrangement. This is not something students need to know but an
appropriate extension for the most able candidates is to explore graphically what is happening when x is made the
subject of the equation and the iterative method is applied.
• The use of technology can be used to reduce working and allow students to spot patterns quicker. Setting up speed
sheets that apply iterative formulae can help students identify appropriate values to start the substitution and why
initial change of sign methods are required.

17F / 17H Equations
SECTION 6H: USING EQUATIONS AND GRAPHS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
This final section contains a mixed exercise to test all the material covered in the chapter.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• This chapter uses all the manipulation skills worked on in Chapter 7 and Chapter 16 to help manipulate expressions
including factorising and simplifying to solve a variety of equations
Future learning
• Later chapters will revisit solving to explore ranges of solutions to inequalities.

• In Chapter 31 (F) / 33 (H) students will apply the techniques learned here to ‘solve’ formulae in order to change the
subject of the formula.
Gateway to A-level
• Solving forms a large part of the future Mathematics students will study. Students will learn how to manipulate
equations containing a larger range of functions to find multiple solutions and have a greater understanding about
the number of solutions in a given range.
• It is important that students understand the connection to graphical representations of functions and what the
solutions mean for future study, so that for y = f(x) in solving f(x) = 0 they are finding the intersection of the curve
with the x-axis.
• They will also extend their work on quadratics to look at higher order polynomials, including cubics, and learn about
other features of graphs.
• The ideas surrounding inverses will also be covered in greater detail with students learning about the domain and
range of functions as well as the restrictions on these that must sometimes be in place for an inverse to exist.
• Finally, the work that students start on numerical methods will be covered in more detail at A-level and students will
learn a wider range of iterative methods. Understanding why iterative methods are still needed for functions we can’t
easily solve sets the groundwork for future work on this topic at A-level.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes

18F / 18H Functions and sequences

• Recall of multiplication tables

• Recognition of square and cube numbers
• An ability to spot numerical patterns
• An ability to substitute into formulae, particularly with negative numbers
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To generate terms of a sequence from a term-to-term • To generate terms of a sequence from a term-to-
rule. term rule.
Section 2 Section 2
• To generate terms of a sequence from a position-to- • To generate terms of a sequence from a position-to-
term rule and find the nth term of linear sequences. term rule and find the nth term of linear sequences.
Section 3 Section 3
• To generate terms of a sequence from a function. • To generate terms of a sequence from a function.
Section 4 Section 4
• To identify special sequences. • To identify special sequences.
• To find the nth term of quadratic sequences.
Vocabulary
• Sequence, term, consecutive terms, first difference, term-to-term rule, arithmetic sequence, geometric sequence,
position-to-term rule, function
• (Higher only) Composite function, inverse function
• Confusing the term-to-term and position-to-term rules.

• Incorrectly writing n + 4 for a position-to-term rule when the common difference is +4.
• Applying terms in a function incorrectly.
For example with 3(n + 4), incorrectly ×3 before +4.
• Applying composite functions in the wrong order.
• Forgetting the second difference must be halved to give the coefficient of n2.
Hooks
Write up two numbers on the board (for example 3, 6) and ask students what the next number could be. They could
suggest 9 (from ‘add 3’) or 12 (from ‘double’) or possibly other more obscure answers. Write up another two numbers
(for example 5, 9) and ask for further suggestions. This opens up for discussion what rules govern different sequences
and how we can write them.

SECTION 1F / 1H: SEQUENCES AND PATTERNS
This section introduces the idea and notation of term-to-term rules. Most students will be familiar with the language
required for describing term-to-term rules (for example add, subtract, multiply, divide) and the concepts in this section
are straightforward.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What is the next term in the sequence? Why?
16. Adding 3 each time.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) How do you get from one number to the next in the given sequence?
a Add 7, b subtract 4 etc.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) How can we work out the height after the first bounce?
Halve 96 (48).

Starters
• Assign each student a different term-to-term rule. Read out the terms in a sequence and ask students to stand up as
soon as they know they have the rule for it.
• Give students two numbers and ask them what the third number in the sequence could be.
• Distribute numbered cards. Project or write up the first three terms in a sequence and ask students to hold up their
number if it is in the sequence.
• Project different sequences and ask students to write the term-to-term rule on mini whiteboards.
• NRICH Coordinate Patterns (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 2F / 2H: FINDING THE NTH TERM
This section introduces further vocabulary for sequences (position and position-to-term rule) and focuses on generating
terms of a sequence when given the position to term rule. It may be necessary to remind students of the order of
operations, as they need to be fluent in this when substituting values into their position to term rule.
Students are generally good at substituting values into linear position-to-term rules, but may need reminding to check
their working carefully if negative numbers are involved. Their greatest difficulty is often determining which number to
substitute into a position-to-term rule (for example for the 4th term we must substitute in 4).
The section then moves on to finding an expression for the nth term. The six step problem- solving grid provides a
thorough and logical approach to finding the nth term rule for a linear sequence.
Students typically remember to find the common difference between terms, but often then struggle to remember how
it is linked to the nth term rule. For example, for 4, 7, 10, 13, … Students will recognise the common difference is +3, but
will then give the answer n + 3. To combat this, drawing out the link with the times tables can help reinforce the idea that
any linear sequence is essentially a shifted times table.
Prompting questions
• What does n represent?
The position in the sequence, in other words for the 3rd number, we substitute n = 3.
• Are there any numbers n cannot be?
Zero or the negatives.

• How do you get from one number to the next in this sequence (for example 3, 7, 11, 15, …)?
Add 4
• What other set of numbers can you think of where you add (for example) 4 each time?
The four times table.
• How is this sequence different to the four times table?
It is one less, so the nth term is 4n – 1.
• Will the number 1000 be in this sequence? How do you know?
No. 1000 is in the four times table, whereas this sequence only has numbers that are one less than the four times table,
so 1000 cannot be in the sequence.
• Q3c (F) / Q3c (H) Can you think of another example that proves your theory?
The sixth term is not double the third term (from part a) so the 40th term is not double the 20th term.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) How do you get from one number to the next in the sequence? Which times tables is this related to?
How is the given sequence different?
Add 4, the four times table, it is one more than the four times table (i.e. 4n + 1).

Starters
• The sequence generator spreadsheet from maths-it.org.uk is excellent as a whole-class teaching tool. It shows ten
terms of a sequence and the nth term rule, but also allows you to hide and/or reveal particular terms and/or the rule.
(maths-it.org.uk)
• NRICH ‘Shifting Times Tables’ (nrich.maths.org)
• Display a sequence only showing the 1st, 2nd and 5th terms. Ask students to fill in the 3rd and 4th terms.
Plenaries
• Consequences game. Each student writes a position-to-term rule at the top of a piece of paper and passes it to the
student on their left. This student writes the first 5 terms of the sequence underneath, folds over the top line of
writing (so that their writing, but not the original) is visible and passes to their left. The new student writes down the
position-to-term rule, folds over the line of writing with the 5 terms so that only the new writing is visible and passes
to their left.
• Create a treasure hunt around the classroom. A card holds a question (for example what is the 5th term in the
sequence 2n + 1?). Another card holds the answer to this in a bubble in the top left corner, and has another question
of the same format. With a set of such cards (which loop back with the final answer being on the top of the first card),
place them around the room and ask students to complete the treasure hunt.
• Use matchsticks to create physical sequences and ask students to work out the position to term rule. Students can
then create their own patterns with matchsticks and they can work out the rules for other students’ sequences. See
example below.
, , , etc
, , , etc
• The teacher notes with NRICH ‘Seven Squares’NRICH Seven Squares suggest how to use this in the classroom,
enabling the formulation of the position-to-term rule to naturally emerge from discussions on the construction of the
sequence. (nrich.maths.org)

SECTION 3F / 3H: FUNCTIONS
This section introduces the idea and notation of a function. Most students will be familiar with the concept of a function,
especially if direct links are made with computer science or spreadsheets. This link can help with the language of
‘inputs’ and ‘outputs’.
Later in the higher section, we have a brief introduction to composite functions. The notation used for this is unintuitive,
considering students are used to working left to right. Thinking about wrapping up the input as a ‘pass the parcel’ may
help introduce the idea that for f(g(x)) the first function applied to x is g, and then its output is used as the input to f.
The section finishes by introducing the idea of the inverse of a function. Students will already be familiar with the idea
of an inverse (‘division undoes subtraction’). They may find it most straightforward to write f(x) = 2x as y = 2x, and then
rearrange to make x the subject, finally rewriting using function notation.
It may be worth pointing out that functions always have an inverse if they are ‘one-one’, i.e. if each value of y has just
one corresponding x value. A ‘many-to-one’ function (like any quadratic or trigonometric function) doesn’t necessarily
have an inverse. If you draw a horizontal line across the graph of the function it intercepts the graph at more than one
point, and that means it has no inverse. However, if you only plot part of the function (ie restrict the input values) so that
the horizontal line only intercepts at a single point, then it does have an inverse. Constant value functions (for example
f(x) = 2) do not have an inverse function.
Prompting questions
• Do we have to use the letter f for a function?
No, but commonly the letters alphabetically leading from f are used.
• Do we have to use the letter x or n for the input?
Note that n is commonly used when we expect the domain to be the integers.
• Can we have functions that use more than one letter?
Probably best avoided to prevent confusion with compound functions.
• If f(x) = 5x, what is f(x2)? How about if g(x) = x2. What is g(5x)?
• If f(x) = x + 3 and g(x) = 2x, does the order f(g(2)) generate the same value as g(f(2))? Is there a value of x that does
generate the same for both orders of composition?
This question can provide useful practice for solving various forms of equation.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What answer do you get if you input 1? 2? 3? How could you describe this sequence?
4, 5, 6, ‘add 1’.
• Q7 (H) How can you undo the function and get back to x?
Add 7, divide by 4 etc.

• NRICH Alison’s Mapping’ uses the NRICH Number Plumber, which provides an interactive function machine that
you can use to create your own functions, and view the results on a graph. Students could create their own functions
on the ‘Number Plumber’ and challenge their classmates to discover what they are. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 4F / 4H: SPECIAL SEQUENCES
This section introduces some common and historically significant sequences. It is probably worth tackling head-on the
fact that we have very many ways of describing the same thing in mathematics: sequences that are linear could also be
called arithmetic; we sometimes use the word ‘progression’ to mean the same as sequence.

Students are generally good at spotting whether sequences are arithmetic or geometric, especially for well-chosen
numbers where the difference or ratio is easy to spot.
Most students will be familiar with square and cube numbers, but reinforcing the idea that ‘5 squared’ is the area of a
square with side length 5, and ‘5 cubed’ is the volume of a cube with side length 5 can help justify the slightly unintuitive
names (‘Miss, why is squared a little 2 when a square has four sides?’).
Prompting questions
• Why do we use the word ‘linear’ to describe a sequence like 5, 7, 9, …?
• Is 0, 0, 0 , … a linear sequence? Is it geometric?
• What happens if I start on 1 and keep multiplying by −2? What would it look like drawn on a graph?
• What if we start with 360 and keep dividing by 2? Dividing by −2? How long until we get to zero?
• Is zero a square or triangular etc number?
• Is −1 a square or triangular or cube number?
• Are any numbers both square and triangular numbers
Yes! 0, 1, 36, 1225,
• Q4 (F) / Q3 (H) How many parents does each bee have? How many grandparents? What is the pattern for calculating
the next generation back?
2, 4, double the current generation.
• Q10 (F) / Q9 (H) What does n3 mean?
‘n cubed’, or n × n × n.

Plenaries
• Students can use the ‘ans’ key on their calculator (which substitutes the previous answer) to quickly generate terms
of a sequence. For example typing 1 and pressing equals; then type 2 × ‘ans’ and repeatedly pressing equals will
generate a geometric sequence that doubles the previous value.
• When given a series of calculator key presses, students could fully describe the sequence in words (‘geometric
progression, starting on 5 and doubling’).
• The OEIS website allows terms of a sequence to be typed in and matched against a comprehensive database of
named and described sequences. It is useful to highlight that many sequences are possible if just provided a few
terms (for example 154 known sequences contain the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 in order). (oeis.org)
• Zeno’s paradox – search the internet for ‘Zeno’s paradox’.
• No discussion of triangular numbers would be complete without reference to the legend of Gauss calculating the
sum of the integers 1 to 100. Writing out pairs that sum to 101 (1 and 100, 2 and 99, 3 and 98, etc) and realising there
1
are 50 pairs is generally a convincing argument for the n(n+1) formula.
2
• NRICH ‘Fibs’ (nrich.maths.org) (nrich.maths.org)
• Fibonacci sequences make many appearances in nature and are a rich topic for students to research.
SECTION 4H: THE NTH TERM OF A QUADRATIC SEQUENCE
This method will be new to many teachers and is described using the six step problem- solving grid.

Students will be most efficient if they can remember that the second difference is double the coefficient of x2, but it
is important that students establish this through considering the second differences of x2, 2x2, 3x2, etc. Keeping the
coefficient of x2 constant and finding the second difference of the family of sequences 3x2 + 2x, 3x2 + 7, 3x2 − 4x + 6 should
help consolidate this idea.
The method essentially partitions a quadratic sequence into an x2 term and a linear expression. Students will
have practised finding expressions for linear sequences in Section 5, so once the x2 term is identified, it is a case of
determining what linear ‘adjustment’ is made to give the desired sequence.
Students will continue to need encouragement to consistently follow step 5!
Prompting questions
• Why are sequences with a squared sign called quadratic?
This is linked to areas of quadrilaterals, for example x(x + 1) = x2 + x is the area of a rectangle with a side one unit longer
than the other.
1
• If the second difference is 5, what is the coefficient of x2? If the second difference is ? If the second difference is
2
− 1 ? 5 ? 1 ?−1 ?
3 2 4 6
Always halve the second difference to find the coefficient of x2.
• If the coefficient of x2 is 6, what will the second difference be?
12
• If the coefficient of x2 is 5? 10?
We double the coefficient of x2 to find the second difference.
• If the second difference is zero, what will the coefficient of x2 be?
Zero – there will not be an x2 term. This means the sequence is linear.
Exercise 18E (H)
• Q3 (H) How can you get from 1 to 2 ?
Multiply by 2 , we can’t add a number to get exactly to 2.
• Q4 (H) How can you work out u1?
Substitute n = 1 into the formula.

• The sequence generator spreadsheet from maths-it.org.uk will display first and second differences for a
configurable quadratic sequence. (maths-it.org.uk)
1
• The method can be used to provide another justification for the n(n+1) formula described earlier.
2
• NRICH ‘Steel Cables’. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH ‘Handshakes’ (or a different form of the same problem NRICH ‘Mystic Rose’). (nrich.maths.org)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• This topic provides a good opportunity to return to work on whole number theory (Chapter 1) and basic calculations
(Chapter 2) There are opportunities to consider how square and cube numbers are related to physical shapes and
how a numerical sequence can be linked to geometrical or physical patterns.

Future learning
• Functions and sequences are used in straight line graphs. See Chapter 18 for describing the relationship between the
x- and y- coordinates.
• Quadratic sequences are used in graphs of quadratic functions. See Chapter 17 for describing the relationship
between the x- and y- coordinates.
Gateway to A-level
• This topic will be built upon in KS5. Having a strong understanding of this concept will be necessary for students
to extend their knowledge in A-level modules. In addition to the notation learnt at GCSE, students will also learn to
describe sequences as arithmetic progressions. They will calculate terms in a sequence and the sum to n terms.
• In addition to arithmetic progressions, geometric progressions are a further extension of this topic, which builds
upon sequences such as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32. Students will learn to calculate terms in a sequence and the sum to n terms,
including the sum to infinity for converging sequences.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes

19H Surds
• How to round an answer to a required number of decimal places or significant figures.

• How to use Pythagoras’ Theorem (from KS3 study).
• How to write numbers as products of their prime factors (perform prime factor decomposition).
• How to expand brackets and simplify expressions by collecting like terms (so as to have an understanding of basic
algebra since manipulation of surds uses similar techniques).
• How to create equivalent fractions by multiplying or dividing both numerator and denominator by the same value.
Additional prior knowledge
• To be able to use the trigonometric ratios in order to solve more complex extension problems involving Pythagoras’
theorem and trigonometry.
• To be able to find the circumference and area of a circle in order to tackle a few of the contextualised questions.
Learning outcomes
Section 1
• To use a calculator to approximate the values of numbers involving surds.
• To calculate exact solutions to problems using surds.
Section 2
• To simplify expressions containing surds.
• To manipulate surds when multiplying and dividing.
• To rationalise the denominator of a fraction.
Section 3
• To apply an understanding of surds to solve more complex problems.
Vocabulary
• Irrational number, surd, rational number, conjugate.
• When students fail to spot a factor that is square.

They may assume a surd cannot be simplified, for example, if for 75 they write 5 × 15 , they may stop at this
point. Encourage full prime factor decomposition of the number each time as identification of any primes raised to
the power of 2 (or any even number) will help remedy this.
• Linked to the above, students may not fully simplify a surd when they have not spotted the largest square
number that is a factor.
×12
A common example is a number like 48 where students reduce this to 44 x
x 12. Again, encouraging full prime
12==22 12
factor decomposition may help.
• Students who do not fully understand how to simplify surds may follow a procedure and make errors they do
not identify at certain stages.
For example, a student may say 28 ×
x 44and then present their final answer as 7 4 or 7 2 as they have not
28== 77 x

19H Surds
grasped the correct simplification is 7 × 4 = 2 7 . Double checking through use of approximation or a calculator
during the early stages of students grasping this concept may help.
• If students are simply presented with a set of rules concerning surds, students may incorrectly assume that
since ab = a × b that a + b = a + b is also true.
• Manipulating surds may identify misconceptions remaining from simplifying expressions.
A specific one to address is (a + b)2 = a2 + b2, as if this still exists students will not understand the need for a conjugate
expression when rationalising more challenging surds. For misconceptions like this give students time to investigate
which are true or false (the Improving Learning in Mathematics N11 resource suggested in Section 2 ‘Enrichment
activities’ is ideal for addressing this).
• When rationalising surds, students often forget to simplify the final fraction or are surprised when the answer
is not in fractional form and assume they have gone wrong.
Some quick practice or a starter on simplifying fractions before covering this could help.
Hooks
• Ask students to try to draw a line that is exactly 2 cm long, (the hypotenuse of an isosceles right-angled triangle
with the shorter lengths 1cm) or 5 cm (the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle with the two shorter lengths of
1 cm and 2 cm). As a challenge ask them whether they can draw a length of 3 cm. (Here they could use a right-
angled triangle with hypotenuse 2 cm and shortest length 1 cm).
• Build on the above by asking students to join two adjacent dots diagonally on isometric paper and use Pythagoras’
theorem to work out the length ( 2 ). What if they double the length of the line by extending it up to the next dot? Its
length must be 2 2 but using Pythagoras again will give the solution of 8 . Ask students to continue to explore this
in order to be able to suggest their own rules for simplifying surds such as 72 .
SECTION 1H: APPROXIMATE AND EXACT VALUES
Section 1 introduces the definition of a surd, how to work with them on calculators and use them in contextualised
questions in order to obtain the most exact solution.
Prompting questions
The activities in Exercise 19A will help students to familiarise themselves with operating their calculators. With the wide
range that are now available it is important to ensure students find all the relevant buttons, and compare with others,
checking answers as they work through. This is particularly relevant if some students have older or cheaper calculators
where the order of entry of calculations can differ and answers may not be given in surd form but rounded to fit the
display.
Exercise 19A (H)
• Q2 (H) What would the answers to each question be if they were rounded to 3 significant figures instead of 3 decimal
places?
This will give an opportunity for the revision of significant figures and could promote a discussion about a relevant
degree of accuracy to give solutions to when this is not specified.
• Q4 (H) Try changing questions e and f to 2 3 + 3 3 and -2 5 + 3 5 .
Ask students what they think the answer will be before checking on the calculator.
Exercise 19B (H)
• Q5 (H) The solution to this may seem surprising initially. Ask students to suggest another similar question that would
25 2
work in this way (e.g. ( )
5
).

• Q7 (H) Work out the length of the plot without using surds. Try rounding your answers to a range of different degrees
of accuracy (e.g. 1 dp, 2 dp, etc.). What effect does this have on the final answer for the diagonal length? In what ways
is using surds better?
Using surds, you can do all of this without a calculator and it removes the issues of rounding errors.
• Q8 (H) Encourages students to think about the implications of rounding on calculating a selling price. Ask students to
think of their own examples and create a question that illustrates how rounding could have an impact.

• In preparation for simplifying surds in the next section, a starter finding square roots of larger square numbers, using
the method of prime factor decomposition, would be useful. For example, find 484 . (Since 484 = 2 × 242 = 2 × 2 × 121
= 2 × 2 × 11 × 11 = 22 × 112 the square root must be 2 × 11 = 22.)
• Exercise 19B will help students to see the purpose of surds within calculations in order to consider the accuracy of
their answers but requires students to be able to use Pythagoras’ theorem. If they haven’t covered this recently, the
Pythagoras chapter in Colin Foster’s book ‘Instant Maths Ideas’ for Shape and Space will provide plenty of revision
materials. It is available from the National STEM Centre. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
• NRICH Trice can be solved using Pythagoras’ theorem and leaving intermediate answers in surd form will allow
students to obtain a precise solution. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Spider and fly also uses Pythagoras’ theorem and students could use surds but will need to convert them to
approximate values to compare. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 2H: MANIPULATING SURDS
Section 2 covers all the key manipulations of surds, from simplifying them, to collecting like expressions, expanding
brackets and rationalising fractions involving surds.
Prompting questions
• The introduction provides four rules that apply to surds, do students feel convinced? Is not having found a counter-
example is sufficient to say the rules hold? Can they think of any ways to begin to generalise this?
( n) =
2 1 1 1
For example, n × n = n, n = n 2 and n 2 x n 2 = n1 = n (for positive values of n).

Exercise 19C (H)
• Q1 (H) For each of the incorrect answers ask students what errors were made and therefore what possible
misconception is being demonstrated.
• Q3 (H) Ask students to suggest some other surds that must already be in their simplest form.
For example, the square root of any other prime number.
• Q5b (H) To add to the prompt already given, if students are unsure, ask them to compare this to 54 .
Exercise 19D (H)
• Q5 (H) Why can’t 45 + 8 be simplified? What do you notice about the surds involved in this question where further
simplification is possible?
Look for suggestions of common factors; use prime decomposition to identify which surds could be simplified in this
way.
Exercise 19E (H)
• Q6 (H) Which of these demonstrates use of a conjugate?
Part g.

19H Surds
• Which mathematical technique already encountered in manipulating algebra is the basis for this technique?
Difference of two squares.
• Can students write another question similar to these examples where they are certain the final answer will be an
integer?

• A pairs game for simplifying and matching simple equivalent surds (and the solutions are provided) is available from
Teach-It Maths (free registration). (teachitmaths.co.uk)
• A song summarising manipulations of surds can be found by searching online using the terms: ‘Root 3 is a surd,
Grease is the word’.
• Surds Connect 4 from JustMaths covers basic simplification of surds and would be a good starter or plenary activity
for paired work. (justmaths.co.uk)
• Exercises 19C, 19D and 19E all contain a range of questions where students are asked to simplify surds. These could
be used in a number of ways, such as to create matching cards, pairs, a follow me or a Tarsia puzzle in order to
provide students with practice in a more interactive format where they can work more easily in pairs or groups.
• The National STEM centre archive Improving Learning in Mathematics ‘Manipulating Surds – N11’ contains a range
of activities such as ‘true or false’ statements and dominoes to enable students to develop their understanding of
how to manipulate surds. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
The Number Loving website has a differentiated ‘collect a joke’ activity for simplifying surds, when students can
work on one of three different levels worksheets in order to find surd solutions that links to phrases that form a joke.
The site also has a tick or trash sheet for surds. (numberloving.co.uk)
For extra practice the National STEM Centre has more complex manipulations of surds that also make the
connection to the golden ratio. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
• NRICH The Root of the Problem will require students to practise rationalising denominators using conjugate surds
in order to look for a solution. (nrich.maths.org)
NRICH Irrational Arithmagons is an extension for students finding manipulation of surds quite straightforward,
they should prove quite a challenge. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 3H: WORKING WITH SURDS
Section 3 embeds the skills used in the previous sections with a range of problem-solving questions involving the use of
surds.
Prompting questions
Exercise 19F (H)
• Q1 (H) Ask students to draw a different shape with the same perimeter as the ones in the question. They could also
try this for area, which in some cases could be quite challenging!
• Q9 (H) Why is it possible to solve this question? Could you write a question that looks similar but cannot be
answered? Can you write one that is possible?
This factorises to x(x + 1)2 so it can then be simplified using basic surd manipulation. Therefore any cubic of the form
x(x ± n)2 would also work.

Starters
• Give the students the section’s example question to solve individually, before looking at the step by step solution
in the book. Then ask their partner to review the solution and note any areas of method that seem unclear, that are
implied rather than recorded explicitly or that are missing. Then ask students to look at the solution in the book
and identify its strengths, and any points they might alter in their solution, recording how they could improve their
method in the future.
• This activity links well with Exercise 19F Q6. Fold a piece of A4 or A5 paper to create a kite. Only two folds are needed:
holding the paper in portrait, fold the bottom right vertex diagonally across to the opposite edge, bisecting the
bottom left vertex. Then fold the top right vertex up to meet the horizontal edge created by the first fold. Tell students
to assume the length of 1 for the shorter sides of the sheets of paper (see diagram below).
1
1
• How many other lengths can they find? What is the perimeter of the kite? Can they work out the area? (The long
diagonal is 2 by Pythagoras. If they hold this against the long side of the rectangle of another sheet of paper (or fold
the kite in half) they will see that this is the same length. A property of A-type paper is that the ratio of side lengths is
2 : 1.) From this shape (as shown below), the dimensions can be found.
1 ( 2 1) 2 2 2 2
Or 64 2
21 21
1
2
1 2
1
• (Perimeter = 4, Area = 2 2 − 2.)

• Research the ‘Geometric Square Root’ construction technique described by Descartes (although not attributed to
him). Create a presentation or leaflet explaining how the method works.
• See the diagram below showing the Geometric Square Root construction.
D q
q 1 x p
A B

19H Surds
• Investigate the Babylonian tablet YBC7289 from around 1700 BC (shown below), which provided a calculation for
root 2 using their base 60 number system.
24 51 10
1 + + 2 + 3 ≈ 1.41421297 ...
60 60 60
• For very able students a nice extension is to look at the formula for the Fibonacci sequence.
1 1 1- 5 n
( ) ( )
n
1+ 5
Fn = × - .
5 2 5 2
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Squaring numbers and finding square roots.

• Using the laws of indices.
• Prime factor decomposition.
• Using Pythagoras’ theorem.
• Cancelling fractions and equivalent fractions.
• Expanding brackets and simplifying expressions (basic algebraic manipulation skills).
• The difference of two squares.
Future learning
• Pythagoras’ theorem
• Trigonometry
• 3D Geometry
Gateway to A-level
• Continuing use of surds.

• Complex numbers (in particular the method of using a conjugate to manipulate).
• Binomial theorem (in order to approximate roots).

Homework Book
• Chapter 19

• Lesson notes

19F / 20H Basic probability

• How to calculate confidently with fractions, decimals and percentages.

• How to convert between fractions, decimals and percentages.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Understand and use the vocabulary of probability. • Understand and use the vocabulary of probability.
• Express probabilities as a number between 0 • Express probabilities as a number between 0
(impossible) and 1 (certain), either as a decimal, (impossible) and 1 (certain), either as a decimal,
fraction or percentage. fraction or percentage.
• Relate relative frequency to theoretical probability.
• Represent and analyse outcomes of probability
experiments.
Section 2 Section 2
• Understand that outcomes are equally likely if there is • Calculate the probability of an event not happening.
the same chance of each outcome occurring.
• Understand that the probabilities of mutually
• Calculate the theoretical probability of a desired exclusive events sum to 1.
outcome.
• Use tables and frequency trees to organise
• Calculate the probability of an event not happening. outcomes, understanding that a frequency tree is
not the same as a probability tree.
Section 3 Section 3
• Relate relative frequency to theoretical probability. • Calculate probabilities in different contexts.
• Represent and analyse outcomes of probability
experiments.
• Use tables and frequency trees to organise outcomes.
Section 4
• Calculate probabilities in different contexts.
Vocabulary
• Event, outcome, equally likely, random, mutually exclusive.
• Often words are used incorrectly, so it is important to identify misconceptions at the start of this topic.
• Students tend to be very familiar with vocabulary such as certain, probable, likely, 50/50 chance, unlikely,
impossible, etc as it is used frequently in everyday conversations and they hear it in the media. It is also worth
considering how percentages are used in conversation and in relation to probability. Certain means a 100%
probability; you can’t have 110% probability but you can have 110% profit.

• Students often assume that possible outcomes are always equally likely.
Students know that it is evens for getting heads on a toss of a coin and will therefore assume that any event
with two possible outcomes will have a 50/50 chance, such as the probability of passing or failing a test. Leading
questioning and giving examples of an event with two possible outcomes that are not equally likely helps to dispel
this misconception. For example, if there are two people running 100 m, do they both have an equal chance of
winning? They would need to be equally matched in terms of fitness and skill. What if one of the people was a World
Champion? They would be much more likely to win the race.
• Packs of cards are often used in probability questions.
It is worth checking that students actually know the cards that make a deck. It is always surprising how many
students are not aware of how many cards are in a suit or how many suits are in a deck. Having packs of cards in the
classroom will develop familiarity and allow students to trial different experiments to get a sense of the likelihood of
different outcomes.
• Lucky/unlucky numbers, or rolling a six being harder than any other number because of its importance in
some board games.
• ‘Gambler’s fallacy’
After getting four heads in a row, I’m more likely to get tails on the fifth coin flip.
Hooks
• Use familiar games as prompts for discussion. Discuss strategies that students use and the probabilities at each
stage.
• A game such as ‘dibingo’ available from blogspot.co.uk is an introduction to both the vocabulary of probability and
starting to work out the numerical probability of different outcomes. (donsteward.blogspot.co.uk)
SECTION 1F: THE PROBABILITY SCALE
Section 1 reminds foundation students of the specific language used with probability and then introduces the notation
of P(event) before demonstrating how probability can be described using numbers between 0 and 1.
Prompting questions
Exercise 19A (F)
• Q2 (F) Susanne says the probability of her being late for school is 1.5; explain how you know that she is wrong.
The maximum probability is 1. 1 is certain.
• Jamie says that the probability of him being late is less than zero. Explain why Jamie is incorrect.
The minimum probability is 0. 0 is impossible.
• Robin says that he will either be late or on time, so he has a 50/50 chance of being late. Explain why Robin’s
statement could be inaccurate.
What could make him late? Surely it would depend on Robin’s punctuality and organisation in general.
• Q4a (F) Where is it more likely to rain: in the rainforest or the desert?
Rainforest.
• Why is this?
It rains every day in the rainforest, but very rarely rains in the desert.
• Is there a 50% chance of rain tomorrow in the desert?
No.
• Is there a 50% chance of rain tomorrow in the rainforest?
No.


Starters
• Students write down something they think is certain, then discuss as a class if these events are actually certain or just
highly likely. Repeat with something they think is impossible and something that they think has a 50/50 chance. This
discussion identifies misconceptions and demonstrates the need for a scale.
• Use quotes from celebrities or extracts from current newspaper articles that contain the language of probability as
prompts for discussion. For example, a judge on a TV talent show says ‘I am certain that you will have a number 1
single’; can they really be certain?
• Provide students with a set of cards with different events on them. Students should then order the cards by how
likely the event is to happen. The cards can then be placed on a probability scale; this could be done as a small group
or as a whole class on the board or by pegging the cards to a washing line. To enhance engagement in this task, the
cards could be personalised to the class, for example ‘Finlay will become a rock star’ or ‘Ethan will go to Spain’ or
‘Imogen will be given a merit in her next class’.
Enrichment Activities
• If you can’t have more than 100% probability, why do the ‘odds’ on the Grand National add up to far more than 1?
This can lead to an interesting discussion on how bookmakers make their money.
Assessment ideas
• Give each student in the class an outcome described in words, or probabilities given as a decimal, fraction or
percentage. They need to put this on a probability scale shared by the whole class. This can provide useful practice in
fraction, decimal and percentage conversion.
SECTION 1H: REVIEW OF PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
Higher section 1 covers the concepts of the probability scale, relative frequency and theoretical probability. These
concepts are the same as those covered in Sections 1, 2 and 3 of Foundation, but the complexity of the problems can
increase significantly. In addition to fractions, decimals and percentages, probability offers the opportunity to revisit
other topics, such as forming algebraic expressions and proof, area, or interpreting statistical graphs.
Prompting questions
These questions should prompt student discussion.
• Why do we use experimental probability?
• Can you give an example of when calculating theoretical probability is not practical, but using relative frequency is?
Exercise 20A (H)
• Whilst working through the exercise, good prompts for students might be:
• Q1 (H) How many times would you expect to roll a six, if you rolled a dice 300 times?
50 times.
• If the frequency of a six was 54, do you think this is a fair dice?
Yes. 54 is approximately 50.
• Q2 (H) Why does the table start with a total of 2 instead of 1?
It is impossible to have a total of 1 when rolling two or more dice.
• Why is there a higher frequency for getting a total of 7 than a total of 12?
There are lots of ways to get a total of 7, whilst there is only one way of getting a total of 12.
• Q3 (H) Is this a sensible sample size for the market research company to use?
Whilst the relative frequency will be more accurate if you have a bigger sample size, this may not be cost effective or
may be impractical.

Exercise 20B (H)

• Q5 (H) How would the probabilities change if instead of finding the product of two dice, it was three dice? Or instead
of multiplying, Nick and Vijay found the difference or sum?
• Q6d (H) When do most families go on holiday? How is this reflected in the price of holidays at different times of the
year? Consider term time vs school holidays.
More likely that families will go on holiday in the summer, particularly in August.

• NRICH Probability Stage 4 - Short Problems is a collection of problems that are useful for starters or extensions.
(nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Odds and Evens can be approached using theoretical probability of combined events through systematic
listing or sample space diagrams, or through relative frequency. It is worth considering how the rules of the game
could change and what impact these rule changes would have on the probability. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Which Spinners? has an interactivity that demonstrates that the more you repeat an experiment, the closer
the experimental probability will be to the theoretical probability. It then offers the challenge of working out which
spinners were used, given different relative frequency graphs. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 2F: CALCULATING PROBABILITY
Section 2 for foundation students begins with a concept that many students find difficult: that of equally likely outcomes
or mutually exclusive events. Addressing the misconception that, for example ‘breaking your arm’ can either happen or
not, so the likelihood of each is a half will be important here.
Whilst fractions, decimals or percentages are all equally valid ways of representing probabilities, for situations involving
theoretical probabilities writing these as fractions should be encouraged as the natural choice. Correct notation is
essential: ‘1 in 3’ or ‘fifty fifty’ would score zero in an exam, as would any use of ratio notation.
Prompting questions
Exercise 19B (F)
3
• Most of an iceberg is hidden under water. If of the iceberg is above water, what fraction is below?
11
8
11
• What if 0.359 is below water?

0.641 above.
• What if 93% is above water?
7% below.
• Is rolling a 5 mutually exclusive to rolling: an even number?
Yes.
• An odd number?
No.
• A prime number?
No.
• Is it raining tomorrow mutually exclusive to it being sunny?
No. You can have both rain and sun on the same day and even at the same time.
• Is winning a football match mutually exclusive to losing it?
Yes.

• The probability of the complement of an event is straightforward to work out when probabilities are given in
fractions. Doing the same activity with decimals is useful practice, especially for students who will go on to study
statistics at a higher level and will need this skill when working with the normal distribution. (Hint: each place sums
to 9 except the right-most digit).
• Spinners with numbered sections that are also coloured can be helpful to reinforce the importance of considering
whether events are mutually exclusive. For example, if a spinner is labelled 1–6, with even numbers red and odd
3 4
numbers black, P(red or 2) is not .
6 6
3
• Alternatives to asking questions about vowels are ‘dotted letters’ for example there is a chance of picking a dotted
4
2
letter from ‘Fiji’. Reversing the problem and asking for a word with a probability of picking a dotted letter or vowel
3
can add an additional challenge.
Plenaries
1
• Give students probabilities (for example, ) and ask them to write outcomes that have that probability. Using
6
denominators 2, 6, 13, 36, 52 should reinforce common situations involving dice, coins and cards.
• Students could research whether it actually is equally likely to have a baby boy or a baby girl. Does it matter where in
the world you are? How does gender distribution change in a given country at different ages?
SECTION 2H: FURTHER PROBABILITY
Section 2 for higher students begins by revising the idea of the complement to an event. As in foundation section 2,
particular focus could be placed on quickly finding the complement of decimal probabilities, for example 0.109 and
0.891.
At higher tier, more emphasis on the consequence of events being mutually exclusive is necessary. In particular,
understanding that we cannot just add two probabilities.
Most aspects of this section are discussed either in foundation section 2 above or in foundation section 3 below.
Prompting questions
Exercise 20C (H)
• I have cards that each show one of the letters of the word AUSTRALIA. Is picking a card with an A and a vowel
mutually exclusive?
No.
• What are some outcomes that are mutually exclusive?
Picking a card with an S and a vowel, for example.
• Q1 (H) During the next working week (Monday to Friday), Michelle manages to get a seat on the bus every day. How
does this change the experimental probability of her having to stand?
58 58
(= 0.256) compared to (= 0.25), which means the probability has slightly reduced (by 0.6%).
227 232
• Q4 (H) In a game, this basketball player had 20 shots at goal. Approximately how many goals did the basketball
player score?
(1 − 0.432) × 20 = 11.36, so 11 (or 12) goals.
• Q6 (H) Is it realistic to assume that attendance of these different school clubs is an example of mutually exclusive
events?
We can assume this if they are all run at the same time and students are therefore unable to attend more than one club.

Exercise 20D (H)

• What happens when you add the frequencies on each branch of a frequency tree? How can you use this to check that
you are filling in the frequency tree correctly?
The sum of the frequencies on the end of each branch should equal the total frequency.
• Q1 (H) Why would a hotel want this information? How can it use it to improve their facilities?
This should prompt student discussion.
• Q2 (H) What percentage of patients who thought they would need a prescription didn’t actually need one?
30.95%
• What percentage of patients guessed correctly about their need for a prescription?
66.67%
• Q4 (H) Which do you think medical professionals would prefer in testing – a higher probability of a false positive or a
higher probability of a false negative? Why?
This question should prompt student discussion.

Please refer to foundation sections 2 and 3.
SECTION 3F: EXPERIMENTAL PROBABILITY
Foundation section 3 introduces experimental methods of calculating probabilities. Whilst initially represented as
fractions, to allow comparisons between experiments the use of percentages or decimals is sensible. Getting students
to repeat experiments for a certain number of minutes (rather than a certain number of times) makes it likely that all
groups will have carried out a different number of trials, which can result in students suggesting this representation
quite naturally. This should help students understand that the frequencies are relative to the total number of trials.
The section ends with two approaches to structuring results from experiments. The first, two-way tables, will be familiar
to most students. The second, frequency trees, will be new to most students yet tests have shown that most students
are able to make sense of them with limited intervention.
Prompting questions
• I flip a coin a number of times and get eight heads. Is it a fair coin?
It depends how many times you have flipped the coin.
• I flip a coin eight times and get eight heads. Is it a fair coin?
Unlikely to be fair, however we won’t be sure with this number of trials.
• I flip a coin 16/15/1000 times and get eight heads. Is it a fair coin?
Maybe/maybe/no.
3 2
• Which is a better game to play: one with a chance of winning or one with a chance?
7 5
3 2
(≈ 0.429) is greater than (= 0.4) so the first game is better to play.
7 5
• I flip a fair coin 50 times and, amazingly, get 50 heads. If I flip it a further 50 times, how many heads can I expect out
of 100?
As these are independent events you could argue that you can treat each 50 trials separately. Out of the further 50
times, you would expect to get approximately 25 heads, so 75 in total. Alternatively you could consider the 100 trials
together, in which case you would assume that you would get 50 heads in total.
• In 1913, the ball on a roulette wheel in Monte Carlo landed on black 32 times in a row. Do you think people bet for or
against black?

Exercise 19C (F)

• Why do you get a head and tails more often than two heads?
Because there are two different ways to get a head and tails, but only one way to get two heads.
• Rory flips two coins a large number of times. If he managed to get two tails 63 times, can you estimate how many
times Rory repeated the experiment? Can you estimate how many times Rory got two heads? Can you estimate how
many times Rory got a head and tails?
If Rory got two tails 63 times, he would get two heads approximately the same number of times (63) and he would get a
head and a tail approximately double the number of times (126), so we can estimate that Rory repeated the experiment
252 times in total.
Exercise 19D (F)
• Q3 (F) What is the experimental probability of getting tails with the same coin?
25
60
• Do you think this is a fair coin?
It looks like it is fair, but you need to repeat the experiment many more times to be sure.
• Q6 (F) What is the maximum value for probability?
6
You cannot have a probability greater than 1 as 1 is certain. = 2, so we know that Paul can’t possibly be correct.
3
• Explaining why an answer is incorrect helps students to consolidate their knowledge and helps them avoid the same
mistakes in their own work. What other mistakes could be made?
• Q10–11 (F) Why is the weather forecast for tomorrow going to be more reliable than for 5 days from now?
Exercise 19E (F)
• Q1 (F) Why would a hotel want this information? How can it use it to improve their facilities?
This should prompt student discussion.
• Q2 (F) What fraction of patients who thought they would need a prescription didn’t actually need one?
13
42
• What fraction of patients guessed correctly about their need for a prescription?
40 2
(or ))
60 3
• Q3 (F) Which do you think medical professionals would prefer in testing – a higher probability of a false positive or a
These questions should prompt student discussion.

Starters
• Biased dice and double-headed (or tailed) coins are available to buy and can make useful props for whole-class
experiments.
• False imprisonment, or unnecessary surgery, are powerful contexts for demonstrating the usefulness of frequency
trees. Experimental probability is always a fall-back when a problem is (too) hard to analyse theoretically. For
example, the Monty Hall Problem has simulators available at Stay or Switch. (stayorswitch.com)
Enrichment ideas
• NRICH Which spinners?’ is an interesting task with helpful simulations. (nrich.maths.org)
• Students often enjoy being devious, making spinners out of card and matchsticks with surreptitious weight added
to bias it to one face. This can be most effective if the target is to make the bias subtle, for example on a pentagonal
spinner, the experimental probability of landing on the biased side should be no more than 25%.
• Getting across the idea that dice, cards and roulette wheels ‘do not have a memory’ will likely do your students more
good than just in the mathematics classroom.
Assessment ideas
• Students identify common errors in solutions created by others. This will check their understanding of how
frequency trees are constructed.
SECTION 4F / 3H: MIXED PROBABILITY PROBLEMS / WORKING WITH PROBABILITY
This section brings together the concepts learned in earlier sections. Students are invited to consider statements that
could be heard in everyday conversation and use theoretical probability or relative frequency to check the validity of the
statement.
Probability questions can often be very wordy and some students struggle with knowing where to start. The ‘problem-
solving’ framework in this section demonstrates how one of these questions can be broken down into steps. In this
example, it asks for the final answer to be expressed as a percentage. Firstly, this provides an opportunity to highlight to
students the importance of reading each question carefully and warn against losing marks in an exam for not expressing
an answer in the desired format. Secondly, students may need practice in converting fractions and decimals into
percentages.
In the exercise, students are given prompts in questions to draw a frequency tree or complete a two way table in order
to sort information before calculating a probability. However, they may not always receive such prompts in exam
questions. It is therefore worth providing opportunities for students to develop their processing skills by removing this
support initially.
It is also useful for students to work out experimental probability from data presented in different formats, such as
cumulative frequency curves or pie charts, as this gives students an opportunity to increase familiarity with these
statistical graphs.
Prompting questions
Exercise 19F (F)
• Q5 (F) You are given a ten-day forecast with the chance of rain for each day. Which of these probabilities is the most
reliable and why? Which of these probabilities is the least reliable and why?
• Q7 (F) Which do you think medical professionals would prefer in testing – a higher probability of a false positive or a
Exercise 20E (H)
• Q6 (H) Which do you think medical professionals would prefer in testing – a higher probability of a false positive or a
• Q9 (H) Part a draws out the misconception that students will assume that events are equally likely. Before answering
part b, it is worth asking ‘Does it seem realistic that the probability of a baby being born with blood type AB is 1 ?’
4

Starters
• NRICH Probability Stage 3 - Short Problems is a collection of problems that are useful for starters or extensions.
(nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) Insurance companies calculate premiums based on the probability of an event happening. How
could they work out what the premium should be for priceless pieces of art? Discuss other industries that will use
probability.
• (Higher only) The NHS Blood Donation website has a bar chart to show current stocks for each blood type. Ask
students what probability questions could be asked based on this bar chart. For example, what is the probability of

a blood donor being O positive? You have the blood type AB negative – how likely is it that there will be the correct
type of blood available? (blood.co.uk)
Plenaries
• Use one of the questions from Exercise 20E (H) or Exercise 19F (F), the chapter review exercise or an exam-style
question as a starting point. Ask students to think about other questions that could have been asked based on the
same starting point.
• (Higher only) Give students data for how late buses run and how late underground and overground trains run,
presented in different formats. Ask students to make a decision on which form of transport is most reliable (has the
smallest probability of being more than 10 minutes late) based on this data.
Enrichment ideas
• The NRICH Do you feel lucky? task states some of the advice and tips people offer to increase the chance of winning
a game and asks students to consider if it is good advice or not. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Give students a question with a lot of information to process before calculating a probability. Through peer
assessment or group/whole class discussion, identify different methods used to sort the information (such as a
frequency tree, two-way table or list) and discuss the efficiency of each method.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Working with fractions, decimals and percentages.
Future learning
• Interpretation of pie charts, cumulative frequency curves, histograms and other statistical graphs.
• Area of sectors (linked to probability spinners).
• Algebraic expressions and proof.
Gateway to A-level
• Use of probability in hypothesis testing.

• Use of symmetries of the normal distribution (complementary events).
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 9 Questions 6, 7, 14, 15, 16
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes

20F / 21H 3D objects

• How to identify common 3D objects.

• Basic properties of polygons and common 3D objects.
• How to accurately construct lines and angles using ruler and compasses.
• Know how to calculate interior angles in polygons.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Apply what you already know about the properties of • Apply what you already know about the properties
3D objects. of 3D objects.
Section 1 and 2 Section 1 and 2
• Work with 2D representations of 3D objects. • Work with 2D representations of 3D objects.
Section 3 Section 3
• Construct and interpret plans and elevations of 3D • Construct and interpret plans and elevations of 3D
objects. objects.
Vocabulary
• Isometric grid, plan view, elevation view.
• Students sometimes muddle the meanings of face and vertex.

Ensure the correct definitions are given at the start of the topic, and reinforced whenever talking about 3D objects.
• The difference between a prism and a pyramid can be difficult to grasp.
To tackle this, ask students to think what would happen if you cut slices of the shape? Would they all be identical
(like a stereotypical loaf of bread)? If so, the shape is a prism. A pyramid can be identified because it has an apex
(point) where all but one of the sides (the base) meet.
Hooks
• Many optical illusions ‘work’ by exploiting the limitations of 2 dimensional representations of 3 dimensional objects.
Few maths teachers would pass up the opportunity to show students the work of MC Escher, for example the
‘impossible staircases’ in his lithograph Relativity. Many students are fascinated by such illusions and, even if they
have seen a particular illusion before they can sit and feel smug that they ‘know’ the answer. (wikipedia.org)
• Search the internet using the below terms to find videos that provide useful hooks into this topic:
-- ‘Is the Rubik’s Cube real?’
-- ‘Incredible illusions’
-- The ‘Honda Illusions advert’ (also the corresponding ‘making-of’ video).

SECTION 1F / 1H: 3D OBJECTS AND THEIR NETS
Section 1 focuses on constructing nets of 3D shapes and identifying possible nets for common 3D shapes. Whilst many
exercise books contain squared paper, exam papers may use plain paper instead, so it is important for students to gain
experience drawing nets on both squared and plain paper.
Prompting questions
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) What different shapes can you see in the net? Which of the 3D shapes can you find that involve the
same shapes?
Rectangles and triangles.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What shapes make up the faces of a cylinder?
Circles.
• What would the curved surface of the cylinder look like if it were folded flat? (think about the label on a tin of baked
beans)
Rectangle.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) What sides will join on the face with 2 dots?
The faces with three and four dots.
• Then where will the red face with one dot be?
Opposite the red face with six dots.
• Q8 (H) How do you calculate the area of a trapezium?
1
(a + b) h, or half the sum of the parallel sides, times the distance between them.
2

Starters
• Students may find it difficult to visualise the shape created from a net, or which faces are adjacent once a net is
constructed. To help them, suggest that they use pencil crayons to draw a coloured dot in the corners that they know
meet up. They can then follow the edges from here to the next corner on each face, which will then also join up (and
can thus be marked with a different coloured dot).
• NRICH Air Nets could be projected as a starter to introduce students to the idea of nets, or a plenary to provide an
opportunity to consider what they have learnt. There are 24 video clips of different nets, each of which is paused at
the start with the net laid out. Ask students whether they think it will construct a 3D shape (and if so, can they name
it?). Ask students to justify their answers. In particular, if they don’t think the net will work, how do they know? (nrich.
maths.org)
Plenaries
• Ask students to draw a net of a 3D object that will be 5 cm tall with a star drawn on the top face (i.e. the face they see
when they look down on the object from above) when it is constructed and then ask them to cut out the net and
construct the shape to check their assertions.
• There is much merit in students physically manipulating 3D objects. Resources such as those available from
Polydron are well regarded in helping students understand nets and the properties of the 3D objects. (polydron.
co.uk)
• NRICH Redblue looks at colouring the vertices of 3D shapes either red or blue, according to whether you travel an
even (red) or odd (blue) number of edges from the original red vertex to reach them. Students could use their skills
of constructing nets to investigate which 3D objects can have ‘redblue’ vertices, and try to identify any common
properties of these objects. (nrich.maths.org)

SECTION 2F / 2H: DRAWING 3D OBJECTS
Section 2 focuses on drawings of 3D objects, both on plain and isometric paper. Having linking cubes (e.g. multilink)
available to students can be useful when introducing this topic.
Prompting questions
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Which face or cube are you going to draw first?
Students should try to draw the horizontal faces of the shape firstly. They may also find it easiest to draw the front,
highest, right-most cube to begin with, as this will have three faces showing, whereas others in the shape may only have
one or two faces that need to be drawn.
• How many cubes might the first solid be made from?
Between seven (the ones shown in the diagram) and nine (there may be hidden cubes on the base, including one
adjoining the bottom left cube).
• I knock over the third solid so that it falls backwards (i.e. four cubes are touching the table). Draw what it would look
like.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) The first solid is sitting on a mirror. Draw what it would look like (both the object and image).
• Q5b (H) Draw what the black solid would look like if I remove all eight corner cubes. How many cubes would remain?
19.

Starters
• When using isometric paper, it is vital that students have the paper in the correct orientation: portrait and landscape
will result in different drawings. Students should typically orient the paper so there are vertical lines (but no
horizontal). Many students really struggle using isometric paper: suggesting that they start by drawing a ‘Y’ shape for
the front-top vertex of a cube helps them get started. It may be necessary to remind students that they should always
draw along the grid lines.
• Give students linking cubes. How many different solids can be made from four cubes? What constitutes ‘different’?
There are eight ‘tetracubes’. Draw some of your tetracubes (differentiation possible here by selecting easier or harder
solids). Draw the 4 × 1 × 1 cuboid tetracube in as many different orientations as you can on isometric paper? (The
eight tetracubes fit together to form a 4 × 2 × 2 cuboid, but it is rather difficult to achieve!).
• The topic provides good opportunities for students to practise their visualisation skills. Using the solids made of
cubes shown in the book, students could sketch the result of a: objects being pushed over, b: cubes being removed,
c: cubes being added, d: solids sitting on, or against, mirrors.
Plenaries
• Get students to think about the effects of representing 3D objects on 2D paper. What angle is formed on each face of
a cube at the vertices?
90 degrees, since they are squares.
• On isometric paper, if you draw a cube, what angles are formed?
120 (since three equal angles around a point) or 60 degrees (angles on a straight line).
• So, is it still a square?
• Most students enjoy using isometric paper to draw ‘impossible’ objects such as a Penrose Triangle or Rectangle.

SECTION 3F / 3H: PLAN AND ELEVATION VIEWS
Section 3 focuses on representing 3D objects with plan and elevation views. Students often struggle to accept that
the plan view does not show if a side is sloping, and will draw trapezia rather than rectangles. It may be useful to have
physical objects (for example a prism whose cross section is a trapezium) that students can look down on and/or take
photos of to see for themselves. A teacher taking photos from a great height would emphasise the point more fully (for
example from a mezzanine floor or a first floor balcony) – at this distance you are too far away to see the slope of the
sides.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Can you sketch what these objects would look like from the front?

Starters
• Satellite images provide a ready source of plan views of surroundings that should be familiar to students. Projecting
satellite imagery on the board and looking around the local neighbourhood can highlight how difficult it is to
recognise even familiar landmarks from the air. For example, find the nearest playground and try to identify the
swings. (Such imagery can also stimulate fruitful discussions about shadows.).
• Project or display the floor plans of a property and ask students to describe the property. For example, is it a house,
flat, bungalow? Does it have an extension on just one floor? What would the front of the house look like (in terms of
where are the windows, front door, etc.)? Property-selling websites have a plethora of properties for sale, with floor
plans and photos available to view (providing an opportunity to see if students were correct with their answers).
• Students could take three photographs (plan, front, side) of familiar objects. These should be shared with the rest of
the class, who have to guess what the objects are as quickly as possible. Ideally students should be encouraged to
show the least obvious one first to increase the difficulty.
Assessment ideas
• The Freudenthal Institute has many interactive applets that students can work through that assess their ability to
interpret views and elevations. Since they are written in Java, students need to work on these individually or in pairs
on desktop or laptop computers. They provide clear indicators for teachers to see how students are getting on. The
‘building houses’ and ‘colouring sides’ applets are particularly useful. (fi.uu.nl)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• This topic provides an ideal opportunity to practise the concepts learned in Chapter 8 (H), in particular, the
vocabulary of 2D shapes and ideas of symmetry. This could be extended to include planes of symmetry of 3D objects.
Future learning
• Students will need to use their skills in visualising in three dimensions to tackle problems that use Pythagoras’
theorem in solids in Chapter 37 (H).
• Considering the net of a solid is a key part of the process of calculating the surface area of a solid in Chapter 23 (F) /
24 (H).

Gateway to A-level
• The volumes of solids of revolution are considered at A-level. These are solids formed by rotating a curve around
some straight line, for example the sorts of objects that might be produced on a lathe.
• Working with the three dimensional solid called a parallelepiped is a common source of problems when using vector
methods.
Foundation
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets
• Square dotted paper
• Isometric grid paper
• Isometric dotted paper

21F / 22H Units and measure


• Index notation, for example, 102 = 10 × 10.
• (Higher only) How to use inequalities appropriately in mathematical statements.
• How to find the volume of a cuboid.
• How to measure accurately using a ruler and protractor.
• Non-calculator methods for multiplying decimals.

• Calculations involving related sums.
• Knowledge of rounding to 1 or 2 significant figures.
• Rounding to estimate solutions to problems.
• Work with equivalent fractions including cancelling to simplest form.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Convert metric units for capacity, mass and length. • Convert metric units for capacity, mass and length.
• Convert metric units of area and volume. • Convert metric units of area and volume.
• Understand units of time are not metric. • Understand units of time are not metric.
• Convert units of time and use to solve related problems. • Convert units of time and use to solve related
problems.
• Convert currencies using scale factors.
• Convert currencies using scale factors.
Section 2 Section 2
• Convert compound measurements. • Convert compound measurements.
• Use formulae: Speed = Distance , Density = Mass and • Use formulae: Speed = Distance , Density = Mass and
Time Volume Time Volume
Force Force
Pressure = to find any one of the variables given Pressure = to find any one of the variables
Area Area
values for the other two. given values for the other two.
Section 3 Section 3
• Read and use scales on maps including both line/bar • Read and use scales on maps including both line/bar
scales and ratio scales. scales and ratio scales.
• Form their own scales to construct their own scale • Form their own scales to construct their own scale
drawings to fit a given dimension. drawings to fit a given dimension.
• Read and use bearings in scale drawings. • Read and use bearings in scale drawings.
• Understand the connection between a bearing of B
from A and A from B on a given line segment.

Vocabulary
• Conversion factor, exchange rate, scale factor.
• Students have problems multiplying and dividing decimals by powers of 10. This is due to the misconception
that ×10 means you add a zero onto the end of the number (and other similar products with powers of ten). For
students who have this issue it would be useful to revisit multiplying and dividing by powers of 10 with a place value
grid.
• Students perform calculations with values in different units.
To combat this remind students that all units must be the same and try to establish good practice with estimation
and a check to see whether their answer seems sensible.
• Using 1D scale factors and misunderstanding that they need to be working with scale factors squared and
cubed for area and volume.
Ask students to revisit the original values in their calculations and convert the lengths involved, as shown in the
diagram below.
2m 12 m2 200 cm 120 000 cm2
6m 600 cm
To force the acknowledgement of an error in their solution. When introducing this topic you could use overlays of
grids to turn 1 cm2 into 100 mm2 and consider the related sums as used in the section notes of the textbook, as shown
below.
2 cm 6 cm 12 cm2
10 10 102 100
20 mm 60 mm 1200 mm2
You can also use the following table when making notes with students on this topic.
Length Area Volume
mm mm2 mm3
10 10 102 102 103 103
cm cm 2
cm 3
100 100 1002 1002 1003 1003

m m2 m3
1000 1000 10002 10002 10003 10003
km km2 km3
• Students multiply when they should divide or vice versa when converting units.
To encourage the correct decision, focus on the size of the units and whether you would expect there to be more or
fewer of them, for example centimetres are smaller than meters so you would expect there to be more of them, so
5 m → cm needs × 100 not ÷ 100.
• Students struggle to remember which power of 10 they need to use.
This is because they confuse how many centimetres there are in a metre and how many millimetres there are in a
centimetre and so on for the most common conversions. Try to give students a point of reference for measurements
of length, e.g. using their ruler to check cm to mm, knowing that a metre is roughly the length of an exam desk so
must be more than 10 cm and so on. You could also focus on the meaning of the prefixes, for example kilo is linked
to the Greek word for 1000, centi is connected to the Greek word for 100, and connect to other language students
are familiar with, such as century, to support this. Asking students to make a poster or A5 revision card that can be
laminated for them to keep could also be successful.
• Students treat time like they would the rest of the metric system.
They will therefore write 3.5 hours as 3 hours 50 mins or similarly 3 hours 30 mins as 3.3 hours. Returning to basics
and asking students to convert 0.5 hours or ‘half an hour’ into minutes can help them identify this as well as
1 1 1
considering simple fractions of an hour for example, , , etc.
10 3 6
• Students struggle to convert currencies where they are working ‘backwards’.
For example, when they are told £1 = $1.70 and are asked to convert $500 into pounds. Combat this using converting

ratio notation to remind them which way they are going, not always formally writing the division underneath but
always reinforcing the question: ‘What am I multiplying by?’ An example is shown below.
£1 : $1.70
? 300
£300 : $510
£300 £1 300
so 300
294.18 £1 : $1.70
?
$294.18 : $500
$500 $1.70 294.1176 …
• Students struggle to work with rearranged forms of S = D (and similar formulae for density and pressure).
T
A good way to deal with this is to work with the formula triangle, in which students cover up the variable they are
looking for (see section 2 notes for more details).
• Students confuse the units when working with compound measures and don’t know what the units of their
value are.
Persistently reinforcing that the units for the compound measurement are the units given in the values being used
helps with this.
• Students confuse multiplication and division of the scale factor when working with scale drawings.
For advice on how to deal with this see the point above on converting currencies.
• Students forget what a bearing is and how it compares to a given angle.
Reminding students that bearings always start from North and must always contain three digits (perhaps as a fill
in the gaps definitions starter, for example: Angles that are always measured from North are called _____.) is often
enough to deal with this issue.
Hooks
• For all the material covered in this chapter students are often most engaged when it is personal to them or topical.
For example, when looking at scale drawings you could focus on maps of the area where they live, or when
considering compound measures you could look at the formula for speed, distance and time by focusing on recent
sporting event footage.
SECTION 1F / 1H: STANDARD UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Section 1 covers various units of measurement including length, capacity, mass and time. The first part considers
the different metric units of measurement for length, capacity and mass and connections in the names used before
considering the most common conversions required. Having looked at one-dimensional units the section then goes
on to consider how these conversion rates are applied to area and volume problems through the use of related
calculations, which could be supported with specific examples students could investigate to deduce their own rules for
these conversions.
The second part first covers time and the various forms it can be written in (decimalised and using standard units).
There is another list of conversion facts for students to learn and it is worth considering how they are all connected,
e.g. 1 hour = 1 × 602 = 3600 seconds as you go via minutes rather than straight to seconds. There are also opportunities
to explore informal non-calculator methods for converting decimalised hours to hours and minutes using fractions of
amounts (tenths). The penultimate part of this section considers the differences between the 12 hour clock and 24 hour
clock. In the final section of the second part, unitary conversion methods for money are looked at when using exchange
rates.
Prompting questions
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) What has to be the same for you to perform calculations with the measurements?
The units.

• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) Why might a sketch be helpful?

Because then I am holding fewer facts in my head.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) What do you have to remember to do to the conversion factor if you are dealing with area?
Square the conversion factor.
• What do you have to remember to do to the conversion factor if you are dealing with volume?
Cube the conversion factor.
• Q7 (H) What needs to be the same for you to compare the values?
The units.
• Q8 (H) Which part of the diagram would be 170 mm deep?
The sink only, not the draining board as well.
• Use the questions from the problem-solving framework in the Student Book:
-- What have you got to do?
-- What information do you need?
-- What information don’t you need? (This is a hard question for less able students as they often think everything
they are told is relevant and may not be able to generalise to deal with the wider problem).
-- What maths can you do? (Worth elaborating on this question to ask what information they can use first).
-- Have you used all the information? (This could be a tough question for those incapable of identifying what
information is irrelevant).
-- Is it correct? (Worth changing to: is it in the range of answers you were expecting? / Is it close to your estimate?)
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What time facts do you need?
Days in week etc.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) What do you need to ensure is the same when working with measurements?
The units.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) Which exchange rate do you need?
The one for the currency in the question.
• Are you converting using the rate given or working backwards to convert? How does this make a difference?
It changes whether you are multiplying or dividing.

• An appropriate starter or plenary for this topic would be a series of short questions based on something personal to
the students such as their bus timetable or school day timings.
• The skills in this section can be combined with measuring and accuracy with a series of tasks related to measuring
objects in the classroom and converting to the units required in the question for example, length of the desk, mass of
pencil case.
• Card sorts can be used effectively with this topic to support less able students and identify common misconceptions.
Additional challenge can be added by removing some of the pairs and giving students blank cards to fill in.
• There is a series of ‘We can work it out’ tasks that are appropriate for the material on time available from ATM. The
tasks could be replicated easily as they are a series of information and question cards for students to work through
where some information is useful and some is irrelevant. Most centre on trips and include transport times and costs
within the calculations.

SECTION 2F / 2H: COMPOUND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Section 2 introduces students to compound measures and considers a range of scenarios in which compound measures
would be used for money. After this speed, density and pressure are considered in detail with examples on converting
these compound measures given at each stage.
Prompting questions
• What information is required to solve this problem? What do I know? What do I need?
• Q2 (H) Is there any information that is irrelevant to this problem?
The number of hours Henry worked is unimportant.
• What compound measure can I form from the information given in the question? How can I convert it to the one
required for the answer?
• Q4–6 (F) / Q4–8 (H) Which variable are you looking for: speed, distance or time? How can my formula triangle assist
in working out what calculation I need to do?
• Q9 (H) What do you think the different parts of the time stamp are in units?
It’s a marathon so hours, minutes and seconds.
• Q10 (H) What do the units have to be for you to work with the measurements?
The same units so if the compound measure relates to hours the times the car travelled for must be converted to parts pf
an hour.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What is the volume of each block?
1 cm3 – in opening line of question.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) Do I have the volume of the cube?
No, just the side length measurement so I need to find the volume first.
• Q2–4 (F) / Q2–4 (H)
What do you need to ensure is the same when working with measurements?
The units.

• NRICH Escalator is a challenging problem that will require students to set up and solve equations based on
proportional speeds (or if they can spot a trick a simple idea based on proportion). (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH All in a Jumble is a card sort (electronic version included) that explores appropriate measurements for
different scenarios. There are a few imperial units involved but these could either be removed or used as an
extension. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Olympic Measures is a very similar idea with an Olympics theme. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Triathlon and Fitness is a simple exercise using compound measures that requires simple conversions of
time and distance. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 3F / 3H: MAPS, SCALE DRAWINGS AND BEARINGS
Section 3 covers reading and using scale drawings as well as bearings. Students are required to read and use scales
given in both bar and ratio form as well as form appropriate scales for their own drawings. As in the previous sections
students will be required to convert metric units. The final part of this section introduces students to bearings and uses
them in scale drawings. (Higher only) Students will be expected to apply the fact that given any line segment AB the
bearing of B from A is connected to the bearing of A from B by ± 180°.

Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What type of scale are you dealing with, bar or ratio? How does this change how you deal with the
question?
Bar will require measuring.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) What units should your final answer be in? Do you need to compute any conversions to achieve this?
All answers should be given in kilometres so some conversion may be required.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) If you are unsure which will be the larger map what could you do to test it?
Test a length and convert to see.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) What formula is needed here to find the average speed?
Distance
Speed =
Time
• Q7–8 (F) / Q7–8 (H) Lay out your conversions as a ratio with an unknown (see example above in misconceptions
section). Do you need to multiply or divide by the scale factor?
• Q2–3 (F) / Q2–3 (H) How could we describe a ‘clumsy’ scale?
One with large numbers that are hard to multiply or divide by, or numbers that are not whole.
• How do we ‘correct’ a clumsy scale?
Round up to 1 or 2 significant figures.
• What do you need to include in all scale drawings?
A scale.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) To produce a new scale drawing to fit the dimensions of your exercise book what do you need to
know?
The actual dimensions of the classroom block – suggest students draw a sketch in their books first to notate any
dimensions needed.
Exercise 21G (F) / 22G (H)
• Q1–3 (F) / Q1–3 (H) Where is a bearing always read from?
North.
• How many digits should a bearing always have?
Three.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) Can you sketch the bearings given and see if you can identify how the second bearing you are looking
for is connected to the first?
Suggest students extend the lines to see the parallel lines.

• Students could be given a starting point on a blank sheet of paper and asked to apply a series of movements given
by instructions using bearings. The students can then ‘connect the dots’ to form a picture that could be self-checked
using a transparent overlay.
• NRICH Where Am I? is an opportunity to visit Chapter 32 (F) / 34 (H) through scale drawings. Students have to find
out where in the UK the market square is given the clues. You could give students a variety of maps to work with to
give them practice of different scales; you may even wish to give them a map with no scale and a single distance for
them to calculate the scale from. (nrich.maths.org)

• Students are given a plan on an A4 sheet of paper and are required to create this plan on a field with the correct
dimensions using cones as markers. Alternatively, students are required to make scale drawings of the classroom or
rooms in their own homes. Students can then share their plans and compare with their own to assess if the correct
scales have been used. For instance, one student has a table that takes up twice as much space as another student’s
table. Why is that? Are they using different scales or has something gone wrong?
• Another personalised way for students to work with scale drawings is to supply them with a series of maps of
their local area with different scales. They can then compare the scales given for an area they know and gain an
understanding of why scale drawings are needed.
• Students could investigate and form their own conclusions about bearings on line segments and revisit angle facts,
from Chapter 9, to create proofs of the patterns they spot.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• There is scope to revisit Chapter 32 (F) / 34 (H) by working on a series of loci problems where the image is drawn
to scale. In addition, angle facts based on parallel lines, from Chapter 9, can be explored again in this section with
bearings.
Future learning
• Conversion of metric units will be required in Chapter 10, Chapter 11 and Chapter 23 (F) / 24 (H).
• Students will use what they have learnt about average speed again in Chapter 29 (F) / 30 (H). Scale factors will come
up again in Chapter 33 (F) / 35 (H).
• There are opportunities to check students’ accuracy of measurement by revisiting some of the final problems of the
chapter (and similar scale problems) by applying new conceptual knowledge relating to right-angled triangles.
Gateway to A-level
• There are few direct links to this topic in the core part of the A-level course but an understanding of scale and
accuracy will be needed for applied problems as well as an ability to convert units fluently.
• In Mechanics, students continue to work with compound measures and build upon their knowledge of speed,
velocity and pressure.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes

22F / 23H Formulae

• The order in which mathematical operations are processed, i.e. BIDMAS.

1
• Common formulae used in mathematics and science, for example A = base × perpendicular height.
2
• The meaning of an unknown, variable and constant.
• The difference between an expression and an equation.
• Fluency in algebraic manipulation: simplifying, substitution, expanding, factorising and solving.
• Know what a ‘coefficient’ is.
• Number work including operating with negative number, rounding and working with fractions.
• Calculator skills. For example, the use of extra brackets in calculations to force your calculator to do the correct
calculations.
• (Higher only) Formulae relating to physical events, for example, the equations of motion.
• Substitution into trigonometric functions.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To be able to write formulae to represent real life • To be able to write formulae to represent real life
contexts. contexts.
Section 2 Section 2
• To be able to substitute numerical values into formulae. • To be able to substitute numerical values into
formulae.
• To be able to use formulae from the topic of kinematics.
• To be able to use formulae from the topic of
kinematics.
Section 3 Section 3
• To be able to rearrange formulae to change the subject. • To be able to rearrange formulae to change the
subject.
Section 4 Section 4
• To be able to work with formulae in a variety of • To be able to work with formulae in a variety of
contexts. contexts.
Vocabulary
• Formula, subject, substitute, evaluate.
• Algebraic manipulation is a major part of this chapter and all the misconceptions associated with Chapter 7 and
Chapter 16 are relevant here.

22F / 23H Formulae
• Students cancel factors instead of terms. Higher tier students’ are required to have strong skills in operating with
fractions. A well-chosen starter with addition, subtraction and simplifying algebraic fractions questions will help to
draw out any issues so that key points can be addressed before starting this chapter.
• Confusing the variables in a formula with any constants present.
For example when working with p. To address this you could identify the constants and variables for each formula
you use before working with the formula. This would fit into section 2, which looks at substituting into formulae.
• When changing the subject of a formula students sometimes simply swap the letter they have as the current
subject with the one they wish to change to.
To address this misconception you could ask them to try values in the original formula and then in the new formula
to see that this will not work. A good formula to test this with is the formula for converting between degrees Celsius
and degrees Fahrenheit.
• Not knowing what a variable is and an unwillingness to substitute different values into the formula.
To look at this you could go back to the idea of a ‘function machine’, where different inputs are selected and this
gives different outputs. That is, if you vary the input, the output varies.
• ‘It is an equation, so it can be solved’
This can cause students problems because sometimes after substituting numerical values into a formula they may
need to solve the equation they have formed, so that they can find what value the variable must take when given the
numerical values of the other variables. These problems could be resolved by using the terminology clearly: solve
equations that have one variable but rearrange a formula that has more than one variable.
Hooks
The use of formulae in the everyday world is prolific. From the useful formulae used to calculate speed, the energy of a
particle right through to the less useful formulae about the best way to make perfect cheese on toast
(independent.co.uk) or to win the World Cup. (aperiodical.com)
SECTION 1F / 1H: WRITING FORMULAE
Section 1 introduces the idea of creating a formula for a given situation. This is a section in which you could make
reference back to the ‘hooks’ section above. This section for foundation students will require them to read and
understand the sentence first. This may prove challenging for some students. For example ‘y is three less than x’
may cause confusion from a literary point of view (see questions below for possible questions). (Higher only) Higher
students will be required to construct some formulae they are familiar with and will also need to read.
Prompting questions
• Q2 (F) We could start by identifying what each of the variables is for. How could we present this on the page to help
us construct a formula?
Maybe a word equation first could be useful before replacing the words by letters.
• Q4 (F) If ‘y is three less than x’ can you construct a numerical example with y =... and x =... ?
If y = 10 then x = 13. So y = x − 3.
• If we have a context we are familiar with, for example the area of a triangle, we should write down what we know
first. What information is given in the question? How can we organise this on the page?
This will be context based but noting down the information as it is read is a useful way to draw out and record the
variables for the question.
• Q2 (H) Where have we needed to use this information before? What question did we use it to solve?
This question has scope for recapping and revisiting questions that use each of the formulae.


• Variants of the questions from Exercise 22A (F) / 23A (H) could be used to start or review content of a lesson.
• An exchange rates activity where students are required to form formulae to change between different currencies.
This can also form part of an ICT lesson where the students use a spreadsheet to accomplish this.
• This section could be linked with Chapter 39 (H) using NRICH ‘How Do You React?’. The students are required to
come up with their own formula for this situation. (nrich.maths.org)
• Links can be made back to section 2 using NRICH ‘Making Maths: Make a Pendulum’ and an investigation where
you drop an object from varying heights and find the time taken to fall. This data can then be plotted and students
could come up with a formula to describe this situation.
SECTION 2F / 2H: SUBSTITUTING VALUES INTO FORMULAE
Section 2 formally introduces the idea of substituting into a formula. Students will, however, be familiar with what a
formula is and will have examples of formulae they have used (which is a nice way to start off a sequence of lessons
on this topic). It is important in this section to emphasise the key vocabulary, particularly ‘evaluate’. The ‘Work it out’
question is a nice way to assess what misconceptions will be present; specifically, the misconceptions that have been
highlighted in Chapter 7 and Chapter 16. Exercise 22B (F) / 23B (H) allows for consolidation of this introduction.
Prompting questions
Whilst working through the ‘Work it out’ exercise, good prompts for students might be:
• In what order do we do the operations?
BIDMAS
• How can we work out from the formula what the units of the answer should be?
u is a velocity and at also gives a velocity, so our answer is a velocity.
• How could we set this calculation out on the page?
Write down the list of variables and equate them to any numerical values you know. Then substitute the values in and
evaluate the formula to find the final velocity of the body.
• Q3 (F) This question could be used to reinforce some of the formulae the students are required to learn: when would
you use the formula in part e?
The volume of a cylinder.
• Q5–7 (F) These questions are all in a context and thus you could ask: What units is your answer going to be in? How
can we tell?
• What are the common errors made when substituting values into a formula?
Ignoring BIDMAS and the rules of negative numbers.
• Q13 (H) This question is based on a pendulum and a question you may ask is ‘how can we tell what the units must be
for the subject of this formula given the calculation we need to do?’
2p is dimensionless but length is in metres and acceleration due to gravity is measured in metres per second squared.
We therefore have the square root of m ÷ m/s2 which equals seconds squared. This is called dimensional analysis and is
used by engineers and scientists.

Starters
• (Higher only) Before using Exercise 23B (H) Q12 you could use NRICH ‘Making Maths: Make a Pendulum’ to
investigate what happens to the time for one complete swing when you change the length of the pendulum. This

22F / 23H Formulae
activity then provides a way to evaluate their experiment by using the formula given in Q12 and the students could
make suggestions for why the times may be different. (nrich.maths.org)
• This section provides scope for embedding some investigations to discover a mathematical formula for a specific
situation. One such activity that can work well for both foundation and higher students is NRICH ‘Pick’s Theorem’.
Dotted square paper is required and you can control the level of difficulty by restricting what your students look at,
for example how many shapes can be described with four dots in their perimeter and none in their interior. What are
the areas of these shapes? (nrich.maths.org)
• A simple substitution game based on the idea of a flow chart with different formulae at each stage but requiring the
answer from the previous stage will give a fluency exercise but without having to repeat the style of question 1.
SECTION 3F / 3H: CHANGING THE SUBJECT OF A FORMULA
Section 3 introduces the idea that you may not always want the formula in the form you are given. There are times
when you wish to rearrange a formula to make one of the other variables the subject. This section may give rise to the
misconception that you can ‘solve a formula’, so any statements that draw on the similarities with solving equations
should be carefully stated. However, when looking at numerical values, if you choose to not change the subject of the
formula but instead substitute numerical values in first, you will be solving an equation to find the value of the variable
that is not given.
Prompting questions
Whilst working through this section, good prompts for promoting discussion may be:
• How can you set out your changing of the subject of your formula on your page?
You need to make sure you are clear about what algebraic manipulation you are doing to your formula at each stage.
Setting it out as in the example in the book is helpful.
• How can you check to see if you have correctly rearranged your formula?
You could substitute some values in.
• How can you correctly determine the units for your answer?
Context of the question (F) or dimensional analysis (H).
• (Higher only) What algebraic manipulation will you need to do if you have several occurrences of the variable you
wish to change the subject of your formula to?
Need to expand, collect the variable you require and then factorise that variable out to only leave one occurrence of it.
• Q1–2 (F) / Q2 (H) How can we set these questions out on the page to help when we perform our algebraic
manipulation?
We can look at the mathematical processes that are required in each part and then find the opposite mathematical
process required.
• Q12 (H) How can we approach this question?
We could substitute the values and then solve the equation for L or we could rearrange the formula to make L the
subject and then substitute the values in.

• Exercise 22C (F) Q1 would work well as a starter or as a plenary.
• Have a sheet of incorrectly rearranged formulae on and the students need to spot the errors and correct them.
• This section could be used to recap or revisit rearranging a quadratic equation to make x the subject. Useful
resources can be found at NRICH ‘Proof Sorter - Quadratic Equation’. (nrich.maths.org)

Assessment ideas
• The use of mini whiteboards for a short assessment task on this topic may prove useful, for example a slideshow
where a formula is flashed up and students must change it to the required subject.
• The same idea can be extended to revise substitution after rearranging by constructing a relay where the previous
answers are used to calculate the next as they work through ten different types of formula. This activity can work
well to reinforce their calculator skills and knowledge of rounding if you include non-exact answers at some stages.
SECTION 4F / 4H: WORKING WITH FORMULAE
Section 4 now applies all the skills gained in this chapter on formulae. The students can consolidate their knowledge of
formulae using the common formulae they will need to remember for their examination. The questions cover a range
of topics including Fahrenheit/Celsius conversion, perimeter, area, surface area, Pythagoras’ theorem, volume and the
trigonometric functions.
(Higher only) This section introduces the idea of further formulae that are used in Mathematics; a specific example
of a recurrence relation is given. Exercise 22D (F) / 3D (H) offers a range of formula-related problems that require an
additional process to occur.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Can you answer these questions without looking at the formulae above?
• How should we set out these questions on our page?
It is a good idea to record the variables you have, if you have a numerical value for them and the formula you can use.
You may then need to rearrange your formula. It is then a good idea to substitute the values into your formula first
before evaluating it.
• Q2 (H) Where have we seen questions like this before?
This question has scope for recapping and revisiting questions that use each of the formulae we form.

• Exercise 22D (F) Q1 / 3D (H) Q1 could be turned into a starter or plenary activity.
• Making connections to other areas of mathematics for the use of formulae is hugely important, since a formula has
no meaning unless each of the variables has a context. You could use a space in your classroom for a board dedicated
to formulae and their use. Each pair of students gets a formula that they must remember. They are then required
to provide an example using the formula, work out a good way to remember the formula and know at least one
rearrangement of the formula. They then share their formulae with the class.
• (Higher only) Exploring recurrence relations can be a good way to consolidate the use of a formula and link back to a
topic the students have seen before in Chapter 18. The students can investigate the recurrence relation given before
Exercise D for different initial values of the variable Z0 and values of the constant c.
Assessment ideas
• Having the students construct a revision guide containing the formula they are required to remember and those that
they are required to use will aid their revision process.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Since this is a chapter on formulae it has connections with all areas of Mathematics where you are required
to calculate an answer given several inputs. During this chapter your students will be revisiting the process of
calculating areas, perimeters, volumes, solutions to quadratic equations, using trigonometric functions, Pythagoras’
theorem and equations of straight-line graphs.
22F / 23H Formulae
Future learning
• Work on substituting values into formulae links to material covered in Chapter 37 (F) on simple interest for
foundation students. Writing formulae relates, for higher students, to Chapter 40 (H). The kinematic formulae
introduced here (equations of motion) will be used in Chapter 29 (F)/ 30 (H).
• There are also transformations in Chapter 41 (H), which will introduce the new terminology: the formula that forms a
given curve is called a function and acts in the same way as a formula.
Gateway to A level
• Students looking further ahead will need to be fluent in their use of all the formulae mentioned in this chapter,
particularly those relating to equations of motion and calculus topics.
• A level students will be required to rearrange formulae with the variable appearing several times, for example,
rearrange a formula containing a quadratic term, say x2, to make x the subject.
• Further to this, recurrence relations will be tied together with different types of sequences where students will
be required to recognise more than one way of rearranging the subject to give a recurrence relation to employ
numerical methods.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
• 1 animated widget
Time-saving sheets
• Required formulae - Foundation

• Required formulae - Higher

23F / 24H Volume and surface area

• How to identify 3D objects from a description.

• How to calculate area and perimeter of 2D shapes.
• The definition and properties of 2D and 3D shapes.
• Application of Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate unknown lengths in right-angled triangles.
• Understand what it means for two shapes to be congruent.

• Units of measurement and metric conversions for lengths, area and volumes.
• How to form and solve equations with an unknown from a given text.
• How to use mathematical formulae; either to substitute first and solve for an unknown or to rearrange to change the
subject then substitute to calculate the value of the unknown.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• How to calculate the volume of prisms (including • How to calculate the volume of prisms (including
cylinders). cylinders).
• How to calculate the surface area of prisms (including • How to calculate the surface area of prisms
cylinders). (including cylinders).
Section 2 Section 2
• How to calculate the volume and surface area of a cone. • How to calculate the volume and surface area of a
cone.
• How to calculate the volume and surface area of a
sphere. • How to calculate the volume and surface area of a
sphere.
• How to calculate the volume and surface area of
composite 3D shapes. • How to calculate the volume and surface area of
composite 3D shapes.
Section 3 Section 3
• How to find the volume and surface area of a pyramid. • How to find the volume and surface area of a
pyramid.
Vocabulary
• Right prism
• Confusing the units for area and volume when calculating surface area.
When students have a 3D shape they are often in the mindset that they need to use a unit of volume. Encouraging
them to draw nets for each 3D shape they are required to find the surface area of will focus their attention on
calculating area so require units of area. Some weaker students find sketching a net and identifying and labelling
clearly the dimensions of each face on their net very challenging. For these students, rather than having the faces

joined in the net of the shape, it may be more helpful to have arrows coming out from the faces of the shape with a
sketch of each face and its dimensions, as shown in the example below.
Find the surface area of the cuboid
top and base
6 cm 60 cm2
5 cm 10 cm
10 cm
6 cm
sides
5 cm 30 cm2 5 cm 50 cm2
front and
back
Total surface area:
6 cm 10 cm 2 (60 50 30) 280 cm2
• For triangular prisms some students will still not use the perpendicular height of the face triangle to calculate
the area of the cross-section (when given the slant height).
A series of starters where the students are required to calculate the area of different 2D shapes with varying amounts
of information on the diagrams will give them the opportunity to think about what pieces of information they
need for each calculation they want to perform. In addition students often treat all three rectangle sides as equal,
particularly for isosceles cross-section prisms – a way to help them spot this is to suggest they make a net using the
dimensions they have used to calculate the surface area.
• When calculating with cones students often get confused with slant height and perpendicular height, since the
first is used in surface area calculations and the second when calculating volume.
To address this, the students can create physical examples of cones that are labelled so that the students can unravel
them. The slant height label is present on the unravelled cone whilst the perpendicular height can no longer be seen.
This should help to make the connection that the slant height is needed, but only for direct calculation of the surface
area.
• For a sphere, students often get confused about the formula they need to use for surface area and volume.
Having a matching activity that has the formulae for volume and surface area for each of the 3D solids they need
and pictures of each solid with the title ‘surface area’ or ‘volume’ can be repeatedly used as a starter to increase
familiarity with the correct formulae.
• Students struggle to keep track of all the information for each component solid.
This requires good book keeping. Students can, in general, identify good places to split composite solids up but
having a table to collect all the information for the volume and surface area calculations for each component solid is
a useful way to address this issue.
• When calculating solid shapes that have been cut, for example a hemisphere, students sometimes forget to
add in the cut surface in the surface area calculations.
In the same way that students often forget to include both radii in the perimeter of a circle sector. To tackle this
problem you could have a series of solid shapes that you slice to create new solids and ask what 2D shape is formed
when we make the cut and what contribution will this make to a surface area calculation for the new solid.
Hooks
• You may like to start a discussion on area with a packet of biscuits, using biscuits that are roughly one centimetre
thick. Students first calculate the area of the cross-section of their biscuit and then can discuss how many cubes
would fit inside it and how they could describe the packet. Having roughly cm thick biscuits makes it a simple
calculation to multiply the biscuit area by the number of biscuits in the packet to calculate the volume and,
if students always consider volume to be broken up into these equally sized slices, the biscuit analogy can be
recounted throughout volume problems.

• Acquiring 3D shapes with the same cross-section area and depth that can be filled (with either sand or water) is a
nice way to get students thinking about connections between the volume of pyramids and prisms. There are many
animations that can be found online to show this but it is much more fun to watch students guess how full the prism
will be when pouring in the sand/water from the pyramid.
SECTION 1F / 1H: PRISMS AND CYLINDERS
Section 1 focuses on calculating volume and surface area of prisms and cylinders. The section opens with identifying
what prisms the students will meet in the section and goes on to state how to calculate the volume for any prism. What
follows is how to calculate the surface area of each prism and then the section finishes with a section on rearranging
formulae and ‘other prisms’.
The second topic of the section, cylinders, is then explored starting with calculating the surface area of a cylinder from
its net. The worked example following this opening gives the formula for calculating the volume of a cylinder.
(Foundation only) The problem-solving framework gives a detailed breakdown of how to answer an extended problem
involving surface area and volume for a given question.
Prompting questions
• What objects in the room are prisms? What makes them a prism?
They have two parallel and congruent polygons end faces and a uniform cross-section.
• What does it mean for one side to be perpendicular to another?
The two sides are at right angles to each other.
• What units do we use for volume?
Our units are cubed.
• What are the units for area?
Our units are squared.
• How can we identify the cross-section shape for calculating the volume of our prism?
If we have a prism, we are looking for two end faces that are congruent polygons.
• Do all cylinders have the same sketch of a net?
Yes, the only lengths that change will be the radius (which will in turn change the circumference of the end faces) and
the height of the cylinder.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) What does the net of each of these 3D shapes look like?
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) How do we calculate volume of a rectangular prism?
We find the area of any rectangular face and multiply by the third length given.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) How do we calculate the volume of any square prism?
Given the area of the square cross-section (found by squaring the side length) we then multiply by the depth.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) Can we draw a sketch to help?
We have a rectangular prism.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) How do we calculate the volume of a triangular prism? What is the area of the cross-sectional face?
We have the area of the triangle multiplied by the prism length. We require a perpendicular height for the triangle face.
• Q7 (F) / Q12 (H) What do we wish to calculate here, is it a volume or an area?
We want the area of a rectangle.
• Q8 (F) / Q13 (H) What do the markings on the diagram tell us about the shape?
That the sides with the same type of markings are equal in length.
3
• Q7 (H) Can we sketch a picture of the filled tin to help?
4
• Q9 (F) What are the shapes we need to calculate the volume of?
A rectangular prism and a cylinder.

• Q8 (H) What is the net of this water tank?

It is a cylinder so it has the same net.
• Q9–10 (H) What 3D shape are we creating each time?
A cylinder.
• Q11 (H) What is the net of a cube?
It has six congruent squares.
• Q14–15 (H) What would a labelled diagram look like for this question?
Each side would be labelled with by one of the lengths given.

Starters
• Guess the shape. Given a solid, students are required to find the 3D shapes that make up this composite 3D shape.
Once they have identified all the basic 3D shapes in the composite shape, you can ask them ‘what would be the
minimum amount of side length information you would need to calculate a: volume, b: surface area?’.
• A calculation for surface area of a 3D shape is displayed on the board, but some of the calculation is missing or
incorrect. The students must identify which parts of the solution are correct and what additional material is needed
for each question.
Plenaries
• A matching activity where the students identify which volume formula to use with which 3D shape that is displayed.
• NRICH Cuboids gives students a chance to experiment with how surface area changes when you change certain
dimensions of the 3D shape. This activity is best used with a points system for students finding cuboids with surface
area around the 100 square units goal. (nrich.maths.org)
• Dan Meyer has an activity called Popcorn Picker based on creating two possible tubes from a piece of A4 paper,
one where you roll the paper up from landscape, the other from portrait. His question is: which tube gives you more
popcorn? This is an excellent start in to an investigation about maximizing volume given the minimum surface area,
which can follow on from maximizing area given a set perimeter. (threeacts.mrmeyer.com)
• Another Dan Meyer creation called Dandy Candies and is an excellent task for weaker students as it focuses on
cuboids only and the candies here are represented by cubes (24 of them so a good set of factors and a possible
chance to revisit some number work at the same time). There are opportunities for thinking about the shapes that
minimise surface area given a set volume by exploring other numbers of candies. If you wanted to simplify the task
you could remove the ribbon from the calculations. (101qs.com)
Assessment ideas
• Students design their own ‘exam style question’ for calculating the surface area or volume of a prism or cylinder.
They then swap with another student who tries their question. The students then come together to mark what they
have done and suggest changes to either the question or to how the student answered it. These can be collected and
used for revision purposes later.
SECTION 2F / 2H: CONES AND SPHERES
Section 2 focuses on cones and spheres. The formulae for volume and surface area of a cone are introduced and a link is
made with earlier material on Pythagoras’ theorem (Higher only). A problem-solving framework for a practical question
on the volume of a cone is provided.
The middle part of the section is devoted to spheres. The formulae for the volume and surface area of a sphere are given
along with a worked example.
The final part of the section looks at composite solids and how students can go about breaking the composite solid up
to calculate volume and surface area.

Prompting questions
• What is the difference between the slant height and perpendicular height of a cone?
The slant height is the slope of the cone, whilst the perpendicular height is the distance between the centre of the base
and the apex of the cone.
• When would we use the slant height of a cone?
To calculate the surface area of a cone.
• When would we use the perpendicular height of a cone?
To calculate the volume of a cone.
• How do we define a sphere?
We use the radius r and it is the 3D loci of points that are r distance away from a given centre.
• What are the differences between the surface area formula and the volume formula for a sphere?
4
The volume formula requires of the calculated value involving r3 (a length multiplied by itself three times) whilst the
3
surface area formula requires four lots of the calculated value involving r2 (a length multiplied by itself twice).
• How can you decide if you have included all the solids in your surface area or volume calculation for a composite
solid?
You must first decide what 3D shapes you can split your composite solid into. Next you can calculate the surface area
and/or volume for each component. Finally, you need to decide which parts of the surface area calculation need to be
included for each component. A table is a good way to display all this information, as given in the worked example.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How do we find the perpendicular height of a cone given the radius and slant height? How do we find
the slant height of a cone given the radius and perpendicular height?
We can use our knowledge of Pythagoras’ theorem on the displayed right-angled triangles.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Using the value of π given by your calculator, what are we assuming the shape of the moon to be?
A sphere.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) What formulae will we need for each and what will the units be?
We will need the formula for the surface area of a sphere and require the square of the given units.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) What other piece of information do we require here and can we calculate it?
We require the perpendicular height of each cone and can use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate it for each cone.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) Can we draw a sketch to help display the information given? What pieces of information do we need
to calculate for this question?
The radius and the perpendicular height.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How can we break up each of the composite solids?
Both solids have rectangular prisms, but b also has half of a cylinder attached.
• Q2 (F) How can we break each of these shapes up into solids we know how to calculate the volume of?
The shapes are made up of prisms and cylinders.
• Q3 (F) What parts will make up the surface area of the hemisphere?
We have half the surface area of the sphere plus the area of the circle where the cut was made.
• Q3 (H) How is the capsule formed?
Two hemispheres and a cylinder.
• Q4 (H) How could we calculate the volume of this composite solid?
Either, you can form the separate prism and cylinder and calculate their volumes or use the prism like structure that the
composite solid has. Calculate the area of the face (which is needed for the surface area calculation) and multiply by the
length of the water tank.

• Q5 (H) Will the surface area of the cut shapes be greater or less than the original uncut metal blocks?
They will have a greater surface area, since we have now exposed some of the interior of the blocks.
• Q6 (H) What are the solids making up this composite solid?
There is a rectangular prism and a triangular prism. We could also calculate the cross sectional area of the trapezoidal
prism that is given in the picture.
• Q7 (H) Can we form a picture to identify which lengths we require to calculate the volume?
• Q8 (H) What type of prism do we have?
A trapezoidal prism, thus our cross-section is a trapezium.
• Q9 (H) What would the headings of our table be?
We need the radius and perpendicular height for each solid.

Starters
• Prism or not a prism? A game to round up or recap what the definition of a prism is. Various 3D shapes are displayed
and the students must determine if it is a prism or not. An extension to this would be to include dimensions on the 3D
shapes and also ask if they can calculate the surface area and volume.
Plenaries
• Give a variety of 3D solids on the board and ask the students to combine them to form a composite solid. Lengths are
then added to the sides and the students must calculate the volume and surface area of the composite solid.
• (Higher only) Q8 in Exercise 24C (H) could form the basis of a class activity. Possible dimensions could be collected
on the board as a class.
Assessment ideas
• The plenary described above can be turned into a peer assessment activity where pairs of students design a
composite shape each and then exchange shapes to find the surface area and volume for their new shape.
SECTION 3F / 3H: PYRAMIDS
Section 3 focuses on the volume and surface area of a pyramid and gives a worked example for calculating these.
Prompting questions
Whilst working through this section, good prompts to promote discussion might be:
• What makes a 3D solid a pyramid?
A pyramid has a base given by a polygon and each vertex of the polygon is connected by an edge to a single point above
the base polygon.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How do we calculate the area of the base triangle?
We need the length of one of the edges multiplied by the ‘perpendicular’ height in the base triangle.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What units will the volume of the pyramid be in?
m3
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) Can we draw a sketch for each pyramid?
• Q5 (F) / Q6 (H) How did you calculate the volume of the triangular-based pyramid in question 4?
• Q6 (F) / Q8 (H) What are the components of this composite solid?
We have a cuboid of height 3.0 m – 1.5 m, with a square based pyramid on the top.
• Q5 (H) Can we create a labelled diagram with this information?
• Q7 (H) What calculations have you performed to get your answer for part a?


• Have a worked solution for finding the surface area and volume of a pyramid, however this solution has errors and
parts missing from it. The students mark this worked solution highlighting errors and missed information. They then
share what they have found as a class.
• Taking Exercise 24D Q6 (F) / 24D Q8 (H) as a base and extending to find the approximate volume of stone used to
construct an Egyptian city. Your students could design their own city and calculate the volume and surface area of
each of their buildings.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Chapter 8, Chapter 21 (F) / 22 (H), Chapter 10, Chapter 11 and Chapter 20 (F) / 21 (H) all feed into this chapter and
the ideas for each chapter are used in this chapter extensively. Students may want to revisit Chapter 11, Exercise 11E,
where nets are given to calculate areas but not constructed to give a solid. The natural question would be ‘what is the
volume of each of the solids formed from the nets in Exercise 11E (if they close up)?’
• You may also want to revisit the ideas from Chapter 7 and Chapter 16 with unknowns given for some of the lengths in
the solids.
Future learning
• Chapter 26 (F) / 27 (H) and Chapter 33 (F) / 35 (H) will use surface area and volume of solids to form a background for
questions that can be asked in those chapters.
• Having a strong base in the topic of surface area and volume of solids will remove any initial barriers students have to
any new topics and allow them to concentrate on this new material whilst consolidating old topics.
Gateway to A-level
• Students who will go on to A-level will need to be fluent with all the formulae for volume and surface area of 3D
solids met here. They will also see new ways to ‘discover’ some of the formulae they have met here under the topics
of integration and volume of revolution.
• In addition to this, A-level students will be required to form equations with unknown lengths connecting a solid of
given surface area but with a need to calculate the lengths that optimise the volume of the solid (differentiation).
• For mechanics students, this topic appears when calculating the centre of mass of an object and moments of inertia.
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 1 Questions 4, 5, 10 • Chapter 2 Questions 10, 11, 26, 27
• Chapter 2 Questions 12, 13, 14 • Chapter 4 Questions 2, 14

Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets
• Nets of common 3D solids

24F / 25H Further probability

• How to carry out the basic operations on fractions and decimals.

• Methods of multiplication, including larger numbers.
• Basic probability.
• Terminology of probability, especially events, outcomes, etc.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Construct and use representations (tables, tree • Construct and use representations (tables, tree
diagrams and Venn diagrams). diagrams and Venn diagrams).
• Use the language and notation of basic set theory. • Use the language and notation of basic set theory.
Section 2 Section 2
• Use the addition rule, including an understanding of • Calculate numbers of possible outcomes using the
mutually exclusive events. product rule for counting.
• Use the multiplication rule, including an understanding • Use the addition rule, including an understanding of
of independent events. mutually exclusive events.
• Use the multiplication rule, including an
understanding of independent events.
Section 3
• Use methods of conditional probability, including
questions phrased in the form ‘given that’.
Vocabulary
• Combined events, sample space, independent events, dependent events.
• It is always surprising how many students are unfamiliar with how a deck of cards is made up.
This lack of knowledge can prevent students accessing common probability questions.
• Similarly, it should be checked that students understand what the minimum score would be if two or more dice
are thrown.
• Students can sometimes assume that all events are equally likely.
Giving concrete examples should help dispel this misconception. For example, they may assume that it is equally
likely that it will be raining or sunny tomorrow. The best way to address this is to then ask students if there is more
chance of it being sunny or rainy in the desert or the rainforest. Or show different spinners with the numbers 1, 2, and
3 on them, but in different sized sectors… will it still be equally likely to land on each number? Of course, it is only
equally likely if the size of each sector is the same!

• Students are not always clear if an event is independent or conditional.

For example, given the question ‘If a person takes two yogurts out of the fridge, what is the probability that they will
both be the same flavour?’ It is worth checking that they understand that the first yogurt is not replaced.
Hooks
• Students could be challenged to beat the teacher at a dice game. The teacher needs a set of Efron’s dice, ideally in
four different colours (could be made with stickers on the faces). This special set of non-transitive dice mean it is
always possible for the teacher to have the advantage over a student, even if the student chooses which dice they are
going to use first.
• Similarly, a pair of Sicherman dice can be used against a pair of standard dice (mathworld.wolfram.com). The
students can challenge the teacher and choose which pair of dice they wish to use. Sicherman dice have different
numbers to a normal set of dice, but the odds of throwing every number is the same. Given the choice between a set
of Sicherman dice and a pair of normal dice, most students tend to go for the Sicherman dice as they assume they
have a higher chance of winning. A sample space diagram will be particularly useful to demonstrate that there is the
same chance of getting each number as a normal pair of dice.
SECTION 1F / 1H: COMBINED EVENTS
Section 1 introduces a variety of diagrams that can be helpful in structuring solutions to probability problems
involving combined events. Sample space (i.e. two-way) tables and tree diagrams will be familiar to many teachers
and students. Venn diagrams will be new to many, although most students will have seen them used in simple cases
for categorisation. Encouraging students to draw and shade diagrams will help them get to grips with some of the new
notation.
Prompting questions
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) If you doubled the number of red counters whilst keeping the number of blue and yellow the same
has the sample space changed?
No, since the sample space tells us only the possible outcomes not their probabilities.
• Q4 (F) Are you more likely to get two cards of the same colour or two cards of a different colour?
These are equally likely events.
• Compare this sample space to a sample space diagram for the toss of two coins. Also compare with the example
sample space for the roll of two dice; what are the similarities?
The sample space diagrams are all symmetrical.
• Q4 (H) Would a tree diagram still be effective if I tossed four coins? five coins?
They generally become too cluttered with more than about three events, especially if each event has many possible
outcomes.
• Q1b (F) / Q1b (H) What is n(A) + n(A′)?
The size of the universal set, i.e. n(x).
• What is n(B) + n(B′)?
The size of the universal set, i.e. n(x).
• Q4 (F) / Q3 (H) Nadia has seven pairs of high-heels, of which two are red. How could this new subset be represented
on the Venn diagram?
Will not overlap with the sports shoes, but will overlap with the red shoes.
• What is the probability of choosing a pair of high-heels that are not red?
5
20

• Work out the probability that a pair of shoes chosen at random from her shoe collection will be neither red nor
high-heeled.
9
20
• Work out the probability that a pair of shoes chosen at random from her shoe collection will be neither red nor
high-heeled nor sports shoes.
6
20
Exercise 24C (F)
• Q3 (F) Would a tree diagram still be effective if I tossed four coins? five coins?
They generally become too cluttered with more than about 3 events, especially if each event has many possible
outcomes.
• Q4 (F) At Christmas, customers are also offered ‘Merry Christmas’ wrapping paper, red ribbon and a choice of gold,
green or red gift tags. How many combinations are there now?
90
• What is the probability that a customer will choose ‘Merry Christmas’ paper with silver ribbon and a red gift tag.
1
90

Starters
• The ‘two dice horse game’ can be played by lining up 12 ‘horses’ (students) each with a number from 1 to 12. Two
dice are rolled and the numbers showing are added together. That horse moves forward one step. Ideally the
classroom tables are cleared to give a great demonstration that numbers ‘in the middle’ are more likely to come up.
Horse number 1 will never move. Before the ‘race’ students could predict the winner. Repeating the ‘race’ a second
time generally leads to significantly better predictions.
Plenaries
• After getting a student to draw their Venn diagram for one of the questions in Exercise 24B, others could be tasked
42
with, for example, ‘creating a question with the answer ’. (Where ‘42’ will need to be chosen to be the size of a
80
union/intersection/etc. of the student’s diagram and ‘80’ is the size of the universal set.)
• How can you remember that ∪ means union and ∩ means intersection?
• Students could determine the strategy for selecting one of Efron’s dice (described above) by constructing sample
space diagrams for each pairing of dice from the set of four.
• Can you construct a Venn diagram for three sets? Four sets? (Not including the universal set.)
• If you could move (but not remove or add to) the spots on a dice, then rolled it against a normal dice, are you more or
less likely to achieve the highest score? This is another activity that lends itself to sample space diagrams.
• NRICH Fixing the odds. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Constructing Venn diagrams from a question is generally the lengthy part, so projecting ready-drawn ones can allow
for quick assessment of students’ interpretation. For example, quick-fire questions that students complete on mini
whiteboards (‘what is the probability that a person eats only chicken?’).
SECTION 2F / 2H: THEORETICAL PROBABILITY OF COMBINED EVENTS
Section 2 introduces the idea of combinations of events, in particular by adding and multiplying probabilities. However,
for higher students, it first covers a method for calculating the number of possible outcomes using the ‘product rule for
counting’.

Prompting questions
Exercise 25C (H)
Whilst working through the exercise, a good prompt for students might be:
• Q5 (H) How does the answer change if you are only allowed to choose different fillings?
Number of possibilities decreases to 336.
Exercise 24D (F)
• Q3 (F) If you swap the yellow marble from the first box with the red marble from the second box. How will this affect
the probability tree? What is the probability of choosing two red marbles now?
Impossible.
• What is the probability of choosing a yellow and a blue marble now?
1
9
• Q5 (F) Without adding to the tree diagram, can you work out the probability of getting at least one king if you draw
four cards? Are you more or less likely to get at least one king if you draw a card four times rather than one time?
More likely; the more times you repeat the experiment, the more likely it will be to get at least one king.
Exercise 25D (H)
• Q1 (H) Nico’s friend is on a different bus but amuses herself with the same game. She sees a road sign for LONDON.
1
What probability questions could have an answer of ?
2
P(O and N).
1
• ?
4
P(L and O) or P(D and O).
• Q3 (H) I take just the hearts out of the pack of cards and shuffle them. I then turn them over one by one. What is the
probability I turn over the ace, then the 2, then …, then 10, J, Q, K?
1 in 13 factorial, which is approx. 1 in 6 billion. Note that this is approximately the population of the planet, so if
everyone tried this trick once, probably only one person would succeed.
Exercise 24E (F)
• Q3 (F) Nico’s friend is on a different bus but amuses herself with the same game. She sees a road sign for LONDON.
1
What probability questions could have an answer of ?
2
P(O and N)
1
• ?
4
P(L and O) or P(D and O).
• Q5 (F) Which is more likely, getting the word ‘bad’ or the word ‘dab’?
Equally likely.
• What if another ‘A’ and/or another ‘D’ were added to the tiles, what is the probability of getting the words ‘cad’, ‘bad’
or ‘dad’ now?
The answer will depend on which combination of letters are added and which word is being considered.
• Q8 (F) What is the probability of getting either green or orange?
8 2
or .
20 5
• What is the probability of getting both green and orange?
1
20

Starters
• Project an image of a child’s stacking toy (rings that fit over a post that subsequently reduce in size). ‘My six-month-
old child managed to stack them correctly. Are they a child genius?’ Work through how many ways there are to select
the first ring, then the second, etc.
Plenaries
• You could pose as series of questions as set out below:
• Jake, what is the probability that it snows in your garden on Christmas day?
1
or any sensible fraction.
5
• Donna, what is the probability that it snows in your garden on Christmas day?
The same-ish.
• So what is the probability that it snows at Jake’s house AND Donna’s?
1 1
Expect × .
5 5
• Extend to more students, until you get the probability of the whole class of 30 students all having a snowy Christmas
1
day being stated as to the power 30, which is smaller than one in a quintillion. This is clearly wrong: so what has
5
gone wrong here?
The class will all live close to each other so the probability of snow falling in all the gardens is not independent.
• NRICH Same Number! (nrich.maths.org)
• Consider why the PIN used for bank and credit cards is four digits long.
• Consider the infinite monkey theorem. Forget the entire works of Shakespeare, what is the probability that the first
line of a Shakespeare play could be typed randomly? Or even the first word?
Assessment ideas
• Design a lottery game (how many numbers? how many must you match?) so that every one of the 50 million adults in
the UK could have their own distinct ticket.
• Exercise 25C (H) Q7 considers the number of different wraps that can be made. A simple internet search shows that
there are millions of different possible sandwiches that can be made at your favourite sandwich shops. Investigate −
is that correct?
SECTION 3H: CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
Section 3 focuses on conditional probability. Most higher students will find diagrams very helpful to structure their
work.
Prompting questions
• Why use a tree diagram for a question, rather than a Venn diagram? or vice-versa.
• What are the hints in the situation that suggest you use that diagram?
Exercise 25E (H)
• Q1 (H) How would you use your diagram to calculate the probability of one girl and one boy?
Need to calculate girl-then-boy and boy-then-girl and add them together.
• Q3 (H) If the probability of rain on Friday is 0.21, what is the probability of sun?
We cannot determine, as it can rain on a sunny day.


• The tree diagram activity, available from the TES website encourages students to match up pictures of boxes of
shapes, tree diagrams and probability statements that are partially complete. After matching the cards up, they need
to fill in the missing information. This activity promotes discussion about independent or conditional probabilities.
(tes.co.uk)
• NRICH One or Both is a short problem that really lends itself to using Venn diagrams and extending to ask ‘what
is the probability of randomly selecting a student who got both questions correct?’ The question ‘Can you make a
question like this of your own?’ at the end will promote interesting ideas from students. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Prize Giving and NRICH Louis’ Ice Cream Business. (nrich.maths.org)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• This topic provides good practice of operations with percentages, fractions and decimals. In particular practicing
non-calculator methods with fractions (e.g. cancelling before multiplication) could be encouraged.
• Consider the similarities and differences between frequency trees and probability trees.
Future learning
• Venn diagrams are often used when calculating highest common factors or lowest common multiples after the prime
factor decomposition of two or more numbers.
Gateway to A-level
• Combinations and permutations.

• Statistical techniques such as sampling and hypothesis testing.
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 1 Questions 11, 12, 21, 22 • Chapter 1 Questions 5, 6, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

25F / 26H Inequalities

• How to solve linear equations.

• (Foundation only) How to rank numbers in ascending or descending order.
• (Foundation only) How to use the rules for operations with negative numbers.
• (Higher only) How to solve quadratic equations.
• (Higher only) How to use linear graphs.
• (Higher only) How to factorise quadratic equations allowing quick sketches to be drawn.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Understanding and interpreting inequalities and using • Using the correct symbols to express inequalities.
the correct symbols to express inequalities.
Section 2 Section 2
• Using a number line to represent an inequality. • Using a number line and set notation to represent an
inequality.
Section 3 Section 3
• Solving linear inequalities in one variable and • Solving linear inequalities in one variable and
representing the solution set on a number line. representing the solution set on a number line and
in set notation.
Section 4 Section 4
• Solving problems involving inequalities. • Solving quadratic inequalities.
Section 5
• Solving (several) linear inequalities in two variables,
representing the solution set on a graph.
Vocabulary
• Inequality, number line

• (Higher only) Set, equalities
• When being asked to list integers that satisfy an inequality, students frequently leave out zero.
They should be told that integers are the whole numbers and their negatives, including zero. A large number line on
the wall may help to remind students of the existence of zero.
• Students may find it difficult to appreciate that −3 < x is the same as x > −3.
Reminding them that the x is on the ‘big’ side of the inequality sign should help.
• Many students struggle to remember whether they should ‘fill in the dot’ at the limits.
It may help them to remember that the more ink there is in the inequality sign, the more ink there is in the dot (i.e. ≤
has more ink than <).
• (Higher only) Students often find it difficult to work out which inequalities signs to use for the solution of a
quadratic inequality.
Remind students to keep the original inequality in their calculations until the point where they have a factorised
inequality of the form, for example (x + a)(x + b) > 0. At this point, it may be helpful for students to test a value of x
between a and b to determine which inequality sign is appropriate for each of the factors. Considering the graph may
also be helpful, as it visually demonstrates where the function changes from positive to negative (i.e. when crossing
the x-axis).
• (Higher only) As with ‘dots’ on number lines, when graphing linear inequalities many students easily forget
whether a line should be broken or solid.
Again, the idea of ‘more ink in the sign’ matching up to the line helps here: ≥ has more ink, so needs to be a solid line
(versus > and a broken line).
Hooks
• Get students to draw a first quadrant grid, with both axes going from 0 to 5. Give students the following instructions,
allowing time for them to mark off possible locations on their grid:
-- ‘My treasure is buried at a place with whole number coordinates’
-- The x- and y-coordinates add up to a prime number. How many possible places might be treasure be buried?
17 points on the lines x + y = 2, x + y = 3, x + y = 5, x + y = 7.
-- The x-coordinate is between 2 and 4.
Now nine possible points.
The y-coordinate is greater than 3. How many places might my treasure be buried?
Two at (2, 5) and (3, 4).
-- Give me a rule that would limit the locations to just one.
For example, the y-coordinate is 3 more than the x-coordinate (or y = 2x + 1, y > 5, x < 3, etc.)
SECTION 1F / 1H: EXPRESSING INEQUALITIES
Section 1 focuses on expressing inequalities using mathematical symbols, meaning addition and subtraction;
multiplication and division.
Prompting questions
While introducing the concept of inequalities, good prompts for promoting discussion may be:
• How are the inequalities x > 6 and x ≥ 6 different?
x ≥ 6 includes the number 6, whereas x > 6 does not.
• What numbers satisfy the inequality x > −3? −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3. Do these also satisfy –x < 3?
Yes! It is the same inequality.
• What happens to an inequality when you multiply or divide by a negative number?
The inequality sign changes. This can be shown by adding or subtracting the terms to swap them to the other side of the
inequality (i.e. moving the terms, rather than changing the symbol). For example, for –x < 3, add x to both sides to get
0 < x + 3, then subtract 3 from both sides to get −3 < x, which is the same as x > −3.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What has happened to the expression on the left side?
‘add 4.’
• Has the same happened to the right side?
Yes!
• Then what happens to the inequality sign?
It stays the same.

• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What happens when you multiply or divide by a negative number?
The inequality sign changes.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) What does the inequality symbol ≥ mean?
Greater than or equal to.
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) If you can only use integers or halves, how many values can x take?
9.
• Q8 (F) / Q8 (H) If 6 > x, what is the biggest whole number x could be?
5
• If x > 2, what is the smallest whole number x could be?
3

Starters
• Since solving linear inequalities relies heavily on the skills used in solving linear equations, students could start this
topic with some practice. To match up to the questions in the section, it would be useful for students to identify the
steps to ‘build’ an equation. For example, they could be given a ‘starting equation’ like x = 5, and need to identify the
steps necessary to turn the equation into 1 = 11 − 2x.
• Distribute numbers to each student (or ask them to write a number between, say, −20 and 20). Call out or display
inequalities and ask students to stand up if they have a number that satisfies the inequality given.
Plenaries
• Write an inequality on the board and ask students to come up with equivalent inequalities. For example with x > 4 on
the board, students could write x + 1 > 5, x − 6 > −2, −2x < −8.
• Give students a ‘starting inequality’ (e.g. x > 5) and a ‘finishing inequality’ (e.g. 9 < 2x − 1). Students should work out
what has happened to get from one to the other.
• NRICH Inequalities uses inequalities in the formulation of a problem involving marbles that can be solved by logical
thinking. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 2F / 2H: NUMBER LINES
Section 2 focuses on using number lines to illustrate inequalities. It is worth explaining to students that we only draw
the relevant section of the number line and the arrows at the end of the line show the line continues, so we aren’t
forgetting the rest of the numbers.
If an inequality is closed, meaning there is an upper and lower limit to the range, then a dot should be drawn on each
end. Students may find it helpful to think about it as having arrows pointing towards each other (originating from the
dots) but the second dot acts as a barrier to the arrow progressing.
The higher version of this section also introduces set notation. This should not be a challenging idea for students, but
may be unfamiliar and so will need a careful and precise introduction.
Prompting questions
1
• What could be a good scale for showing the inequality x > ?
2
1 1 1
0, 1, 2, 3, … with marked on, or 0, , 1 , 2, …. A scale of 0, 5, 10, 15, … would be inappropriate because it is difficult to
2 2 2
1
accurately mark on it.
2


• Q2 (F) Where are you going to draw the dot? Is it open or solid? Which way does the arrow point?
Answers will depend on which question part is being answered.
• Q3 (F) What is the lower limit of the inequality? What is the upper limit of the inequality? Are the dots open or solid?
Answers will depend on which question part is being answered.
• Q4a (F) Are there different ways we could write this inequality?
Yes, for example {x: 7 < x ≤ 11} or {x: 11 ≥ x > 7}.
• Would {x: 14 < 2x ≤ 22} also be valid?
Yes, but it would usually be best to write an inequality in its simplest form.
• Q4d (H) Which integers satisfy the inequality?
{−1, 0, 1, 2}

Starters
• The ‘Inequalities and paper hats’ activity available from ATM gets each member of the class to make a paper hat
and then write a distinct integer on it. The class line up in numerical order and then stand up or sit down based on a
particular inequality. This is a nice visual way to illustrate an inequality and feeds nicely into using number lines for
this purpose, especially for ‘double’ inequalities such as 7 < x ≤ 11. (atm.org.uk)
Plenaries
• The use of a number line for inequalities is a good opportunity to reinforce that real numbers all have a position
on the number line. Display a number line, say, for −4 ≤ x < 3. Then ask students whether these numbers satisfy the
8
inequality: x = 9 , x = 8 , x = (−2)2, x = −p, x = − , etc.
2
Assessment ideas
• Call out inequalities and ask students to draw a number line (or, (Higher only) use set notation) to represent them.
SECTION 3F / 3H: SOLVING INEQUALITIES
Section 3 focuses on solving linear inequalities. Students are encouraged to use the same methods that are used for
solving linear equations, but it is vital to reiterate the rules from section 1 involving multiplying and dividing by negative
numbers and swapping the sides of an inequality.
In ‘Worked Example 21.1 part c’, students must apply the same operation to all three sections of the inequality. Some
students may find it difficult to solve the problem in this way, so they could alternatively consider the question as two
separate inequalities and solve each of them separately before considering how they can reform to make the final
combined inequality solution, so solving 5 ≤ 3x + 4 and 3x + 4 ≤ 13 should lead to −3 ≤ x and x ≤ 3, which combine to make
−3 ≤ x ≤ 3.
The higher version of the section also includes solving word problems involving linear inequalities.
Prompting questions
• Q2m (F) How did you remove the fractions on both sides?
Multiply through by 2.
• What would you do if one fraction had 2 as a denominator and the other had 3?
Multiply through by 6.
• Q3b (F) Show that two ways of solving this inequality give the same result.
Get students to demonstrate dividing by negative 10 (and reversing the sign) versus adding 10x and subtracting 130.

• Q4a (F) Expand the brackets but write +2 rather than −2 when expanding the second bracket and ask ‘What have I
done wrong here?’
• Q9a (H) A student scored 20 marks on the second test. Is it possible for them to have passed?
No, since they would need 110 marks on test 1, which is impossible.

Starters
• A starter refreshing students’ memories of solving linear equations may be useful leading into this section. This could
be something as straightforward as a set of 5 linear equations, including questions with negative coefficients of x,
brackets, x terms on both sides of the equals sign and fractions. Negative coefficients (e.g. 5 − 2x = 7) can provide a
way into a productive discussion about methods of ‘dealing’ with the negative coefficient. (Some students will move
the −2x to the RHS, others will divide through by negative 2.)
Plenaries
• ‘Write five inequalities that all simplify to give x ≤ 3. At least one should have brackets, one should have a negative
coefficient of x.’
• Does the inequality 3 < x < −3 make sense?
No, there is no number that satisfies it: this is probably a poor combination of x < −3 and x > 3.
• Ask students to consider what values of x would satisfy a double inequality such as 6 < 5x + 3 < 15. Students can
approach this by using the same operation on each of the three sections simultaneously, for example subtract 3
3 12
leads to 3 < 5x < 12, then divide each section by 5 giving < x < . Alternatively students can break the problem
5 5
down into its two constituent inequalities: 6 < 5x + 3 and 5x + 3 < 15, which can be solved as previously outlined.
SECTION 4F / 4H WORKING WITH INEQUALITIES
At foundation level, section 4 focuses on working with inequalities and word problems. Students may struggle to
identify the inequality necessary to represent ‘at least’. By rephrasing this as ‘the same or more than’, students should be
able to recognise it is asking for values higher than the given number.
The higher version of section 4 focuses on quadratic inequalities. Students may find it helpful to sketch the graph for
each quadratic, noting where it cuts the x-axis and when the line is above/below the x-axis (i.e. where the answer to the
quadratic is positive or negative as required for the question).
Prompting questions
Exercise 25D (F)
• Q2 (F) What numbers are prime?
2, 3, 5, 7.
• Which of these numbers are even?
2 (This should go in the overlap of the ‘prime’ and ‘even’ circles).
• Which of the even numbers are square numbers?
4 (so this should go in the overlap of the ‘even’ and ‘square’ circles).
• Q3 (F) These questions require students to think carefully about how to write the inequalities before solving them.
They may need help to interpret the questions. For example in part d what happens first to a? And then what
happens?
3 is added, then it is multiplied by 2, so we write a + 3, then 2 lots of this is 2(a + 3).
• Q4 (F) What is 25% of £12?
£3.

• If this is how much you can save per hour, and you call the number of hours h, how can you write the total amount
saved?
3h. (This question could also be answered by considering if you want to save £75, then you would need to earn
£75 x 4 = £300, so the inequality could be written as 12h ≥ 300).
Exercise 26D (H)
• Q2b (H) Can we join the two inequalities x ≤ 2 and x ≥ 6 into a ‘double inequality’ e.g. 2 ≥ x ≥ 6?
No, because there is no number x that satisfies both inequalities.
• Q3d (H) What are the two x-axis intercepts for x(x + 3) = y?
It can be written as (x + 0)(x + 3) = y. The x-axis intercepts are at x = 0 and at x = −3.
• Q4d (H) How can you make the coefficient of x2 positive?
Multiply through by negative 1, but ensure the inequality sign is reversed giving x2 + 3x − 40 < 0.
• Q5 (H) What are the boundaries for each part of the inequality (i.e. where are the dots?) How can you write an
inequality for each section of the line?
For example a: x > 3, x < −2.

Starters
• Go through different ways of writing inequalities in words. For example, ‘at most’, ‘no more than’, ‘at least’, ‘more
than’, ‘fewer or less than’.
• Write some numbers on the board (lower than 100). Ask students to write down the numbers that are a: square
numbers, b: cube numbers, c: prime, and d: composite, etc.
Plenaries
• Have some worded examples for which students must decide whether solutions should be limited to integer values.
For example, ‘there must be more than 5 people for the training course to run’, ‘I hope to raise at least £5000 for
charity’ or ‘I want to lose at least 1 kg on my diet this week.’
SECTION 5H GRAPHING LINEAR INEQUALITIES
Section 5 (Higher only) focuses on graphing linear inequalities in two variables. This is the basis for linear
programming, in which a number of constraints can be graphed and the optimal solution discovered.
Prompting questions
Exercise 26E (H)
• Q1 (H) Is the line in part c ‘steeper’ or ‘shallower’ than that in part a?
1
Shallower since 2 is a smaller gradient than 1.
• Q3 (H) Which point did you test?
Students might be encouraged to choose points that are straightforward to substitute, for example the origin (0, 0) or (1,
1). However, they should avoid any points on the boundaries of shaded regions.
• Q6 (H) Is (8, 0) in the shaded region?
No, since the blue line is broken it doesn’t include the point.
• Q10 (H) Which points with integer coordinates are in the shaded region?
(3, −3), (4, −2), (5, −1), (6, 0), (5, −2), (4, −4), (3, −4), (4, −3).


Starters
• A review of how to efficiently sketch linear equations would be a good way into this topic. In particular, ensuring that
students don’t confuse x = 3 (vertical line) and y = 3 (horizontal line) is essential.
Plenaries
• Given three inequalities, students could compare the two approaches of a shading ‘in’ the region satisfied by each
inequality and b shading ‘out’ the region that does not satisfy the inequality. They can compare the relative merits of
each method.
• Students could investigate simple linear programming problems that use graphical representations of inequalities.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• This topic relies heavily on skills learnt in previous topics. Most notably, students should be secure in their ability to
solve and draw linear equations. These methods were covered in Chapter 7 and Chapter 16.
Future learning
Gateway to A-level
• Linear programming extends the work on graphing linear inequalities to find optimal solutions given a number of
constraints.
• Inequalities feature in many A-level questions and quadratic inequalities have much greater prominence.
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 2 Question15 • Chapter 6 Question 16
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

26F / 27H Ratio
26F / 27H Ratio

• How to divide quantities using efficient methods.

• That multiplication is a more efficient form of repeated addition.
• The multiplication tables and how to apply them.
• How to write one amount as a fraction of another.
• How to identify highest common factors.
• That multiplication is commutative.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To use ratio notation to write ratios for diagrams and • To use ratio notation to write ratios for diagrams and
word statements and to simplify ratios. word statements and to simplify ratios.
Section 2 Section 2
• To divide a quantity into two or more parts given a • To divide a quantity into two or more parts given
specified ratio and to specify the division of quantities a specified ratio and to specify the division of
into parts as a ratio. quantities into parts as a ratio.
Section 3 Section 3
• To use a unitary method to solve ratio and proportion • To use a unitary method to solve ratio and
problems and relate ratios to fractions and linear proportion problems and relate ratios to fractions
functions in order to solve problems, including real-life and linear functions in order to solve problems,
ones such as conversions and scaling. including real-life ones such as conversions and
scaling.
Vocabulary
• Ratio, proportion, equivalent
• Students may fail to see a difference between the ratios m : n and n : m

They don’t realise that the order in which the ratio is written affects how the quantities are shared. Ensure you make
it clear that order is important. Use visual prompts to help address this, for example, 4 : 5 red to green couldn’t have
4 green and 5 red items.
• Students sometimes think that m ÷ n is the same as m : n; this can often be seen in representations of probability
1
where for example students might try to writing a probability of as 1 : 4. It is important to draw this out through
4
discussion; reviewing the definitions of ratio and proportion provided in the chapter could be an effective way of
establishing the students’ current understanding and dealing with this misconception. To further develop this, ask
students to write the fractions of shaded squares in the diagrams for Exercise 26A Q2 and Q3 (F) and compare these
to the ratios they have identified.
• The multiplicative nature of ratio is not always understood and students may think that n : m is equivalent to
(n + 1) : (m + 1) since 1 has been added to both sides. Practical sharing activities in given ratios using counters can
quickly resolve this.

Hooks
• Math Snacks ‘Bad Date’. An entertaining way of portraying ratio through the proportion of words spoken by each
person on various ‘dates’. Search online for ‘maths snacks bad date animation’ to find the clip.
• (Foundation only) Sharing chocolate bars. Place one bar on one table at the front, two bars on the next and three
bars on the third. Invite students up in turn to choose where to stand for their share of chocolate. Be sure to ask each
student in turn why they have chosen that position and how many segments of chocolate will they receive, how have
things changed when another student has joined that table? NRICH Chocolate provides additional information and
prompting questions. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 1F / 1H: INTRODUCING RATIOS
Section 1 introduces writing related quantities in a ratio and simplifying and identifying equivalent ratios.
Prompting questions
• (Foundation only) Which would you prefer: a glass of squash with a ratio concentrate : water of 2 : 7 or 4 : 14?
Both the same strength as equivalent ratios.
• (Foundation only) Does 4 : 14 as opposed to 2 : 7 necessarily imply that I would get more squash?
No, as these are equivalent ratios; the ratio does not define the amount involved, simply the proportional share for each
part. However the quantity of squash may have increased due to a repeat sharing in the ratio of 2 : 7.
• Q3d (F) / Q3d (H) Suggest a different number of students on the trip that maximises the staff to student ratio and
changes the girls to boys ratio to 2 : 3. (36 : 54 since 9 staff could have 90 students maximum.)
• Q4–5 (F) / Q4–5 (H) Write the fractions for the proportion of shaded squares in each diagram and compare these to
the ratios .
5 1
4a 6 = 3 , b 4 = 1 , c = ; 5a
4 1
= ,b
6 1 ,c 6 2.
= =
16 8 12 3 15 3 16 4 12 2 15 5

• (Foundation only) For students who need extra help visualising ratio, the Interactive Teaching Program ‘Fractions’
from the Primary National Strategy can be helpful. (taw.org.uk)
• (Foundation only) NRICH Rod Ratios. Another interactive and visual tool to demonstrate ratio using Cuisenaire
rods. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Ratio Pairs is an interactive card match of equivalent ratios. (nrich.maths.org)
• The introduction to this section considers mixing paints and ensuring a consistency of shade through consistent
application of ratio. This could be demonstrated in a practical way using paints, food colouring or squash in order to
provide a visual and kinaesthetic demonstration to the textbook example. For example, to create a ‘Mocktail’ activity
can be very engaging.
Assessment ideas
• Depending on the starting point of your students, it may be useful to supplement the initial exercise with further
practice identifying equivalent ratios. Make a card matching pairs game or a Tarsia puzzle (this can be done using
free software available from mmlsoft) to link equivalent ratios. (There are many ready-made examples available on
the internet and the TES website has a good collection to choose from). (mmlsoft.com)
SECTION 2F / 2H: SHARING IN A GIVEN RATIO
This section focuses on solving problems where quantities are shared in a ratio with two or more parts.

26F / 27H Ratio
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Ask students to consider what fraction each share represents.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) Why do you think the question used 350 g for the amount of pastry?
Ratio parts add to 14, which is a factor, so convenient.
• Suggest another total mass of pastry that would also results in whole number answers for the separate ingredients
masses
Any multiple of 14.
• Q10 (F) / Q10 (H) I don’t like dried fruit so have removed this from the recipe, leaving the other ratios the same. How
much of each ingredient is needed now to make 600 g of tiffin? Why are the values no longer integers?
1 1
5 : 2 : 2 has 9 parts and 9 is not a factor of 600. Need 333 g of biscuit, 133 g of butter and also cocoa
3 3
• Ask students to group the questions in Exercise 26B into categories to identify similarities and differences. This
should provide a discussion starting point to draw out the key details of what each question is asking. Students often
find it difficult with ratio problems to spot this, and can easily fall into the trap of applying a procedural method
to every question, where they add up the ratio parts and divide by that to find one share, even when this is not
appropriate.

• Language of ratio cards, available from Teachit Maths (free pdf). This asks students to categorise the types of
question as simplifying, sharing in ratio or finding one quantity when others are known. It then provides additional
questions for practice. (teachitmaths.co.uk)
• (Foundation only) The Interactive resource ‘Thinking Blocks Ratio and Proportion’ available at Math Playground
as well as through the website, this uses the ‘box’ method referred to in the textbook for solving ratio problems.
(mathplayground.com)
• NRICH Mixing Paints and NRICH Mixing More Paints. These would build very well on the simple textbook example
given in section 1. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) NRICH Speeding Boats. A good investigation that students could work on in pairs or groups to
deepen their understanding of ratio and proportion.
• (Higher only) NRICH Escalator has similarities to ‘Speeding Boats’ above and could be used as an additional
activity. For both problems students may use a fraction approach rather than ratio so encouraging them to use ratio
notation for an alternative solution would be useful.
• (Foundation only) Using manipulatives such as counters is an effective way to represent sharing through ratio.
Considering Worked Example 1, students should quickly see that repeat sharing of 1, 3 and 4 will take a very long
time to achieve a grand total of 32 000. Ask them to consider the total number of counters after each additional
round of ‘dealing’ out the shares. Can they suggest a method of working out how many each person will have when
their total is 24, 32, 320, 3200, 32 000? Link the use of counters to the box method described in the chapter so that
students can see the worth of each counter is £4000. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Ratio and Proportion ‘Thoughts and Crosses’. A useful way of presenting differentiated material. Use a 3 × 3 grid with
easier questions in the first column and row, becoming increasingly difficult from left to right and top to bottom (you
could use questions from a range of the exercises in the student book as an alternative way of presenting them). The
students then have to play noughts and crosses to compete a row of questions to win.

SECTION 3F / 3H: COMPARING RATIOS
This section focuses on comparison of ratio using a unitary approach that links to conversion graphs and direct
proportion.
Prompting questions
• How could students use the graph showing inches converted to centimetres, to work out the number of centimetres
in 20 inches, 100 inches, 18 inches etc?
Since they are in direct proportion 20 inches is 2 × 10 inches so 2 × 25 cm = 50 cm. 100 inches = 10 × 10 inches = 10 × 25 cm
= 250 cm. 18 inches = 10 + 8 inches = 25 + 20 cm = 45 cm.
• Ask students what methods they have used as they could have many alternative suggestions to these.
Linking the graphs to what they already understand about the multiplicative nature of proportion is a concept students
often seem to struggle with.
• (Higher only) The section on the golden ratio mentions that the ratios of consecutive numbers in the Fibonacci
sequence tend towards the golden ratio as a limit.
Ask students to calculate the first few ratios to investigate this.
• Q3–4 (F) / Q3–4 (H) These questions are about conversion graphs. What other possible conversion graphs can the
students suggest?
For example, pounds to dollars, miles to kilometres etc.
• What would they need to know to plot these? What would the equations of the plotted graphs be?
Start encouraging students to make links between the ratio 1 : n and the linear function y = nx.
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) In this question we use the conversion 5 miles = 8 km. We could write this in a unitary way as 1 : n.
What would this be and can students explain why?
The graph in the chapter review would provide one method to help establish this.
• Without doing this, what operations do we need to use to convert miles to km and vice versa?
• In France, the speed limit on motorways changes for wet weather, from 130 km to 110 km (see illustration below).
Can you drive at 80 mph in dry weather or 70 mph in wet weather?
Yes then no: 80 mph = 120 km/h, 70 mph = 112 km/h.
• The ratio between our hands and wrist measurements are not the only ones that demonstrate the golden ratio.
Research the Marquardt Beauty Mask for further ideas.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) Is it possible to have a triangle with side length ratios 5 : 12 : 5? Can you explain why?
Would be isosceles, but the sum of the two short sides would not add to the longest therefore they wouldn’t join.
• Q8 (H) Can you express the ratio of the side lengths, and the relationship of the areas of the square algebraically?
3n : 3n + 1 for side lengths, giving areas of 9n2 : 9n2 + 6n + 1.

Starters
• The Number Loving website’s ‘Ratio and Proportion Mystery’. Students use clues to decide whether or not to buy a
cake, using ratio and proportion along with a little bit of surface area. This is a good activity for consolidation of the
topics in a real-life context. (numberloving.co.uk)
• Currency conversions are a good example of 1 : n ratios in real-life. Use an online currency converter to quickly
establish current conversion rates and ask students to use this to convert between currencies. You could give
students a list of items to purchase from different countries, along with the conversion rates (or ask them to research

26F / 27H Ratio
these themselves), and ask them what they would have to pay in local currency. A key question to ask here is if the
conversion is given as 1 : n, what do you do if the currency you have to convert is the ‘n’ value for example if British
Pound Sterling to Euros is 1 : 1.26, how can you convert from Euros to Pounds? (Without just changing the currency
converter!)
• NRICH Nutrition and Cycling. A set of information cards and questions to solve requiring ratio and proportion
calculations. This may be more appropriate for higher tier students due to the quantity of information provided but
the maths should be accessible for foundation students too. (nrich.maths.org)
• The section on the golden ratio mentions the link to art and architecture. You can obtain some useful images
showing artwork with rectangles illustrating the ratio at The Golden Number. These could be printed out for
students to analyse. (goldennumber.net)
• Improving Learning in Mathematics ‘Mostly Number - N6 Developing Proportional Reasoning’ available from the
• NRICH Golden Trail 1 is a collection of resources that lead students through a variety of examples where the golden
ratio can be found. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) Nuffield Foundation ‘Paper Sizes’ available from the National STEM Centre archive. An investigation
into the links between A and B paper sizes could encourage students to create their own graphs representing the
proportions they uncover. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
• (Higher only) NRICH Ratio and Dilutions is an activity that provides a practical cross-curricular link to chemistry to
help students connect their maths with other subjects. It has an interactive app that allows students to test out their
concentration calculations and extends the principle to using two dilutions. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Mixing Lemonade will help those students that have difficulty with the previous activity.
• ‘Best Buy’ calculations. Find some current examples of supermarket offers, for smaller and larger packets of
produce, and work out which offers the best value. Often this can demonstrate how some of the ‘Buy one get one
free’ type offers are not as good value as they may initially seem. (nrich.maths.org)
• Give your class a recipe project, where recipes have to be scaled for the required number of recipients (i.e. the recipe
is for 6 and they need 20). Use a shopping list with costs and quantities from a supermarket to ensure students order
sufficient ingredients, and calculate the total cost of making their recipe. (This can link to the ’Best Buy’ activity as
students could work out the cost per gram, etc. for ingredients and compare brands). Students could independently
research the information they require, or be given a prescribed list depending on your resources and time available.
They might consider total costs on just the ingredients they use, or from the package sizes they have to buy, which
then brings in calculations around wastage.
• Research and investigate the Penrose Tilings where proportions of the two tessellated rhombus tiles are in the
golden ratio.
• For an excellent range of prompting questions and consolidation, further practice or extension activities refer to the
booklet on ratio and proportion produced by Project Maths. (projectmaths.ie)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Identifying fractions from visual representations, and writing equivalent fractions.

• Finding fractions of quantities.
• Division into equal parts.

Future learning
• Direct and inverse proportion.

• Similarity and enlargement.
• Trigonometry and sine rule.
• Irrational numbers and surds (from the golden ratio).
Gateway to A-level
• Trigonometry and sine rule.

• Constant of proportionality – integration and solving differential equations.
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 6 Questions 6, 15, 16, 17 • Chapter 10 Question 7
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

27F / 28H Proportion

• How to work with numbers including extensive fractions work.

• How to write ratios and interpret them.
• How many minutes there are in fractions of an hour.
• How to perform a substitution into a formula.
• What a reciprocal is.
• (Higher only) How to square and square root numbers.
• How money works and different currencies.

• Clear understanding of speed, distance and time.
• Highest common factor and lowest common multiple.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To be able to use direct proportion to solve problems. • To be able to use direct proportion to solve
problems.
• To be able to use the unitary method to solve
proportion problems. • To be able to use the unitary method to solve
proportion problems.
Section 2 Section 2
• To be able to solve direct proportion questions • To be able to solve direct proportion questions
graphically. graphically.
• To be able to solve direct proportion questions using • To be able to solve direct proportion questions using
algebraic manipulation. algebraic manipulation.
Section 3 Section 3
• To be able to solve inverse proportion questions, based • To be able to solve direct proportion problems
1 involving the square or square root of a variable.
on y = .
x
Section 4
• To be able to solve inverse proportion questions,
1
based on y = .
x
Vocabulary
• Ratio, direct proportion, mathematical model, inverse proportion.

• Not knowing what a ratio is and how to use it.

Some students will still not be comfortable with what a ratio is and that it relates to multiplication or division rather
than addition or subtraction. To address this issue allow students to make the error (e.g. 3 : 4 is the same as 2 : 3) and
then show them pictorially that this does not make any sense.
• Not understanding that the constant of proportionality is the same for all parts of the question.
Providing a longer exam style question that requires them to keep using the constant they found in the first part
of the question can expose this misconception and you can then address it through questioning: ‘Is this the same
situation as in part a? What does this mean for our equation relating our two variables?’
• Confusion between the words ratio and proportion.
NRICH Ratio or proportion? discusses some of the misconceptions and issues surrounding these two words for KS3
and KS4 students. (Note: the article is written to increase awareness of the issues rather than to offer clarification to
students.) (nrich.maths.org)
• Rounding too early when using the unitary method.
This often occurs when students lack confidence in using fractions. Give an ‘example’ where the student rounded in
the first calculation leading to large errors in the final answer to demonstrate the effect rounding has.
• Concentration calculations.
Students can often get lost in the language used to set up a word problem for this use of proportionality. Looking at
the ‘proportion of each liquid used’ and the ‘ratio of the liquids in each container’ can get confusing. Having concrete
examples, where the students draw pictures to represent each situation will help the students to address this issue
over time.
Hooks
• Start with a times table, select a random part of it (e.g. the eighth term is 88 and the twelfth term is 132) and ask
students to find the first term and the fifth term. Follow this with the question ‘what is the relationship between the
term number and the value?’ This is something students will have seen before, but now we can use the terminology
of directly proportional and constant of proportionality.
• Take an example from the similarity chapter involving similar rectangles and ask ‘all these rectangles are similar; how
can we relate the length of each rectangle to the height?’
SECTION 1F / 1H: DIRECT PROPORTION
Section 1 focuses on direct proportion and problems that arise as a result of two qualities varying but remaining in the
same ratio.
Prompting questions
• What is a ratio?
A ratio is the relationship between two or more groups or amounts explaining how much bigger one is than another.
• Can you write down any ratios for the given situation?
General question for supporting students when making a start.
• Q6 (F) / Q5 (H) How can you use the ratio of £1.20 : 100 g to help find the weight of jelly beans you can buy with
100 100
£4.20? We can create a new ratio, for £0.01 : g and use a multiple of .
1.2 1.2
An alternative is that both 1.20 and 4.20 have a common factor of 0.60. Divide 1.20 by 2 and then multiply by 7 to get
4.20, and do the same to 100 g to find the weight. This method leads students to consider the highest common factor
aspect of the question.

An alternative is that both 1.20 and 4.20 have a common factor of 0.60. Divide 1.20 by 2 and then multiply by 7 to get
4.20, and do the same to 100 g to find the weight. This method leads students to consider the highest common factor
aspect of the question.
• Q7 (F) / Q6 (H) How can you compare the two calls for best value?
We need to find ratios for each situation with the same number of minutes to be able to compare the costs. The easiest
way is to find how much a one-minute call will cost each person.
• Q7 (H) How could you approach this question?
One strategy is to find out how much you can make based on 500 g of plain flour, since that is the easiest scaling to
start with.
• Why?
It is five times as much. Another strategy could be to work out which ingredient is the limiting factor.
• Q8 (F) You need to find the new amounts for different numbers of people, how can you do this efficiently?
Since we need to find a variety of different variations of the same recipe, we could find how much we need for one
person and then multiply by the number of people we need. We do need to be careful and should keep the amounts for
one person in the form of a fraction – do not round at this stage.
• Q9–10 (F) / Q8–9 (H) What are units of time in each case?
Prompting question to make students think about the material from Chapter 21, meaning that all units must be equal
when calculating with values.
• Q1 (F) How can you calculate pounds from the number of dollars?
If we know how many dollars one pound is, we can divide the given number of dollars by this number to calculate the
number of pounds.
• Q6 (F) / Q5 (H) (not the same question, but the same idea for each): What unit of volume would be useful to help
calculate the price per litre for each part?
If we look at the price of 250 ml, that is £18 ÷ 6 = £3 per 0.25 litres, we can then use this to help calculate the prices for the
other paint tins.
• Q9 (F) / Q8 (H) How can you use the graph to convert between pounds and Lev?
We could find the £10 on the axis, then move up in a straight line to the line on the graph and then read across to find
the number of Lev at that point. Dividing by 10 will then tell us the number of Lev in one pound.
• Q11 (F) / Q11 (H) What does the word ‘crowdedness’ mean?
It means the number of people found in a given amount of space.

• Collect the ratios: a set of cards containing ratios (each one having a matching card with an equivalent ratio) are
placed face down. The students reveal two cards at a time and must match pairs of equivalent ratios.
• A ‘fill in the table’ activity, where students are given a table, similar to Exercise 27A (F) Q8, with different amounts
of information filled in. For students requiring more help you could fill in all the rows for the first column, so eight
people. To make this more challenging you can fill in different parts of the table (not the first column, but random
cells in the table) and the students need to fill in the rest.
• (Higher only) A series of quick fire ‘do I have enough?’ questions (based on Exercise 28A (H) Q5).
• Students can design their own exam-style question, complete with mark scheme, and get another student to try it.
The activity will make those designing the question think about what information is required in a question and make
those who answer it consider how they set out their workings.
• Having a context to calculate direct proportion allows for fluency exercises to take place without pages of exercises.
NRICH Triathlon and Fitness provides a good challenge to work with the concepts of this section as well as
mathematical modelling. You may even wish to get your class involved and produce your own data to use for this
activity. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Dilution Series Calculator can be used to help students deal with the complications that arise when looking
at concentrations for liquids. (nrich.maths.org)
• Having a question with three variables, such as ‘If it takes eight men three days to build ten metres of wall, how long
will it take five men to build 12 metres of wall?’.
Assessment ideas
those who answer it consider how they set out their workings.
SECTION 2F / 2H: ALGEBRAIC AND GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS
Section 2 focuses on direct proportion problems given graphically or generalised through the use of algebra, meaning
use of a formula.
Prompting questions
When considering questions involving proportionality, what are the units for each of the objects involved? Encourage
students to identify in each case the units that are given in the question. For example, this can cause problems when you
are moving between hours, minutes and seconds.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) How do you know which runner is going faster?
The graph for the faster runner is steeper than the other.
• Q4 (F) How can you write ‘the number of cars being produced is directly proportional to the number of days the
factory stays open’ using algebra?
n = kd.
• Q6 (F) / Q5 (H) What does it mean for p and q to be directly proportional?
p = kq or q = kp.
• Does this help find a formula?
Yes, we can use the given numbers to find a value of k for our formula.
• Q7 (F) / Q6 (H) What initial ratio can you set up in this situation?
4 : 60

• The questions and activities in ‘Work it out’ 27.1 (F) and 27.2 (F) would make an excellent starter.
• A ‘word problem’ is given for two variables that are directly proportional to each other. The students need to extract
the correct information and write a formula for doing further calculations.
• The students make a hypothesis for two things that they think are directly proportional. They then collect the data
in order to provide evidence for/or against their hypothesis. This activity gets the students thinking about the data
cycle, as well as the properties needed for two things to be directly proportional to each other.
Assessment ideas
those who answer it consider how they set out their workings

SECTION 3H: DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE SQUARE, SQUARE ROOT AND OTHER EXPRESSIONS
The higher version of section 3 focuses on directly proportional relationships that are non-linear such as square and
square root.
Prompting questions
Exercise 28D (H)
• Why is an initial set of values given in the opening for each question?
When we say ‘y is directly proportional to the something of x’ we mean that for pairs of values (x, y), y is equal to a
constant multiplied by the something of x. To find this constant we need some ‘initial values’ or ‘initial conditions’.
• Q2 (H) What index do we use when we say something is cubed?
3.
• Q5 (H) What index do we use when we say something is square rooted?
1
.
2

• Displaying a series of tables with data in them and asking (possibly using mini-whiteboards) what the relationship is
between the variables. You could also ask your students to give a formula for each situation.
• Display a series of word problems that describe directly proportional situations. Students need to write down a
formula representing the situation.
• As indicated in the introduction to this section in the student book, the distance travelled by an object dropped from
rest is proportional to the square of the time taken. This can be used as a base for a practical activity where students
collect data by dropping an object from different heights. This can then be graphed and analysed to either discover
this relationship or find the ‘constant of proportionality’ for this formula. Students can design their own exam-style
question, complete with mark scheme, and get another student to try it. The activity will make those designing the
question think about the information that is required in a question and make those who answer it consider how they
set out their workings.
Assessment ideas
The activity will make those designing the question think about the information that is required in a question and
make those who answer it consider how they set out their workings.
SECTION 3F / 4H INVERSE PROPORTION
These sections focus on inverse proportion. More explanation is given in ‘Work it out’ section 27.3 (F).
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H)
• If fewer (or more) people do the job, will the time it takes to paint increase, decrease or stay the same?
If you use fewer (or more) people, the time it takes to paint should increase (or decrease).
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What does this question have to do with inverse proportion?
Look back at ‘Work it out’ 27.3 (F), we fixed the area of the rectangle and varied one of the lengths. In this question, we
have fixed the total spend but are varying the price of the souvenirs. The more expensive the souvenir the fewer we can
buy.

• Q4 (F) What does 180 in the formula mean?

The distance to Cambridge in miles.
• Q4 (H) Given that we are told that speed is inversely proportional to time, what is simplest equation that we can
write down connecting these two variables?
k
s=
t
• What does the ‘k’ part of our formula represent?

Since ‘k’ is a constant, the only thing we are keeping constant is the distance.
• Q5 (H) How can you use the graph to help answer the questions?
We can use the scale on the horizontal axis to help with part a. For part b, we need to look at a single point on the graph
and use that to work backwards to find the total prize fund. Once we have the answer to part b, we know that our
constant ‘k’ for our inverse proportion relationship will be the total prize fund.
• Q7 (H) What does ‘a is inversely proportional to the square of b’ actually mean?
1
This means that a and 2 differ by a single constant for any given connected values of a and b. constant for any given
b
connected values of a and b.
• Q8 (H) What does ‘r is inversely proportional to the square root of m’ actually mean?
1
This means that r and differ by a single constant for any given connected values of r and m.
m

• Now that the students have seen situations where variables are directly linked or inversely linked, you can display
a series of tables of data and ask (possibly using mini whiteboards) if the variables are directly proportional or
inversely proportional. To add an extra level of complication, you could ask students to give a formula.
• NRICH Zin Obelisk is an enrichment activity for section 2 and a good review before moving on to section 3. This
activity gets students to think about the types of information that have been given and then use their knowledge of
proportion to answer the question. (nrich.maths.org)
• Allow students to collect their own data for variables that are inversely proportional to each other and then get them
to try and discover the relationship or formulae. Speed and time or tasks where the number of people reduces the
time to complete a task might be good starting points.
Assessment ideas
• Give students a series of graphs with a mixture of direct and inverse proportional variables. Students need to sort
them into the correct type and then provide a physical situation where that graph might occur. This can be displayed
as a poster and other students can comment on the ‘realistic’ nature of the situations described and on the labelling
as directly or inversely proportional.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Students will have looked at ratio and proportional at KS3, but may have not used mathematical language to
describe the situation.
• At GCSE, students will have used this language to describe ration, see Chapter 26 (F) / 27 (H) and also Chapter 33 (F) /
35 (H). They will also have used it for trigonometry, see Chapter 36 (F) / 38 (H).
• Throughout GCSE content, students will have encountered the various types of graphs and equations that arise here
and this chapter provides a good opportunity to revisit straight-line and curved graphs.
• In addition to the above, this chapter can be used to refresh ideas of data collection and representation, and also
revise the language of sequences to help analyse the proportionality relationship between variables.
Future learning
• Higher tier students will use the notion of gradient in Chapter 29 (F) / 30 (H). Links can be made back to the
terminology and representations used in this chapter.
Gateway to A-level
• Students who go on to A-level Mathematics will encounter proportionality in the description of rates of change and
thus in differential equations.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

28F / 29H Graphs of linear functions

• How to generate terms in a sequence from a given rule.

• How to identify coordinates of a given point.
• How to manipulate and solve equations.
• How to change the subject of a formula.
• How to substitute values into a formula.

• How to plot points on a coordinate grid.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Use a table of values to plot graphs of linear functions. • Use a table of values to plot graphs of linear
functions.
Section 2 Section 2
• Identify the main features of straight-line graphs and • Identify the main features of straight-line graphs and
use them to sketch graphs. use them to sketch graphs.
• Sketch graphs from linear equations in the form of • Sketch graphs from linear equations in the form of
y = mx + c. y = mx + c.
• Find the equation of a straight line using gradient and • Find the equation of a straight line using gradient
points on the line. and points on the line.
Section 3 Section 3
• Identify lines that are parallel by considering their • find the equation of a tangent that touches a circle
equations. centred on the origin.
Section 4
• Find the equation of a line parallel to a given line
(perhaps passing through a known point). • Solve problems involving straight-line graphs.
Section 4
• Solve problems involving straight-line graphs.
Vocabulary
• Function, coordinates, gradient, y-intercept, x-intercept, coefficient, constant.

• (Higher only) Reciprocal, tangent.
• Students sometimes think the constant (+c) tells them the step increase (gradient) when plotting coordinates.
It is vital to ingrain the understanding that the coefficient of x informs us of the gradient and that the ‘+c’ tells us the
‘starting point’ on the y-axis.
• Students occasionally think the ‘+c’ tells them the starting point on the x-axis, rather than the y-axis.
Substituting some x values into the equation of the line will quickly demonstrate their mistake.

• When plotting lines, students often do not look at the big picture.
If they have made a mistake in one of their y-value calculations, the line is no longer straight, but they will
nonetheless plot their points regardless. To combat this, ask students to stop and think about what they have done.
If they know an equation of the form y = mx + c gives a straight line, and their graph is not a straight line, there must
be a mistake somewhere in their calculations!
Hooks
• Read out a rule (e.g. my y number is twice my x number) and ask students to think of pairs of numbers (x and y)
that satisfy this rule. Plot these values on a graph, and ask students what they notice. Then ask students if they
could predict any more pairs of numbers that would also satisfy the rule. Can they also write the rule in algebra?
The following sets of equations would produce a good variety and provide the opportunity to look at the effect of
gradient and y-intercept:
• Gradient introduction:
-- My y number is twice my x number.
-- My y number is three times my x number.
-- My y number is the negative of my x number.
• y-intercept introduction:
-- My y number is two more than my x number.
-- My y number is four more than my x number.
-- My y number is three less than my x number.
• These are useful for introducing rearranging equations:
-- x and y add up to three.
-- x and y add up to five.
-- x and two lots of y add up to seven.
SECTION 1F / 1H: PLOTTING GRAPHS
Section 1 focuses on plotting graphs. In the worked example, the first instruction is to ‘choose some values for x’.
Discuss with students what values of x would be sensible to choose. We can pick any as they are the input values for our
function, but it makes sense to use consecutive values close to zero so that we can plot the points on a reasonably-sized
pair of axes. It is important to continually stress that students should be careful reading scales on graphs: in particular, if
axes do not start from zero or if the two axes use different scales.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What values of x are you using in your table?
Consecutive integer values close to zero (preferably including at least one negative x value).
• Now you have your x and y values, what scale(s) do you need to draw on your axes?
Scales that accommodate the least and greatest values of x and y.
• Do both axes need to have the same graduations on the scale?
No
• If a student’s graph is not a straight line: What do you notice about your line? Which value do you think may be
incorrect?
The point that’s not on a straight line with the others.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Why could you not just use two points to plot your graph?
The function may not be linear; You may have calculated one of the y-values incorrectly.


Starters
• Ask students to put a single point somewhere on their page. How many lines can be drawn through it? Infinitely
many. Now draw a second dot. How many lines can be drawn that go through both points? Just one. Whilst two
points may be sufficient to define a line, a third point adds some reassurance that a mistake has not been made.
• Be a ‘human function machine’. Choose a function (a single operation, initially, perhaps doubling) but do not tell
students. Get them to say numbers to you, which you apply the function to and tell them the output. Students
should aim to guess the function with as few input values and guesses at the function as possible.
Plenaries
• Get students to explain how the y- and x-coordinates of the points that make up a line are related from its equation,
for example y = x + 4 has the y-coordinate four more than the x-coordinate; y = 2x means the y-coordinate is always
double the x-coordinate.
• On a coordinate grid with four quadrants, pretend to be an inept student drawing the graph of a linear equation.
Plot at least three points that are not in a straight line. Ask students how to join them up. Encourage students to
identify the features that make an equation linear (e.g. no powers, no variables multiplied together) and that such
an equation will result in a straight line. If points don’t lie on a line, a mistake has been made (most likely because of
poor substitution of numbers, especially negatives).
• Create a human graph. Using a narrow roll of paper (e.g. display board edging paper or toilet paper) make axes on
the classroom floor. Write or print numbers on paper to make the scale on each axis. Call out or project an equation
and ask students to create the graph for it. This could be done by asking one student to direct the task or asking a
handful of students to find a pair of coordinates that fit the equation. If one student is directing the task, they should
call on other students to help them firstly create a table of values and secondly to stand on the correct coordinates
on the grid. To reinforce the concept of a straight line, the students marking the coordinates could be given another
roll of paper: if they do not create a straight line, it will be obvious who is in the wrong place by where the paper
bends.
SECTION 2F / 2H: GRADIENT AND INTERCEPTS OF STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS
Section 2 focuses on using and identifying the gradient and intercepts of straight-line graphs (including finding the
equation of a straight line through two points). The chapter begins with introducing the key vocabulary (gradient,
y-intercept, x-intercept). It is important that students are familiar with these terms and hold a correct definition of them
so as to avoid confusing their meanings in their calculations.
Many teachers talking about gradient will rely on familiar concepts such as ‘uphill’. It’s vital that students realise that
these descriptions make sense only if we consider a line being drawn from left to right.
Prompting questions
1
• Q1a (F) / Q2a (H) The line has a gradient of − . What is the relationship between the line and one with a gradient
3
1
of ?
3
The lines are equally steep, but one slopes ‘uphill’ and the other ‘downhill’. If a mirror was put on the y-axis, they would
be reflections of each other. Please note that reinforcing that they are, in general, not perpendicular is important here.
2
• Q1e (F) / Q2e (H) What does a gradient of mean? For every 2 units to the right, go up 3.
3
• If I go 30 units to the right, how many up?
30

• Q2a (F) / Q3a (H) How does it change the result if we do ‘the first point take away the second’ versus ‘the second
point take away the first’.
It doesn’t. The numerator and denominator will each be the same magnitude as before but the opposite sign (e.g., −3
versus 3). Because both numerator and denominator change sign, the gradient has the same sign as before.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How does the line y = 3x + 2 differ from the line in a, y = 3x − 2?
• Playing devil’s advocate: ‘they both end in 2, so they cross the y-axis at 2’. Whilst the number at the end is the same, we
need to pay attention to the sign in front of it.
• Which of these lines is steepest?
The line in a, since 3 is the largest gradient.
• Q2(F) / Q2 (H) Which of these lines is steepest? Why is this a more difficult question than for the lines in question 1?
When lines are not in the form y = mx + c, it is not possible to immediately determine the gradient.
• Q2a (H) Rearrange 6x − 4y = 12. What do you notice?
It is the same line as in question 2a, since both sides of the equation have been doubled.
• Q3b(F) / Q3b (H) Why might we write this equation y = 3 − x rather than y = −x + 3?
They are equivalent, so we could! But many mathematicians will avoid starting an expression with a negative if it could
be written in another way.
• Q3a (F) How do you quickly know that there will be no constant term on the lines in a and b?
Because it goes through the origin, therefore the y-axis intercept is also at the origin.

Starters
• Starters that review some of the prerequisite techniques would be sensible here:
-- Equivalent fractions.
-- Subtraction from (and of) negative numbers.
-- Division with (and of) negative numbers.
-- Substitution into formulae.
-- Rearranging linear equations.
• Most of these tasks produce a single numerical answer (perhaps including fractions) and so would lend themselves
well to be completed on mini whiteboards for you to gauge understanding.
• Call out a value for the gradient and y-intercept. Ask students to write the corresponding linear equation on a mini
whiteboard and hold it up for you to see. Repeat this with a variety of gradient and y-intercept pairs. This could be
run as a competition (either seeing who could get the correct equations, or who can display the correct equations
quickest).
Plenaries
• When introducing students to the use of the gradient and y-intercept to sketch graphs (i.e. sketching graphs from the
equation) it is important to note that the gradient is the coefficient of x. Students often incorrectly state the gradient
is 3x, rather than 3 (if the equation were, for example, y = 3x + 2). This needs to be addressed to avoid misconceptions
developing, and you can do so by drawing students’ attention back to the definition of the gradient (the steepness of
the line) as a numerical value, not a function of x.
• On a square grid, draw a line extending the length of the board (or paper). Draw on a number of different gradient
triangles, both ‘above’ and ‘below’ the line. Show that all of these, once simplified, result in the same gradient.

• ‘Simon says’ graphs: Call out or project linear equations and ask students to demonstrate them using their arms.
Students should use their bodies as the y-axis. The differences in gradients should be seen by students changing
the angle at which they are holding their arms. The change in y-intercept should be seen by students going on their
tip-toes or bending down lower to the floor (for negative y-intercepts). You could give different equations to a few
students at the same time and then ask the rest of the class if they have adequately demonstrated the differences or
similarities, and if not how they could improve.
• Gradient of a vertical line: establish that as a line gets steeper, its gradient is a bigger number. What happens when
the line gets really, really steep (i.e. close to vertical)? How about when it is actually vertical. Infinity might be a
reasonable suggestion, but what does the gradient formula give us? The denominator would be zero, which would
suggest that the gradient is undefined.
• NRICH Diamond Collector provides good practice at working out equations of lines in a game context that requires
mathematical creativity. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 3F / 3H: PARALLEL LINES
In foundation, section 3 focuses on parallel lines. In higher, perpendicular lines and tangents are also considered.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What would be the equation of a line that is parallel to the odd one out?
Any line of the form y = x + c.
• Q3a (F) / Q2a (H) What equation did you solve to find the value of a?
The equation 2a − 3 = 3.
• Q5c (F) / Q4c (H) How did you prove that ABCD is a parallelogram?
Showed that opposite sides are parallel.
• Any other ways?
Show diagonals bisect each other or that both pairs of opposite angles are congruent.
• Q6 (F) / Q5 (H) Why can’t we write vertical lines in the form y = mx + c?
Because their gradient is undefined, therefore there cannot be a value for m. Instead they can be written in the form
x = a where a is the x-axis intercept.
SECTION 3F / 3H: PARALLEL LINES

Exercise 29F (H)
1
• Q1 (H) Convince me that y = 4x is perpendicular to 4y + x = −2. The gradient of the second line is − .
4
1
If you multiply − by 4 you get −1, hence they are perpendicular.
4
• Q6 (H) Alternatively, how could you use Pythagoras’ theorem to show the triangle is right-angled?
Work out the lengths of the three sides. If the triangle satisfies Pythagoras’ theorem, it is right angled.
Exercise 29G (H)
• Q13 (H) Tell me another point on the circle with a tangent of the same gradient.
On the opposite side of the circle at (−3, 4).


Starters
• (Higher only) A starter refreshing students’ knowledge of reciprocals would be beneficial, for example, project six
pairs of reciprocal numbers on the board, mixed up, and ask students to find the matching pairs. An alternative
would be to call out a number and ask students to write the reciprocal on mini whiteboards. Ensure you include
integers, which many students find hard to find a reciprocal for if their understanding only extends to ‘a flipped
fraction’.
Plenaries
• Write the equation of a line on the board, for example y = 2x + 3. Hold a ‘closest unique bid auction’ where students
must write on a mini whiteboard the equation of a line that is parallel or perpendicular to the given line with an
integer y-intercept. The winner is the student that gets closest to +3 without any other student in the room also
having the same intercept.
• Pre-prepare pairs of equations that are parallel, perpendicular or neither. Students could hold up cards to indicate
which of the three classifications they believe to be true.
• Get students to investigate the effect of plotting a line with a ‘normal’ reciprocal, rather than negative reciprocal, of a
2 3
line. For example plot both y = x + 7 and y = x + 7. How are they related geometrically?
3 2
These would be a reflection in the line y = x + 7.
• An unusual use of negative reciprocals is considered in NRICH Twisting and Turning. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 4F / 4H: WORKING WITH STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS
Prompting questions
Exercise 28F (F) / 29G (H)
• Q4a (H) Why would a value of m = 1, so y = x −2, not intersect the first line?
Having the same gradient means it is parallel. Since it has a different y-intercept the lines are distinct, so will not cross.
• Would the line y = 1.01x + 999 intersect y = x + 3? They are nearly parallel, after all?
Yes, since any lines that are not parallel will intersect. For those lines, this happens at (−99 600, −99 597).
• Q9 (F) / Q11 (H) We are told this shape is a rhombus. Is there a more specific name for this shape?
A square.
• How could you prove this?
Since the four sides are the same length (since we are told it is a rhombus), we could just show that adjacent edges are
perpendicular.
• Find the gradients of the diagonals of the rhombus.
0 and undefined.
• Are the diagonals of a rhombus always perpendicular, or just this one because it’s a square?
Always.

Starters
• If students are familiar with a method for solving linear simultaneous equations, get them to solve x + 3y = 6 and
2x − y = 5. Students can then rearrange these equations into the form y = mx + c and sketch them, noting that the
point of intersection is the solution to the simultaneous equations. Is this a coincidence that just works for this pair
of equations?

• Ask students to choose an equation of the form y = mx + c, and plot it on a sheet of graph paper, writing the equation
on the back of the sheet. These graphs can then be passed along to their neighbour and each student will have a
different graph for which they can work out the equation (and check they are correct by looking on the reverse of the
paper).
Plenaries
• Give students a graph with a hexagon (or other polygon) drawn on it. Ask students to work out the equations of the
lines that make up the edges of the hexagon.
• NRICH Reflecting lines gets students to think about the equation of lines that have been reflected in the y-axis.
In particular, it should encourage students to think about what the gradient represents and how a reflection in the
vertical axis changes the gradient. (nrich.maths.org)
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• This chapter provides ample practice at rearranging linear equations, for example to turn 2x + 3y = 25 into the
form y = mx + c. For questions where graphs are drawn for students, they should be encouraged to check that their
rearranged equation is plausible, for example the gradient has the correct sign.
• Pythagoras’ theorem could be used in a number of these questions, especially those involving circles. Students could
investigate Pythagorean triples that allow us to have circles that pass through points with integer coordinates, for
example the (3, 4) on the x2 + y2 = 25 circle in the text.
Future learning
• Chapter 37 (F) / 39 (H) extends the work on straight-line graphs, considering exponential and trigonometric graphs.
• Problems involving direct proportion are considered in Chapter 27 (F) / 28 (H). These problems can be represented
or solved using straight-line graphs. Straight-line graphs are also used in Chapter 29 (F) / 30 (H).
• Chapter 25 (F) / 26 (H) uses the skills of drawing straight lines to represent algebraic inequalities in the plane.
• Tangents to circles are considered in greater depth when investigating circle theorems in Chapter 31 (H).
Gateway to A level
• In linear programming (using graphs to find the optimal solution to a problem), we draw graphs with ‘constraints’
represented as straight lines. Doing so quickly and accurately is key. These are frequently in the form ax + by = c,
rather than y = mx + c.
• Finding and using the equations of tangents and normals is a major part of the use of calculus. We frequently know
the gradient of the line as well as a single point it passes through, so finding the equation of the line relies on the
ideas in this topic.
• In A level we make much more use of the tangents to circles, which are straight lines.
• The concepts of gradients and coordinates are used heavily in vector methods, which are particularly helpful in
solving problems involving straight lines in three dimensions.

Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

29F / 30H Interpreting graphs

• How to distinguish between direct and inverse proportion.

• How to calculate the gradient of a straight line.
• How to calculate the area of composite shapes.
distance
• Speed = .
time
speed
• Acceleration = .
time
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Constructing and interpreting graphs in real-world • Constructing and interpreting graphs in real-world
contexts. contexts.
Section 2 Section 2
• Interpreting the gradient of a straight-line graph as a • Interpreting the gradient of a straight-line graph as a
rate of change. rate of change.
• Finding and interpreting the gradient at a point on a
curve as the instantaneous rate of change.
Section 3
• Calculating and interpreting the area under a graph.
Vocabulary
• Transposing the numerator and denominator when calculating gradient.

Most students will be happy with the idea that a horizontal line has zero gradient: this is only possible when the
(zero) change of y is the numerator (otherwise it would lead to division by zero).
• Inability to read correctly from graphs, especially those with unequal scales.
Ensuring that students are exposed to such graphs is important: they should make it their first step, when presented
with a graph, to ensure they properly consider the detail of the axes.
• Difficulty in plotting tangents to curves.
Imagining a surf board on a wave can often help.
• Problems dealing with scales graduated in time (hours and minutes) and working with such quantities.
Starters getting students to work with time in the form hh:mm can help: ‘What is 0:55 + 0:12?’, ‘What is 11:23 − 2:51?’.
Hooks
• The videos on Graphing Stories are a nice visual prompt to get students to consider how things (heights, speeds,
distances, counts, etc.) change over time. (graphingstories.com)

SECTION 1F / 1H: GRAPHS OF REAL-WORLD CONTEXTS
Section 1 focuses on interpreting and constructing graphs with a real-world context, notably distance–time and
conversion graphs.
Prompting questions
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) When was the car travelling fastest?
Between 100 and 120 minutes.
• How do you know?
The graph is steepest in that section.
• What does the negative gradient between 100 and 120 minutes signify?
The taxi is travelling towards the starting point.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) How do you think Monica was travelling? Walking, running, cycling or by car?
People typically walk at about 4 km per hour, so 1 km takes 15 minutes. She travelled 1.2 km in 10 minutes, so she is
going faster than walking. But probably not fast enough to be in a car, so she’s running or cycling or walking briskly.
• The first section of the graph is a straight line. What does this signify?
Monica is travelling at a constant speed.
• Is this realistic?
Probably not!
• Is there an alternative explanation for the horizontal line, rather than Monica remaining in the same place?
She is getting no further away from home, so she could be walking in a circle with her home as the centre.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) You get a message from central government that further help cannot reach the disaster centre for 14
days. How many people could you support?
Approximately 343. (Days = 4800 ÷ people.)

Starters
• Draw a distance–time graph on the board with two different coloured lines (e.g. red and blue) to represent two
different car journeys. Make the lines different (starting at different points on the y-axis, always increasing but with
varying gradients). Get students to write and then read out descriptions of the journeys of two cars.
• Students could be challenged to draw graphs representing the videos on Graphing Stories. (graphingstories.com)
• NRICH Mathsjam Jars asks students to work out which of ten differently shaped jars will fill up at the same time
(given a constant rate of jam pouring). (nrich.maths.org)
Plenaries
• Given freezing and boiling point in Celsius (0 and 100) and Fahrenheit (32 and 212), students could draw a conversion
graph that they can use to convert weather forecasts. If allowed to extend to negative temperatures, students could
be asked ‘at what temperature is the number in Celsius and Fahrenheit the same?
Negative 40 degrees.
• It is useful for students to have a ‘feel’ for the speeds of various forms of transport. This could be phrased in the form
‘which of these is a sensible answer for a question that asked you to calculate the speed of a jumbo jet: 1000 mph,
500 mph, 200 mph, 100 mph, 10 mph’. Working in various units (eg mph, km/hr, m/s) should be encouraged.
• Students could make their own video in the style of those on Graphing Stories. Videos could involve multiple
students for example one crawling, one running and one hopping (perhaps in different directions).
(graphingstories.com)

• If any members of staff have recently run a marathon, their split times (usually downloadable after the event) could
be used as the source of a distance–time graph. When did they ‘hit the wall’?
Assessment ideas
• The standards Unit’s Interpreting distance–time graphs’ activity (A6) from the STEM centre archive can be used
to assess students’ ability to move between multiple representations of situations that might be represented by a
distance–time graph. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
SECTION 2F / 2H: GRADIENTS
Section 2 focuses on interpreting the gradient within the context of the problem: what do different magnitudes mean?
What does a negative gradient suggest? Students are then introduced to the idea of using a tangent to the curve to
approximate the gradient at a point.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Which tanks show the graphs being filled?
a and c.
• Which tanks show the graphs being emptied?
d, e and f.
• Which graph shows the tank being emptied, initially quite quickly then steadily slowing to a trickle?
e
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) If you are dividing a change in height by a change in time, what unit could be used for the gradient of
these graphs?
m per second, cm per minute, furlongs per fortnight, or some other length/time unit.
• When does the parachutist reach ‘terminal velocity’?
When the graph is a horizontal line.
• When does the parachutist open the parachute?
When the graph changes from horizontal to a steep negative gradient.
Exercise 30C (H)
• Q1 (H) What are the units of gradient on this graph?
Metres per second, confirming that the gradient represents speed.
• Was it easier to accurately draw a tangent at 0.5 seconds or 3.5 seconds?
Probably 3.5 seconds since it is not at the edge of the graph.
• Q2 (H) At what time would you expect the next low tide?
About 5 am since they occur roughly every 12.5 hours.
• Q3 (HWhat does the gradient represent?
Acceleration.
• What does a negative gradient represent?
The car slowing down, known as ‘deceleration’ or negative acceleration.
• If you continue the graph to the right (that is, x increases) how do you expect the gradient will change?
It will increase, since the graph gets steeper.


• Ask students to plot a distance–time or speed–time graph of their day so far. They should have periods of time
when they are not moving (i.e. during lessons), times when they are walking, and possibly times when they are
moving faster (e.g. on a bus, cycling to school, running at a sports club). A couple of students’ graphs could then be
presented to the class who could hypothesise about what the students were doing at different times.
Plenaries
• With mini whiteboards, get students to draw blank distance–time axes. Ask questions such as ‘Draw a graph that
shows: a, speeding up, b, moving at a constant speed, c, slowing down’ etc.
• Students could calculate the gradient at various points on the graph of x2 and notice that it is always double the
x-coordinate. This could lead into a discussion about differentiation.
SECTION 3H: AREAS UNDER GRAPHS
For higher tier students, section 3 focuses on calculating and interpreting the area under graphs.
Prompting questions
Exercise 30D (H)
• Q1 (H) What shape would you use to work out the area under graphs a and b?
A (right-angled) triangle.
• On graph c, how would you work out the area under the graph between 1.5 and 3 hours?
Either a triangle with a rectangle, or a trapezium. (Links to the trapezium rule.)
• If we drew a single triangle from 0 to 4 hours to approximate the curve in part d with a straight line, would it be an
overestimate or an underestimate of the true area?
An overestimate.
• How could we improve our estimate?
Use additional triangles (well, trapezia).
• We are finding the area of shapes whose heights are measured in km/hr and widths in hr. If we multiply these two
units together, what do we get?
km, confirming that the area represents distance.
• Q2 (H) For the period between 30 and 45 minutes, is there an efficient way to work out the area?
Since it is a straight line, treat it as a single trapezium.

Starters
• Get students to calculate the areas of triangles, rectangles and trapezia. Extend this to compound shapes built from
these shapes.
Plenaries
• This section uses speed–time graphs, since the area under a distance–time graph (‘absement’) is rather more difficult
to interpret. Students could attempt to draw distance–time graphs from the given speed–time graphs.
• NRICH Speedo has a defined distance the car has travelled and students are given information on the speed of the
car in different scenarios. This problem could also be solved by using the equations of motion (taught at A-level) so
provides an opportunity to introduce/discuss them. (nrich.maths.org)

• Derive the equations of motion from a speed–time graph. Students now know that the area under a speed–time
1
graph is the distance travelled. By considering a straight-line segment of the graph, the formula s = 2 (u + v)t can be
found (where u and v are the initial and final velocities respectively). Secondly, the gradient of a speed–time graph is
the acceleration, resulting in the formula v = u + at. From these two equations, the remaining three equations can be
derived by eliminating a variable in three different ways. (e.g. eliminating t from the two equations gives
v2 = u2 + 2as).
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Features of straight lines, such as the concept of gradient, were discussed in Chapter 28 (F) / 29 (H).
• Proportional methods from Chapter 27 (F) / 28 (H) are used in the worked example in section 1, for example, ‘how
many Indian rupees would you get for 600 US dollars?’
• Methods from Chapter 12 are important, including working with time. Calculating speed in miles per hour when a
distance of 15 miles is covered in 20 minutes for example.
• Practice in finding areas, in particular by breaking down compound shapes into rectangles, triangles and trapezia are
covered in Chapter 11.
Future learning
Gateway to A-level
• Differentiation, finding the gradient at a point on a curve.

• Integration, finding the area under curves.
• Equations of motion.
• Regression, fitting a (often linear) model to a set of data.
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 1 Questions 15, 19, 23 • Chapter 1 Questions 7, 21
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

31H Circles
• The sum of angles on a straight line, interior angles of a polygon and around a point.
• How to calculate an exterior angle (and what it is).
• How to calculate the size of missing angles in geometry problems; including polygons and parallel lines.
• How to identify congruent and similar triangles.
• How to label the circumference and a diameter/radius of a circle.
• How to find the circumference and area of circles and arc length and area of sectors.
• How to add geometric reasoning to calculations that find missing angles.
• What a mathematical proof involves.
• What the words perpendicular and bisector mean.

• How to use Pythagoras’ theorem in a variety of settings.
• How to identify the different types of quadrilaterals.
• How to form and solve equations with an unknown from a given text.
• How to use mathematical formulae; either by substituting first and then solving for an unknown or by first changing
the subject and then substituting.
Learning outcomes
Section 1
• To review the names of parts of a circle.
• How to correctly label and refer to angles in a diagram involving a circle.
Section 2
• To learn how to prove the following circle theorems:
-- Angles subtended at centre and circumference
-- Angles in a semicircle
-- Angles in the same segment
-- Angle between radius and chord
-- Angle between the radius and tangent
-- Two tangent theorem
-- Alternate segment theorem
-- Angles in a cyclic quadrilateral
Section 3
• To be able to use the circle theorems.
• To be able to construct geometric ‘proofs’ using circle theorems.

31H Circles
Vocabulary
• Subtended, cyclic quadrilateral
• Segment and sector.

Some students can confuse the terms segment and sector when labelling a circle. To address this, you could ensure
that the correct terminology is used at all times and include references to these particular parts of the circle in any
questions you ask.
• Correctly labelling angles on diagrams.
This is a particular issue that can propagate into A-level mathematics. Making sure you use correct referencing for
angles on diagrams to reinforce good habits and never refer to an angle by the vertex it appears at.
• Mathematical proof.
Students’ ideas of mathematical proof can be varied. Here, when asked to prove a geometric property, a student
needs a good model solution to know exactly what should be contained in a solution and exactly how to reference
the theorems they can use without proof. Some students find the idea of proof very challenging and their lack of
algebraic fluency prevents them being able to engage in the material properly. A way to help this may be to remove
the algebraic focus by using coloured dots to identify equal angles (being able to identify and work with isosceles
triangles can take students a long way). This use of colour can help students visualise the proof and the coloured
dots can be replaced by letters in the last stage when the proof is complete. Using interactive whiteboard software to
create these diagrams can also help students build proofs more easily.
• Angles subtended at centre and circumference.
Some students use this theorem incorrectly for diagrams where the subtended angle is in the same minor arc as the
two points we created the angle from. To find this angle, students should use a combination of the angle subtended
at centre and circumference theorem and the angles in a cyclic quadrilateral theorem. To address this issue, you
could provide two alternative solutions for the same problem, one using the correct method and one not. The
students would then be required to pick apart both solutions thereby reinforcing the correct use of each theorem.
• Alternate segment theorem.
This theorem often proves challenging for students. Continued exposure to this theorem with questions involving it
will help to reinforce which angles are being referred to in the theorem.
• Drawing additional diagrams.
Students don’t often feel they need to draw additional diagrams. However, when faced with inscribed triangles and
cyclic quadrilaterals it is sometimes useful to sketch an additional diagram to display all the information they have
been given or have derived from the circle theorems.
Hooks
• Initially, you can give a peg-board (either a physical one or use the NRICH Virtual Geoboard) to investigate what
shapes can be formed inside the circle and what can be said about the angles. You can gently direct students to then
consider certain shapes such as an arrow-head.
SECTION 1H: REVIEW OF PARTS OF A CIRCLE
Section 1 focuses on recapping the basic terminology students have already learnt in the context of circles.
Prompting questions
• Why do we need a convention for labelling angles?

Any vertex in a 2D shape will have at least two angles. We could say ‘the acute angle at this vertex’ for the case where
there are only two angles, but if we have more line segments meeting at this vertex we need a way to distinguish which
angle we are talking about.

Exercise 31A (H)

• Q1 (H) Can you draw a diagram for each of the statements?
Drawing diagrams may clarify the statement and help reinforce the names of the circle parts.
• Q2 (H) How are angles labelled?
If we want to label the angle at B enclosed by the lines BO and BC we use ‘angle OBC’ or ‘∠OBC’.
• Q3 (H) What shapes are we looking at here?
Similar triangles.

Starters
• Displaying a circle on the board or as a cut-out and asking students to place the correct labels on the diagram can be
used to recap previously learnt material before moving on to Section 2.
• A series of circles with inscribed labelled triangles could be displayed. Students need to correctly name the angles
highlighted in each diagram.
Plenaries
• Exercise 31A, Q1 could be used as a card sort or as a matching activity on the board to assess if the students are ready
to move on to new concepts.
Assessment ideas
• Students can construct a guide to the parts of the circle and swap with each another to comment on the content.
This can then be glued (after incorporating peer feedback) into their books and referred to in the future
SECTION 2H: CIRCLE THEOREMS AND PROOFS
Section 2 focuses on the circle theorems outlining them in the order given in the Learning outcomes section (above).
Each theorem is given with proof and on most occasions each proof makes use of the previous theorems
Prompting questions
The following questions can be asked while teaching and working through the material associated with the proofs.
• Angles subtended at centre and circumference:
-- How do you refer to the angles in the diagram?
If we want to label the angle at B enclosed by the lines BA and BC we use ‘angle ABC’.
-- If a triangle is inscribed in a circle with two radii, what type of triangle is it?
An isosceles triangle.
-- Which angles are the same?
NOTE: The diagram in the text uses x for both angles. This is not true in general and a more general diagram is
needed. This ‘proof’ only works for isosceles triangles that are symmetric about a diameter. The x marked at
where the ‘2’ is in the diagram (angle OCB) should be changed to y (also the angle OBC). You then have the two
remaining angles in the two isosceles triangles to be AOC = 180 - 2x and BOC = 180 – 2y. You can then conclude,
since the sum of angles around a point is 360 degrees that AOB = 360 - (180 - 2x) - (180 – 2y) = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y).
• Angles in a semicircle:
-- What is this theorem a special case of?
It is a special case of the angles subtended at centre and circumference theorem. (Note: you may wish to tell your
students that mathematicians would refer to this ‘theorem’ as a corollary of the first.)

31H Circles
• Angles in the same segment:

-- What can be added to the diagram to give the same situation as the angles subtended at centre and
circumference theorem?
We can add in radii and then apply that theorem twice. NOTE: (1) In the proof you should refer to angle C as angle
ACB = x and so on. (2) This proof is not general enough and implies that the lines AD and CB are diameters. This is
misleading.
• Angle between radius and chord:
-- What sort of triangle(s) do you get by adding radii OC and OA?
An isosceles triangle. NOTE: Angle between radius and chord theorem’s proof is not complete. The statement
is ‘that a radius or diameter bisects a chord if and only if it is perpendicular to the chord’ has not been proved.
Only the statement ‘If the radius is perpendicular to the chord then it bisects the chord’ is proven. The additional
statement ‘If the radius bisects the chord then they are perpendicular’ is still required to be proved.
• Angle between the radius and tangent:
-- What property does a tangent to a circle have?
It touches the circle only once. NOTE: This ‘proof’ is too watered down. You know (by definition) that a tangent
touches the circle at one point. Assume that there does not exist a radius that is perpendicular to the tangent line.
Then there exists a line from the centre to the tangent line that is shorter than a radius. This is a contradiction,
since the tangent line only touches the circle and all other lines from the centre to the tangent line must be longer
than a radius. Hence there exists a radius that is perpendicular to the tangent line.
• Two tangent theorem:
-- What do you know about the two triangles ATO and TBO?
They are right-angled triangles and can be shown to be congruent. NOTE: angle should be referred to as angle
TAO etc.
• Alternate segment theorem:
-- Which angle is in the major segment?
The angle PRQ.
-- Which previous theorems are being used in this proof?
Angles in a semicircle, angle between the radius and tangent, angles in the same segment.
• Angles in a cyclic quadrilateral:
-- How can you split up a cyclic quadrilateral to enable you to apply a previous theorem?
We can add in radii to the centre from two opposite corners of the quadrilateral and apply the theorem: Angles
subtended at centre and circumference.
Exercise 31B (H)
• Q2 (H)Which circle theorem is this?
Angles subtended at centre and circumference.
• Q3 (H) Which circle theorem is this?
Angles subtended at centre and circumference or angles in a semicircle.
• Q4 (H) What do you need to add to the diagram to be able to give a proof?
Two radii OD and OC.
• Q5 (H) Which theorem can you apply?
Angles subtended at centre and circumference.
• Q6 (H) Which theorem do you need before you can look at the triangle ACB?
Angles in a semicircle.
• Q7 (H) Which theorem can you apply?
Angles subtended at centre and circumference twice.

• Q8 (H) Can you set up an equation from this situation?

We know that we have a right-angled triangle (angles in a semicircle) and so we can let angle CBA = x. Thus, CAB = 2x
and 3x + 90 = 180.
Exercise 31C (H)
• Q1 (H) What does the symbol ⊥ mean?
Perpendicular.
Exercise 31D (H)
• Q2 (H) What angles can you label in this diagram and why?
We can use the alternate segment theorem to help label angles ABC and ACB.
• Q3 (H) What do you know about angles in a semicircle and angles at a tangent?
We have right angles for the angles RPQ, SPB and SPA.

Starters
• A series of starters based on the circle theorems where students need to reconstruct the proofs of each theorem
having been given an initial diagram. Adding prompts for each of the diagrams can differentiate this activity.
Plenaries
• A series of flash cards with circle theorem questions on them where the students need to identify which circle
theorems they can apply to the question.
• There are several activities where the students can explore some of the theorems via examples. The following links
give GeoGebra files that can be given to students to explore the circle theorems. Each of these files can be used to
form an investigative approach to each circle theorem before bringing the class together to discuss how they could
prove each of the new ‘facts’ they have discovered.
• Geogebra Angles subtended at centre and circumference and NRICH Subtended Angles.
• Geogebra Angles in a semicircle and NRICH Right Angles.
• ‘Geogebra Angles in the same segment’ or Geogebra Circle Theorem 3 - Angles in the Same Segment.
• Geogebra Angle between radius and chord.
• Geogebra Angle between the radius and tangent.
• ‘Geogebra Two tangent theorem’ or Geogebra Circle Theorem 6 - Tangents from a Point to a Circle’.
• Geogebra Alternate segment theorem or Geogebra Circle Theorem.
• Geogebra ‘Geogebra Angles in a cyclic quadrilateral’ and NRICH Pegboard Quads.
(nrich.maths.org and geogebra.org)
• There are also some resources linked from the National Stem centre archive. (nationalstemcentre.org.uk)
Assessment ideas
• Students find it difficult to know how much information to include in their solutions to circle theorem questions.
Having a series of questions that are peer assessed in order for students to see what information theirs peers are
providing helps students realise what level of detail is needed for each question.
• Constructing a revision guide personal to the student that is peer assessed by another student or assessed by you
will help your students keep track of the circle theorems they will be required to know and provide a revision aid.
SECTION 3H: APPLICATIONS OF CIRCLE THEOREMS
Section 3 focuses on applying the circle theorems to answer questions. A problem-solving framework is outlined for
how to tackle questions that require multiple applications of the circle theorems.

31H Circles
Prompting questions
• How can you organise your thoughts on the page when tackling circle theorem questions?
We can use the steps outlined in the problem-solving framework or/and we could produce a flow chart of steps to follow
stating each step of our argument for another person to follow. Every time we find a new angle in the diagram, we can
add a new step to our flow chart with a justification using a theorem or a fact, meaning that each step on the flow chart
must be notated with reasons.
Exercise 31E (H)
• Q1 (H) What is the set up in this diagram?
We have an isosceles triangle (given with two radii) and a chord bisected by a radius.
• Q2 (H) What is the set up in this diagram?
We have the same set up as needed for the alternate segment theorem and a chord bisected by a radius.
• Q3–4 (H) What is the set up in this diagram?
We have two tangents meeting at an external point.

• Students are split into pairs and required to answer circle theorem questions on large pieces of paper around the
room. Each pair is only allowed one minute to look at the question before they are required to move on. This activity
promotes good written communication skills since the students are required to pick up a solution where the previous
pair have left off and write answers to questions that they may have not necessarily started. When a solution is
complete students can then mark the next one they move to.
Assessment ideas
• The ‘Work it out’ activity is a great way for students to assess their understanding of the circle theorems and to
prompt discussion about what information is required for each solution.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• The students will have previously studied material from Chapter 8, Chapter 9, Chapter 10 and Chapter 11 and will get
a chance to apply this knowledge in the context of circle theorems
Future learning
• The students are now prepared to combine their knowledge of circle theorems and the work from Chapter 7 and
Chapter 17 to answer more complex questions.
Gateway to A-level
• Coordinate geometry of the circle forms a substantial part of A-level mathematics and students will be required to
know the circle theorems to derive new information that they can use to solve questions involving new material.

Homework Book
• Chapter 31

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets
• Circle outlines

30F / 32H Vector geometry

• Basic arithmetic skills including addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (for finding fractions of amounts)
of both positive and negative numbers.
• How to plot coordinates in all four quadrants, understanding that the x- and y- coordinates are distances in horizontal
and vertical directions from the origin.
2 3
• Basic ratio including connections to proportion e.g. 2:3 is and of the whole.
5 5
• How to solve simple linear equations.
• How to solve simultaneous linear equations.
• What the laws of associativity, commutativity and distributivity are and how they apply to basic arithmetic
operations.
• Form and solve simultaneous equations.
• How to use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the length of a line segment in 2D.
• How to use the Tangent function to find angles in right-angled triangles.
• (Higher only) What a Mathematical proof is.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Represent vectors as a diagram or column vector. • Represent vectors as a diagram or column vector.
Section 2 Section 2
• Apply add and subtract vectors. • Apply add and subtract vectors.
• Multiply vectors by a scalar. • Multiply vectors by a scalar.
• Recognise parallel vectors. • Recognise parallel vectors.
Section 3
• Use vectors to construct geometric arguments and
proofs.
Vocabulary
Scalar, vector, displacement, parallel vectors.

Though in some ways this topic may appear straightforward, there are many possible misconceptions and students can
easily pick up wrong ideas, so care is needed when first teaching this material.
• Confusing x- and y- values
-- When working with column vectors, some students confuse the x- and y-axis and
-- which direction of movement the values refer to. Ask students to recall how coordinates work. Phrases such as ‘x
is a cross’ and ‘y to the sky’ may prove helpful.
-- You could also give students a coordinate grid to practice rewriting coordinates as a positions vector from the

()
3
origin, for example A =(3, 5) so OA or a = 5 . Be careful that this does not reinforce or introduce the
misconception that all vectors must start from the origin (see next point).
• Assuming all vectors start at the origin
-- The term ‘position vector’ is not used in the student book, but teachers should be aware of the following
definitions so they can spot if students begin to treat displacement vectors as position vectors.
position vectors describe the movement to a point on a grid and always start from the origin (in the student
books coordinates rather than position vectors are used to locate positions on a grid).
displacement vectors describe the movement between any two points on a grid, and therefore can start
anywhere on the grid depending on the points in question.
-- A displacement vector can be equal to a position vector, but their starting points will be defined in a different way.
• Understanding that equal vectors are also parallel vectors
x1
( )
-- The definition of parallel vectors is when one vector can be written as a (scalar) multiple of the other, i.e. y = t
x2
( )
1
y 2 where t is the scalar to be found. This is often described to students when they know how to multiply a
vector by a scalar, as one vector is a multiple of the other. It is also important that students understand that equal
vectors are also parallel; this is the case when the scalar is one.
• Understanding what –a means geometrically in relation to a
-- Ask students to draw three vectors and then to draw their opposite vector on the same grid. For example, the
opposite of the vector drawn ‘2-right, 3-up’ would be ‘2-left, 3-down’. This should help students to identify that
multiplying a vector by the scalar –1 results in moving in the opposite direction to the starting vector.
-- This can also be explained by describing a series of vectors in a geometric problem as a network with a series of
paths, e.g.
A
a B
b
O

-- To find AB you can travel back along the arc a (i.e. AO = -a ) and then along
b. This
can
be written as
AB = b − a .
(Higher only) If using only displacement vector notation, you can write AB = AO +OB .
-- Be careful when using the idea of vector problems as networks because it can introduce new problems when
working with midpoints and other values as proportional distances between two points, when students wish to
stick to the grid only. For example, in addition to the information in the diagram above you are told that
1
coordinate M is the midpoint of the line segment AB and are asked to findfind OM . By considering OM = OA + AB
1 2
1
you can simplify to give OM = a + b. If students want to stick to the network and the drawn paths then this has
2 2
little meaning to them, whereas with a strong knowledge of equal and parallel vectors students can understand
that it is the start and end points and the movement between them that are important rather than the routes
taken.

• Understanding that addition is commutative in vector arithmetic

-- This links into the previous point about wanting to use only the drawn paths in the diagram above. Given the
same vectors above, additional vectors can be drawn on the diagram to give:
C
A a
a B
b
O
-- If students fail to understand

the
importance
of parallel vectors in describing movement then they will fail to
understand that AC = OA + AC = OB + BC , i.e. AC =a + b = b + a .
Hooks
• A nice way to introduce the idea of a vector, and then ask students what they think it is, is through a clip of
Despicable Me (movie), which you may be able to find online. It introduces the words ‘direction’, and ‘magnitude’
and produces a discussion point from which you can bring out the definition of a vector and how it differs from a
scalar.
• Another way to introduce vectors is to look at line segments on a grid joining two points e.g. a map of an American
city based on a grid/block network showing two points of interest. A discussion could be based on travelling ‘as
the crow flies’ rather than by the grid network, and through this the discussion can move to the need for vectors to
describe movement.
SECTION 1F / 1H VECTOR NOTATION AND REPRESENTATION
This section introduces the basics of vectors including notation and representation. There are opportunities for
students to go beyond what a vector is and how they can draw it to also consider what it means for vectors to be
parallel, equal and opposite. These ideas are drawn out through the first exercise.
Prompting questions
Whilst introducing the need for vectors, good prompts for promoting discussion may be:
• How can you describe any point on a grid/axis?
Using coordinates to define the distance from the origin in terms of the horizontal and vertical distance.
• What are you describing its position in terms of?
Its distance from the origin.
• What is the quickest way to travel from the origin to this point?
Diagonally or ‘as the crow flies’.
• What if you want to describe how to get from coordinate B to coordinate E? Why is this more challenging?
Need to give starting point and x and y movement, and hence introduce need for vectors.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What would the column vector be if the arrows were pointing in the opposite direction?
The same numbers with the opposite polarity.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How else could you describe this ‘opposite’ vector?
It is the original vector multiplied by –1.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) Are there any other pairs of vectors that are of interest? What is interesting about them?
This question should prompt discussion between students.

• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) How can you draw on the right-angled triangle to show the movement represented by the vectors
given when finding the new coordinate points?
e.g. for part a - draw a triangle with base 2 units to the right from starting point and then 7 units up.
• What is meant by opposite vectors?
Vectors that are linked by a scale factor of -1, i.e. the same vector where each element has the opposite polarity so it
describes a movement of the same distance in the opposite direction.
• What is meant by equal vectors?
Vectors which describe movement in the same direction for the same distance.
• What is meant by parallel vectors?
The movement is the same direction but they do not necessarily start and finish in the same place on the grid or move
the same distance. One of the vectors will be a multiple of the other, i.e. they are connected by a scale factor.
• Can you give 3 vectors and a coordinate point that together form a right-angled triangle?
• Can you do the same for an isosceles triangle?
• Can you do it for an equilateral triangle?

Starters
• The ideas in the ‘Hooks’ section are nice ways to introduce this topic. Looking at a large coordinate grid (with or
without the underlay of a city) would be a good way to replicate the example in hook 2. Providing multiple examples
of routes to take, e.g. between two referenced points on the grid (defined in terms of their coordinates) that requires
and instructions such as starting at ‘place 1’ head east for three blocks then north for five. Whereas just saying head
east for three blocks then north for five implies you start at (0,0).
• In pairs, students play ‘Vector snakes and ladders’ – to help consolidate the use of column vectors. The board is
designed so that the vectors placed on some squares on the board displace the counter in a helpful or not so helpful
way. An alternative is to ask students to write the vectors that describe the movement the snakes and ladders give on
a standard game board.
• A card game of ‘follow me’ or dominoes. A series of points on a grid are projected at the front of the class. One side of
the follow me/domino card gives the label of one of the points and the other side gives a column vector e.g. using the
diagram for question 2 in Exercise 30A (F) / 32A (H), you could have the following cards:
2
D -3
-8
H 4
Students read out their column vector and calculate the point it arrives at using the grid on the board. If another
student’s card has the letter of that point they then continue the game by reading out their column vector. In the
example above, the next card would have the letter A. These cards can be made more challenging for use with
section 2 by giving a calculation to simplify first, e.g.
D (-812 ) + 3(-23 )
• NRICH Vector Journeys pulls out a lot of the above points that come through in Exercise 30A (F) / 32A (H) about
opposite, equal and parallel vectors but there are many more options for exploration and introduction to addition of
vectors (section 2) in this simple, open task. (nrich.maths.org)

SECTION 2F / 2H VECTOR ARITHMETIC
This section introduces students to the basics of vector arithmetic including addition and subtraction of vectors and
multiplication by a scalar. Students are not introduced to other forms of vector multiplication until A-level and it’s
probably worth explaining to students that this is one of many forms of multiplication with vectors.
Prompting questions
Whilst working through exercise B, good prompts for students might be:
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How can you use a grid to help? How would these vectors look on the plane (end)? Starting at any grid
point (on square paper) draw each vector successively to find the finishing grid point. Then join up the start and end
points to reveal the single vector that describes the translation.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) What do you need for parallel vectors?
To find a scalar multiplier.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) What does it mean when a combination of two vectors makes a third?
That the left-hand side combination for movements in the x-direction must be the same as the movement in the
x-direction on the right-hand side of the equality sign. The same is true for the movements in the y-direction.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) What do you need to set up in order to find the values x, y, z and t that create these vector equations?
Linear and simultaneous linear equations.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) If the ratio of AC:CB is 1:3, what must be the ratio of the movement in the x-direction of A to C and C to
B?
The same, 1:3.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) If 20 is the movement between A and B in the x-direction, what proportion of 20 is movement from A
to C and what proportion of 20 is movement from C to B?
We can look at the ratio for the x-direction movement as 1:3, with our total of 20 we have a ratio for the x-movement as
5:15 for AC and C to B.)
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) What fraction of the line segment AB is AC if the ratio of AC:CB is 1:3?
One quarter.
• (Higher only) What different types of triangles do you know about and how do you tell them apart?
Equilateral, isosceles, scalene (consider the magnitudes of vectors) and right-angled (in 2D use, consider the gradients
of the line segments).

Starters
• As mentioned in section 1, the NRICH Vector Journeys task offers opportunities for students to discover addition
of vectors through exploration. It also gives students concrete examples for drawing on right-angled triangles and
forming a justification for why the x-values and y-values are summed when adding vectors. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Vectors – Short Problems can be used as starters and plenaries. (nrich.maths.org)
• The NRICH Vector Journeys task can be extended into a second problem which explores all possible combinations
of vector addition to arrive at a new coordinate point. By allowing multiple uses of the two vectors, students can also
discover vector multiplication by a scalar as repeated addition.
• Once students are able to add vectors they can explore those that sum to zero through a closed path (polygon).
NRICH Spotting the Loophole offers opportunities to practise basic arithmetic on vectors while completing the task
and further consolidates their knowledge through the use of diagrams. (nrich.maths.org)

SECTION 3F / 3H: MIXED PRACTICE / USING VECTORS IN GEOMETRIC PROOFS
Section 3 explores the use of vectors to prove geometric results and applies vector arithmetic to solving problems
including finding midpoints. This is the section where students display most misconceptions as they are able to apply
procedure and manipulate vectors, but struggle to reconcile this with their geometric meaning to solve problems. In
addition students’ understanding of mathematical proof can limit their ability to successfully complete the problems in
this section. Students often have more success when they are encouraged to sketch the vectors they are working with
(note: this is a sketch and not an accurate representation of the vectors they are working on).
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q2 (H) How do you reverse a vector?
We take the negative of it.
• Q2 (F) / Q3 (H) If the vectors describing the movement between the vertices of the triangles are multiples of each
other, what does this mean?
The triangles are similar.
• Q5 (H) How do you know when two vectors are parallel?
One vector is a multiple of the other.
• Q6 (H) How
would you write down a vector equation using the movements between the points given?

Vector AC = AB + BC .

• Q7 (H) What do the vectors HI, IJ and JH tell you about triangle HIJ?
That it is a similar triangle to EFG.
• Q12 (H) What diagram could you draw?
Assume parallel sides for the banks.
• How can you represent the flow of the river as a vector?
East to west flow is in the negative x-direction.
• How can you do the same thing for the swimmer?
We assume the swimmer will try and swim 1.5 m per second straight to the other side of the bank. So 1.5 in the positive
y-direction.
• What will the resulting vector be for the movement?
-3
( )
The vector will look like 1.5 .
• What lengths and angles could we label? (The vector for the movement will have a direction and this will help
compute the distances by using trigonometry and the width of the river.)

• Getting the students to pick out the correct information from a diagram to construct vector equations is a useful
starter or plenary once students have done section 1 and 2. A diagram could be displayed and the students must
write down how to get from each vertex to each other vertex.
Enrichment ideas
• Students construct their own shapes from given vectors. The teacher then ask students to show, describe or
(Higher only) prove something about their shape. To differentiate this, suggestions can be given that show certain
properties of 2D shapes i.e. the diagonals of a square are of equal length.
Assessment ideas
• Pupils could form a poster summarising the vectors material as a class. Each student contributes a sticky note to an
area of the poster based on one of the topics or highlighted points in the chapter. The teacher then helps compile the
poster, either on a white board or the beginnings of a wall display, and students comment on the points that have
been drawn out or any that have been missed.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
This topic provides a good opportunity to return to work on straight line graphs (Chapter 28 (F) / 29 (H)). There are
opportunities to consider the connections between both a line segment, the vector that describes it, its gradient and
its associated right-angled triangle. These are all extension tasks that help consolidate how all these concepts are
connected and prepare students for future study at KS5.
Future learning
x
Column vectors are used in transformations (see Chapter 38 (F) / 41 (H)) to denote a translation ( y ) in the 2D plane.
Also, when students have covered the Pythagoras’ theorem and trigonometry chapters, the content here can be
revisited and students can use their new knowledge to look at magnitudes and directions of vectors.
Gateway to A-Level
This is a relatively straightforward topic at GCSE that will be built upon at KS5. Having strong foundations in this
concept will be necessary for students to extend their knowledge at A-level. In addition to column vectors and
displacement vector notation, students will also learn to write and operate on vectors in their component form and
extend in to 3D. They will also work mainly with position vectors and learn to write the equation of a straight line using
a position vector, displacement vector and scalar, and also convert between Cartesian and vector forms of straight lines.
Students may then also go on to learn additional vector operations, work with vector equations of planes and extend
their linear algebra knowledge to matrices.
Students may also use vectors when they look at acceleration in a given direction and form vector equations of straight
lines where the scalar represents time.
Problem-solving book
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

31F / 33H Transformations in a plane

• What angles of 90, 180 and 270 degrees look like.

• Which way a clockwise and which way an anti-clockwise movement goes.
• How to fluently use the (x, y) coordinates on the 2D plane.
• How to plot straight lines of the form x = c, y = c and y = x (where c is any number).
• What a column vector is (i.e. that it describes movement in the x and y directions).
• Basic number skills for translations.

• The names of polygons, their definitions and properties.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Carry out, identify and describe reflections. • Carry out, identify and describe reflections.
Section 2 Section 2
• Carry out, identify and describe translations using 2D • Carry out, identify and describe translations using
vectors. 2D vectors.
• Find the centre of rotation by construction.
Section 3 Section 3
• Carry out, identify and describe rotations. • Carry out, identify and describe rotations.
Section 4
• Carry out, identify and describe combined
transformations.
Vocabulary
• Object, image, congruent, mirror line, perpendicular bisector, orientation.
• Confusing the directions clockwise and anti-clockwise.

Comparing these instructions to an analogue clock supports students in picturing this movement.
• Assuming that a reflection (mirror) line cannot cover part of a shape.
See Foundation Exercise 31A, Q4.
• Mixing up the x- and y-axes.
Phrases like ‘x is a cross’ and ‘y to the sky’ may be helpful in supporting students with this.
• Having problems when a reflection line is a diagonal, meaning y = x in the xy plane.
Directing students to turn the page so that the line of reflection is vertical makes this type of reflection far easier. In
addition students may ask for tracing paper in the exam, which can be very useful in supporting less able students.
• Confusing column vector notation with coordinates.

• Misremembering which part of a column vector controls the x-direction movement and which controls the
y-direction movement.
Asking students which value comes first in a coordinate can help with their memory of which part of a column vector
controls the horizontal and vertical movement.
• Finding it difficult to remember what pieces of information are required for each transformation, for example
a rotation needs a centre from which to rotate and an angle with a direction.
Often the number of marks in an exam question can help with this and students should aim to give one piece of
information for each mark.
Hooks
• The mirroring of movement is a nice way to introduce reflections. Placing a metre ruler between pairs, get the one of
the pair to ‘mirror’ the movement of their partner. You could start with the teacher mirroring a student.
• The idea of a translation could be introduced by starting with a city in a grid layout (like New York) and overlaying a
flat xy grid. Ask the students ‘how could we describe moving around a city like this?’.
• Illustrate rotation by photographing a ball on the end of a piece of string rotating around. Display pictures of the ball
in different positions.They are all pictures of the same ball and you can highlight that, although in different positions
in each image, the ball is always equal distance away from the centre of rotation. The GeoGebra animation may also
help illustrate this point. (geogebra.org)
SECTION 1F / 1H: REFLECTIONS
Section 1 focuses on reflections and introduces the idea of congruent shapes. The section uses the idea that reflections
are mirror images of the object you start with.
The idea above in the ‘Hooks’ section could be used to introduce this idea and the students could describe what things
stay the same in a reflection and what is different between the object and the image.
Whilst preparing the students for answering questions that involve performing reflections or finding equations of
reflection lines, you could revisit some of the ideas in Chapter 28 (F) / 29 (H) on describing horizontal and vertical lines.
Prompting questions
Exercise 31A (F)
• What do we require to reflect an object to give an image?
We need to know where the reflection or mirror line is.
• Q4 (F) What happens if the reflection or mirror line goes through the shape?
Answer dependent on the shape but students sometimes struggle with this.
• Q2 (F) What do the lines y = x and y = −x look like?
They are diagonal lines with gradient one and negative one going through the origin.
• Q3 (H) What do the lines y = x and y = 1 − x look like?
One is a diagonal line with gradient one going through the origin and the other has a gradient of negative one with a
y-intercept of one.
• Q5 (H) What are definitions of a hexagon and octagon?
A hexagon has six sides and an octagon has eight sides.
Exercise 31C (F) / 33B (H)
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Does it matter which shape is the object and which is the image?
No.

• Why?
Look back through your examples of reflections; does relabeling the object and image change the reflection or mirror
line?
No.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) How can we determine where the reflection or mirror line must be?
You can draw lines from the ‘corners’ or ‘vertices’ of the object to the ‘corners’ or ‘vertices’ of the image. The mirror line
must be a perpendicular bisector for all the construction lines you have drawn.

Starters
• NRICH Mirror, Mirror… is useful as a starter activity before starting other section 2 Transformations. The follow up
task to this, NRICH ...on the Wall, is useful and could form the main part of a lesson if you wanted to follow on from
the Mirror, Mirror… starter and not go into transformations. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Weekly Problem 34 – 2009 could also be used as starter for the material covered before Exercise 31B (F) /
33A (H). (nrich.maths.org)
Plenaries
• A ‘reflection game’ for use with an interactive whiteboard. Students can be challenged to shade in parts of different
shapes using a given reflection or mirror line to create a correct reflection.
• Finding symmetric objects around the school and discussing their properties. Students could be sent away with
cameras to capture these images and share them with the class.
• (Foundation only) Take photographs of students’ faces and split the picture in half. They are then required to mirror
their face. NRICH One Reflection Implies Another may also be useful. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• A consolidation exercise where reflecting rectangles in specific reflection/mirror lines forms a word.
SECTION 2F / 2H: TRANSLATIONS
Section 2 introduces the idea of a translation as a slide of the shape from an object to an image. The section stresses
at the beginning that a translated shape has the same orientation and we achieve translations by using vectors.
Fluency with Chapter 30 (F) / 32 (H) is hugely beneficial here and it may be advisable to start with a diagnostic starter
(something along the lines of the ‘Work it out’ multiple choice question) on vectors.
Prompting questions
Exercise 31E (F) / 33C (H)
• Q1 (F) Which part of the vector controls the movement in the x-direction? Which part of the vector controls the
movement in the y-direction?
The top number in the vector controls movement in the x-direction and the bottom number controls movement in the
y-direction.
• Q2–3 (F) / Q2–3 (H) How do you move between each?
We have a movement in the x-direction and in the y-direction.
• If you are moving in the negative x-direction how do you represent that in the vector?
Negative number in the top part of the vector.


• An activity based on Q3 in Exercise 31F (F) / 33F (H), where students come up with their own picture and
instructions, is a great way to allow students to consolidate their knowledge of translations and provide scope for
paired work. Once students think they have a vectors jigsaw, they give it to someone else to try.
• Following on from the NRICH activities mentioned in Section 1, NRICH Mirror, Mirror… and NRICH ...on the Wall
provide activities that illustrate the fact that two consecutive reflections give a translation. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Consolidation exercise where a word is formed by translating rectangles by different vectors to make letters. The
word could be one of the key vocabulary for this section, for example ‘orientation’.
SECTION 3F / 3H: ROTATIONS
Section 3 focuses on rotations and introduces the idea that a rotation does not preserve orientation but does preserve
congruence. The section opens with the three main pieces of information you need to define a rotation of an object
to form an image: a given centre, an angle and a direction. The ‘Work it out’ question can be used to determine if your
students need a recap of 2D coordinates and the terms: clockwise and anticlockwise before starting this section.
Prompting questions
Exercise 31G (F) / 33E (H)
• Q1 (F) When is it acceptable to give only two pieces of information for rotating a shape?
When you rotate by 180 degrees, you do not require a direction to your rotation.
• Q5 (F) / Q3 (H) If you rotate a shape 270 degrees anti-clockwise, how far do you rotate in the clockwise direction?
90 degrees.
Exercise 31H (F) / 33F (H)
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) When describing rotations what pieces of information do we need and why?
Centre of rotation to know where to rotate the object from, an angle of rotation to know how far to rotate it and a
direction to the rotation so you know which way to rotate.
• How can tracing paper help find the centre of rotation?
You can use the tracing paper because the image is congruent to the object. You can use trial and improvement by
tracing over the object and trying different centres of rotation.
• Q4 (H) How can you find the centre of rotation?
Firstly, connect two pairs of corresponding points on the object and image. Secondly, use a pair of compasses to find the
perpendicular bisector for each of the two lines given by connecting each pair of corresponding points. Finally, the place
where the perpendicular bisectors meet is the centre of rotation.

• A ‘Spot the transformation’ set of slides based on the idea of the ‘Work it out’ multiple-choice question before
Exercise 31H (F) / 33F (H).
Plenaries
• A suitable plenary is playing noughts and crosses with key vocabulary. Students form two teams and pick a word on
the noughts and crosses grid to define. If they get it correct they get to place a ‘nought’ or ‘cross’ in that grid. It can
be a good idea to place a challenging word to define in the centre spot!

• GeoGebra is a useful tool when teaching rotations. (geogebra.org)
• NRICH Attractive Rotations allows students to explore making patterns via rotations of a shape and provides
opportunities to consolidate knowledge of rotations. In addition, the patterns can be printed and swapped with
another student so that they can determine how each shape was made, for example, which rotations have been
performed and where the centre of rotation was. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Consolidation exercise where rotating rectangles with different centres and by different angles forms a word. The
word could be one of the key vocabularies for this section, for example ‘angle’.
SECTION 4H: COMBINED TRANSFORMATIONS
Section 4 brings all the ideas of the chapter together and introduces higher tier students to combining a series of
transformations and describing the single transformation that could be made to take the object to the final image.
Prompting questions
Exercise 33G (H)
• Q4 (H) This is a chance to get the students to ask their own questions about how to distinguish between
transformations. Questions that could help this process are listed below.
• What can you see straightaway has happened to your image?
It cannot be a rotation if the image has the same orientation as the object.
• How far away are the corresponding corners of your object and image?
If all corresponding corners are the same vector away then we can describe the transformation as a translation. For
some objects, where the corners have not been pre-labelled, this method could yield a reflection.
• If you had some tracing paper, what could you do?
This could be useful to help with translating your object to the image or you can use it to help find a centre of rotation.
• What are the pieces of information that you need to write down in each case?
Rotation: centre, angle and direction. Translation: vector. Reflection: reflection or mirror line.

Plenaries
• Consolidation exercise where a word is formed by the transformation of rectangles by different transformations.
• NRICH Transformation Game is a good way to consolidate the chapter’s material, however it does also contain
enlargements that occur in Chapter 33 (F) / 35 (H). (nrich.maths.org)
• A treasure map on a grid. You are given a list of instructions to perform transformations on a cross (x) to find the
treasure.
• NRICH A Roll of Patterned Paper combined with NRICH One Reflection Implies Another and NRICH Rotations
Are Not Single Round Here provide good extension material. The NRICH Paint Rollers for Frieze Patterns has an
exposition on some of the ideas behind each of these problems. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• A good, challenging assessment task is to ask students to create their own transformations jigsaws (examples
available online). Having collected in students’ work you can then pick the best to share with the class for them
to complete. They are rarely flawless and getting students to correct their mistakes is just as valuable as a perfect
jigsaw.

TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Throughout this chapter students will be using some of the skills they developed in Chapter 8, Chapter 9, Chapter 28
(F) / 29 (H) and Chapter 30 (F) / 32 (H).
Future learning
• Congruency is dealt with again in Chapter 34 (F) / 36 (H) and a fourth type of transformation, enlargement, will be
covered in Chapter 33 (F) / 35 (H).
• Chapter 41 (H) covers where being able to describe a reflection or mirror line and a rotation.
Gateway to A-level
• Matrices are the next level of transformations and appear at A-level. Matrices can be used to describe all the
transformations mentioned in this chapter and some further types of transformations studied in higher level
mathematics.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
• 1 auto-marked quickfire quiz
• 1 auto-marked question set, each with four levels

Time-saving sheets

32F / 34H Construction and loci

• Properties of angles.
• Properties of shapes and associated language, including circles.
• Read and write angles and lines using formal notation conventions.
• Measure and construct angles using a protractor.
• Notation conventions including: ⊥ for ‘perpendicular to’ and  for ‘parallel to’.
• Knowledge of basic ratio and scale.
• Use knowledge of complements of angles around a point to accurately construct reflex angles using a 180°
protractor.
• Convert metric units of length.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Use ruler, protractor and pair of compasses to • Use ruler, protractor and pair of compasses to
accurately construct angles and shapes. accurately construct angles and shapes.
• Accurately copy diagrams using rulers and a pair of • Accurately copy diagrams using rulers and a pair of
compasses only. compasses only.
Section 2 Section 2
• Construct the perpendicular bisector of a line. • Construct the perpendicular bisector of a line.
• Construct the perpendicular at a given point on a line. • Construct the perpendicular at a given point on a
line.
• Construct a perpendicular from a given point to a line.
• Construct a perpendicular from a given point to a
• Bisect an angle.
line.
• Bisect an angle.
Section 3 Section 3
• Use constructions to solve loci problems. • Use constructions to solve loci problems.
Section 4 Section 4
• Apply appropriate constructions and loci knowledge to • Apply appropriate constructions and loci knowledge
a variety of problems including those with a context. to a variety of problems including those with a
context.
Vocabulary
• Radius, circumference, semicircle, chord, bisect.

• (Higher only) Midpoint, perpendicular bisector, locus (loci).

• Students struggle with formal language and notations in geometry.

For example, when a vertex is labelled B, students refer to the angle as B forgetting that there are two possible angles
this could be, one less than 180 degrees and the other greater than 180 degrees as a minimum. Having starters based
on notation, and highlighting angles and lines given their label, can help identify and recognise these errors at the
beginning, an example shown below.
A
F
E
B G
H
D
C
• Students have problems measuring and drawing angles using a protractor. These problems are mainly born
from their misuse of a protractor. Students either fail to line up the centre of the protractor with the vertex of the
angle or read from the wrong scale of the protractor. Labelling the vertex before they draw the rest of the angle to
have something to line up to and reminding students to always start from 0 on the scale can be helpful in preventing
these problems. In addition to this, NRICH Estimating Angles will reinforce estimation skills relating to angles, and
can also support students in recognising their errors in reading from the wrong scale. The tip in section 1, which
suggests students extend the lines of an angle if struggling to read the size from their protractor, can also assist them
in accurately reading off the size of an angle. (nrich.maths.org)
• Students’ work may not be accurate enough.
It could be that they are struggling to work with their pair of compasses and pencil. Having a set of Christmas cracker
screwdrivers to hand for loose compasses and reminding students to sharpen their pencils helps with this. Students
who struggle to use their pair of compasses because they put too much pressure on it may find it better to spin the
paper and not the pair of compasses.
• Some students struggle to remember how to draw basic constructions.
Time spent working on ways to prompt students’ memories can be useful, such as considering the constructions as
all linked points by finding/drawing the rhombus. If you join all construction points in any construction problem they
form a rhombus (see example below). You could ask students to add these lines to their construction notes so that
you can prompt ‘Where is the rhombus?’.
bisect angle BAC B
A look for the rhombus

C
You could also encourage students to make their own ‘how to’ guides for each construction as an assessment task.
• Students may want to rub out their construction lines or they may be too faint in the scan of their answer.
Reinforcing that construction lines are mandatory to get the marks and spending time marking exam questions with
students, or scanning in their work to show what problems may occur, can help to prevent this.
• Students have problems drawing arcs.
Usually because they misjudge where they are going to intersect so they could draw the full circle when constructing
rather than just the arcs required.

Hooks
• Introducing loci problems with analogies relating to animals tethered to poles and the space they can move within
helps students gain a conceptual understanding of what is going on in loci problems. You could ‘act out’ loci
problems with the students themselves: using rope to attach them to a fixed point, or, given two students standing
on opposite sides of the classroom, ask students one by one to stand an equal distance between them.
SECTION 1F / 1H: GEOMETRICAL INSTRUMENTS
Section 1 revises the basic construction skills students need in this chapter. It focuses on drawing and measuring angles
using a protractor and then teaches students a method for accurately constructing copies of diagrams using a pair of
compasses and a ruler, only for diagrams where a protractor would normally be used, for example, an AAS triangle.
For less able students, having diagrams drawn for Exercise 32A (F) or providing supporting sketches would be advisable.
Prompting questions
• What is the difference between a sketch and a drawing?
A sketch is not accurate; it only indicates the general diagram.
• Can you sketch what you are being asked to draw first to give an idea of what you could do?
General advice that could help students who are struggling to know what needs to be done without worrying about
accuracy.
• What equipment does the question allow you to use?
Make sure students read each line of the question and use the equipment stated.
• Q2–3, 7–8 (F) / Q2–3, 7–8 (H) Have you placed the centre of the protractor on the vertex of your angle?
General advice that could help students.
• Which scale are you going to use on your protractor?
The one where the line is on 0.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What do angles around a point sum to? How can we use this information to draw reflex angles?
360 degrees.
• What else could we do to draw a reflex angle?
Split our angle into a straight line and the additional part of the angle.
• Q4–6 (F) / Q4–6 (H) If we have the diameter of a circle how can we find the centre of the circle? Hint: what is the
connection between the diameter and the radius of a circle?
The diameter is twice the length of the radius.
• Q9 (F) / Q9 (H) Are there any angle or shape facts you could use to identify what you have to do?
What do we know about an equilateral triangle? What do we know about angles around a point?

• For students who need some additional practice with a pair of compasses and those who can gain some additional
conceptual knowledge regarding properties of triangles, NRICH Constructing Triangles is an ideal investigation to
look at. (nrich.maths.org)
• ‘True or false’ triangle constructions based on AAS, SAS and SSS triangle facts are also useful.
Assessment ideas
• Provide solutions to Exercise 32A that have been photocopied onto OHP acetate (or similar) to allow students to then
overlay them on their own work and self-assess their own accuracy. For simple angle constructions give students

± 2° accuracy guidelines to check their working and give them an idea of how their work will be marked in the exam.
(Note: this also makes a good peer-assessment tool for classes.)
SECTION 2F / 2H: RULER AND COMPASS CONSTRUCTIONS
Section 2 again revises ruler and compass constructions. The section starts with bisections of a line and from
there continues this construction to include: constructing a perpendicular at a given point on a line, constructing a
perpendicular from a point to a line. It then covers how to bisect an angle. Throughout this entire chapter you can
suggest that students look for the rhombus (see misconceptions above) and when first working on these constructions
students can draw in the rhombus in a different coloured pen.
Prompting questions
• Have you opened your compass points enough so that your arcs will intersect?
3
Students may wish to use a general rule of thumb to help here such as ‘open your compass to of the length of the line’.
4
• Have you kept your pair of compasses at the same width when working on your construction?
The answer hopefully will be ‘yes’.
• Have you labelled all the parts of the shape as required?
Make sure all line segments are appropriately labelled to prevent errors in more complex problems.
• Can you name all the parts of a circle?
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) Which construction finds the midpoint of a line?
Perpendicular bisector.
• Q5 (F) / Q5, 9 (H) If you have not spotted any patterns or rules yet, what could you do next?
Repeat the investigation.
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) What does ⊥ or  mean? Perpendicular to and parallel to.

Assessment ideas
• Use exam questions and photocopy solutions on OHP acetate to give students an idea of how accurate they need to
be and what construction lines will be looked for in the exam.
• Having questions pre-printed saves time and maximises the number of constructions students complete in a lesson.
• Having 1 or 2 heavily annotated examples for students to copy up as step-by-step guides for each construction is
often very helpful for future revision of this work. We get students to write them up on A5 card and laminate them as
revision cards to store in their books/folders.
SECTION 3F / 3H: LOCI
(Foundation only) Section 3 introduces the idea that there may be more than one point that solves a problem and
focuses on using constructions to find the paths formed by loci problems.
(Higher only) Section 3 focuses on using constructions to solve a variety of loci problems and explores the idea that the
solution to a problem may be a set of points that form either a line or area. The locus of points may also have to satisfy
more than one condition.
The images at the end of the section in the chapter offer ample opportunity for all students to discuss the type of shapes
and constructions they can see.

Prompting questions
• What language can we use to describe what will happen?
• What shapes can you see?
• Is the solution an area or a line?
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Can you draw a picture of the problem being described to help you?
For example, what does a tennis court look like?
• Q8 (F) / Q8 (H) How do I find the centre of a rectangle?
Find the point where the diagonals intersect.
• Q10 (H) Where is a valve on a bike wheel? What is going to happen to this valve as the wheel rotates?
It is attached to the edge of the wheel by the tyre so will go up and down as the wheel rotates (creating a cycloid).

• NRICH How far does it move? ties into the ideas being looked at in Q8, based on rotating regular polygons. (nrich.
maths.org)
• NRICH Like a Circle in a Spiral is based on a similar idea to the above and also makes a nice end of term activity.
(nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 4F / 4H: APPLYING YOUR SKILLS
Section 4 connects the ideas of the previous section to contextual problems. This adds a layer of complexity related to
drawing and solving problems where a scale is involved.
Prompting questions
• Can you sketch the problem to work out what shapes and constructions will be involved?
General advice that could help students who are struggling to know what needs to be done without worrying about
accuracy.
• Have you answered the question by clearly stating which line or area is the locus of points required?
Some students may need a general reminder to clearly show their solution.
• Q3–5 (F) / Q3–5 (H) Are there any properties of shapes that would be useful in this question? For example, Q3, which
diagonal will be longer?
• Q6–7 (F) / Q6–10 (H) What is the scale of the problem? Do you need to convert any lengths to fit your scale diagram?
Yes or they won’t fit on the page. Recommend students use 1cm:100cm (1m) for their drawings (or 1cm:10m for Q9 (H)).
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) Is there any additional information you need to solve this problem?
The length of an average arm so that people can’t reach over the rails to touch the monkey either.
• Q9 (H) What does ‘equidistant’ mean? What constructions can I use to find the line of points equidistant?
Angle or line bisector.


• You could use a range of activities based on maps of the local area, such as treasure hunting or deciding on where to
build a new shop. These tasks take a while to create but are much better when personal to the area students live in.
They can also be differentiated for different classes to include a different number of clues, which can be printed on
card to also promote problem-solving skills.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• A lot of the work in this chapter relies on strong geometric foundations in language, notation conventions and
properties of shapes built up in Chapter 8. A basic knowledge of scale and proportion is also required in
Chapter 26 (F) / 27 (H).
Future learning
• (Higher only) When working on Chapter 31 (H) there is a nice opportunity to recap constructions involving circles by
looking at NRICH Curvy areas. In addition to this, the ideas presented in this chapter about multiple solutions being
valid, and hence a line or area solution, are also instrumental in graphing inequalities later in Chapter 25 (F) / 26 (H).
(nrich.maths.org)
Gateway to A-level
• Parametric equations, which are covered in the second year of A-level, give a loci of points on the plane given a
parameter.
• Students will also learn about cycloid curves, similar to the lines formed in the problems related to rolling shapes in
Section 3.
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 1 Questions 17, 18 • Chapter 1 Questions 9, 10, 23
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes

33F / 35H Similarity

• How to label angles correctly.

• What the symbols corresponding to parallel, perpendicular and equality look like on a diagram.
• How to prove that two triangles are congruent.
• How to solve simple linear equations.
• How to recognise numbers in equivalent ratios.
• (Higher only) How to calculate squares and cubes of rational numbers.
• How to work with ratio and proportion.

• Using coordinates to define an object in the plane.
• Definitions of the types of triangles and quadrilaterals.
• Multiplication and division by rational numbers.
• (Higher only) Calculating area and volume of 2D and 3D shapes.
• (Higher only) The dimensions that are needed for area and volume.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To know what is meant by the phrase ‘mathematically • To know what is meant by the phrase
similar’. ‘mathematically similar’.
• To be able to determine when two objects are • To be able to determine when two objects are
mathematically similar. mathematically similar.
Section 2 Section 2
• To know what is meant by a ‘mathematical • To know what is meant by a ‘mathematical
enlargement’. enlargement’.
• To be able to enlarge a shape given a positive rational • To be able to enlarge a shape given a positive
scale factor. rational scale factor.
• To know what the centre of enlargement is. • To know what the centre of enlargement is.
• To be able to enlarge a shape given a scale factor and • To be able to enlarge a shape given a scale factor
centre of enlargement. and centre of enlargement.
• To determine a given centre of enlargement and scale • To determine a given centre of enlargement and
factor from a diagram. scale factor from a diagram.
• To be able to enlarge a shape given a negative
rational scale factor.

Section 3 Section 3
• To be able to determine similar polygons. • To be able to determine similar polygons.
• To be able to determine similar 3D shapes.
• To know the relationship between lengths, areas
and volumes of similar shapes.
Vocabulary
• Enlargement, scale factor, centre of enlargement.
• All issues from Chapter 8, Chapter 9, Chapter 20 (F) / 21 (H) and Chapter 23 (F) / 24 (H).
• Labelling.
Students need to be fluent in labelling triangles and general polygons in a consistent way. Poorly labelled polygons
mean that students cannot refer to the sides or angles in a precise way. To address this issue students should be
exposed to good practice that they can model and they should also be given opportunity to critique poor labelling in
a starter activity.
• Ratio and proportion.
Students do not always use the correct terminology. To address this, students should pay particular attention to the
‘Problem-solving framework’ in each section. This should allow students to make the connection between a ratio of
side lengths and the proportion the triangles are in.
• Scale factor and centre of enlargement.
Students are generally quite happy with the concept and application of simply enlarging by positive numbers greater
than one. Issues arise when students are required to construct their enlargements from a centre of enlargement.
To address this with your students you could have a series of ‘student-answered questions’ on the topic of centre
of enlargement by a positive scale factor and students will then need to determine if a, the correct centre of
enlargement has been used, b, the correct centre of enlargement has been found. The students then read and
critique these questions to identify common errors.
• Fractional scale factors.
Some students find this hard simply because the word ‘enlargement’ is still used. To help these students
emphasising the word ‘enlargement’ when using fractional scale factors will help reinforce this idea.
• (Higher only) Negative scale factors.
Students often can miss that the shape has been turned upside down. To address this, you could refer to work
covered in Chapter 30 (F) / 32 (H). You can describe each vertex in your diagram by a vector given from your centre
of enlargement. To find the enlarged image you can simply multiply each vector by the scale factor and the new
vectors (using the centre of enlargement as the base point) will give the location of the transformed vertices under
the enlargement.
• (Higher only) Volume scale factor.
Students still struggle to see that multiplying the measurements of a 3D object has a cubing effect on the volume.
Students could start with some basic cuboids and work out the effect that doubling and tripling the side lengths has
on the area and volume of the cuboid.
Hooks
• NRICH Similar Rectangles is a nice activity that allows students a way into similarity. Here the students are not told
what ‘similar’ means and can interpret what this must mean for a rectangle. You could start with the dimensions of
the object rectangle and give the area of the image rectangle and ask what the measurements of the image rectangle
could be, given that the rectangles are similar. This also allows for an early conversation about area scale factors,
which is useful for foundation students and essential for higher students. (nrich.maths.org)
• Students are very happy to enlarge shapes. If one shape is an enlargement of the other, how much do they differ in
their properties? This allows you to introduce congruence as a special case, where the scale factor is 1, and that all
other cases create ‘mathematically similar’ shapes.
SECTION 1F / 1H: SIMILAR TRIANGLES
Prompting questions
• What does mathematically similar mean?

Two objects are mathematically similar if they are enlargements of each other. Two triangles are mathematically
similar if they satisfy the criteria given at the start of section 1.
• How do we name angles and sides in triangles?
We use the convention that, if ABC is a triangle then the internal angle at A is described as angle CAB (formed between
line segments AB and AC).
• How do we find ratios between triangles?
We need to compare the length of one side in the original triangle with the corresponding length in the enlarged
triangle.
• What does it mean for two triangles to be in proportion?
It means that the ratio 1 : n of corresponding sides has the same n for each pair of sides.
• Q1, 4, 7–8 (F) / Q1, 4, 7–8 (H) What do the arrows on the line segments mean?
They denote parallel sides.
• Q2 (F) / Q3 (H) What conditions do we need for similar triangles?
See bullet points at start of section 1.
• Q3 (F) / Q4 (H) Can you prove that a statement is false by providing an example to show this is the case?
If you believe a statement not to be true then you can construct a pair of triangles that do not satisfy it.
• Q5 (F) / Q6 (H) Have we seen these side lengths before?
They are Pythagorean triples.
• Q6 (F) / Q7 (H) How do we calculate the proportion of each corresponding side?
We find the missing lengths using the same unity ratio 1 : n from the first triangle to the second.
• Q9 (F) Which sides cannot be which value?
The shorter lengths cannot be 10 or 12.
• Q10 (F) Which pairs of numbers (a, b) give the same fraction b ?
a
(2, 6), (3, 9) and (4, 12) all give the same fraction b .
a
• Q10-11 (H) How many triangles are we looking at?
We are looking at triangles ADC and AEB for Q10 (H) and for Q11 (H) we have AB (top of boat) and AC (top of
lighthouse).

• Q9 (F) and Q10 (F) / Q10 (H) can be turned into an activity to start or finish a lesson by having a series of similar
questions that can be answered by students on mini whiteboards.
• NRICH Folding Squares is a task that can be used to help students spot patterns and determine which triangles are
similar using properties of a square and angles around a point. This activity can then be followed up with NRICH
Take a Square II’. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Napkin is an open task involving similarity for students wanting to stretch their conjecturing skills. (nrich.
maths.org)
• NRICH Sitting Pretty can be used to get students to form their own similar triangles that can be used (along
with some other ideas connected with triangles) to prove the algebraic statement. This activity shows how some
geometric properties can be used to prove something algebraic. (nrich.maths.org)

• NRICH Two Ladders is a good activity for students to spot which triangles are similar and what scale factors they
have. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• A summary of how to determine if two triangles are similar can be made and students can store these away as future
revision resources.
• Students can create a problem-solving framework for finding unknown lengths in similar triangles. They can then
test their framework by letting another student use it to answer a question. The students can then compare their
frameworks and respond to comments.
SECTION 2F / 2H: ENLARGEMENTS
Section 2 focuses on enlargements. The section is broken down into subsections: the centre of enlargement; a fractional
scale factors; (Higher only) negative scale factors; properties of enlargements; and describing enlargements.
Prompting questions
• What do we mean by ‘enlargement’?

See first line in section 2.
• How can you find the centre of enlargement?
All vertices in the object have now been moved to a new place in the image by the same amount. We can connect the
corresponding vertices in the object and image and extend them until they intersect. Where they intersect is the centre
of enlargement.
• What does the image of your object look like when it is enlarged by a positive scale factor larger than 1?
The image is larger than the object.
• What does the image of your object look like when it is enlarged by a positive scale factor less than 1?
The image is smaller than the object.
• (Higher only) What does the image of your object look like when it is enlarged by a negative scale factor?
The image is rotated 180 degrees in comparison with the object.
• (Higher only) How do you find the centre of enlargement when you have a negative scale factor?
You do exactly the same as when the scale factor is positive, but when finding corresponding vertices you must
remember that the image is rotated 180 degrees in comparison with the object.
• What information do you always need to define an enlargement?
We need a scale factor and centre of enlargement.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What do you expect will happen to the object to form the image for each part? For parts a and c we
expect the image to be larger than the object and for part b we expect the image to be smaller than the object.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How do you enlarge from a point?
We need to draw line segments from the centre of enlargement C through the vertices of the object and extended past
the vertices of the object by the distance from C multiplied by the scale factor.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) What do you expect the relationship of image to the object will be?
The image will be smaller than the object and will be positioned between the object and the centre of enlargement.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) How do you know you have used the correct scale factor?
The side lengths of the image will be 1.5 times the side lengths of the object.
Exercise 35D (H)
• Q1 (H) What do you expect to happen to the object when it is enlarged by a scale factor of −1?
We expect the image to be upside down when compared with the object.
• Q2 (H) How far away will the vertices of the image be from the centre of enlargement?
They will be twice the distance the object’s vertices are from the centre of enlargement, but in the opposite direction.
• Q3 (H) What do negative scale factors greater than −1 do?
They give an image that is rotated 180 degrees and smaller when compared to the object.
• Q3 (F) / Q2 (H) How can you compare houses?
We can compare the lengths defined in each house.
• Q4 (F) / Q3 (H) How can you determine the centre of enlargement?
We can connect the corresponding vertices in each object and image, and extend these line segments to find the point of
intersection and hence the centre of enlargement.

• Pairs of images can be flashed up and the students need to determine if they are enlargements or not (this can be
used with other forms of transformations).
• A sheet with randomly placed shapes from groups of similar shapes (scaled by a fractional scale factor) is given to
the students and they are required to group the shapes and the original shape that were used for each family and
find the fractional scale factors used to create the other shapes in the family. (This activity could be presented with a
selection of centres of enlargements as well and the students need to identify which centre of enlargement belongs
to which shape.)
• (Higher only) NRICH Matter of Scale is a good task for students to consolidate their knowledge of enlargement. The
task requires students to prove the general case and determine another proof of Pythagoras’ theorem. It is strongly
recommended that you try this activity yourself and read the ‘Getting Started’ notes before doing this in class. (nrich.
maths.org)
• NRICH Who Is the Fairest of Them All? can be used to consolidate fractional scale factors, the need to describe
where an object is being enlarged from and combined transformations. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) The modern camera has been developed from the box camera or camera obscura (as shown below).
Light enters a dark box through a small hole. This creates an enlargement of the scene being photographed with a
negative scale factor on the opposite side inside the box. Light sensitive film records the image.
• This could provide a starting point for class discussion and students could be asked ‘If you had a shoe box and used
it as a camera obscura how far away from the Eiffel Tower would you need to be to photograph it? What scale factor
image would it produce?’
Assessment ideas
• A series of enlargement questions can be printed on A4/A3 squared paper and the students work to complete each
enlargement. Once done, the enlargements combine to make a word that can then be checked. You can also instruct
students to make their own versions of these puzzles that can then be used in a later lesson and peer assessed.

SECTION 3F / 3H: SIMILAR POLYGONS / SIMILAR SHAPES AND OBJECTS
Section 3 focuses on similarity for general polygons. The main point of the section is that for polygons with more than
three sides, equal angles by themselves are not sufficient to prove similarity.
(Higher only) The section also looks at the effect of scale factors on area of 2D and volume of 3D shapes.
Prompting questions
• Why could quadrilaterals with the same angles not be similar?

See worked example in section 3.
• What do we need to check for similarity for general polygons?
We need all angles to be the same and their corresponding edges to be in proportion with each other.
• (Higher only) Why has the area changed for each scale factor in this way?
For an area we have two ‘lengths’ multiplied together. Thus, the area of the object will be scaled by the scale factor
squared in the image.
• (Higher only) Why has the volume changed for each scale factor in this way?
For a volume we have three ‘lengths’ multiplied together. Thus, the volume of the object will be scaled by the scale
factor cubed in the image.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) How can we decide which pairs of shapes are similar?
We can compare the proportion of each corresponding edge.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) What do we know about a shape that is an enlargement of another shape?
Enlarged images are mathematically similar to the object you started with.
• Q8 (H) What do we know about the number 512?
The cube root of 512 is 8.
• Q9 (H) How many 48s are in 588 and how does that help?
49 7
588 ÷ 48 = which is squared.
4 2
• Q10 (H) What formula can we use to help find the height?
Volume of a cylinder is πr2h. We can find the height of the smaller tin and use this to find the height of the larger one.
• Q11 (H) If you increase each measurement by a factor of 3, what will be the total factors you increase the area and
volume by?
32 for area and 33 for volume.
• Q12 (H) What is the formula for the surface area of a sphere and the volume of a sphere?
4
Surface area = 4πr2 and volume = 4πr2 and volume = πr 3 . (These will be provided in an exam.)
3

• A series of questions where pairs of polygons can be flashed up and the students need to determine if they are similar
or not.
• (Higher only) Two 3D shapes are displayed with some information (radius, height, side lengths, area, volume) and
a statement ‘similar’ or ‘not similar’. The students need to determine if the statement is correct and justify why they
think that.
• NRICH Growing Rectangles is a nice introduction to how scale factor affects area and volume. A more complex
extension to this activity is the NRICH Fit for Photocopying. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Pent is a more complex similarity task where students need to break down what they want to find into
manageable chunks. (nrich.maths.org)

• NRICH Look Before You Leap is a nice open task that can be addressed using similar triangles but can also be
addressed using a variety of other tools that are mentioned on the ‘Solution’ page. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH A Shade Crossed lets the students use similarity to assist their calculations involving area of a triangle.
(nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Students study exam-style questions that have been answered incorrectly and critique the solutions. This
encourages students to think about their own responses to these types of questions.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• This chapter relies on Chapter 34 (F) / 36 (H), Chapter 8, Chapter 9 and for higher students Chapter 21 (H) and
Chapter 23 (H). This chapter provides a good opportunity to revisit some of this earlier material.
• The language and calculations from Chapter 26 (F) / 27 (H) are also used in this chapter.
Future learning
• Later chapters in this book such as Chapter 35 (F) / 37 (H) and Chapter 36 (F) / 38 (H) use the material learnt in this
chapter.
• For Pythagoras, students could explore the NRICH Matter of Scale to provide another proof of Pythagoras’ theorem.
(nrich.maths.org)
• The notion of similar triangles is central to the ideas of Trigonometry.
Gateway to A-level
• The effect of increasing a length by a factor and how that changes the area and volume is studied in the topic of
differentiation under rates of change.
• In addition to this, matrices can be used to describe enlargements of objects described in 2 and 3 dimensions.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

34F / 36H Congruence

• How to label equal angles and edges in shapes. The basic angle facts, including polygons and parallel lines.
• How to justify geometric proofs using known geometric facts.
• The definitions and properties of triangles and quadrilaterals.
• Constructions and loci
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To know what it means for two objects to be congruent. • To know what it means for two objects to be
congruent.
• To know the conditions for which congruence for a pair
of triangles is then implied: • To know the conditions for which congruence for a
pair of triangles is then implied:
-- SSS – three sides are the same in both triangles.
-- SSS – three sides are the same in both triangles.
-- ASA – two angles and one side length are the same
in both triangles. -- ASA – two angles and one side length are the
same in both triangles.
-- SAS – two sides and the angle between them are the
same in both triangles. -- SAS – two sides and the angle between them are
the same in both triangles.
• RHS – the hypotenuse and another side of a right-
angled triangle are the same in both triangles. • RHS – the hypotenuse and another side of a right
angled triangle are the same in both triangles.
Section 2 Section 2
• To be able to apply the conditions for congruency to a • To be able to apply the conditions for congruency to
variety of situations. a variety of situations.
Vocabulary
• Congruent
• All issues from Chapter 8 and Chapter 9.

• Notation:
-- Is labelling important?
Congruence of triangles only makes sense when the triangles have been labelled. When we say two triangles, say
ABC and DEF, are congruent what we are saying is that we can identify the sides AB = DE, BC = EF, CA = FD and the
angles formed between pairs of equivalent sides. Therefore, we need to label the triangles correctly and keep
using the notation we have built up in Chapters 8 and 9.

-- Is ASA the same as SAA or AAS?

There is a fundamental difference between ASA and SAA. This difference will not mean you cannot determine if
two triangles are congruent, however there is a difference in how the triangles look.
We can always find the
third angle using
the sum to 180° rule.
ASA triangle
(unique)
a1 a2
S
Using construction lines we can

find the unique point for the 3rd vertex.
SAA triangles are also unique. AAA

triangles are all similar – defining
a side therefore makes it unique.
Again, we can always a2

find this third angle.
a1
SAA triangle (AAS is just a

reflection in the vertical axis)
For ASA the triangle has a baseline that represents the side and the two angles are formed either end of the
baseline. For SAA triangles the side given is opposite one of the given angles so students will have to find the third
unknown angle to compare and form a correct argument for congruency, meaning the triangles are not congruent
unless the side of equal length is between the same two angles.
Students can construct examples of these to convince themselves that a triangle defined by ASA may not be
congruent to a triangle defined by SAA unless the side of equal length is between the same two angles.
-- Is SSA (or ASS) the same as SAS?
SSA triangle is the ambiguous case. Getting students to draw a baseline of length S, then a circle of radius S at one
end of the base and, finally, use a protractor to draw in a line at angle A at the opposite end of the baseline. This
line segment will intersect twice with the circle giving a triangle that can be described by SSA, which has either an
acute or obtuse angle. This is therefore not the same as SAS, which determines a unique triangle. However, SSA
does determine a triangle uniquely when A is 90 degrees (see activity below).
• Confusing congruence and similarity has the potential to become an issue.
Introducing the concept of congruence first and stressing that congruence is a way of determining if shapes are
exactly the same will help reinforce these ideas with the students. Occasional starters (once similarity is learnt)
where pairs of triangles are displayed and the students have to determine if they are congruent or not will also aid
the distinction between these topics.
• Mathematical proof will become central when answering the questions in section 2 that apply the knowledge
gained.
Students can improve their presentation and style of mathematical proof by seeing model answers (either on paper
or demonstrated by the class teacher) and critiquing incomplete or unclear solutions. For many students it is the
different forms proofs can take and what constitutes a full proof that causes problems. Encouraging students to rank
proofs of the same problem from best to worst could help improve their awareness of what is required.

Hooks
• Congruence is a powerful mathematical concept and is at the core to one of the main reasons mathematicians do
research; to classify and understand. Knowing when two objects or (in the case here) two triangles are really the
same allows us to narrow down the information we need to move on with a task or problem.
• In Chapter 32 (F) / 34 (H), we saw how to construct triangles from certain pieces of information. Knowing which
pieces of information we need to uniquely define a triangle gives us a mathematical way to classify triangles. Once
we know what information we require, we can compare triangles with the same information and state if they are
congruent.
SECTION 1F / 1H: CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
Section 1 focuses on what congruence is for a triangle and what conditions need to be satisfied for two triangles to be
proven to be congruent. This information is displayed in a table that clearly describes each of the conditions with an
appropriate diagram.
Prompting questions
• What does orientation mean?

The position in space the object has.
• How do we distinguish between pairs of sides with the same length?
We can use a series of markings on the sides. Sides that are the same length get the same number of markings.
• How can we distinguish between angles that are the same?
We can use colours to identify the angles using the same colour for the same angle or we can use arcs to highlight equal
angles, if more than set of equal angles exist, we can use multiple arcs to represent the sets.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) How can we order our thoughts on the page?
We could form a table with the heading of each column one of SSS, SAS, ASA or RHS, then each pair of triangles can be
discussed and categorised.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) Have we seen a picture like this before?
Tilting it so that the line segment AB is at the top gives a picture very similar to the one used for alternate angles
between parallel lines. If the two line segments AB and ED are joined by a line segment AD at the same angle to
each of the line segments AB and ED then AB and ED must be parallel. In addition to this, we have vertically
opposite angles at C.
• Q4–9 (F) / Q4–9 (H) What do we need for a mathematical proof?
We need to include reasons for each conclusion we come to.
• Q11 (F) / Q11 (H) What are the properties of a rhombus?
All four sides of a rhombus are the same length, opposite angles are equal and the diagonals intersect at a right angle.
• Q12 (H) How many ways can we prove this?
We could use the properties of tangents to circles or we could use the properties of circles and parallel lines, for
example.

Starters
• NRICH Triangular Tantaliser can be used as an opening exercise to identify different triangles and the students will
have either:
-- Discounted triangles that are congruent without justification, then you could ask ‘why did you decide not to
include these other triangles?’ and ‘how do you know that they are basically the same?’
-- Or included triangles that are congruent, then you could ask the students to look at them carefully.
(nrich.maths.org)

• A series of descriptions and/or pictures of triangles are displayed and the students are required to determine if there
is enough information for each triangle to determine a unique triangle.
• Give the students a series of pieces of information about a triangle, starting with every angle and every side and then
gradually remove pieces of information. The students are then required to draw each of the triangles described,
if they can! The activity has a natural plenary questions: ‘which triangles could be drawn?’, ‘which triangles are
determined uniquely?’, ‘how many pieces of information do we need to determine a unique triangle and which
groups of information?’
• Once the students have decided that ‘just three pieces of information’ are required to determine a triangle, you
could ask ‘how many different arrangements of three pieces of information can we have and which are the ones that
determine a triangle uniquely?’ so AAA, AAS, ASS etc. This brings in the ideas of combinations and you could even ask
the questions: ‘is SAS the same as ASS?’ or ‘is SSA or ASS the same as SAS?’
• The condition RHS for two triangles to be congruent is not in the same form as the other three, why? It arises in the
case of ASS triangles, where the angle A is 90 degrees and thus there is no ambiguity normally associated with ASS
triangles that can have either obtuse or acute angles.
Assessment ideas
• Students can construct guides to congruence where they summarise the information from this section.
• Each student can construct his or her own simple ‘exam-style question’ on congruence for another student to answer.
This activity can reinforce the ideas from the section from the point of view of both the writer of the question (you
must be able to answer the question) and the student answering it.
• The first enrichment activity can be used in conjunction with this assessment idea. Once your students have
determined the minimum information needed to determine a unique triangle (SSS, SAS, ASA), they can be given
‘proofs’ that two triangles are the same. The students work through these ‘proofs’ and determine if they are correct.
Through this, students connect their knowledge of determining triangles uniquely with deciding if two given
triangles are congruent.
SECTION 2F / 2H: APPLYING CONGRUENCY
Section 2 focuses on applying the new information learnt on congruency from section 1 in a variety of situations.
Throughout section 2, students are required to use material from Chapter 8 and Chapter 9 as well as the new material.
The section opens with a problem-solving framework that helps to break down a question into steps.
Prompting questions
• How many triangles can you see?

Identifying which triangles the students are looking at will help clarify what each question is asking.
• How are the triangles labelled?
Labelling is very important in this chapter and students need to be able to describe triangles in a diagram using the
correct labelling, in order to make comparisons.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How many triangles can you see?
Two. Draw the two triangles separately and label everything you can.
• Are there any lengths they share in common?
They share one common length in the diagram (JL) and given the conventions of labelling we also know that JM = JK.
What is the definition of parallelogram? We can see four smaller triangles and four larger triangles. A parallelogram has
two sets of parallel lines.


Two.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) What is required for an isosceles triangle?
The base angles must be the same.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) How many triangles do we have in this diagram that contain the identified angles? What other angles
can we define in terms of what we already know?
We can describe the angles CEB and AEB using the angle fact that the sum of angles on a straight line is 180 degrees so
hence both these angles are 180 − AED (= 180 − CED). Similar reasoning can be used to label ∠EAB and ∠ECB.
• Q6 (F) What do we know about the missing angles?
Angles ABC and ADC must be the same.

• Display a diagram on the board where the students are required to prove a certain property. The students write a
solution and then exchange with another class member. The students then read through the solution and decide if it
is correct. The class teacher then asks for a possible solution and a student can describe the solution to the class.
• NRICH Hex can be used as a quick starter. Once the students have found a solution, you can then ask which triangles
in the diagram are congruent and why. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) NRICH Triangles in a Square can be used to help students apply their knowledge of congruence to
prove that two line segments are the same. This task is one that may not ‘shout’ congruence and thus is very useful
for students who find the exercises straightforward. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Making Sixty can be used in the same way as the above task but can also be used with foundation students
who can label on a physical piece of paper the triangles they can find and relate them to the conditions for
congruence. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH A Sameness Surely could be used as another task for students who find the exercises straightforward. (nrich.
maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Exam questions posted around the room. The students, in pairs, have several minutes with each exam question and
they must continue to solve it from the point the proof has reached. This means that each successive pair continues
from where the previous pair left off and hence their working must be clearly labelled. Students do often not
enjoy this activity the first time they do it but they do recognise quite quickly the importance of clear working and
labelling.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Chapter 8 and Chapter 9 are very useful for this chapter and recapping their content, specifically for triangles, will
allow students to draw connections.
• Chapter 32 (F) / 34 (H) give a way into this chapter; see ‘Hooks’ above for more details.
Future learning
• Chapter 33 (F) / 35 (H) takes congruence and moves to the more general topic of similarity. Students will need to be
confident with congruence before moving onto similarity in order to not confuse the two.

Gateway to A-level
• Students will be expected to have the idea of mathematical congruence in their minds when they tackle geometry
questions. However, it is the mathematical proof skills that are consolidated and added to here that are essential to
students going onto A-level mathematics.
• In addition, work on proof will be further extended, including more advanced algebraic proofs and reasoning.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes

35F / 37H Pythagoras’ theorem

• Understand how to correctly use labels in geometry, particularly those that are unique to a triangle for example,
vertices (A, B …), sides (AB or, for triangles only, lowercase c as it is opposite vertex C), symbol for a right angle.
• How to use a calculator to find squares and square roots.
• How to round to a given accuracy (either significant figures or decimal places).
• (Higher only) How to work with exact and approximate values of surds.
• The properties and categories of triangles.
• How to substitute into and rearrange formulae including squares and square roots.
• (Higher only) The properties of polygons.
• Conversion of metric units.

• Area and perimeter formulae of polygons and circles.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Derive Pythagoras’ theorem and use it to find the length • Know and use Pythagoras’ theorem to find any
of the hypotenuse in any right-angled triangle. missing length in a right-angled triangle.
Section 2 Section 2
• Know and use Pythagoras’ theorem to find any missing • Use Pythagoras’ theorem to show whether a triangle
length in a right-angled triangle. is right-angled or not.
• Apply Pythagoras’ theorem to 2D problems.
Section 3 Section 3
• Use Pythagoras’ theorem to show whether a triangle is • Apply Pythagoras’ theorem to 3D problems.
right-angled or not.
Section 4 Section 4
• Apply Pythagoras’ theorem to 2D problems. • Link Pythagoras’ theorem to real-life skills for
industry.
• Link Pythagoras’ theorem to real-life skills for industry.
Vocabulary
• Theorem, hypotenuse, Pythagorean triple.
• Identifying the hypotenuse incorrectly by mistaking the length that is the longest (often due to the orientation
of the triangle).
Constantly reinforcing that the hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle rather than just the longest side may
help as the longest side can be hard to identify in some right-angled triangles when the orientation is misleading. An
additional suggestion could be to rotate the page so that the right-angle is paced at the bottom left or right corner;
this can help students identify the hypotenuse as the sloped side.

• Misunderstanding that the theorem connects the squares of the side lengths and forgetting to find the square
root.
This may be because introducing Pythagoras’ theorem is often done through the exploration of connections in
square numbers. Reinforcing good practice such as always stating the theorem first, clearly setting out working in
a column and lining up the equality signs may help. This consistency will leave students with their length squared
equal to their answer, which can then be easily identified as an incomplete solution.
• Struggling to rearrange the formula to find a side other than the hypotenuse.
Given that there is only ever one unknown in these problems they can be solved through a series of ‘what number is
needed to…’ statements rather than formally rearranging the formula. For example, 100 = ?2 + 64 so ‘what number is
needed to make 100 when I add 64?’ This then gives ?2 = 36 so asking ‘what number squared makes 36?’ leads to the
answer of 6.
• Applying (incorrectly) the theorem to non-right-angled triangles.
This tends to be a bigger problem when students are working with a combination of right-angled triangles and non-
right-angled triangles, often after students have worked on trigonometry. Formally defining Pythagoras’ theorem as
‘given a right-angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides’
may help prevent this problem if students know this definition by heart. In addition, a series of tasks that encourage
students to use the converse of this statement, which is that any triangle where the sum of the squares of two sides
equals the square of the third is a right-angled triangle, can help reinforce this condition for the use of Pythagoras’
theorem.
• Confusing labels for example, side ‘a’ with the adjacent when later learning about trigonometry, or when
triangles are pre-labelled, for example ‘p’, ‘q’, ‘r’ rather than ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’.
Students relying on the formula in the form a2 + b2 = c2 where ‘c’ is the hypotenuse can also cause problems where
one of the other side lengths is labelled ‘c’ or when the hypotenuse is labelled ‘a’ or ‘b’. Again, formally defining
Pythagoras’ theorem as ‘given a right-angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides’ prevents problems related to labelling alone. This way Pythagoras’ theorem can be written as
a formula specific to the triangle given in the problem
Hooks
• Pythagoras’ theorem can be introduced in many different ways but it is nice to let students discover it for themselves
to a certain extent. This can be done through the ‘Tilted squares’ investigational approach (detailed in the foundation
version of section 1). It may also be done through an exploration of patterns in squares; you can set students the
number problem: find square numbers that are the sum of two other square numbers. Students can then construct
SSS triangles using these three linked numbers and see what conclusions they can draw.
SECTION 1F: FINDING THE LENGTH OF THE HYPOTENUSE
For foundation students, section 1 introduces Pythagoras’ theorem through an investigational approach that requires
students to find the areas of tilted squares. Students then explore right-angled triangles and the square formed from
each of its sides to deduce a pattern that is given by Pythagoras’ theorem. The main focus of the chapter is then how the
theorem is used to find the hypotenuse given the other two sides in a right-angled triangle.
Prompting questions
Exercise 35A (F)
• Q1 (F) How do you calculate the area of a square?
Base multiplied by height or base squared etc.
• What is meant by a tilted square?
A square where the side lengths do not lie on the grid but the vertices still do.
• How can you break up a tilted square to help you calculate its area?
There are two simple ways to find the area of the tilted square: find the area of the non-tilted square it sits inside and
subtract the area of the four equally sized triangles or break the tilted square up into a smaller square and four equally
sized triangles.

• Could you have broken the shape up in any other ways?

See comment above, there are many ways to split the shape, but these are most beneficial in pattern spotting.
• How can you calculate the area of a new square that is tilted upwards by one?
Fixing the problem to focusing on squares with a tilt of one forms a pattern that pupils normally spot quite quickly and
that is when tilting a square of length n by 1 the area of the tilted square is (n + 1)2 - 2n = n2 + 1, meaning 1 more than the
area of the square when flat on the grid. From this pupils may conjecture patterns for a tilt of 2, 3 and so on which can
be explored.
• How can you calculate the area of a new square that is tilted upwards by two?
We can calculate the area in the same way as before and also test our new theorem.
• Can you predict the area of a new square that is tilted upwards by three, four etc?
• How can you find the length of one of the square sides from this?
The side length of the tilted square can be found by finding the square root of the area. This can be used to deduce
Pythagoras’ theorem based on the right-angled triangle formed by the tilt.
Exercise 35B (F)
• Q3 (F) Which side is the hypotenuse?
The one opposite the right angle.
• Q4 (F) What do we know about the sides of a triangle from constructions?
The sum of the two shorter sides must exceed the sum of the longest side or they won’t meet.

Starters
• Writing a list of numbers from 1 to 25 squared to improve mental accuracy and recognition when dealing with squares.
• Spotting Pythagorean triples given a list of the first 25 square numbers. This could be a continuation of the task
above.
• NRICH Tilted Squares is an interactive resource available to explore these squares and methods for calculating
their area in detail that may be of use to you. Students sometimes struggle with the idea of a tilted square and the
supporting animations make the idea very clear. Using dotted squared paper rather than standard squared paper
may also make things easier. These tilted squares can be used to derive and prove Pythagoras’ theorem in different
ways should you wish to extend the most able students. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Pupils could produce an information booklet aimed at describing what Pythagoras’ theorem is and how they would
use it.
SECTION 1H: UNDERSTANDING PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM / SECTION 2F: FINDING THE LENGTH OF ANY SIDE
The foundation chapter extends the section 1 content to finding the length of any given side of a right-angled triangle.
The higher chapter recaps what Pythagoras’ theorem for right-angled triangles states and applies it to finding missing
lengths in right-angled triangles.

For students less confident with algebraic manipulation, an alternative approach might be to draw diagrams similar to
that shown below and fill in the gaps. This can be used to encourage students to check their answer is sensible (e.g. that
the hypotenuse is the longest side).
102 100 100 64 36
10 36
8
36 6
82 64
Four tips for success in working with Pythagoras’ theorem are offered in the higher chapter:
• Write the formula. • Sketch the problem.
• Show full workings. • Round your answer to the given degree of accuracy.
Students should be encouraged to follow this advice, particularly for the contextual problems in this chapter.
Prompting questions
• Once you’ve found the missing side, how can you check your answer is sensible?
The hypotenuse is always the longest length and the sum of the two shorter sides must exceed the largest.
• If you square root both sides of a2 + b2 = c2 why don’t you get a + b = c?
How could you convince someone in Year 8 about this?
Students may want to offer a counter-example or may instead wish to show that if a + b = c then (a + b)2 = c2 and expand
the brackets with an explanation that both sides of the equation must remain balanced.
• Does it matter which side is labelled ‘a’, ‘b’ or ‘c’?
No, you can use any letters you wish but the theorem must be adapted so that the sum always gives the hypotenuse
squared, whatever letters you choose.
• If Pythagoras’ theorem for a particular triangle gives you ‘u2 + v2 = s2’ what does the triangle look like?
The important thing is that the hypotenuse must be labelled s.
• What about if the equation was ‘x2 − y2 = w2’?
Here students will need to rearrange first and hence deduce that the hypotenuse is labelled x.
Exercise 35C (F) / 37A (H)
• Q1–2 (F) / Q1–2 (H) Which side is the hypotenuse?
The one opposite the right angle.
• Does it matter which of the other two sides is a and which is b?
No, they can have either label.
• Q1a–e (F) What do you need to use Pythagoras’ theorem?
A right-angled triangle and two side lengths so you will have to apply the theorem twice to find this information for the
right-angled triangle with the missing side labelled.
• Q3 (F) / Q4 (H) Sketch the right-angled triangle involved in the word problem, which length is the unknown?
The most important thing here is identifying whether the unknown length is the hypotenuse or not.


Starters
• (Foundation only) Exercise 35C Q5 matching exercise could be produced as a card sort (either in electronic form or
as a hard copy).
Plenaries
• Sorting a series of Pythagoras’ theorem problems into finding the hypotenuse and finding the length of a shorter
side. This could also be used an assessment task.
• Once pupils are confident using Pythagoras’ theorem an appropriate extension might be to consider different ways in
which the theorem can be proved. There are multiple ways the theorem can be proved and you can search for these
proofs online. NRICH Pythagoras Proofs has a few details here, the first of which comes from the tilted squares
problem. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Nicely Similar is a problem students will have to think carefully about what information they have been
given and label the lengths of the two right-angled triangles in their sketch carefully. They will need to compare the
three triangles they know and appropriately form and solve the equations to find the missing lengths. This problem
can be used to revise similarity. (nrich.maths.org)
• Pupils can explore what irrational values look like and their approximate size when working with surds by
considering the right-angled triangle that has that length as a hypotenuse. For example, what does 2 look like on
square dotted paper? How does it compare to 1 and 2? They can also use their work on similarity alongside their
knowledge of right-angled triangles to simplify surds.
• Having done the above activity students may then wish to explore spirals such as shown below. If you start with a 1cm
by 1cm right-angled triangle and draw it carefully the root 16 line should be 4cm long. It is not as easy as it sounds to
get it right.
1
4 3
5 2 1
6 1
17
7
16
8
15
9
14
10 13
11 12
Assessment ideas
• Students get pieces of ‘incorrect homework’. They need to identify the mistakes and correct the homework.
SECTION 2H: USING PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM / SECTION 3F: PROVING WHETHER A TRIANGLE IS RIGHT-ANGLED
This section considers the sets of numbers called Pythagorean triples. These numbers are used alongside the converse
of Pythagoras’ theorem, which allows us to decide if a triangle is right-angled.
(Higher only) For higher pupils this section is extended to calculating missing lengths in order to calculate the
perimeter or area of polygons.
Prompting questions
• A 3, 4, 5 triangle is right-angled. If you make each side longer by one, you have a 4, 5, 6 triangle. Is that triangle right-
angled?
No, triangles are only similar if linked by a scale factor, so these triangles are not similar and so the 4, 5, 6 triangle
cannot be right-angled.
• Is it possible to draw a right-angled triangle with side lengths 4, 11 and 15?
No, the sum of the two smaller sides must exceed the largest, here we have a line because they are equal.
• How many triples (a, b, c) of numbers less than 100 can you have such that a2 + b2 = c2? How many can you find that
are not multiples of each other?
Lists can be found online for Pythagorean triples.
• How is the triple (3, 4, 5) connected to (12, 16, 20)? How are the two right-angled triangles with these side lengths
connected?’
They are similar and linked by a scale factor of 4.
Exercise 35D (F) / 37B (H)
• Q2 (F) / Q1 (H) How do we know which length is the hypotenuse?
The hypotenuse will always be the longest length so we can assume the largest value is the hypotenuse.
Exercise 37C (H)
• Q2 (H) How many right-angled isosceles are there?
An infinite number, but they are all similar to each other as the other two angles must be 45 degrees.
• Q6–7 (H) Sketch the right-angled triangle you are applying Pythagoras’ theorem to separately and label all sides to
prevent errors.
• Q8–9 (H) Double check the question, are you finding the area or perimeter of the shape? Does this change how you
are using Pythagoras’ theorem?
No, because it is still a length that is missing, it is what you then do with that length that changes.

Plenaries
• A ‘tick or trash’ PowerPoint. Students are shown pictures of triangles and either ‘tick’ if it’s a right-angled triangle or
‘trash’ if it’s not. This could be done with mini whiteboards or with two different coloured cards.
• Get a piece of string and tie 12 equally-spaced knots in it. Can you make a right-angled triangle where a knot is a
vertex? Why is it possible to do this with 12 knots but not 3? What other possible arrangements of knots can we have?
• In ‘The Wizard of Oz’, the Scarecrow announces that ‘the sum of the square roots of any two sides of an isosceles
triangle is equal to the square root of the remaining side’. Is the Scarecrow always, sometimes, or never correct?
• NRICH Liethagoras in which an alternative theorem based on right-angled triangles is offered for students to prove
or disprove. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• (Higher only) The questions in Exercise 37C (H) can be enlarged to A3 sheets for students to work on the problems
together. They can then peer assess the model solutions using the check points for using Pythagoras’ theorem given
in Exercise 37A (H).
SECTION 3H: PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM IN THREE DIMENSIONS
This section extends the work on Pythagoras’ theorem to problems in three dimensions, mainly looking at the length of
diagonals of solids

Prompting questions
Exercise 37D (H)
• Sketch the right-angled triangle you are working with, what lengths do you know?
The answer will vary according to the question being worked on.
• Does this sketch have to be in 3D?
No because a right-angled triangle is a 2D shape.
• If you do not know at least two of the lengths of the right-angled triangle can you form another right-angled triangle
to find one of those lengths? (In other words will you have to apply Pythagoras’ theorem twice?).

• NRICH Rectangular Pyramids gives the students a chance to work with Pythagoras’ theorem in 2D and then extend
it to 3D. (nrich.maths.org)
• (Higher only) Once pupils have successfully mastered the application of Pythagoras’ theorem, a nice assessment
task where the knowledge is combined with nets of shapes is NRICH The Spider and the Fly. A possible extension
to this task that extends to 3D is: given that the fly is airborne and can take a more direct route, what is the shortest
distance from the fly to the spider? (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Again, the questions in Exercise 37D (H) can be enlarged to A3 sheets for students to work on the problems together.
They can then peer assess the model solutions using the check points for using Pythagoras’ theorem in given in
Exercise 37A (H).
SECTION 4F / 4H: USING PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
For foundation students this section starts with an exercise containing similar problems to Exercise 37C (H). For both
tiers, section 4 goes on to use Pythagoras’ theorem to solve problems in real-life contexts
Prompting questions
Exercise 35E (F)
• What properties does an isosceles triangle have?
It has two sides of equal length.
• How many right-angled isosceles triangles are there?
An infinite number, but they are all similar to each other as the other two angles must be 45 degrees.
• Q3–4 (F) Sketch the right-angled triangle you are applying Pythagoras’ theorem to separately and label all sides to
prevent errors.
• Q5 (F) Double check the question, are you finding the area or perimeter of the shape? Does this change how you are
using Pythagoras’ theorem?
No, because it is still a length that is missing, it is what you then do with that length that changes.
Exercise 35F (F) / 37E (H)
• Why are we doing step n in the six step problem-solving approach? Why is it important?
It produces solutions that you have thought about and considered every piece of information to decide what you have
to do. It also produces a solution that you can follow if distracted from your working and more importantly an examiner
can follow in case of errors.

• Sketch the right-angled triangle you are working with, what lengths do you know?
• If you do not know at least two of the lengths of the right-angled triangle can you form another right-angled triangle
to find one of those lengths? (In other words will you have to apply Pythagoras’ theorem twice?)
• Q12 (H) Design another piece of artwork based on right-angled triangles for a classmate to investigate.

• Any of the problems in the exercise can be presented as a starter or plenary and more emphasis can be given to good
practice in quality of written communication.
• We are going to build a skate park with some ramps and need some pieces of wood to make the right-angled triangle
ends for the ramps. We can only order the pieces of wood online with the length dimensions 3m, 4m, 5m, 13m and
15m. We can add the pieces together e.g. 4m + 4m = 8m but we cannot saw any off! What are the lengths of the sides
of the right-angled triangles can we make with these pieces?
Assessment ideas
• A3 blown-up questions. The students answer the question and then swap with another group who then use a
mark scheme to assess the students’ work. Collect all the questions at the end and discuss common errors and the
structure of some solutions.
• The questions from Exercise 35F (F) / 37E (H) could be photocopied onto card or paper and used as a relay for
pairs where students work together and only get to move on to the next question once they have correctly solved
the problem they are on. This is a suitable activity if your aim is improving efficiency and fluency with Pythagoras’
theorem problems.
• An assessed piece of homework could also be used to create a ‘spot the errors’ sheet if pupils need additional
support. This could be formed from a collection of errors identified in assessed work that can be compiled and
shared with the class before handing back their work. Alternatively a ‘bad’ homework could be created for students
to mark.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• The ‘standard’ diagram to demonstrate Pythagoras’ theorem shows three squares on the sides of the right-angled
triangle. If these squares were replaced with semi-circles, does it still work? Is the area of a semi-circle on the
hypotenuse equal to the sums of the semi-circles on the other two sides? By exploring this problem you can link back
to work on area of circle sectors in Chapter 11.
• There are also many opportunities, which are used in this chapter to explore area and perimeter problems for regular
and composite shapes now pupils are better equipped with skills to find missing lengths associated with right-
angled triangles.
Future learning
• Chapter 36 (F) / 38 (H) will increase students’ knowledge of right-angled triangles and opportunities for pupils to
solve problems that involve both trigonometry and/or Pythagoras’ theorem will be presented. For many students
this will present an additional challenge as they will have to select the most efficient method without direction.
• Pythagoras’ theorem will also be applied in indirect right-angled triangle problems such as finding the distance
between two points given their coordinates in two-and three-dimensions.

Gateway to A-level
• At A-level Pythagoras’ theorem will be employed in many different ways. The most obvious of those is in coordinate
geometry where pupils will use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the length of line segments in 2D and 3D as well as
finding the radius of a circle given the centre and a point on the curve and deducing the equation of the circle. Less
sin q
direct is its application to deriving trigonometric identities, notably: = tanq and its use in deriving the
cos q
compound angle formulae.
• It will also be used to calculate the magnitude of vectors in 2D and 3D, and hence many other values associated with
compound measures.
Foundation Higher
• Chapter 5 Question 13 • Chapter 3 Questions 8, 9, 13, 14, 20
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

• Foundation Exercise 31A question 1 diagram

36F / 38H Trigonometry

• Properties of triangles including notation conventions for angles and sides.

• How to round to a given accuracy and recognise the effect of rounding.
• What it means for triangles to be similar and how to use scale factors to calculate side lengths.
• How to identify and apply knowledge of alternate angles in parallel lines.
• How to apply Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate unknown lengths.
• (Higher only) Properties of 3D solids.
• (Higher only) Know the formula for calculating the area of a triangle
• How to calculate with surds including manipulating expressions, for example, 3 + 3

3 3
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Use the trigonometric ratios given by the sine, cosine • Use the trigonometric ratios given by the sine,
and tangent functions to find unknown lengths and cosine and tangent functions to find unknown
angles in 2D right-angled triangles. lengths and angles in 2D right-angled triangles.
Section 2 Section 2
• Know the exact ratios given by sine and cosine of 0, 30, • Know the exact ratios given by sine and cosine of 0,
45, 60 and 90 degrees and the exact ratios given by the 30, 45, 60 and 90 degrees and the exact ratios given
tangent function for 0, 30, 45 and 60 degrees. by the tangent function for 0, 30, 45 and 60 degrees.
Section 3 Section 3
• Know the difference between an angle of depression • Use the sine, cosine and sine area rules to solve
and an angle of elevation. problems relating to unknown sides, angles and
areas in non-right-angled triangles.
• Identify when the trigonometric ratios must be used
instead of Pythagoras’ theorem to solve 2D problems
relating to right-angled triangles, including contextual
problems.
Section 4
• Know the difference between an angle of depression
and an angle of elevation.
• Identify when the trigonometric ratios must be
used instead of Pythagoras’ theorem to solve 2D
and 3D problems relating to right-angled triangles,
including contextual problems.
Vocabulary
• Angle of elevation, angle of depression.

• See misconceptions and issues listed in Chapter 9.

In addition, these ideas can be explored for notation explicitly used for triangles where the label of a vertex (capital)
is used to label the opposite side (lowercase same letter) and why this system may be more useful in certain cases.
• Students struggle to identify the hypotenuse correctly.
See notes in Chapter 35 (F) / 37 (H).
• Students struggle to identify and label the adjacent and opposite sides because they don’t realise it depends
on where the given angle is.
Reinforcing the use of diagrams and asking students to label every scenario as a first step may help (as may using
more than one diagram when more than one angle is used).
• Students confuse the ratios and struggle to identify which function should be used.
To combat this it is often worth considering how the material is introduced to students in the first case, as it is hard to
pinpoint whether their problem relates to identifying the correct function, labelling the sides correctly or something
else. If students are exposed to only one ratio initially and use it to calculate missing lengths and angles it is then
easy to go back to a right-angled triangle and discuss the other combinations of sides that could be used.
Other ideas could be using mnemonics such as SOHCAHTOA, which can be written as S0 HCA HT0 to tie in to the use of
formula triangles that, along with labelled triangles, can be used to identify the correct function.
An additional, perhaps more radical way, is to ignore the three separate functions and instead encourage students to
use the sine rule for non-right-angled triangles in all cases.
• Students work with the wrong mode for angle inputs on their calculator.
When students are working with their own calculators it is worth doing an initial check by asking them to type in sinx
(or any other function for any value of x) to check everyone gets the same value. Note: non-exact values often work
better here.
• Students struggle to rearrange the trigonometry formulae.
Using formula triangles to support memorisation of the formulae may help. Encourage students to write the formula
triangle down and, by covering the variable they are solving for, write down the formula they will use.
• Students struggle to work with formulae triangles and do not understand how they are used.
To assist students in gaining this understanding, the form the formulae are written in can be adapted, as shown in
the diagram, to include more information.
Opp
÷ ÷
× Adj

• Students struggle to remember exact values for certain trigonometry ratios. This material may form part of a non-
calculator paper or may be tested in other ways that require it to be memorised. There are patterns in the ratios that
may help with the memorisation.
Pattern Pattern
Angle θ (The square (Reverses
Sinθ Cosθ Pattern Tanθ
(degrees) root of 0 to 4 pattern for
quarters) Sinθ)
0 4
0 0 1 0
4 4
1 1 3 3 1 3
=
30 4 2 4 2 sin q 3 3
( this
cosq
can be
2 2 2 2 found by
45 4 2 4 2 exploring 1
the links
between the
3 3 1 1
ratios)
60 4 2 4 2 3
4 0
90 4 1 4 0 undefined
• (Higher only) Students need to recall the sine, cosine and area formulae for use in the exam as they will no longer
appear on the formulae sheet. Some ways to help with this are:
-- Students could match the formulae with the title of the rule.
-- Students could play a game of ‘true or false’ when presented with the formulae.
-- Students could be tested on the values like a spelling test and asked to write down the formulae.
-- Students could learn how to derive the formulae (though this is probably more time consuming for most).
Hooks
• Similar triangles are used to explain where the trigonometric ratios come from at the beginning of section 1. This
idea can be developed in class by asking students to draw an angle of, for example 20 degrees, create three right-
angled triangles from this and calculate the perpendicular height divided by the base length for each triangle. This
can lead to a discussion on similar triangles and why the ratio should always be the same. Students can then repeat
this, finding the ratio for different sized angles, and use these values to solve standard trigonometry problems. This
can really help students understand what the trigonometric functions are. You can then go on to explore the other
ratios and explain how to find these values on a calculator.
• You could introduce trigonometry by looking at practical applications, for example looking at airplanes coming in to
land on a runway and angles of elevation and depression
SECTION 1F / 1H: TRIGONOMETRY IN RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES
Section 1 introduces the trigonometric ratios found in right-angled triangles. The first subsection focuses on where
these ratios come from and where these values are stored using the trigonometric functions on their calculator (see
‘Hook 1’ for possible activity). Following this the ratios are used to calculate missing lengths in right-angled triangles.

The second subsection focuses on using the inverse functions to calculate missing angles. The use of formula triangles
is suggested to support students in identifying the function to be used.
Prompting questions
These prompts are useful throughout all exercises in this section.
• What is the hypotenuse always opposite?
The right angle.
• Which side labels depend on the given angle?
The opposite and the adjacent. The hypotenuse never changes.
• Sketch and label all triangles you are working on, which two side lengths are involved and so which function will you
need for this triangle?
We suggest you point students in the direction of the formulae triangles to help with this.
• How can you identify the hypotenuse in the triangle?
It is the side opposite the right angle.
• Make sure you include the units in all solutions.
• How do you find the angle if you know the ratio of the side lengths?
You use the inverse functions to ‘undo’ the function and find the angle the ratio relates to.
• How do you use the inverse function on your calculator?
Use the second function button or shift (this is the most common way).
• How can you check that your answers are sensible?
Use knowledge such as the longest length in a right-angled triangle is the hypotenuse – is this still the case in yours?
Draw a rough sketch of your triangle, do the dimensions seem right to you? (Note: this will rely on students having good
estimation skills when working with angles.)

• An initial activity to reinforce labelling could involve students labelling the adjacent, hypotenuse and opposite sides
of right-angled triangles given an angle other than the right angle. You could then go on to discuss how labelling
would work if all three angles are given (in this case it is often sensible to draw and label different versions of the
same triangle or use different colours depending on which angle is being considered). This task could also be tied
into a similar task based on revising standard notation for labelling sides and vertices (similar to the example given in
the foundation notes).
• Given the later material on non-right-angled triangles, it may be appropriate to discuss with higher students the
notation explicitly used for triangles where the label of a vertex (capital) is used to label the opposite side (lowercase
same letter) and why this system may be more useful in certain cases.
• To help students identify the correct function to use when finding missing lengths and angles you could provide
problems for students to sort into those requiring sine, cosine or tangent ratios. Alternatively, students could sort
them into problems in which the side length is required and those where the angle is required. (Note, these two tasks
can be combined or you could simply ask students to categorise them and give them no guidance). Exercise 36C
Q5–6 (F) 38B Q5–6 (H) would be ideal for this task and the questions can be produced as cards that give space below
for students to sketch the triangles before making a decision.
Plenaries
• ‘True or false’ task in which problems have been matched to the function required to solve them. Students have to
identify whether the correct function has been chosen or not.
• See first ‘Hook’ from above.
• Consider different types of right-angled triangles, where different information is given (e.g. 1 angle, 2 sides, an angle
and a side and so on). You can then ask students to discuss what can and can’t be found, using trigonometry or

Pythagoras’ theorem. This can be used to help students see how both techniques can be used interchangeably based
on the problem given and how more than one application of an idea can get you to the same solution in the end. This
can prevent students worrying about making the correct initial decision. For higher students these ideas can also
sin x
be used to derive the trigonometric identities: sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 and = tan x, which will be used by students at
cos x
A-level.
• NRICH Where is the dot? could be used to explore what the trigonometry functions store for angles greater than 90
degrees. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Students can create a ‘how to’ guide for using trigonometry in right angled-triangles. These can be assessed by you
or their peers and kept for future revision or duplicated to provide notes for the class or a display.
• Students mark an example of work (either a fictitious homework or assessment) and identify the errors that
have been made before correcting the solutions. The work should include many of the errors identified in the
misconceptions section above.
SECTION 2F / 2H: EXACT VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
Section 2 focuses on the values of the exact ratios given by sine and cosine of 0, 30, 45, 60 and 90 degrees and the ratios
given by the tangent of 0, 30, 45 and 60 degrees through the exploration of isosceles and equilateral triangles (and an
implicit understanding of similarity).
Prompting questions
• What are the different types of triangle we can have?

Equilateral, isosceles, scalene, right-angled, right-angled scalene and right-angled isosceles.
• Which types of triangle form a single family of similar triangles?
Equilateral and right-angled isosceles triangles are always similar to others because they obey the AAA rule.
• Which angles are always present in these triangles?
Angles of 60 degrees in equilateral triangles, and angles of 90 and 45 degrees in a right-angled isosceles triangle.
Angles of 60 degrees:
• What type of triangle has all angles of 60 degrees?
Equilateral and every equilateral triangle is similar to another.
• How can we split this triangle to form a right-angled triangle?
By cutting the triangle into two halves.
• How can we find the lengths of the sides of this right-angled triangle?
Knowledge of the equilateral triangle it came from and Pythagoras’ theorem.
• What other angles are present in this right-angled triangle?
A right angle and an angle of 30 degrees.
Angles of 45 degrees:
• What type of triangle has two angles of 45 degrees?
A right-angled isosceles triangle.
• How can we find the lengths of the sides of this right-angled triangle?
Knowledge of Pythagoras’ theorem.
Exercise 38C (H)
• Q3 (H) What three ratios can be found given a right-angled triangle?
opposite adjacent opposite
The ratios given by sine, cosine and tangent: hypotenuse , hypotenuse and adjacent . Given that you know the ratio in its
exact form, try forming equations using the formula triangles that can then be solved to find the unknown value.


• Students need to know these values and, for some, the best option may be to drill the values through regular tests.
Starters or plenaries could be used in different ways:
-- Students could fill in a blank grid like the one given in the Student textbook.
-- Students could match the trigonometry function with input to its ratio.
-- Students could play a game of true or false when presented with ratios and their trigonometry function with
input.
-- Students could be tested on the values like a spelling test and asked to write down the ratio given the
trigonometry function and input.
-- If this reveals students find it easier to remember the ratios in tabular form, they could be encouraged to replicate
the table in any exam situation to read off when required.
• (Higher only) Why will some of the ratios be irrational? What is it about the right-angled triangles they are formed
by that gives an irrational scale factor? Students can explore the different results of products involving irrational
numbers and consider their results. This can be extended to consider proofs of these rules with a revision of fraction
operation rules.
• Students can explore different equilateral and right-angled isosceles triangles to identify that the ratios will always
be equal regardless of the side length values they choose. You may wish to discuss why this is the case and why the
values chosen in the textbook are perhaps the best choice.
Assessment ideas
• See ideas for starters and plenaries above to test students’ knowledge.
• Again, ‘how to’ guides can be very useful in getting students to engage with the material and supporting the class in
remembering what is required by giving you material that can be duplicated for the class.
SECTION 3H: THE SINE, COSINE AND AREA RULES
Section 3 (Higher) focuses on forming and using formulae to find unknown lengths, angles and areas in non-right-
angled triangles. All formulae in this section will need to be memorised as they will not be given on a formulae sheet as
in previous specifications.
Prompting questions
Exercise 38D (H)
• What would you use the sine rule for?
To find an unknown angle or length in a non-right-angled triangle when you have at least three pieces of information
including an angle and the length of the side opposite it. Note: sometimes the sine rule will need to be used more than
once to find a missing length or angle (or knowledge of angle properties will be required).
a b c sin A sin B sin C
• When is it better to use the formulae = = than the rearranged form = = ?
sin A sin B sin C a b c
When you are finding a length rather than an angle.
• Q2 (H) Sketch and label the sides of the triangles. Do you have enough information to apply the sine rule?
Yes, opposite angles and side lengths are always given.
• Q4 (H) Sketch and label the sides of the triangle, do you have enough information to apply the sine rule to find the
first part?
Yes.
• Do you need to use the sine rule to calculate the size of the third angle in the triangle?
No, you can just use the fact that angles in a triangle sum to 180 degrees.

• Q5 (H) What angle fact can you apply to find the ∠ ABD?
That angles on a straight line sum to 180 degrees.
Exercise 38E (H)
• What would you use the cosine rule for?
To find an unknown angle given three sides of the triangle or an unknown length given two sides and the included
angle.
• Q2–3 (H) How do you identify the shortest diagonal in a parallelogram?
By considering the diagonal that connects the obtuse angles.
• Q4 (H) Can you solve this problem in more than one way?
Yes, the cosine rule will work but the ∠AVB needs to be calculated first. However, right-angled trigonometry followed
by a sum of the lengths AO and OB will also work. (Note: you may wish to encourage students to try both methods and
compare their solutions.)∠AVB needs to be calculated first. However, right-angled trigonometry followed by a sum of
the lengths AO and OB will also work. (Note: you may wish to encourage students to try both methods and compare
their solutions.)
• Q5 (H) What are the properties of a rhombus?
Four sides of equal length, opposite angles are equal and it is also a parallelogram.
• How can you split up the rhombus to calculate the area?
1
Divide it into two equal triangles and use A = × base × height, using the lengths of the diagonal to find the base and
2
perpendicular height of each triangle.
Exercise 38F (H)
• Q1 (H) When can you use the sine area formula for calculating the area of a triangle?
When we have the length of two sides and the included angle.
• Q3 (H) How can you use the area formula to find the missing length YZ?
By filling in the information you know and solving to find the unknown length.

Starters
• An extended starter that can nicely introduce the sine rule for area is to give students a series of triangles to find the
area of with different information, for example:
-- A right-angled triangle with base and hypotenuse lengths given so students need to use Pythagoras’ theorem.
-- A right-angled triangle with height and hypotenuse lengths given.
-- An isosceles triangle with base and slant-height given.
-- A scalene triangle with base, angle (at either end of base) and slant height labelled as well as the perpendicular
height shown dotted. They need to use the sine ratio to work out perpendicular height.
-- A scalene triangle with base, angle (at either end of base) and slant height labelled but not the perpendicular
height shown dotted.
• Further questions can be in the same format as the last example in the list above but in different orientations.
• This helps students identify patterns in the calculations and hence helps the class arrive at a formula for the area of a
non-right angled triangle.
• For students who have used knowledge of triangles to deduce trigonometry identities you could attempt to derive
the cosine formulae with support by sorting a series of cards based on a derivation involving trigonometry and
Pythagoras’ theorem.

Assessment ideas
• Students will probably find identifying which formulae to use to solve a problem challenging. Giving students a series
of problems to solve and asking them to categorise them by method of solving could help students improve this skill.
• Again, ‘how to’ guides can be very useful in getting students to engage with the material and supporting the class in
remembering what is required by giving you material that can be duplicated for the class. These guides could include
advice on which formula to use when and an example of each formula being used to calculate the length of a side or
angle (or area).
SECTION 3F/ 4H: SOLVING PROBLEMS USING TRIGONOMETRY / USING TRIGONOMETRY TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
This section goes on to consider contextual problems requiring trigonometry to solve them. The idea of an angle
of elevation and angle of depression is introduced and used. A similar problem solving structure to other geometry
chapters is offered for students to follow and the Exercise brings in other concepts such as Pythagoras’ theorem and
how to solve three-dimensional problems (Higher only).
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) What makes the angle an angle of elevation/depression?
When the angle we are looking at from our horizontal position is above/below the horizontal.
• Q2 (F) What other angles can you label in diagram a?
The angle of depression is also the angle of elevation from the point of view of the boat (alternate angles). The third
angle in the triangle can also be found using basic angle facts.
• Q3 (F) Which side lengths do you have in diagram d?
The hypotenuse.
• Q5–6 and 11–12 (F) / Q2, 4, 7–8 (H) Can you draw a right-angled triangle to model these situations?
Yes, it is possible to draw a right-angled triangle for each situation.
• Q8 (F) / Q4 (H) How many right-angled triangles can you draw to model this situation?
Two
• Can you find the height directly?
No, we need to consider the height and distance from the base of the lighthouse to the first boat as unknowns and set
up a pair of simultaneous equations.
• Q9 (F) / Q5 (H) For part b, what new right-angled triangle can you now draw?
One where the base is 25 m and the height is the answer to part a.
• Q10 (F) / Q6 (H) What information can you add to the diagram to give a right-angled triangle that you can use to find
length DC?
We can add length DB and use the tangent function to find DC.
• Q12 (F) / Q8 (H) How can Q8 (F) / Q4 (H) help here?
We are in the same situation, but this time we must clearly show how we do each calculation.
• Q9 (H) How do you write bearings?
Use three digits and measure clockwise from North.
• What does the phrase ‘shortest distance’ mean?
It means the perpendicular line segment between the two parallel sides.
• Split the pentagon into equally-sized isosceles triangles. What information is required to calculate the area of each of
these triangles?
1 360
We can use the ab sinC area rule so we need to know the angle at the centre ( ) and the length of the line extending
2 5
from the centre of the pentagon to each vertex.

• How might we find the length of the line from the centre to each vertex?
By cutting each isosceles triangle in half to form two congruent right-angled triangles and using right-angled
trigonometry. (Note: there are other ways of approaching this problem and sketches should be encouraged.)
• Q11 (H) How can you model this situation?
We need to find two sides of the triangle SBD to be able to use trigonometry to find ∠SBD.
• What right-angled triangles in the diagram will help with this?
Triangle DAB and triangle ENB.
• Q12 (H) How can you use right-angled triangles to help here?
The same method as in Q11 (H) can be used here (Note: Having found the angle each face makes with the base students
may try to use the full power of trigonometry again to find the apex angle of a face of the pyramid. However, it is a useful
exercise to see who did that and who simply subtracted their part a answer from 90 degrees.)

• Have a series of slides with ‘real-world problems’ on them. Students have to sketch a right-angled triangle that would
help answer the question. Students could also be required to write down a relevant calculation.
• Take Q10 (H) as a starting point. Given a circle of radius 5cm, what is the area of an equilateral triangle with vertices
on the circle? You can then ask what the area of a square (regular pentagon, regular hexagon, etc.) with vertices on
the circle will be. What happens to the area of the regular polygon as we increase the number of sides in comparison
with the area of the circle?
• Students can make their own clinometer, see NRICH Making Maths: Clinometer or the instructional pdf MEP
Trigonometry Unit 4 Activity 4.3. (nrich.maths.org and cimt.plymouth.ac.uk)
• A further enrichment task to connect ideas of trigonometry and construction could be to get the students to draw a
triangle, draw on the medians to find a centre point and use this to draw the circumcircle. If they then apply the sine
a b c
rule for any ratio the value will always be the diameter of the circumcircle. = = = D.
sin A sin B sin C
Assessment ideas
• Getting students to construct their own questions that require the application of the trigonometric functions more
than once and/or Pythagoras’ theorem allows them to see how more complicated questions can be constructed from
the ideas they have now learnt. Students can then exchange their questions and form model solutions.
• Critiquing answers to exam-style questions can be used to form ‘how to’ guides on the types of exam questions the
students may come across.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• There are many opportunities to combine previous concepts covered at GCSE and connect geometric ideas.
Opportunities should be taken to look at general problems based on right-angled triangles to encourage students to
identify the different methods available to them in solving and what information is required to apply each one.
• Higher students have considered the graphical representation of each function and explored what it means to extend
the angle beyond 90 degrees in Chapter 37 (F) / 39 (H).
Gateway to A-level
• Trigonometry forms a large part of the A-level syllabus. Alongside the 2D and 3D problem-solving applications,
students will explore the domain and range of each function in detail considering the features of each one. Students
will learn to solve more complicated equations involving trigonometric functions and list all solutions in a possible
domain.

• Knowledge of identities will be used to manipulate expressions and reciprocal functions will be used to extend these
ideas.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes

37F / 39H Graphs of other functions and

equations
• Plot and interpret straight-line graphs including identifying gradients and y-intercepts.
• Solving linear equations to find the y or x coordinate given the x or y coordinate respectively.
• Identifying or constructing parallel lines given an equation of a straight line (in any form).
• (Higher only) Identifying or constructing perpendicular lines given an equation of a straight line (in any form).
• Generate a table of values from a given function.
• How to find roots of a quadratic equation algebraically (including completing the square).
• (Higher only) Knowledge of the trigonometric functions: sine, cosine and tangent.
• Fluency with calculating square and cube numbers.

• Fluency when calculating negative numbers.
• Fluency with the laws of indices.
• Ability to set up and solve simultaneous equations.
• How to describe a line of symmetry as a straight-line equation.
• Properties and definitions of quadrilaterals.
• (Higher only) Exact trigonometric ratio values, for example, sin 90, cos 90, sin 45 etc.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• Able to work fluently with equations of straight-line • Able to work fluently with equations of straight-line
graphs. graphs.
Section 2 Section 2
• Identify and plot graphs of quadratic functions, for • Identify and plot graphs of quadratic functions, for
example, parabolas. example, parabolas.
• Find roots of quadratic equations from the x-intercept • Find roots of quadratic equations from the
of the parabola of the quadratic equation that defines x-intercept of the parabola of the quadratic equation
the graph. that defines the graph.
• Know the features of graphs of quadratic equations. • Know the features of graphs of quadratic equations.
• Be able to sketch parabolas. • Be able to sketch parabolas.

37F / 39H Graphs of other functions and equations
Section 3 Section 3
• Work fluently with cubic polynomials and their graphs. • Work fluently with cubic polynomials and their
graphs.
• Be able to sketch cubic graphs.
• Be able to sketch cubic graphs.
• Work fluently to calculate reciprocals of numbers and
plot functions involving reciprocals. • Work fluently to calculate reciprocals of numbers
and plot functions involving reciprocals.
• Identify hyperbolas and match them to their equations.
• Identify hyperbolas and match them to their
equations.
Section 4 Section 4
• Plot and sketch graphs from given functions. • Plot and sketch graphs from given functions.
• Recognise linear, quadratic and reciprocal graphs. • Recognise linear, quadratic and reciprocal graphs.
• Identify and plot exponential graphs.
• Identify and plot trigonometric graphs.
Section 5
• Represent a circle given its centre on the origin and
radius r by a function.
• Identify equations of circles from their graphs.
Vocabulary
• Quadratic, parabola, polynomial, reciprocal.

• (Higher only) Exponential function, exponent, periodic graph, tangent.
• Students find it difficult to make connections between the algebraic world and the geometry it can describe.
Reinforce the connection between the two by referring to an equation of the form y = f(x) and asking what graph we
can get from it or, given a graph, asking how it could be described algebraically. A graph or equation here is taken to
be one of straight-line/linear, parabola/quadratic or hyperbola/reciprocal, as given in the text.
• When moving from equation to the graph, students use their calculators to calculate a table of values for a
quadratic function and incorrectly square negative numbers.
This results in a graph that is not a parabola. Remind students of their number work and ask the question ‘what does
happen if we square a negative number?’
• When students move from graphing linear functions to quadratic functions they sometimes have a desire to
connect the points with straight lines and consequently the plotted points of their quadratic are connected
with line segments rather than a smooth curve.
Some students struggle to connect the points with a smooth curve and they can be given additional practice by
placing their plotted points on the grid into a plastic wallet and treating it like a whiteboard.
• Terminology is very important for this chapter and students often use ‘equation’ when they mean ‘expression’.
You can reinforce the correct terminology by using appropriate language at all times.
• Students may not have a good gasp of what the word ‘reciprocal’ means.
A starter based on matching up reciprocal numbers could help to reinforce the meaning of the word. Further to
this, basic number knowledge of cubed negative numbers is essential for this section in order to calculate a table of
values. Again, a starter based on ‘tick or trash’ for the correct calculations for (−2)3 or −(−2)3 or −(2)3.
• (Higher only) Students often confuse the trigonometric functions with each other.
Using an acronym (such as SOHCAHTOA) has been useful in tackling this problem.
• (Higher only) Students’ understanding of what a function actually is can be weak.
Students can be familiar with ‘function machines’ from earlier material but this can sometimes confuse the situation
here where function means something very specific. A function has an input given by a set of values, the domain, and

has an output set of values, the range. In addition to this a function has one output for each input. Students need to
use this language to become comfortable with it and must be corrected when using the incorrect vocabulary.
• (Higher only) (x + y)2 is not equal to x2 + y2.
This can be addressed by a series of counter examples.
• Sometimes the language we use causes conflicts in students’ acquisition of knowledge.
In this chapter it is down to the word reciprocal. When students learn about reciprocals in number they learn that it
is the value you multiply a given number by to make 1, that is, it is one divided by their starting number. However,
despite the fact students will encounter more reciprocal functions in A-level trigonometry, in this chapter a reciprocal
function refers specifically to those in the form a ÷ x. It is not one divided by their given function.
Hooks
• Graphs are a very useful way to display collected data. Being able to fit a line of best fit to the data is very useful for
predicting what might happen for a different value. Therefore, knowing what different types of graphs look like helps
when fitting different types of equations to the line of best fit. Having a program like GeoGebra open and allowing
the students to either make suggestions for the functions f(x) to plot or give common functions, for example ax + b,
and ask what they might look like before plotting.
• René Descartes used algebra to describe geometry. This connection goes both ways and has allowed mathematicians
and scientists to solve problems in algebra via a geometric solution and, vice versa, problems in geometry using
algebra. On the most basic level, having a graph of a function y = f(x) shows you straight away if you have any
solutions to the equation c = f(x), where c is a constant.
SECTION 1F / 1H: REVIEW OF LINEAR GRAPHS
Section 1 focuses on reviewing the material learnt in Chapter 18. The section goes through a recap of graphs of the form
y = mx + c and describing vertical and horizontal lines.
Prompting questions
• How many different ways can we represent a straight-line graph at this stage?
The classic equation y = mx + c, the more general ax + by + c = 0 and as an angle made with either the x-axis or y-axis at
the point (x, 0) or (0, y) respectively.
• How can we describe lines parallel to the x-axis or y-axis?
We can do this with equations of horizontal or vertical lines.
• How does changing the gradient m in the equation y = mx + c of the line change the graph?
The gradient of the graph controls how ‘steep’ the straight-line is, taken from the positive x-axis. The larger the value of
m the steeper the straight-line is.
• How does changing the y-intercept c in the equation y = mx + c of the line change the graph?
The y-intercept controls where the straight-line intercepts (cuts) the y-axis.
• Why do we often prefer an equation of a straight-line graph in the form y = mx + c?
Having the straight-line graph represented by the equation y = mx + c makes it easier to read off the gradient and
y-intercept of the graph.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Can we write down an example for each case?
For Q2a (3, 3) must lie on the line.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What pieces of information do we need to find an equation of a straight-line?
The gradient and y-intercept are the most useful pieces of information at this stage.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) How do we find an equation of a line parallel to a given line?
We need to know the gradient, as the gradients of both lines must be equal.

• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) What is different about these equations compared with y = mx + c?

They are not in the same format, they are either x = c or y = c, where c is an integer and hence given horizontal or vertical
lines.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) What are the definitions of the different types of quadrilaterals?
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) How can we find an equation of a straight-line given two points?
We need to calculate the gradient first.
• Q8 (H) How much information do we need to make a sketch of a straight-line graph?
We need to either know two points or a point and the gradient of the line.

Starters
• A matching activity for straight-line graphs. Equations and graphs are hidden behind card or moveable rectangles on
an IWB. Each student gets a chance to match up the graphs to an equation by revealing two cards each time. If they
are correct the pair stay revealed, if not they are recovered and you start again.
• A ‘tick or trash’ selection of slides where the students vote on whether the graph displayed is given with the correct
equation.
Plenaries
• A mathematical trail of straight-line graphs, starting with a specific equation and apply a series of ‘transformations’
to the equation to create new straight-line graphs with different properties. For example, start with y = x, we now
want a line parallel to this but going through the point (0, 3). Take y = x + 3 and now we want a straight-line that has
the same x coordinate when the y = 5 but has a gradient of 3. The students can work as teams or individually and
come out to the board to explain.
Assessment ideas
• Since this section is a review and recap of the material from Chapter 28 (F) / 29 (H), students can form pairs and
construct revision guides for the material they learnt. This task could be used as a consolidation task for Chapter
18 and then used in this series of lessons. The guides could be given out (not necessarily to the same students who
made them) and used to review previous learning.
SECTION 2F / 2H: QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
Section 2 focuses on quadratic functions. The section starts by getting the students to plot quadratic equations from
a table of values. This is then extended after Exercise B to identify the common features of the graphs (parabolas)
the students have just plotted. The key features (turning point, axis of symmetry, y-intercept, x-intercept) are then
calculated for a set of examples before inviting the students to do this in Exercise C. The section ends with worked
examples of sketching quadratic graphs.
Prompting questions
• What is a parabola?
The curve we get from graphs given by quadratic equations.
• What form can an equation for a parabola take?
y = ax2 + bx + c
• How do we get ‘u’ shaped parabolas? How do get ‘n’ shaped parabolas?
The coefficient of the x2 term, a, in ax2 + bx + c controls this particular part of a parabola.
• What happens when you square negative numbers?
They become positive.
• How can you plot the graph of a function given a table of values?
The x and corresponding y value form a coordinate, all of which sit on the curve of the quadratic.

• Where does the parabola cut the y-axis?

At the point where x = 0.
• Does the parabola given by y = ax2 + bx + c cut the x-axis? What does this tell you about the quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0?
That it has either two (cuts the x-axis twice), one (touches the x-axis) or no (does not touch or cross the x-axis) solutions.
• Where is the turning point on your graph?
The point where the gradient is zero known here as the vertex of the parabola (Higher) or simply where the curve ‘turns’
(Foundation).
• What is our procedure for sketching a parabola given by y = ax2 + bx + c? How can we start?
If we complete the square on our quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c, since this makes it easier to determine the
coordinates of the maximum or minimum point. Or we could determine the shape of the parabola, given by a > 0 or
a < 0. Or we could attempt to factorise the quadratic ax2 + bx + c to find the roots. Or we could find the y-intercept but
substituting x = 0 into ax2 + bx + c.
• Q2–3 (F) / Q1 (H) What happens when you square a negative number?
You get a positive number.
• Q4 (H) The questions in this section are excellent for promoting thought.
• Q5 (H) If y = f(x) what does it mean for f(x) = 0?
We want the intersection of the curve y = f(x) with the line y = 0
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What does it mean to have an axis of symmetry?
The line about which the curve is symmetric.
• Q2 (F) How can we determine if the coefficient of the x2 term is positive or negative?
• Q2 (H) Where have you seen this type of form before for a quadratic expression? What happens when x = h? What
happens when x = 0?
This is completing the square. When x = h we have a maximum or minimum for the parabola. When x = 0 we get the
y-intercept.
• Q1 (F) What is the basic shape of a parabola? What happens when x2 has a coefficient that is negative?
The parabola is ‘n’ shaped rather than ‘u’.
• Q2 (F) Could we sketch a few examples?
• Q2 (H) How could you use question 1 to help answer this question?
Question 1 can give a guide to the type of features each parabola should have given its equation.
• Q3 (F) How do we solve this?
We are looking at in intersection of the parabolas with y = 0.
• Q4 (F) / Q3 (H) What is our process for sketching a parabola?
See bullet points before worked example 37.3 (F) / 39.3 (H).
• Q5 (F) / Q1 (H) How could we group the graphs? What does this mean for each graph that can be paired together?
Some parabolas are n shaped some are u, this tells us that the coefficient of the x2 term is either negative or positive
respectively.

Starters
• ‘Guess the graph’ to get students in the mindset of recognising a parabola. Have a series of pictures that are either
parabolas or not.

• Having a few quadratic equations on the board, which need to be sketched within a certain time frame. Points are
awarded for accurate sketches and appropriate labelled information. This can be turned into a quick-fire game, with
two students competing in front of the class.
Plenaries
• Have a series of graphs, with their equations, where some information is given from the list: turning point,
y-intercept, x-intercept and axis of symmetry. The students need to decide if all information that can be given is given
about the parabola. If it is not, they need to either find the missing information through calculations, or justify why it
was not present in the first place.
• NRICH Parabolic Patterns allows for the use of GeoGebra or a graphical calculator to give the students a chance to
consolidate their recently gained knowledge of identifying an equation of a parabola. For foundation students you
may want fewer parabolas. For higher students you can increase the difficulty by attempting this further activity
NRICH More Parabolic Patterns. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Allowing the students to work in pairs to explore graphs of equations of the form y = ax2 + bx + c by varying the
coefficients graphically first and then requiring them to discuss their paired work in a group of four. Once they have
discussed what they have found as a group they can present or compile an A3 size poster on what they found. Either
the presentations can be peer assessed or the poster can be displayed in the classroom and peer assessed. Key
issues can then be summarised as a class and any misconceptions highlighted.
SECTION 3F / 3H: OTHER POLYNOMIALS AND RECIPROCALS
Section 3 focuses on sketching polynomials of degree higher than 2 and graphs of reciprocal functions. The word
polynomial is brought in as key vocabulary in this section but should be introduced as early as possible when defining
what a quadratic expression/equation is. During this section the common features of cubic graphs are discussed and
sketching reciprocal functions from a table.
Prompting questions
• How do we write a general quadratic expression?
ax2 + bx + c, a not equal to zero.
• How can we write a general cubic expression?
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a not equal to zero.
• What are the similarities and differences between cubic and quadratic graphs?
Both graphs always have a y-intercept. Cubic graphs always have at least one x-intercept. (Higher only) How could we
prove this?
• What does the coefficient of the x3 term in a cubic function control?
Either we get an increasing curve (a > 0) or a decreasing curve (a < 0).
• What is the reciprocal of 3?
1
3
• What is the reciprocal of x?

1
x
• What is the general form for a reciprocal function?

y = a , a not equal to zero.
x
• What is the name of the graph we get?
A hyperbola.

• What happens as the x values get closer and closer to 0?

If we approach from the positive x values, we get 1 ÷ (very small positive number) that gives a very large positive
number. If we approach from the negative x values, we get 1 ÷ (very small negative number) that gives a very large
negative number.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What is the result of −(−2)3?
8.
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) Use question 1 to help.
• Q3 (F) / Q3 (H) What patterns have you noticed?
The negative cubic graphs are a reflection in the y-axis.
• Q4 (F) / Q4 (H) How do these two graphs look in comparison with y = x3?
They are the same shape but moved up in the positive y-axis direction or down in then negative y-axis direction.
• Q5 (F) / Q5 (H) What patterns have you noticed? What can you say about y = x3 − 9?
This curve will be like y = x3 but moved down so that it crosses the y-axis at (0, −9).
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) What is happening each time to our basic cubic y = x3?
It is being ‘translated’ up and down the y-axis.
• Q7 (H) How could you keep track of all the substitutions required in these questions?
We could create an extended table to calculate each of the components.
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) What happens when we divide a negative number by a negative number?
We get a positive number.
1 -1
• Q2 (F) / Q2 (H) How do these graphs compare with the graph of y = and y = ?
x x
They are stretched or compressed versions of them.
• Q3 (F) How can we use question 2 to help us answer question 3?
We have a set of graphs on the same grid we can use to compare the different functions.
1 1
• Q4 (F) / Q3 (H) What do we calculate first: or x + 1 for y = + 1?
x x
1
We do and then add one.
x
• Q5 (F) / Q4 (H) Can we use questions 2 and 3 to help with this question?
1
We are taking the basic reciprocal graph y = and adding positive numbers to each of the y coordinates.
x
• Q6 (F) / Q5 (H) What does it mean ‘line of symmetry’? How can we try an example?
• Q6 (H) Which values of x should we not use here?
x = −2 for part b and x = 2 for part c.
• Q7 (H) Can we predict what the graphs will look like before we plot them?
• Q8 (H) Have we seen anything like this before? Are there any negative y coordinates?
The quadratic graph y = x2 has no negative y coordinates.

• What type of graph? Have a series of graphs displayed based on the graphs from this chapter. The students must
identify the correct type of graph.
• As an introduction to the topic of reciprocal graphs NRICH More Realistic Electric Kettle activity could be
used. This activity also has connection to a task that could happen in the students’ science lessons and offers an

opportunity to combine such a lesson. The students get a chance to plot a curve and find a way to figure out the
equation of the line. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• Students have learned about a new graph to add to their bank of common graphs in this section. Students could
make a revision guide accompanied by a question for a reciprocal graph. They then give their guide and question
to another student who answers the question and comments on the revision guide. The guides can be gathered
together and stored for revision purposes.
SECTION 4F: PLOTTING, SKETCHING AND RECOGNISING GRAPHS
Section 4 (F) focuses on consolidating the material from sections 1–3 and contains an overview of the material as bullet
points and an exercise.
Prompting questions
• How do we tell which type of graph we have? Is it a line or curve?
The shape of the curve distinguishes certain graphs and if they are continuous functions (that is you can draw your
graph by not taking your pencil off your graph paper).
• How do we determine which type of algebraic function we have?
Polynomials differ from reciprocal functions. Polynomials can be distinguished by their highest power of x.
Exercise 37G (F)
• Q1 (F) How could we test some of the claims in the questions?
We can substitute values in or use examples given in exercises before this one.
• Q2 (F) What do the equations have in common?
They all give straight lines.
• Q3 (F) Which equations will give the same type of graphs?
a, b, c are quadratic functions, d is a cubic function and e and f are reciprocal functions.
• Q4 (F) How do we find x-intercepts for quadratic functions?
We look where the line y = 0 crosses the parabolas.
• Q5 (F) What does it mean for a quadratic equation to have two roots?
This means the parabola given by the quadratic equation crosses the x-axis twice.
• Q6 (F) How can we categorise the graphs and equations?
Reciprocal, straight-line, quadratic and cubic

• NRICH Guessing the Graph can be used for students to make their own data, plot the data and use their knowledge
of the graphs of different functions to suggest possible curves to fit to the data. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH What’s That Graph?’ can be used to draw connections between the physical world and the mathematics the
students have covered in this chapter. (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 4H: EXPONENTIAL AND TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Section 4 focuses on exponential and trigonometric functions and you may choose to defer this topic until after
students have learned about trigonometric functions in Chapter 36 (F) / 38 (H). Section 4 in this chapter defines what
exponential growth is and what exponential functions are. Students will be exposed to the terminology of exponent
and will need to be fluent at manipulating indices. The section also recalls the definitions of the trigonometric functions
sine, cosine and tangent. It concentrates on constructing graphs from tables of values and introducing the notion of a
period for a graph. The final part of the section moves on to recognising the trigonometric functions from their graph.
Prompting questions
• In what context were trigonometric functions first introduced to you?
They are connected with right-angled triangles and can be used to find side lengths and angles in such triangles. Angles
are the inputs to the function (the domain).
• Can you use your calculator to calculate the value of a trigonometric function at a certain angle?
• What happens at tan 90? From our right-angled triangle we can see that this would be undefined, since the sum of
the interior angles of a triangle is 180 degrees and we would have two angles that sum to 180 degrees.
• How could we remember some useful trigonometric function outputs for certain angles? We can use a right-angled,
isosceles triangle of side lengths 1,1 and root two to describe the value of sin 45, cos 45 and tan 45. We can use a
similar technique for finding the output of trigonometric functions with input 30 and 60 degrees using an equilateral
triangle of side length 2 cut into two to create a right-angled triangle.
Exercise 39G (H)
• What is the value of x0, where x is any number?
0.
• Q1 (H) How should we connect the point calculated in our table of values?
With a smooth curve.
• Q2 (H) Which part of the graph y = 4x will be above or below the curve y = 2x, why?
The critical value here is x = 0. Any number raised to the power zero is 1. Thus, for x > 0 y = 4x ‘dominates’ y = 2x. However,
when x < 0, y = 2x ‘dominates’ y = 4x.
• Q3 (H) How does this graph compare with the one from question 2?
1
y = ( )x is the image of y = 4x reflected in the y-axis.
4
• Why?
1
We can write ( )x as 4 to a negative power of x using the index laws.
4
• Q4 (H) What happens if you raise 1 to any power?
It is still 1.
• Q5 (H) What value is the base of the exponent and why does this matter?
0.85, which is less than one so powers of 0.85 will produce smaller numbers than 0.85.
Exercise 39H (H)
• Q1 (H) What does it mean for a function to have a maximum or minimum value?
It means that the range of the function is always less than, greater than or equal to this value.
• Q2 (H) What do trigonometric graphs look like?
They are periodic.

• An activity where students are asked to suggest an equation for a given graph. The class can debate the students’
responses.
• NRICH Tangled Trig Graphs is meant for an extension as it stands, but can be adapted for use with higher GCSE
students by removing some graphs. (nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• The students can use mini whiteboards to sketch the graphs of equations given to them.

SECTION 5H: CIRCLES AND THEIR EQUATIONS
Section 5 focuses on an equation of a circle with its centre on the origin and a radius of r. The students will be required
to recognise circle equations and suggest circle equations for a given graph.
Prompting questions
• How are circles described?
One way is a locus of points a given distance away from a centre.
• What will equations of circles look like for us?
x2 + y2 = r2.
Exercise 39I (H)
• Q3 (H) How can we tell when a point lies on any curve, not just a circle?
We can substitute the x and y coordinates into the equation.
• Q4 (H) How can each of these questions help you answer the other?
Question 2 asks you to sketch the circles from an equation, while question 4 asks you to determine an equation for each
of the drawn circles.

• Given a set of circles match them to their equations.
• Given a set of circles of different radii with centre on the origin and equations of the these circles not centred on the
origin, see if the students can:
-- First identify which circle equations are based on which original circles (before moving them from the origin)
using graphing software.
-- Second, discuss and investigate how their equations are connected.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• This chapter links back right back to Chapter 4, Chapter 7 and Chapter 18.
• There are also strong connections with Chapter 28 (F) / 29 (H) (which is recapped in this chapter).
• (Higher only) There are also connections with Chapter 38 (H) and Chapter 31 (H).
Future learning
• Chapter 27 (F) / 28 (H) and Chapter 38 (F) / 40 (H).

• Chapter 31 (H) and Chapter 30 (H) have strong links with Chapter 41 (H).
Gateway to A-level
• A-level Mathematics further develops the connections between Algebra and Geometry. Students who go on to
A-level will be expected to be fluent in moving between descriptions of the function as a graph and as an equation,
and will further their knowledge of circles that are not centred on the origin. Further to this they will need to
answer questions of the type: given two graphs y = f(x) and y − g(x) on the same pair of axes, what do the number of
intersections mean for the solutions of the equation f(x) = g(x)?

• From an application point of view, simple harmonic motion, projectiles and parabolic motion are studied and have
foundations in this chapter.
Foundation Higher
Homework Book
Foundation Higher

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

38F / 40H Growth and decay

• How to convert percentages to decimals.

• How to find a percentage of a quantity using multiplication.
• How to increase or decrease a quantity by a given percentage by multiplying by a suitable decimal.
• (Higher only) How to plot and interpret functions of the form y = abx, where b is a positive number and a, x are real
numbers.
• How to extract information regarding percentage increase or decrease from a word problem.
• How to substitute values into a formula.
Learning outcomes
Foundation Higher
Section 1 Section 1
• To be able to calculate with simple growth, such as • To be able to calculate with simple growth, such as
simple interest rates. simple interest rates.
• To be able to calculate with compound growth, such as • To be able to calculate with compound growth, such
compound interest rates. as compound interest rates.
• To be able to solve word problems using simple and/or • To be able to solve word problems using simple and/
compound growth. or compound growth.
• To be able to use the formula y = a(1 + r)n for
compound growth.
Section 2 Section 2
• To be able to calculate with simple decay. • To be able to calculate with simple decay.
• To be able to calculate with compound decay, such as • To be able to calculate with compound decay, such
depreciation. as depreciation.
• To be able to solve word problems using simple and/or • To be able to solve word problems using simple and/
compound decay. or compound decay.
• To be able to use the formula y = a(1 − r)n for
compound decay.
Vocabulary
• Depreciation
• Simple versus compound interest: some students find it hard to remember what these two types of interest
are.
To combat this, linking the words to their literal meaning (simple because it is the simpler calculation, compound
because the multiplier is being compounded each year) helps some. For others, associating the words with a
physical process can help. For simple interest, do one calculation to find the interest and then add multiples of that

to the original amount. For compound interest, set up a table with column headings ‘amount at the start of the year’
and ‘amount at the end of the year’.
• Knowing if you need a percentage increase or decrease.
For students where literacy is an issue, there are lots of terms to use in this chapter. Having a vocabulary board with
an explanation of interest, growth, depreciation, decay and exponential would allow students to access the material
more easily.
• Calculating a percentage increase or decrease.
For some students calculating the amount of interest or decay first and then adding or subtracting seems the
most sensible way. However, other students will be very happy with the concept of multiplying by 1.05 to increase
an amount by 5%. Letting students find and use the way that makes sense to them does, on the whole, help with
recalling this material in exam situations.
• Calculating the initial amount given a percentage increase or decrease and a final amount.
Working backwards often causes issues for students, especially in this topic where being able to rearrange formulae
helps enormously. The most common misconception is that to find the original price after a 10% depreciation,
you just add on 10% of the new price. To demonstrate that this does not work, have a series of examples that
are ‘incorrect’. Substituting the incorrect answer back into the question will reinforce that this does not work. In
addition, always referring to amounts as a percentage of the original can help, for example, when increasing by 10%
you are finding 100% + 10% = 110% of the original amount. When you have the price depreciated by 10% you have
100% − 10% = 90% of the original amount. Connecting these ideas with unitary methods for scaling can also help
students identify what to do in a question as the setup is always the same.
Hooks
• Investments: a high-profile billionaire wants to invest his or her money in a project but does not know which one will
give the best rewards. Each project has varying amounts of interest, initial cost and maintenance costs. How can we
help to advise what projects he or she should take?
• Bacteria and epidemics: given enough food, bacteria grow at an exponential rate. Show a piece of footage of bacteria
growing and discuss with students how they think the bacteria are multiplying.
SECTION 1F / 1H: SIMPLE AND COMPOUND GROWTH
Section 1 focuses on simple and compound growth through the main example of interest rates. For higher students the
generic compound growth formula q(1 + p)n (initial investment q, growth rate or interest rate in a decimal form p and the
number of years n) is used and exponential growth is discussed.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) How do you calculate simple interest?
Simple interest is interest paid on the original amount and the same interest is paid for each time period.
• Q2 (F) How can you set out workings for this question?
We can make a table, with the column titles ‘amount at start of year’ and ‘amount at end of year’. For compound interest
we use the amount at the end of the previous year as the starting amount for the next year.
• Q3 (F) / Q2 (H) What is the multiplier for a growth rate of 4%?
1.04.
• Q5 (F) How would you label the axes?
Time on the horizontal axis and total money in the account on vertical axis.
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) What does the word ‘inhabitants’ mean?
The people that live in that place.
• What does the term ‘model’ mean?
A mathematical model: which is a description of a situation using mathematical terms and concepts.

• Q8 (F) / Q8 (H) Is inflation going to be treated as simple or compound growth?

Compound.
• Q13 (F) / Q14 (H) What is the increase in price and what is that as a percentage of the original amount?
Increases by 40p and so a percentage increase of 160%.
• Q17 (F) / Q18 (H) There is no starting value, does this matter?
No. Since we just want the number of hours for a colony of bacteria to double we could choose any number to start with.
For example, we could use an initial value of 1 and find out how many times you have to multiply 1 by 1.05 to make 2.

• A ‘find the best deal’ activity, such as the one in Exercise 38A Q16 (F) / 40A Q17 (H). This will allow students to find
the answers to each of the deals after which a whole class discussion can take place to justify their choice.
• Growth rate is a huge part of mathematical modeling. Having a task based on epidemics, such as the ones from the
Disease Dynamics motivate website or the summary in the NRICH Investigating Epidemics activity is a nice way
to look at growth and, for higher students, exponential growth. (motivate.maths.org and nrich.maths.org)
• Taking a series of interest rate deals from various banks and getting the students to analyse which deal is best.
Assessment ideas
• Students mark and evaluate ‘student answers’ (formed from either a collection of assessed work or imitation student
answers) to exam questions. In particular, the answers provided should highlight some of the misconceptions and
issues given above.
SECTION 2F / 2H: SIMPLE AND COMPOUND DECAY
Section 2 focuses on simple and compound decay, through the main example of depreciation. For higher students the
generic compound decay formula q(1 − p)n (initial investment q, decay rate or depreciation rate in a decimal form p and
the number of years n) is used and exponential decay is discussed.
Prompting questions
• Q1 (F) / Q1 (H) How could you set this question out on the page?
We can make a table, with the column titles ‘amount at start of year’ and ‘amount at end of year’. For compound
depreciation we use the amount at the end of the previous year as the starting amount for the next year.
• Q6 (F) / Q6 (H) Which one of the graphs can it definitely not be and why?
Graph c because it is increasing as time goes on.
• Q7 (F) / Q7 (H) How do you calculate this percentage decrease?
We need to know how much the original amount has decreased by and use this to calculate the percentage decrease
amount decreased
using × 100.
original amount
• Q10 (F) / Q11 (H) Which value do you need to find two-thirds of?
The current value, £342.95.
• Q10 (H) How can you work backwards to find the initial cost for row three, can you just add on 11% of the Year 1
value?
$30 260
We cannot just add on 11% of the Year 1 amount. This is because I × (1 – 0.11)1 = $30 260. Therefore, I = .
0.89


• Display a series of different types of cars made in different years, with different depreciations for example a classic
car and a model made a couple of years ago. The students need to calculate the current price of each of the cars.
• NRICH Quorum-sensing is a short activity for higher students, or slightly longer activity for foundation students that
gives a novel question about decay. (nrich.maths.org)
• Radioactivity is a natural occurrence of exponential decay and the students could look at data for a selection of
radioactive materials, then use it to answer a series of questions related to the age of an object.
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Foundation and higher students will be using their knowledge from Chapter 5, Chapter 6 and Chapter 13. The graphs
that are used in this chapter have been seen in their most basic form in Chapter 37 (F) / 39(H).
Future learning
• For the remaining chapters in this GCSE book there is Chapter 27 (F) / 28 (H) for the general concept of direct and
inverse proportion for both foundation and higher students. For higher students there is Chapter 30 (H), where the
idea of gradient and real world graphs come in (making links back to the graphs showing growth and decay rates).
Gateway to A-level
• Rate of change is the motivation behind differentiation and is used extensively at A-level. In addition to this,
exponential growth is studied in more detail and leads to the exponential function (based on Euler’s number e).
Foundation Higher
• N/A • Chapter 4 Question 3
Homework Book
Foundation Higher


• Lesson notes
• 1 animated widget

41H Transformations of curves

• How to recognise the graphs of linear, quadratic and reciprocal functions.

• How to sketch the trigonometric functions: y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x and recognise the features of each
including the period and amplitude.
• How to manipulate quadratic expressions to factorised form and completed square form.
• Language for features of quadratic functions including roots and turning point or vertex.
• Knowledge of graphing software such as Geogebra or Desmos (freely available) to plot functions.
• Index laws including a0 = 1.
Learning outcomes
Section 1
• Know the features of a quadratic function (parabola): axis of symmetry, roots and vertex, and identify these features
from the sketch of a quadratic.
• Sketch vertical translations of quadratic functions.
• Sketch horizontal translations of quadratic functions.
• Sketch quadratic functions that have been translated in both the horizontal and vertical directions.
• Know the effect translations have on the axis of symmetry and vertex of a quadratic.
• Use graph sketching to identify the effect of multiplying f(x) by −1.
• Use algebraic manipulation skills to identify the features above and sketch any quadratic of the form y = ax2 + bx + c.
Section 2
• Identify reflections and translations in the graphical representations of trigonometric functions.
• Sketch a transformed trigonometric curve for a given domain.
Section 3
• Sketch translations and reflections of cubic, reciprocal and exponential functions.
Section 4
• Apply transformations learnt in this chapter to a variety of problems including identifying the effect of a
transformation on a feature of a graph and finding the equation of a function once a transformation has been
applied.
• Students most often try to remember a series of rules for transformations of graphs for example f(x) + a
(translation a units up), f(x) − a (translation a units down), f(x − a) (translation a units right) etc.
When students try to remember a series of rules they often confuse movement left and right with each other. It is
helpful to encourage less able students to consider the transformations in two categories, one affecting x (inside the
bracket) and one affecting y (outside the bracket), y acts as we would expect whereas the transformations affecting x
do the opposite for example f(x + a) is a movement in the negative, not positive, x-direction. Reducing the number of
facts for students to remember by combining rules to remove the distinction between positive and negative numbers
for example f(x) + a where a is a translation in the y-direction so if a is positive it moves up and if a is negative is

moves down can also help. In addition, encouraging students to use substitution to see what is happening to
points on the graph may also help them identify the transformation applied. You can support your students further
by supplying them with a crib sheet (an example shown below) to include in their notes and by having further
discussion of which transformations can be combined to give one rule.
y y y y f(ax)
y af(x) a1 0a1 y f(x) a a1
0a1
gradient increased curve moves

or decreased up a graph compressed
a or extended
x x x
y y y
y f(x a) y f(x) y f(x a)
curve moves
a units left curve moves
a units right
a x x a x
y y y
y f(x) a y f(x)
x
reflection in
reflection in the y-axis
the x-axis y f(x)
x
curve moves
a down a x
• Students do not understand the difference between a sketch and a drawing or plot of a graph and when asked
for a sketch, try to plot the graph exactly by drawing in a grid and plotting coordinate points.
Plotting coordinates maybe useful initially for students to get an idea of what a graph looks like, but it should not
be encouraged long term (particularly given the time it takes) and students should instead focus remembering the
general features of these families of graphs for example quadratics are ‘u’ or ‘n’ shape. Reinforcing what is required
in a sketch and having a checklist for students to work through may also help. For example, a sketch consists of: a
pair of axes; a pencil drawing showing the rough shape of the graph; and the points where the curve intersects the
axes. For some sketches, additional information will be required such as the coordinates of a stationary point, axis of
symmetry or indication of amplitude; this will be clearly stated in the question though.
Hooks
• NRICH Surprising Transformations can be used to consolidate knowledge of straight-line graphs and the
terminology needed for this chapter. The question can then be asked: ‘can we tell what transformation has taken
place to an equation of the form y = f(x) just from the algebra?’ or ‘can we tell what the new equation should look like
from how the graph has been translated?’ (nrich.maths.org)
SECTION 1H: QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND PARABOLAS
Section 1 focusses on quadratics in the form ax2 + bx + c where a = ± 1 and the ways in which each quadratic function can
be thought of as a combination of translations and reflections of the function y = x2. Through this, vertical and horizontal
translations as well as reflections are introduced and their effect on the features of a quadratic defined.

Prompting questions
Exercise 41A (H)
• Q1 (H) Given any value of x, what is the smallest that x2 can ever be?
0 because the square of a number is always positive.
• How does this help us identify the vertex of these quadratics?
The vertex for these quadratics is always going to be the minimum because the coefficient of x2 is 1, so we can find the
minimum of these graphs by considering what happens when x = 0.
• Q3 (H) What do you do to each value of x in y = −x2 to find y? We are squaring x and then multiplying it by −1 so all
values will be negative.
• Q4 (H) What am I replacing x2 with?
−x2.
How can you use the graphs in question 2 to help?
We can use the graphs from Q2 and combine them with the transformations given in Q1 to sketch the graphs.
• What is the general shape of a quadratic where the coefficient of x2 is −1?
An ‘n’ shape, rather than a ‘u’ shape. The graph y = x2 has been reflected in the x-axis before it is translated.
Exercise 41B (H)
• Q1 (H) What form does a quadratic have to be in to easily identify the axis of symmetry?
Completed square form.
• How do you identify the axis of symmetry from a quadratic in this form?
We look at the minimum of the graph by considering what makes (x + a)2 = 0.
• What is the value of x when the graph intercepts the y-axis?
x = 0.
• Q1 (H) What are you expecting the shape of these graphs to be if you are multiplying (x + a)2 by −1?
This gives a negative coefficient of x2 so the graphs will all be ‘n’ shape.
• Has the vertex of these quadratic graphs changed?
No.
• What can you say about the line of symmetry for each of these quadratics?
This will also remain unchanged.
Exercise 41C (H)
• Q1–2 (H) What does the completed square form tell you about the features of the graph?
The vertex and axis of symmetry.
• Q2–3 (H) What do you need to do to find the y-intercept?
The graph intercepts the y-axis when x = 0 so substitute this into the completed square form.
• What do you need to do to find the x-intercepts?
The graph intercepts the x-axis when y = 0, so solve the completed square form = 0.
• Q3 (H) What do you do first when completing the square?
Factor out the coefficient of x2 (so factor out −1).

• The students are given a series of transformations to perform on the parabola given by y = x2 for example. First
translate the graph three units in the positive x-direction, then reflect it in the x-axis etc. They have to perform all
these transformations and give a sketch of the final parabola along with an equation for it.

• Spot the transformation: students are given a series of parabolas that are transformations of y = x2 and they need to
write down which transformations were used to get the picture.
• NRICH Parabolic Patterns gives students graphs and asks them to find their equations using graphing software. An
extension to this activity would be NRICH More Parabolic Patterns’, which includes quadratic equations for y rather
than x. (nrich.maths.org)
• NRICH Which Quadratic? is part of a larger selection of tasks based on team work. The aim is to encourage students
to ask a series of questions where the answer is yes or no to discover which quadratic equation the student has.
(nrich.maths.org)
Assessment ideas
• The students create a revision booklet where they outline the key features of the parabola given by a quadratic
equation and how they change as you apply different types of translations. For a more able group, students
could each be given a different curve to complete the task for and further discussion could take place regarding
generalisations specific to the transformation and those that are only specific to the group of curves explored.
SECTION 2H : TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Section 2 focuses on the application of vertical and horizontal translations and reflections of the functions y = sin x,
y = cos x and y = tan x. The use of graphing software to support students’ investigations of these transformations is
recommended.
Prompting questions
Exercise 41D (H)
• Q1a (H) What are you expecting to happen to the graph of y = sinx when you add 2 to it based on your findings in
section 1?
That the graph will be translated ‘up’ in the positive y-direction. Note: this question can be repeated for Q1b and Q2a–b
with the function and translation changed appropriately.
• Q4–5 (H) What happened to quadratic curves when we multiplied the equation by −1?
We got a reflection in the x-axis. Use this to predict what the transformed graphs in Q4 and 5 will look like and check
your sketch with ICT.
• What do your findings in this exercise show?
That all the transformations identified in section 1 hold for any function.

Starters
• Students are asked to sketch the key features of sine and cosine graphs when given different domains. This will get
students thinking about the features of sine and cosine graphs and at what values these features occur.
Plenaries
• Using mini whiteboards: the teacher asks the students to sketch a sine or cosine graph for a given domain. The
students are then asked to sketch over on the same axes a given transformation.
• Card sort: students are given a series of sketches of sine graphs that have been transformed. They are then required
to match the graph with the correct equation. To increase difficulty (and awareness) you can select several of the
graphs and state that the original graph was a cosine graph. How would they then write the transformation given
that they already know what the sine graph transformation would be?
Assessment ideas
• Students create a revision booklet where they outline the key features of the trigonometric functions sine and cosine
and how they change as you apply different types of translations.

SECTION 3H: OTHER FUNCTIONS

1
Section 3 applies the transformations learnt in the previous two sections to graphs in the form: y = , y = ax where x > 1
x
and y = x3. Again in this section the use of graphing software is advised.
Prompting questions
Exercise 41E (H)
• Q1–3 (H) What transformation is being applied in each part: reflection or translation? What are you looking for to
spot these?
Translations are indicated by the addition (or subtraction) of a value to the function, reflections are indicated by a
change of sign (that indicates the function must have been multiplied by −1).
• Q3 (H) What is 1 divided by 0? Typing this into a calculator produces a ‘math error’ why do we think this is?
It is because we can’t share 1 into 0 parts and hence the answer is undefined.
• What happens to 1 when we divide by a very small number approaching 0?
Our answer gets infinitely large.
1
• How are these two features visible on the graph of the function y = ?
x
The curve extends upwards to infinity close to 0 and there is no value of y for x = 0 as the curve does not touch the y-axis.
• Q4 (H) How would you describe the features of y = 2x ? How do you think they are related to the function it
represents?
The curve crosses the y-axis at 1 this is because any number raised to a power of 0 is 1. The curve also tends to infinity in
the positive x and y quadrant; this is because powers of 2 get very large very quickly. In addition the curve tends to 0 in
the negative x positive y quadrant as we are dividing 1 by an exponentially increasing divisor as the power approaches
negative infinity. The graph is also never negative; this is because there is no power that can be applied to make a
positive number negative.

• Students are given a picture with a series of curves on the same pair of axes and they need to decide which curves
are transformations of each other. This could be provided as an A3 print out with graphs of exponential functions
with bases that are different.
• Start by giving a function. A series of transformations are flashed up on the board and the students need to sketch
them on their mini-whiteboards. After a series of say five transformations, they need to write down the equation of
the final curve they have.
• As is suggested in the section, using ICT to explore the graphs for each of the functions given is a useful exercise.
Assessment ideas
• Students create a revision booklet where they outline the key features of the functions and how they change as you
apply different types of translations.
SECTION 4H: TRANSLATION AND REFLECTION PROBLEMS
Section 4 offers a series of mixed problems to consolidate the material learnt in this chapter.
Prompting questions
Exercise 41F (H)
• Q1 (H) How has the initial quadratic y = x2 been transformed to give the graph y = (x + 3)2 - 8?
It has been translated 3 units to the left and 8 units down.
• How far has the original function been transformed once it is also translated following the instructions in parts a and
b?
In part a it has been moved back to its original position, in part b it ends up 5 units to the left and 11 units down.
• What does this mean the equation of the curve is now?
Part a: y = x2 and part b: y = (x + 5)2− 11.
• Q3 (H) What does it mean for two parabolas to be congruent?
It means that they are the same size and shape in a different position on the x–y plane.
• Q4 (H) What form should a quadratic be in to be able to identify the features required for a sketch?
It should be in completed square form.
• Q5 (H) Is there more than one way you can answer this question? What is it about the trig functions sine and cosine
that allows you to do this?
They are repeating functions with a period of 2π so there are many translations we can use.
• Q6 (H) What is being reflected in the y-axis?
The x values so we can replace x with −x.
• Q7 (H) If a graph has been shifted what type of transformation has taken place?
A translation so we are adding (or subtracting) values to the original function.

• Combine all the functions that have been covered in this chapter into a single ‘picture’. Students first need to identify
which curves belong to the same ‘type’ of function. Then they need to decide what transformations have taken
place to create the curves in each ‘type’ of function. It needs to be made clear which function you want to be the
starting function or you could suggest that once they know the type for example quadratic they know that y = x2 is the
simplest quadratic function and so can work out how the others were created from this curve.
• Now that students have a selection of functions they know about, they can create their own transformation question
and swap it with another student to try.
• If you wish to extend pupils and focus on multiple transformations students can consider which transformations are
commutative; students can apply one after the other in both orders and check the results. They can also consider
which transformations are self-inversing, meaning when applied twice they get the curve they started with.
Assessment ideas
• Two exam-style questions are given to pairs of students. Each student answers one and then marks the other. The
conversation at the end of this activity can be focused on exam technique and layout of their answer (as well as peer
assessment).
TOPIC LINKS
Previous learning
• Students learnt about the main features of quadratic functions in Chapter 39 (H). The algebraic manipulation
techniques required to rewrite a quadratic in different forms including completed square form were covered in
Chapter 16 (H). In addition, transformations and reflections were introduced through transformations of objects in
the 2D plane in Chapter 33 (H).
Gateway to A-level
• Transformations of graphs features at A-level with the addition of horizontal and vertical stretches. This work is then
extended again and students will look at composite transformations.

• Knowledge of how transformations can be identified using both graphical representations of functions and the
algebraic equations defining them is fundamental to students understanding the generalisation of a several
mathematical concepts learnt at A-level including calculus to calculate the are under a curve.
• Chapter 8 Questions 11, 25, 26, 27
Homework Book
• Chapter 41

• Lesson notes
Time-saving sheets

Literacy in Mathematics – helping your students to do their best
Literacy in Mathematics – helping your students

to do their best
This chapter provides advice and ideas on how you can help your students to become competent mathematicians, both
in their GCSE course and beyond. It includes ideas to support learning around the Assessment Objectives, suggestions
for enrichment and advice you can offer parents should they ask how they can support their child’s maths learning.
Extracting information
Students are now able to extract information from a much wider variety of sources than in the past. You can teach them
how to extract information from:
• tables and charts from both hard copy text and from the computer
• spreadsheets both from hard copy text and from the computer
• PDF and word processed text both in hard copy text and from the computer.
You may find the following approach useful.
Create your own compare and contrast grid, either generic or specific to a particular task. Choose data that represents
Mathematics found in situations students are familiar with or interested in, or that is appropriate to their studies in other
mathematically-based subjects like Science or Economics; this develops their knowledge of topics they are studying, or
about to study, and makes the information contextual and personal. From this data, students can extract and compare
information, for example, which is the best bus/train/tram/coach to use from timetables.
Potential data sources include:
• Scientific studies found online. Students can extract and compare information about density, speed, atomic weights,
interplanetary or interstellar distances, hardness of materials and so on. These lessons could be tied in with topics
such as equation forming and solving, units and measures, and standard form.
• Health information about Body Mass Index (BMI), although this topic must be approached with sensitivity and can be
taught in conjunction with Health Education for example.
• Growth and decay patterns from either printed material or websites. This also helps in the study of indices, standard
form, graph plotting and drawing, the idea of exponential growth and an appreciation of ‘infinity’.
• Recipe books, e.g. comparing cooking times from different books, or quantities of ingredients for the same recipe in
different books. These lessons could be tied in with topics like ratio and proportion, scaling up or down and mass.
• Shopping and comparison websites, from which students can extract and compare information. These lessons could
be tied in with topics such as value for money, general number work, fractions, decimals and percentages.
• Mobile phone tariffs, which can be accessed from newspaper adverts, airtime providers’ own literature and websites.
These lessons could be tied in with work on fixed or variable rates and value for money (e.g. advantages and
disadvantages of Pay As You Go vs Monthly tariffs).
Extension activity
Using data extracted from the above suggested sources, students can identify coordinate pairs and plot them on a
graph, either individually or as a group. These will generate both linear and curved graphs and enable students to have
an appreciation of how functions look.
Problem-solving
Problem-solving can be used frequently throughout a topic. It can set the context for the topic, assess students’
previous knowledge or develop their skills through the topic.
You should teach students to analyse the information you have presented them with, and select and extract the
information required to solve the problem. This may involve understanding that the skill they need is embedded in

another branch or topic. Students should then work through the problem to reach a solution. This may be ‘multi stage’
and students should realise they must work through it step by step. The important thing for students to remember is
that the problem is structured – that each step leads to the next and depends on the previous one. Information is gained
gradually.
(Foundation only) Example activity: Fractions
Many foundation students find fractions difficult to understand and master, and teachers often find the following
problem-solving activity helpful.
1. Distribute a number of paper strips to the students.
1
2. Ask students how they could use their strip to represent the fraction . Then show them how you would do it, e.g. by
folding it in half. 2
1
0 1
2
3. Ask students to label their strip as shown:
4. Help students to solve the problem of how they could use other strips to fold them into 3, 4, 5, ... etc equal parts.
(Some may need considerable help with this, although more able students may be imaginative in solving the
problem of how to fold a strip into more difficult sections like 5, 7 or 11.)
5. When students have solved the problem of how to fold strips of paper into different fractional parts you can get them
to put their strips onto a wall display vertically underneath one another and form a ‘fraction wall’ like the one below:
6. The students can then explore such things as equivalent fractions; comparing sizes of fractions and ordering
fractions. It can also help them understand the very widely held misconception that ‘The bigger the denominator, the
bigger the fraction!’
(Higher only) Example activity: Investigating Pythagoras’ theorem and Pythagorean triples
This problem requires students to prove Pythagoras’s theorem, and there are a number of ways of going about this.
Proof 1
• Students draw a square with another inside it as shown on the right: a b
• Students work through following steps: a
b c
1
-- Area of one corner triangle (= ab).
2
1 a b
-- Total area of four corner triangles (= 4 × ab = 2ab) c
2
b a
-- Area of ‘outside’ square (= (a + b)² )

-- Area of ‘inside’ square (= c²)

-- Area of ‘outside’ square = Area of ‘inside’ square + total area of four corner triangles
-- Some practice at algebraic manipulation leading to: a² + b² = c² (a+ b)² = c² + 2ab → a² + ab + ab + b² = c² + 2ab → a²
+ 2ab + b² = c² + 2ab → a² + b² = c².
Proof 2 – two congruent right angled triangles PST and QRS Q
P a
• Students are given this diagram and you describe it to them. b c c
a b
• Students work through following steps: T S R
-- Justify that the angle PSQ is a right angle.

1
-- Area of full trapezium (= × (a + b) × (a + b))
2
1 1 1
-- Area of three small triangles (= (ab) + (ab) + c2 )
2 2 2
-- Students equate their answers to first two steps and then some practice at algebraic manipulation leading to
1 1 1 1
× (a + b) × (a + b) = (ab) + (ab) + c2.
2 2 2 2
-- 1 1
× (a2 + 2ab + b2) = ab + c2 → (a2 + 2ab + b2) = 2ab + c2 → a² + b² = c².
2 2
-- (Some students realise that this diagram could be the bottom section of the diagram in Proof 1.) Hence the
investigation can be turned on its head and Proof 2, S
Proof 3 – Circle theorems c

b
P Q a O r R
• Students are given this diagram and you describe it to them.
• Students work through following steps:
-- Prove that the triangles RQS and PQS are similar.
-- Students use their answer to the first part to prove that a² + b² = c²
-- There are two common proofs of this investigation. The first one involves calling the angle SRO = x (say); Then it
follows that angle SPO is (90 − x) (angle in a semicircle) and, since triangle PQS is right-angled, angle PSQ is x;
-- Hence we have two triangles such that the angles are 90, x and (90 − x), making them similar.
-- The second proof involves using angle at centre = 2 × angle at circumference and so, if angle SRO = x, then angle
SOQ = 2x
-- Also since triangle SOR is isosceles (c = r), then, by considering the three angles making up 90 at point S, the two
triangles in question can be proved similar.
SQ QR b r +a
-- After either of these methods we can end up with the relationship = or = .
PQ QS r -a b
-- Hence (r − a)(r + a) = b2 → r2 − a2 = b2 or a2 + b2 = r2 and since c = r, then a2 + b2 = c2.
Pythagorean triples
After an investigation into the proof of Pythagoras’ theorem, students often like to investigate Pythagorean triples.
Introduce the students to Pythagorean triples and encourage them to systematically find and record Pythagorean
triples in ‘families’ – for example 3–4–5; 6–8–10; 9–12–15 etc. and then 5–12–13; 10–24–26; 15–36–39 etc. and then
8–15–17; 16–30–34; 24–45–51 etc.
Ask the students to investigate triples using websites and ask them to find a ‘formula’. Hopefully they will come up with
the following.
For any two positive integers a and b, a Pythagorean triple exists of the form a2 − b2; a2 + b2 and 2ab.
Students then investigate this formula. This could give Students good practice at using spreadsheets also to record
their results. Students could then investigate further such questions as:

• Why must every triple have at least one even number in it?
• Can you find a formula to generate triples where a must be odd?
Very able students could be asked to confirm the triple formula by evaluating (2ab)2 + (a2 − b2)2 = (a2 + b2)2.
Reasoning
To empower your students with a knowledge of reasoning skills, you can teach them to:
• State the reasons for their results; to realise outcomes and make decisions; to give opinions and to conjecture.
• Use logical step-by-step efficient techniques to solving a problem and draw a conclusion.
• Break down complicated problems into small steps and to work systematically.
• Find counter-examples that do not fit the line of reasoning and explain why this is the case.
Sue Waring, in her book, ‘Can you prove it?’, identifies four possible stages for students as they work towards a formal
proof:
• Stage 1: Convince yourself (mental justification)
• Stage 2: Convince a friend (oral justification)
• Stage 3: Convince a pen friend (informal written justification)
• Stage 4: Convince your mathematics teacher (more formal written justification)
(Foundation only) Example activity
Stage 1: Convince yourself
Ask students to draw a pair of intersecting straight lines.
Ask them to write down reasons why the vertically opposite angles are equal.
For example, students might write the two angles ‘look the same’ or that any two adjacent angles are on a straight line
so if you added the two together, whichever pair you chose you would get the same result.
Stage 2: Convince a friend
Ask students, in pairs, to talk through their arguments with
each other. For example, they might say that the star and
the black circle add up to 180 and so does the white circle and the black circle, so the star must be equal to the white
circle.
Stage 3: Convince a pen-friend
Ask students to write down a ‘proper’ justification.
This stage is just an easy justification, like, for instance the star icon in X
above image  + • = 180, • + ο = 180, so  = ο W Y
Z
Stage 4 Convince your teacher
This would have to be a formal justification, probably using algebra.
For instance: w + x = 180 (Angles on a straight line); x + y = 180 (Angles on a straight line); w + x = x + y; so w = y
Similarly they would go on to prove that x = z in the same way.
(Higher only) Example activity: How to fold an equilateral triangle
1. Give students a piece of A4 paper and ask them to fold it down the
middle parallel to the long side.
2. Open it out and make a fold from the bottom corner to meet the
central crease by folding from the other top corner.
3. Fold from the bottom left-hand corner until it meets the shorter
of the two diagonal lines formed in the previous folding.
4. Fold the top edge over to form a triangle.

5. Describe what has happened and what shape they have made.
All will say ‘triangle’, of course, but a few might venture that the ‘triangle is equilateral’ − which you confirm!
Ask them to write down a clear line of reasoning as to why the triangle is equilateral.
The reasoning could look like this:
i The two folds meet at a point on the lower edge of the rectangle.
ii These two folds, therefore, divide up the edge of the sheet into three equal angles.
iii The angle at the folds along the edge is 180°.
iv Therefore the three equal angles must be 180 ÷ 3 = 60°, so one angle in the triangle is 60°.
v The first fold to the central crease makes the triangle to the left of the right-angled triangle on the right-hand side
into an isosceles one.
vi Hence, since we have one base angle of 60°, the angle to the left of that one is also 60°, leaving a vertical angle of 30°
at the apex.
vii Hence the right angle at the top right hand corner of the rectangle is divided into three angles of 30° each.
viii When the second fold is made it envelopes two of those 30° angles into an angle of 60°.
ix Hence the triangle is equilateral.
Using questions to assess

Asking effective questions is important in using questions to assess, as is listening carefully and interpreting students’
answers.
Good assessment has a real and instantaneous impact on learning, since it identifies the students who are both falling
short and those who are exceeding the expected standard.
Key features of Assessment for Learning include:
• shared learning objectives among students
• helping students understand the standard they are attaining. Interpreting their answers is the key to understanding
their understanding and misconceptions.
• providing guidance to students so that they can see their next steps and how to attain them
• giving students the confidence to improve
• providing the opportunity for teachers and students to review and reflect.
Targeting misconceptions in the classroom

Lessons should focus on known, specific difficulties. Focus on one problem or context and facilitate a variety of
responses so that students can evaluate and learn from them. Properly structured lessons and questions give an
opportunity for meaningful responses from students. You could include time for class discussion, allowing new ideas
and concepts to surface, and remember to provide opportunities for students to secure what they have learned.
Be careful and sensitive in how you approach whole class discussions – some students are tentative and must be
included in the process in a calm and encouraging environment.
Examples of effective questioning techniques
• ‘How can we be sure that…?’ This can be more effective than ‘What is…?’.
• ‘What is the same and what is different about…?’ This can be more effective than ‘Compare ...’
• ‘Is it ever/always true/false that…?’ This can be more effective than ‘Is this true or false?’
• ‘Why do x, y and z all give the same answer?’ This approach can be more effective than asking ‘Are they all the same?’
• ‘How do you…?’ This can be more effective than ‘Can you…?’
• ‘How do you explain…?’ This can be more effective than ‘Explain…’
• ‘What does that tell us about…?’ Can be more effective than ‘Tell me about…’
• ‘Why is x true?’ Can be more effective than asking ‘Is x true?’

You may also find the table below helpful.
Topic Questions More effective questions

Calculations 4 − 6 = ?; 5 + ? = 9 What is the difference between addition and subtraction?
17 + 9 = ?; 9 + 17 = ? Does the order you add numbers make any difference?
5 × 8; 8 × 5 Does the order you multiply numbers make any difference?
6 ÷ 3; 3 ÷ 6 Does the order you divide numbers make any difference?
3 + 6 = ?; 4 + 6 = ?; 5 + 6 = ? How do you add 6?
45 + 57 = ? What is wrong with 45 + 57 = 92?
5+5+5+5=? Is it true that 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 is the same as 4 × 5?
Geometry and What is the sum of the angles in
Explain why the sum of the angles in a quadrilateral is 360.
measures a quadrilateral?
Draw the lines of symmetry on
Why does this figure have symmetry?
the figure.
Are these triangles congruent? Why are these triangles congruent?
Number
1 What are the differences between fractions and decimals?
What is as a decimal.
4
What is three quarters of 30? How do you find three quarters of something?
Work out: 45 × 0.15. Does multiplying always make things bigger?
What is a half of 34? Do you always get a whole number if you divide by 2?
Is 15 a multiple of 4? What can you tell me about multiples of 4?
What are the rules for adding and subtracting positive and
Work out: 5 − −6; −7 − 4; −6 + −8.
negative numbers?
What are the rules for multiplying and dividing positive and
Work out: 5 × −6; −7 × −4; −6 × 8.
negative numbers?
What can you tell me the square roots of positive and negative
Find the square root of 16.
numbers?
What is an odd number + an Why is an odd number + an even number always an odd
even number? number?
What will the graph of x + y = 5
Graphs What can you tell me about the graphs of linear functions?
look like?
What is the chance of throwing Does any number on a dice have a better chance when the dice
Probability
a six on a dice? is thrown?
Algebra Expand 2(z + 4) What happens when you expand x(y + z)?
Factorise x2 + 5x – 6 How do you factorise quadratics?
What are the rules for simplifying expressions with like and
Simplify 2a + 3b + 4ab − a + 5b
unlike terms in them?
3
Simplify How do you rationalise a denominator?
5+ 2

Resources to enrich and extend learning

There is a huge number of online resources that can be used to create rich lessons; some are listed below and some are
referenced within the chapter notes, but undoubtedly there will be many others worth investigating. These websites are
being updated constantly with new ideas so it is worth visiting them frequently for inspiration.
There are some students who will require extension work, even for the newer, more challenging GCSE, but this does not
necessarily mean teaching students A-Level topics in advance. Instead additional challenging and stretching problems
can be presented to help students build connections between concepts. The websites below that are appropriate
for this, as well as for making students aware of wider developments in the area of Mathematics, are indicated in the
comments.
• NRICH has been referenced many times in the chapter notes to offer enriching tasks and activities for various topics
in the Student Books. Their website offers a search by keyword, topic and key stage as well as offering a regularly
updated curriculum mapping document for teachers to use. There are hints and solutions for most problems
(solutions are sent in by students) and many problems also have additional notes and resources for teachers to use
when planning a lesson. However, for students working independently there are also student pages arranged by key
stage and places to seek advice in forums referred to as ‘AskNRICH’. (nrich.maths.org)
• Dan Meyer has created a series of resources for use in the classroom that are particularly useful in developing
students modelling skills called ‘Three-Act Math’, available free online (although the curriculum links refer to the
American system. In addition to this Dan also has an excellent blog that generates interesting discussion points and
lesson material. (blog.mrmeyer.com)
• The Cambridge Maths Education Project (CMEP) is an excellent place to find interesting resources based on the
more challenging material in the GCSE. It is also an ideal place to send students interested in studying Mathematics
at A-level and beyond as the Mathematics they will study is sorted into strands and the progression of ideas is clear.
(maths.cam.ac.uk)
• Numberloving is another interesting blog that presents great ideas for explaining the concepts of Mathematics as
well some great resources for use in the classroom.
• Plus Maths is an excellent website aiming to bring current developments and Mathematics news to a wider
audience. The articles are accessible and ideal for kindling students’ interest in Mathematics beyond GCSE.
(numberloving.com)
• As well as offering tours and talks, Maths in the city has a number of resources that could be adapted for lessons
about the mathematics visible around students every day and they could be encouraged to photograph the maths
they see and upload it to their website. (mathsinthecity.com)
Advice to offer parents

Many parents ask what they can do to support their child in studying for their GCSE. Aside from the usual advice relating
to giving students structure and somewhere quiet to work, it is also worth considering which of the websites above can
be help parents support their child and foster an environment of discussion about mathematics at home. Parents may
find the following websites useful in supporting revision and fostering Mathematics discussion at home (again there will
be many others you may wish to recommend):
• BBC Bitesize (bbc.co.uk)
• Plus Maths: for fostering an environment of interest in this subject and knowledge of current developments. (plus.
maths.org)
In addition parents can support students in their awareness of measurements and money through sharing information
relating to bills and wages, and encouraging students to plan financially for things they want either through saving
part-time job wages or pocket money. All these discussions increase students’ awareness of the size of numbers and
encourage better estimation/checking skills.
Parents can also be encouraged to take an interest in the mathematics their child is learning at school this week. There
is not an expectation that they understand the mathematics and help their child with independent work but instead
asking students what they have been doing or perhaps ask students to explain their work to them. Reporting back
to parents throughout the year as well as particular reporting dates and parent evenings can be really beneficial in
encouraging students through an increased interest at home. Perhaps by contacting the parents of the most successful
(this may be for different reasons including highest attaining and most improved) students after every assessment point
as well as contacting the parents of students who are causes for concern. This method of praise is discrete, but achieving
a ‘well done’ email being sent home can become a goal for many students.
Preparing students for exams

The revision quizzes included in this Teacher’s Resource are sets of cross-topic questions that you can use with students
throughout the year or in the run up to assessment. This chapter lists further useful resources and ideas to help with
your students’ revision and exam preparation.
Using websites for revision

Some useful free websites for students to use when revising are listed below. There are of course many more good
websites accessible online and an appropriate search often yields good results. At the time of writing much online
material is still based on the pre-2015 GCSE programme of study so some adaptation may be needed when using them,
but they are still worth using:
• BBC Bitesize: the information on this website is often concise, pitched at the right level and considered by some
students to be one of the most useful websites when revising. (bbc.co.uk)
• emaths: another good website for resources that can be used both inside and outside the classroom including
targeted grade resources and past papers. (emaths.co.uk)
One of the most important things when encouraging students to revise independently using resources online is to
reduce their options to a number of trusted sites and be specific about the types of activities they should be doing.
Some of the material is not appropriate for students to be working through on their own and should instead be used by
teachers for creating revision material.
Marking work
Encouraging students to mark incorrect work aimed to highlight common misconceptions and issues can be a really
useful activity for several reasons. First, it can help students identify common errors so they more aware of, and so
able to avoid, possible pitfalls. Second it should encourage them to check their working at all times, and thirdly it will
promote the use of clear solutions with full working.
Creating these resources can be time consuming but they can be used year on year as the types of misconceptions
students have that lead them to make these errors rarely change year on year. Work for students to mark can come from
several sources including those listed here.
• A collection of work from a recently assessed piece of work, perhaps a homework or test. The challenge here is that
you don’t want your marking to be visible to students so test solutions may work better as markings tend to only
be in the margin for these assessments. Student anonymity can be hard to keep as often students either identify
themselves or have a fairly good idea based on a process of elimination. This may not be a problem for a confident
class, however with some classes this may not be a good idea.
• A ‘mock’ set of solutions that you have written. These may be in the form of Ms X’s Homework or just a series of
unnamed solutions for pupils to mark; the first option may be more motivating to students.
• A series of solutions that students have to mark and rank in order of how good they are. These can be used in
conjunction with mark schemes where the challenge is for students to mark the solutions to the mark scheme and
rank the solutions from best to worst.
• These resources could be created collaboratively as a department and shared for use in lessons. It is good to write a
range of possible answers to GCSE questions using the advice given by exam boards in marking documents.
Creating model solutions
• Students can be encouraged to create model solutions to longer problems, particularly those set in context.
Changing the way in which these problems are offered and the answers are presented can make a big difference to
the way students approach the activity.
• Students can be offered a choice over the problem they tackle. A good way to do this is to print the questions on
different cards, without numbers. The cards can then be used to select problems randomly or students can select
their own problems giving them more motivation to complete the work through choice.
• Rather than writing solutions in exercise books, use plain A4 paper (or larger sheets). Using large pieces of sugar
paper and thick pens mean solutions you wish to draw attention to for various reasons e.g. because the students
have annotated their workings or made good use of diagrams can easily be shared with the class.
• Encouraging students to work in pairs or small groups can be very motivating, particularly when the material is more
challenging. It is good to make use of group work when students are working in lessons as these opportunities are
not always available outside of lessons.
• An additional way to increase the challenge for solving longer problems is to place questions around the room (either
on walls or tables) on large pieces of paper with plenty of space for working. Students work in teams or individually
on each question for an allocated amount of time aiming to get as far as they can in the time allowed. Once the time
is up students move on to the next question as directed and pick up the solution where the previous students left
off. This teaches students about quality of written communication in their working as their peers have to be able to
follow and continue their solution. In addition it highlights the importance of checking, especially when they are
jumping between questions in the exam when under stress.
• This task often reveals that parts of solutions are missed when students are not working on the problem from start
to finish and stresses the importance of re-reading all questions and checking working at the end of the exam. Some
students really enjoy this activity and others hate it but all learn a huge amount from it, particularly about their
preferred way of working in an exam.
Revision activities and games

Revision activities and games are often very popular with students particularly at times in the day when motivation is
low. This is often because students struggling with motivation like the immediate feedback which is possible with these
activities.
• ‘Catch phrase’: Mathematics challenges based on the TV game. There are many examples of these online that can
be used as templates. They are often better for shorter manipulation of number skill problems to allow a lot of
questions to be answered in a short time.
• Relay challenges: these are very good for increasing the challenge in problems and encouraging motivation and
speed. However, the solutions to these problems need to be easy to identify and prepared in advance so you can
mark correct work with a glance and pass on to the next question. The lack of available teacher support encourages
students to rely on each other more in this task so groups must be chosen wisely. This may not be appropriate for
less able groups of students. See the UKMT primary team challenge relay rounds for examples of questions that
work. (ukmt.org.uk)
• Quizzes (sounds better than tests) can also be used successfully (rounds; quick fire; accuracy; speed etc).
• Starters and plenaries based on multiple choice and ‘true or false’ (sometimes referred to as ‘tick or trash’) problems
can be used to recap simple concepts and formulae students should know. Laminated cards, mini whiteboards or
coloured pages in planners can be used to communicate students’ solutions visually for quick checking.
• ‘Noughts and crosses’ is also a very useful game for revising properties and definitions. The grid can be set up
with a keyword or picture in each space. Students take it in turns to attempt to define the concept on the board, if
successful they get to place their team’s symbol in the grid (a nought or a cross) if not it is the other team’s turn. The
winning team is the one with a line of noughts or crosses (as in the traditional pen and paper game).
• Code-breaking activities can be very popular and motivating for students. However, the structure of these tasks
needs to be carefully thought through to prevent students using language to solve the problems. One way to
successfully disguise a hidden message is to use a font such as ‘wing dings’ using a word-processing programme that
can be decoded once students have completed the task. Solutions to the questions can be matched to a symbol that
can later be decoded.
• In a similar vein to the code-breaking tasks above, a series of padlock challenges are available to buy through the
ATM in which the code reveals an additional question producing a final 4 digit code to unlock a metaphorical or
physical combination padlock to receive a prize in class. These are a popular activity and rewards are very motivating
for most challenges and tasks.
• For problems where students have to make a decision about what maths they need to apply, a series of activities
can be created in which the first task is to categorise the problems by type of mathematics required. For example a
series of right-angled triangle problems where students categorise them into trigonometry, Pythagoras’ theorem,

congruence and similarity problems. Additional revision could be included here by sorting the problems into a Venn
diagram where problems requiring more than one technique can also be categorised.
Using exam questions

Practising answering exam questions (from past papers, practice papers and specimen assessment material) allows
students to experience the format of exams and the standard needed to attain particular grades. It is good for students
to work on past papers and become familiar with the size and layout of the paper as well as the information pages at the
front as any small surprises over these details can make a big difference to students in exams.
The results of working through past papers can be used to determine areas of particular weakness in individuals or
the whole class and allow for more tailored revision. Involving students in the marking of the questions also gives
opportunities for them to learn what is required and so improve their exam technique, and also allows for both peer-
and self-assessment. Using actual mark schemes can increase both teachers’ and students’ awareness of what things
are important and what to look out for or avoid. It can be very useful to have some past papers, mark schemes and
worked solutions available online via the school learning platform or website for students and parents to access at
home.
• Exam questions can be sorted by difficulty to help students identify where they currently are and what they have to
do to achieve their goals. This can be very motivating and help students see short-term progression, particularly if
they focus on a particular topic.
• Questions can also be sorted by topic to create good end of topic homework or revision booklets in the run up to
exams. Some teachers worry that students will recognise problems if they tackle them multiple times and so are
reluctant to start students too early working on past paper questions. However students often do not recognise the
problems and gain much from repeating them, particularly when they are of lower ability.
• Students can work together on a set of questions, of varying style and difficulty, based around a particular topic.
When they have attempted the questions, provide them with the relevant sections of the mark scheme and allow
them to mark their own work to see the standard they have reached and increase awareness of any pitfalls to avoid
in future.
• Videos of worked solutions to some past paper questions are available from Exam Solutions. They were originally
designed for A-level students, but some questions are accessible for the new GCSE specification. Videos like this can
be created by you and your students; they may find it a very challenging task, but should gain a lot from it. There
are some great applications available (which can be searched for on apple store and android) for tablets which can
make creating these videos simpler, but they may still prove time consuming. The good news is once they have been
created they can be used each year with new cohorts. (examsolutions.net)
Exam technique
There is some general advice is good to discuss with students regularly. It can be applied at all times, but can be
particularly important in exam situations.
• If you are stuck on a question, start by writing down what you know as it may jog your memory. If you’re not quite
sure about the answer, it’s still worth having a go, but don’t waste too much time. If you’re still having trouble, move
on and come back to the question later.
• Read the question carefully; find the important words which give you information about what to do and look for key
mathematical terms. For example, if the question asks you to sum you know you need to add and if the question
describes a triangle as isosceles this tells you key information you might need.
• Think carefully before you start your answer: What calculations will you need? Will you use a mental method or are
you allowed a calculator? Should you start with a rough estimate?
• Be careful with diagrams. Unless you are told that they are drawn accurately do not assume that they are so work out
lengths and angles using the information you have been given rather than measuring.
• Look at the number of marks available as this will give you a clue about how much to write. For example, if there are
two marks for an explanation you will usually need to include two points (explanations don’t normally need to be
very long).

• Make sure your answers clear and mathematical and don’t just repeat the question. You should explain your steps in
a problem-solving question and not assume that something is ‘obvious’. Make sure you include all the information
that is necessary, for example if you are making a comparison you will need to refer to more than one piece of
information.
• If you’re asked to explain your answer or prove something, make sure you justify all your steps and if you’re
interpreting data, make sure you explain where how you reached your conclusion.
• Write down all steps in your calculations because that way even if you get the final answer wrong you may get some
marks for the correct methods. This means that when you use a calculator you should write down the calculation
you are doing.
• Check that your answer is sensible by comparing it to a rough estimate. Make sure you’ve used the right units and
that you’ve give your answer to the right level of accuracy.
• If you need to start your answer again, make it really clear what answer you would like to be marked by crossing out
the work you think is wrong and leaving what you want the examiners to look at.
Make use of mark schemes and examiner reports

Exam boards often provide a lot of information about how mark schemes are interpreted and reports following each
exam covering general issues. These can be really useful sources of information about what examiners are looking for
and how questions are marked.
Revision tips
It may be helpful to give students a few tips when it comes to their revision. Here are a few ideas.
• Work in 30-minute bursts and take short breaks.
• Use notes to help you learn and remember key facts and methods.
• Write down anything you’re unsure of and ask your teacher for help.
• Put up revision sheets in places where you’ll often see them (bedroom walls, cupboard doors, etc.)
• Try to spot any bad habits and make sure you don’t keep repeating them.
• Ask friends and family to help by asking you key facts, formulae and methods.

Revision quizzes: notes and mark schemes

Each of the following question sets (8 for Foundation and 8 for Higher) has been designed to last 40 minutes so that
it can be used as a revision quiz within a single lesson. Alternatively, the questions may be set as additional practice
during the course when students have covered the relevant topics.
Pages 336-369 contain mark schemes for the revision quizzes. Answers are not contained in the Student Books Answer
Booklets so that you can set them under test conditions if you wish. Each quiz is worth a maximum of 40 marks.
To get students accustomed to the idea of calculator and non-calculator exam papers, a calculator may be used for even
numbered quizzes, while odd numbered quizzes are non-calculator. This is indicated at the top of each question set.
Within each quiz, questions progress in terms of difficulty. A mix of AO1, AO2 and AO3 questions are included in each set,
as indicated within the mark schemes.
The following abbreviations are used in the mark schemes:
• M = Method mark
• A = Accuracy mark following on from a correct method (method can be implied)
• f.t = Follow through mark (awarded for correct working based on an earlier error)
• oe = Or equivalent
• AWRT = Answers which round to
Formulae that students are not expected to memorize are given in the questions.
Topics
The following topics are covered in each question set.
Foundation Higher
Number properties Ratio
Revision quiz 1
Improper fractions and mixed numbers Solving linear equations

Solving linear equations Area and perimeter of compound shapes
Area and perimeter of compound shapes Straight line graphs
Straight line graphs Fractions
Speed Similar Shapes
Bar charts Indices
Similar Shapes Rearranging formulae
Box plots
Prime factorisation Straight line graphs
Revision quiz 2
Multiples and factors Expanding brackets

Straight line graphs Circumference
Expanding brackets Best buy
Circumference Averages
3D shapes Proportion
Congruency and proof Rounding
Line graphs Histogram
Best buy Trigonometry and Pythagoras’ theorem
Volume
Constructions
Averages

Revision quizzes: notes and mark schemes
Revision quiz 3 Lowest common multiples Sketching graphs

Multiplication and division Fractions, decimals and percentages
Sketching graphs Area
Simplifying expressions Probability
Fractions, decimals and percentages Proportion
Area Problem solving with quadratics
Inequalities on a number line Vectors
Time distance graphs Surds
Averages
Probability
Square numbers Using a calculator
Revision quiz 4
Using a calculator Rounding

Rounding Factorising
2D and 3D shapes Percentages
Factorising Area and perimeter
Percentages Transformations
Area and perimeter Straight line graphs
Algebraic substitution Solving quadratics
Sampling Cones
Transformations
Ratio
Writing and using formulae Fractions and percentages
Revision quiz 5
Fractions and percentages Angles and polygons

Angles and polygons Vector, mid-point and Pythagoras’ theorem
Pie charts Solving quadratics – factorising
Vector, mid-point and Pythagoras’ theorem Recurring decimals
Solving quadratics – factorising Converting between fractions and decimals
Recurring decimals Sequences
Converting between fractions and decimals Graphs
Problem solving Weighted mean
Highest common factor Indices
Revision quiz 6
Indices Angles
Angles Units of measurement
Proportion Proportion
Solving inequalities Solving inequalities
Constructions Reverse percentages
Reverse percentages Exchange rates
Exchange rates
Negative numbers Percentages
Revision quiz 7
Probability Probability
Rearranging formulae Rearranging formulae
Ratio Volume and surface area
Vectors Vectors
Scatter diagrams Simultaneous equations
Simultaneous equations Speed time graph
Using a calculator Expanding and factorising
Revision quiz 8
Expanding and factorising Mean

Bearings Compound interest
Perimeter and area Trigonometry
Ratio Maximum and minimum values
Transformations Reverse percentages
Mean Iteration
Compound interest Simultaneous equations
Pythagoras Pythagoras
Best buy
Right angled trigonometry

REVISION QUIZ 1 – FOUNDATION 40 minutes
1 Using the following list of numbers

24 32 17 25 38 18 64 1
Identify a number that is:
a a square number. b a prime number. c a cube number. (3)
17 2
2 a Write as a mixed number. b Write 3 as an improper fraction. (2)
5 7
3 Solve.
a 3x – 12 = 42 b 16 = 5x – 24 c 12 + 3x = 7x – 24 (4)
4 For the following shape, find: 5 cm
a the area. b the perimeter . (5)
1 cm
5 Draw the line y = 3x – 4, for values of x

between -2 and 4. (3)
6 cm
6 Sketch the plan and elevation of a square
based pyramid. (2)
5 cm
7 Find.
2 3 2 2 2 cm
a + b 1 -
15 10 5 3
6 3 14 7 8 cm
c x d ÷ (8)
7 8 15 10
8 A car travels 24 km in 20 minutes. At what speed is it travelling? (2)
9 Here is a composite bar chart showing the Olympic
medals won by Great Britain in the 70
last four Olympic Games. 60

a How many medals were won in 2004?
bronze
b How many silver medals were won in 2008? 50
silver
c
How many gold medals were won in total in 40
gold
the last 4 years?

d
What is the mean number of medals won in 30
the last 4 years? (6)

20
10 The following two triangles are similar.
10
B'
0
2000 2004 2008 2012
B 7.5 cm
6 cm
A C A' C'
8 cm 12 cm
a What does it mean to be mathematically similar?

b Find the length of A′B′.
c Find the length of BC. (5)
Total marks: 40

1 Find the prime factorisation of 630. Write your answer using indices. (3)
2 List:
a the first five multiples of 7. b all the factors of 36. (3)
3 What is the equation of this line? y (2)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
1
2
4 Expand and simplify where possible:

a 3(x + 4) b 2x(x – 5) c 5(x – 4) + 3(x + 10) (5)
5 The diameter of a sports car tyre is 44 cm. What is the tyre’s circumference? (3)
6 How many of the following does a cuboid have:
a faces. b vertices. c edges. (3)
7 ABCD is a parallelogram. Prove that triangles ABD and BCD are congruent. (3)
A B
D C
8 The table below shows the rainfall in Salisbury last year.

Month Jan Feb Ma Ap May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
mm 75 60 50 57 55 45 52 43 55 88 89 86
Plot a line graph for this information. (4)
9 Crisps are sold in multipacks. You can buy 12 packets for £3.79.
Jenny buys 4 multipacks.
She sells 30 packets of crisps for 42p each, gives 8 packets for free to her friends and sells the rest for 50p a
packet.
How much profit does Jenny make? (4)
10 A shoe box measures 30 cm by 20 cm by 15 cm.
The shoe boxes need to be packed into large crates for transportation.
The crates measure 1.2 m by 0.8 m by 0.75 m.
How many shoe boxes will fit in one crate? Show your workings clearly.(4)
11 Using a ruler and compass, construct an equilateral triangle with side length 6 cm. (3)
12 The mean of 5 numbers is 6.5.
When a sixth number is added, the mean increases to 7.
What is the sixth number?(3)
Total marks: 40

1 Two buses leave the station at midday.

Bus 4R returns every 12 minutes. Bus 5 returns every 16 minutes.
When will they both next be at the station together? (3)
2 Find:
a 34 × 56 b 552 ÷ 24 (4)
3 Draw the graph of y = x2 − 3 for values of x between −3 and 3. (5)
4 Simplify:
a 3e + 2f − e + 4f b a + 3a2 + 4a − a2 (3)
5 Write:
a 0.06 as a percentage. b 56% as a fraction in its simplest form.
2
c as a decimal. d 1.45 as a percentage. (4)
5
6 The area of a triangular sail is 9 m2. The height of the sail is 6 m.
What is the base length? (2)
7 For each of the following, draw a number line and mark on the inequalities.
a f < 3 b −1 ≥ a c −3 ≤ g < 2 (4)
8 The following diagram shows Jenny’s journey to school. 16
school 14
a
How far had she travelled 15 minutes after
leaving her house?
12
b How long did she stop at the shop for?
c How fast did she travel from the shop to school? (4) 10
9 A class of ten students has the following set of
test scores. (The test was out of 50).
km
8
37 45 37 40 41 38 41 41 40 35
(sum of these scores = 395) 6
Find:
a the modal test score. shop 4
b the median test score.

2
c the mean test score.
d
the range of the test scores.
home 0
Another class has a mean test score of 45 and a score 7 am 8 am 9 am
time
range of 20.
e Compare the results of the two classes.(7)
10 Talfiq flips a coin and rolls an octahedral dice (numbered 1−8).
a List all the possible combinations of his results.
b What is the probability that he gets tails and an even number? (4)
Total marks: 40

1 List the first six square numbers. (2)

2 Type the following calculation into your calculator.
32 - 4.52
1.3 + 3.92
a Write down all the digits on your calculator display.
b Round down your answer to 2 decimal places. (2)
3 Name each of the shapes.
a b c d (4)
4 Factorise:
a 3x + 12 b 4xy – 8y2 c 12a2b + 18ab2 (5)
5 a Find 12.5% of £230.
b Increase £480 by 18%.
c Decrease $60 by 5.4%. (6)
6 Calculate the following for the shape:
a area. b perimeter. 14 m (6)
7 The formula for the speed, v, of an object is:
v = u + at
where u is the initial speed, a is the acceleration and t is the time travelling.
A runner is travelling at 4 m/s (metres per second).
She accelerates at a rate of 0.5 m s2.
How fast is she travelling after three seconds? (3)
8 A restaurant manager wants to survey how often people eat out. She asks all of her customers one Friday night
how often they eat at a restaurant.
Would this be a sensible sample? Give reasons for your answer. (2)
9 Describe the transformation from shape A to shape B. (3)
y
5
4
3
2
B
1
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1
A
2
3
4
5
10 Lottery winnings are shared out in the ratio of 4 : 5 between two brothers, John and David. David receives
£125,000.
What were the total winnings? (3)
11 Julie is comparing her test results in different lessons.
In science she scores 45 out of 52.
In maths she scores 50 out of 60.
In which test did she perform better? Explain your answer. (4)
Total marks: 40

1 Find the value of:

3
a 81 b 112 c 64 d 35 (4)
2 Jimmy delivers newspapers. Every Saturday he works he gets paid £5.50. In addition he gets paid 20p per
newspaper he delivers.
a Write a formula for the total amount (T), in pounds, that Jimmy gets paid if he delivers n newspapers.
b How much does Jimmy get paid if he delivers 15 newspapers?
c Last week Jimmy earned £9.70. How many newspapers did he deliver? (4)
3 Find:
2
a of 24 b 35% of 480 kg c 125% of $64 (6)
3
4 Write:
a the sum of the internal angles of an octagon.
b the size of an external angle of an equilateral triangle.
c the size of an internal angle of a regular hexagon. (5)
5 Draw a pie chart to display the following information.
Method of transport Number of students

Walk 57
Bike/scooter 39
Bus 10
Car 14
Train 0
(4)
6 Point A has co-ordinates (3, -1).
Point B has co-ordinates (7, -4).
Find:
a the vector from point B to point A.
b the midpoint of line segment AB.
c the length of line segment AB (6)
7 Solve by factorising x + 6x – 16 = 0
2
(4)
8 Write:
. .
a 0. 36 as a fraction in its simplest form.
5
b as a decimal. (4)
8
9 A rectangular lawn measures 16 m by 30 m.
Lawn feed costs £4.50 per kilogram. A kilogram will cover 20 m2 of lawn.
How much will it cost to feed the entire lawn? (3)
Total marks: 40

1 What is the highest common factor of 98 and 168? (2)

2 Simplify:
s2 12 s 2t
b
a b5 × b3 c 3ab2 x 5ab
d (6)
s -4 4 st
3 Find the size of angle x. Explain your answer. (3)
125
4 Construct and solve an equation to find the value of x in the diagram.
4x 30
2x 20
x 10
(4)
5 The following recipe makes eight cupcakes.
2 eggs
50 g caster sugar
60 g self-raising flour
50 g butter
1 tsp vanilla essence
a How much of each ingredient is needed to make 12 cupcakes?
b I have 200 g butter, 150 g self-raising flour, 6 eggs, 150 g caster sugar and 10 tsp of vanilla essence.
What is the maximum number of cupcakes I can make? (5)
6 Solve:
a 3y + 11 ≥ 5y – 7 b 3 < 4x – 9 ≤ 23
c What integer values of x solve the inequality in part b? (6)
7 Construct a triangle with side lengths 3 cm, 5 cm and 6 cm. (2)
8 a In the last year, house prices have gone up by 9% on average.
A house now costs £196,200.
What was its price last year?
b A car has depreciated in value by 12%. It now costs £5720.
What was its original price? (5)
9 In January, the exchange rate between pounds and euros was £1 = €1.26.
a A jumper costs €35.
How many pounds is this?
b A coat costs £40.
How many euros is this?
c A pair of trainers costs £75 or €90.
Which is the better deal? Show your working. (7)
Total marks: 40

1 The table shows the record minimum temperatures for various places across the world.
Edinburgh Moscow Miami Lima Ottawa Rome

-15°C -42°C 2°C 9°C -36°C -11°C
a What is the range of the temperatures in the table?

b What is the median temperature?
c Barcelona’s minimum temperature is 20 degrees warmer than Edinburgh’s.
What is this temperature? (4)
2 A bag contains 3 blue and 7 red counters.
A counter is picked and replaced. A second counter is picked and replaced.
a What is the probability that the first counter is blue?
b What is the probability that the second counter is red?
c What is the probability that the two counters picked are the same colour? (5)
3 Make c the subject of the formula:
a = bc2 + f (3)
4 Consider the following number sequence:
6, 13, 20, 27, 34, …
a What are the next two numbers in the sequence?
b What is the nth term of the sequence?
c What is the 21st number in the sequence?
d After how many numbers will the sequence equal 97?(5)
5 For the triangular prism, find:
a the volume.
b the surface area.
c Convert your answer to part b into mm2 5 cm (7)
4 cm
6 For the numbers 1 to 20, what is the ratio of prime
7 cm
numbers to non-prime numbers? Write the ratio
in its simplest form. 3 cm (2)
7 If
2
-1
( ) ( )
-3
and 2 , find:
a a + b b 3b c 2b − a d a vector parallel to a (4)
8 The table shows the temperature and a shop’s ice cream sales.
Temp 32 24 18 11 22 10 15 20 27 17 19 30 21 22 12
(0C)
Sales 95 82 65 42 78 42 50 70 80 66 68 100 75 75 45
(£)
a Draw a scatter graph of this information and comment on your results.
b How much would the owner expect to earn if the temperature was 25 °C? (6)
9 Solve 3x − 2y = 1 and 4x − 3y = 0 (4)
Total marks: 40

1 Calculate:
3.3 x 10-2
1.6 x 105
Write your answer in normal form to two significant figures.(2)
2 a Expand and simplify (x + 3)(x – 4)
b Factorise x2 – 8x + 12(4)
3 The bearing of Exeter from Northampton is 230°.
What is the bearing of Northampton from Exeter?(2)
4 For the shape, find:
a the perimeter.
b the area.(8)
5 Share 24 in the ratio 3 : 5. 18 cm (2)
6 y
5
4
3
A
2 8 cm
1
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1
B
2
3
4
5
Describe the single transformation that maps shape A onto shape B. (4)
7 The table shows the heights of tomato seedlings at a nursery.
Height, h (mm) Frequency

0 ≤ h < 10 8
10 ≤ h < 30 9
30 ≤ h < 40 24
40 ≤ h < 60 18
60 ≤ h < 100 12
Find the mean height of a tomato seedling.(4)

8 £120 is invested in an account that gives 3.5% compound interest per year.
How much will be in the account after 3 years? (3)
9 A rectangle measures 12 cm by 16 cm.
What is the length of its diagonal?(3)
10 Which of the following deals is the best offer? Explain your answer.
a 6 tins of beans for £2.45 b 9 tins of beans for £3.80 c 4 tins of beans for £1.52 (4)
11 Find the size of angle BCA to the nearest degree.
A
8 cm
C 11 cm B (4)
Total marks: 40
REVISION QUIZ 1 – HIGHER 40 minutes
1 Richard, Sabah and Tariq have £135 to split between them.

Richard gets half the amount of Tariq.
Sabah gets three times more than Tariq.
How much do they each receive? (3)
2 Solve a 16 = 5x − 24 b 12 + 3x = 7x – 24 (3)
3 Find the a area and b perimeter of the following shape. (5) 5 cm
4 Find the equation of the line passing through the points 1 cm
(3, 5) and (5, 11) (4)

5 Find
2 3 2 2 6 cm
a + b 1 -
15 10 5 3
5 cm
6 3 14 7
c x d ÷ (8)
7 8 15 10 2 cm
6 In the following diagram (5)

a Find the length of AD 8 cm
b Find the length of CB

c Angle EDC is 40°. What is angle AEB? Give a reason for your answer.
A
6 cm
7.5 cm
8 cm
E B
D C
12 cm
7 Evaluate
( 1625 )
2 -
1
a 80 b 7-2 c 27 3 d 2
(6)
8 Rearrange the formula aw + b = w - h to make w the subject (3)
9 80 workers in a factory were asked their ages.
The eldest worker was 58, the youngest was 19.
The median age was 33, the lower quartile of ages was 28 and the inter-quartile range was 12.
Represent this information on a box plot. (3)
Total marks: 40

y
1 What is the equation of this line? (2)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 Expand and simplify where possible
2
a 3(x + 4) b 2x(x – 5) c 5(x – 4) + 3(x + 10) (5)
1
3 The diameter of a sports car tyre is 44 cm. How many full
rotations does the tyre make if the car travels 1.2 km? (4) 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
1
4 Crisps are sold in multipacks. You can but 12 packets for £3.79. 2
Jenny buys 4 multipacks. She sells 30 packets of crisps
for 42p each, she gives 8 packets for free to her friends and
sells the rest for 50p a packet. What percentage profit
does Jenny make? (5)
5 The mean of 5 numbers is 6.5. When a 6th number is added
the mean increases to 7. What is the sixth number? (3)
6 The distance, d, an object falls is directly proportional to the square of the time, t, it is falling for. A rock ralls
from a cliff edge. After 3 seconds it has travelled 44.1 metres.
a Find a formula linking d and t (4)
b How far will the rock have fallen after 5 seconds? (2)
c The White Cliffs of Dover reach a maximum height of 110 m. How long would it take a rock to
fall from the top to the bottom? Give you answer correct to 2 decimal places. (3)
7 To the nearest metre, a football pitch has a length of 98 m and a width of 42 m.
Calculate the upper bound of the area of the pitch. (2)
8 The table below shows the heights of tomato seedlings at a nursery. Draw a histogram to represent this data;(5)

0 ≤ h < 10 8
10 ≤ h < 30 9
30 ≤ h < 40 16
40 ≤ h < 60 18
60 ≤ h < 100 12
9 Find angle PSR, give your answer to the nearest degree. (5)
P
35°
S
11 m R 9.5 m Q
Total marks: 40

1 Draw the graph of y = x2 – 2x – 3 for x between −2 and 4 (5)

2 a Write 56% as a fraction in its simplest form
3
b Write as a decimal c Write 1.45 as a percentage (3)
16
3 The area of a triangular sail is 9 m2. The height of the sail is 6 m. What is the base length? (2)
4 Talfiq flips a coin and rolls an octahedral dice (numbered 1–8)
a List all the possible combinations of his results
b What is the probability that he gets tails and an even number or an odd number (4)
5 The variable s is inversely proportion to d. When s = 4, d = 0.5.
a Find a formula linking s and d (4)
b When d = 0.2, what is s?(2)
c What is d when s = 0.05 (2)
6 A rectangle has an area of 2x + 5x + 2. The rectangle’s perimeter is 42 cm. Find the rectangle’s dimensions.
2
(7)
7 In the diagram 2AO = OC, vector a describes the journey from O to A and vector b the journey
from O to B. M is the midpoint of OC.
B
A
b
a
D M
a Give the vector for OC (1)

b Give the vector for CB (1)
c Give the vector for MD (2)
A line segment is drawn from A to B and then continue to point E such that AB : AE is 3 : 4
d Find the vector from M to E (3)
8 Simplify each of the following
a 8 b 28 × 63 c (1 + 2 )(2 + 2 ) (4)
Total marks: 40

32 - 4.52
1 Type the following calculation into your calculator
1.3 + 3.92
a Write down all the digits on your calculator display
b Round down your answer to 2 decimal places (2)
2 Factorise a 4xy – 8y 2
b 12a b + 18ab
2 2
c x – 16
2
(6)
3 a Find 12.5% of £230 (6)
b Increase £480 by 18%
c Decrease $60 by 5.4%
4 Calculate the a area and b perimeter of the shape to the right (6)
14 m
5 Describe the transformation from shape A to shape B (3)

y
5
4
3 B
2
1
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1
A
2
3
4
5
6 a Find the equation, y = mx + c, of the line that is parallel to y = 10 – 3x and goes through the point (2, –4)
b Give the gradient of any line perpendicular to y = 10 – 3x (4)
7 Solve x – 4x – 11 = 0, giving your answers to 3 significant figures
2
(5)
8 The sloped face of a cone is made from a sector of a circle. Find the angle of the sector used to produce the cone
below. (8)
12 cm
9 cm
Total marks: 40

2
1 a Find of 24. b Find 35% of 480 kg. c Find 125% of $64. (6)
3
2 a What is the sum of the internal angles of an octagon?
b What is the size of an external angle of an equilateral triangle?
c What is the size of an internal angle of a regular hexagon?(5)
3 Point A has co-ordinates (3, −1) and point B has co-ordinates (7, −4) (6)
a Find the vector from point B to point A
b Find the mid-point of line segment AB
c Find the length of line segment AB
4 Solve x2 + 6x − 16 = 0 (4)
5 Construct and solve an equation to find the value of largest angle in the diagram below. (5)
4x 30
2x 20
x 10
. .
4
6 Prove that 0. 36 = (3)
11
7 For the sequence 4, 10, 18, 28, 40, …
a find the next two terms (2)
b find the nth term for (3)
8 Match each of the following graphs with their equation
y y y
A B C
0 x 0 x 0 x
y y y
D E F
0 x 0 x 0 x
(3)

x + y = 25 y = cos(x)
2 2
y = x y = sin(x) y = x xy = 4
2 3
9 The average allowance given to 14 boys is £22.50. The average for the whole class of 14 boys and 16 girls is
£28.10. What was the average for the girls? (3)
Total marks: 40

s2 12 s 2t
1 Simplify: a -4
b 3ab2 × 5ab c d (2 x 3 )4 (7)
s 4 st
2 In the diagram below find the size of angle BCD. Give reasons for your answer. (3)
A
O
112°
D B
3 Convert 1.7 m3 into cm3 (2)

4 Find the a perimeter and b area of the following shape. (8)
18 cm
8 cm
5 a Solve 3 < 4x − 9 ≤ 23 (4)

b What integer values or x solve the inequality above?
c
Show on a coordinate grid (−3 ≤ x ≤ 5) the area that satisfies the following inequalities
−2 < x ≤ 4, y ≥ 0 and x + y ≤ 6 (5)
6 a House prices have gone up in the last year on average by 9%. A house now costs £196 200. What was its price
last year?
b A car has depreciated in value by 12%. It now costs £5720. What was its original price?(5)
7 The exchange rate between pounds and Euros in January was £1 = €1.26.
A catering company can buy 1.5 kg asparagus in the UK for £16 or 800 g for €10.50 in France. Which is the better
deal? Show you working clearly. (6)
Total marks: 40

1 Jenny buys 24 cans of cola. Each 6 pack costs £3.75. She drinks 4 cans and sells the rest.
What cost should she charge if she wants to make a profit 20%? (5)
2 A bag contains 3 blue and 7 red counters. A counter is picked and not replaced.
A second counter is then picked.
a What is the probability that the first counter is green?
b Given that the first counter was blue what is the probability that the second counter is red?
c Draw a tree diagram representing this problem
d What is the probability that the two counters picked are different colours? (8)
3 Make c the subject of this formula a = bc + f 2
(3)

5 cm
4 cm
7 cm
3 cm
4 What is the
a volume of this triangular prism?
b surface area of this triangular prism?
c convert your answer to part b into mm2 (8)
2
5 If a =
-1
-3
( )
and b = 2 , find: ( )
a a + b b 3b c 2b − a d a vector parallel to a (4)
6 Solve 3x − 2y = 1 and 4x − 3y = 0 (4)
7 The graph below is a speed time graph for a long distance freight train;
y
100
80
60
km/h
40
20
0 x
7 am 8 am 9 am 10 am
time
a What was the train’s speed at 9am? (1)

b What was the train’s rate of acceleration from 7am to 7.15am? (3)
c How far did the train travel between 9.30am and 10am? (4)
Total marks: 40

48 x 3 y -2
1 a Expand and simplify (x + 3)(x – 4) b Factorise x2 – 8x + 12 c Simplify (6)
16 xy -4
2 The table below shows the heights of tomato seedlings at a nursery. Find the mean height
of a tomato seedling. (4)

0 ≤ h < 10 8
10 ≤ h < 30 9
30 ≤ h < 40 24
40 ≤ h < 60 18
60 ≤ h < 100 12
3 £120 is invested in an account that gives 3.5% compound interest per year. How much will
be in the account after 3 years? (3)
4 Find the size of angle ABC to the nearest degree.
A
7 cm
8 cm
12 cm
C (6)
5 Using the fact that a = 2.4 (1 dp), b = 12.0 (1 dp) and c = 120 (2 sf)
3c
Find the maximum and minimum values f Show your working clearly. (5)
b -a
6 The starting price of a china doll at auction is £35. It eventually sells for £43.50. What percentage
increase is this? (3)
1
7 Using the iteration formula x n + 1 = 7 - and the starting value x1 = 1 carry out the first 4 iterations
xn
1
and suggest a suitable solution to the equation x = 7 - (5)
x
8 Find the length of the chord produced when the line y = x + 2 meets the circle x2 + y2 = 100? (8)
Total marks: 40

REVISION QUIZ 1 – FOUNDATION
Mark scheme
Question Working Answer Marks AO Notes

1a Any of 1, 25 or 64 1 AO1
1b 17 1 AO1
1c Any of 1 or 64 1 AO1
2
2a 3 1 AO1
5
23
2b 1 AO1
7
3x = 54
3a x = 18 1 AO1
x = 18
16 = 5x – 24
3b 40 = 5x x=8 1 AO1
8=x
12 + 3x = 7 x – 24
12 = 4x – 24
3c x=9 2 A02
36 = 4x
9=x
5 cm
1 cm
M1 for
splitting
6 cm shape (any
5 cm
split)
4a Area = 30 cm2 3 AO3
2 cm M1 attempted
areas of
8 cm
separate parts
5×1=5
3×3=9 A1
2 × 8 = 16
Total = 30 cm2
5 cm
1 cm
2 cm
6 cm
3 cm M1 Find
missing
4b 5 cm Perimeter = 32 cm 2 AO3 lengths
2 cm
A1
8 cm
5+1+2+3+5+2+8+6
= 32 cm
y
10
8 M1 correctly
6 drawn axis
4
2 M1 3 or more
5 3 AO2
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x correctly
2
plotted point
4
6
8
A1
10
Plan
A1
6 2 AO1
Elevation
A1
2 3
+
15 10 M1 common
4 9 13 denominator
7a = + 2 AO1
30 30 30
13 A1
=
30
2 2 M1 change
1 -
5 3
mixed
7 2
= - number to
5 3 11
7b 2 AO2 improper
21 10 15
= - fraction
15 15
11
= A1
15
M1 multiply
6 3
x numerators
7 8
and
18 9
7c = 2 AO1 denominators
56 28
9
= A1 simplified
28
answer

14 7
÷
15 10
14 10 M1 ‘flip’ and
= x
15 7 multiply
2 2 1
7d = x 1 2 AO1
3 1 3 A1 answer
=
4 as a mixed
3 number
1
=1
3
24 km = 20 minutes A1 72
8 72 km/h 2 AO3
72 km = 60 minutes A1 km/h
9a 30 1 AO2 A1
9b 13 1 AO2 A1
M1 attempt to
9c 65 2 AO3 add totals
A1
28 + 30 + 47 + 65 = 170
A1 totals
9d Mean is 42.5 2 AO2
A1
170 ÷ 4 = 42.5
The shapes are
enlargements
A1 one of
of each other.
two given
10a Angles are the 1 AO2
definitions
same, ratio of
sufficient
the sides are the
same.
12 ÷ 8 = 1.5
M1 12 ÷ 8
10b So scale factor small to big is ×1.5 9cm 2 AO2
A1 9 cm
6 × 1.5 = 9 cm
2
8 ÷ 12 = M1 8 ÷ 12
10c 3 5cm 2 AO2
2
A1 5 cm
7.5 × = 5 cm
3

REVISION TEST 2 – FOUNDATION
Mark scheme

630
= 2 × 315
1 = 2 × 3 × 105 2 × 32 × 5 × 7 3 AO1
= 2 × 3 × 3 × 35
=2×3×3×5×7
2a 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 1 AO1
36 = 1 × 36
36 = 2 × 18
2b 36 = 3 × 12 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36 2 AO1
36 = 4 × 9
36 = 6 × 6
A1 for correct
gradient
3 y = 2x – 1 2 AO2
A1 for correct y
intercept
4a 3x + 12 1 AO1
A1 2x 2
4b 2x 2 – 10x 2 AO1
A1 – 10x
A1 brackets
5x – 20 + 3x + 30 expanded correctly
4c 8x + 10 2 AO1
8x + 10 A1 answer
simplified correctly
C = πd A1 π × 44
5 = π × 44 138.2 cm 3 AO2 A1 AWRT 138.2 cm
= 138.230077 A1 cm
6a 6 1 AO1
6b 8 1 AO1
6c 12 1 AO1
Triangles share side BD
M1 shared side
Parallelogram so opposite sides are the
M1 properties of
same length
7 3 AO2 equal sides in a
AB = DC
parallelogram
AD = BC
M1 SSS
By SSS triangles are congruent

100
90
80
70
Rainfall (mm) M1 axis drawn and
60
labelled
50 A2 points plotted
8 4 AO2
40 correctly
30 A1 points joined
20 with straight lines
10
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Buys
£3.79 × 4 =
£15.16
Earns
M1 3.79 × 4
30 × £0.42 =
A1 12.60
9 £12.60 £2.44 4 AO3
A1 17.60
10 × £0.50 = £5
A1 profit £2.44
Total = £17.60
Profit
£17.60 – £15.16
= £2.44
1.2 m ÷ 0.3 = 4 M1 1.2m ÷ 0.3
0.8 m ÷ 0.2 = 4 A1 4, 4, 5
10 0.75 ÷ 0.15 = 5 80 shoe boxes 4 AO3 M1 multiply the 3
dimensions
4 × 4 × 5 = 80 A1 80
11 3 AO1
5 × 6.5 = 32.5 M1 5 × 6.5
12 6 × 7 = 42 9.5 3 AO2 A1 42
42 – 32.5 = 9.5 A1 9.5

Mark scheme

1 Bus 4R 12.48 pm 3 AO3 M1 listing multiples
12.00, 12.12, 12.24, A1 correct multiples
12.36, 12.48, 13.00 A1 12.48
Bus 5
12.00, 12.16, 12.32,
12.48
2a 1904 2 AO1 M1 attempted valid
method
A1
2b 23 2 AO1 M1 attempted valid
method
A1
3 y 5 AO2 M1 table or similar
x -3 -2 -1 0
drawn
y 6 1 -2 -3 6 A1 correct coordinates
(0,-3), (1,-2), (2, 1), (3, 6)
x 1 2 3 A1 correct coordinates
4
y -2 1 6 (-3, 6), (-2, 1), (-1,-2)
M1 axis drawn correctly
2
(-3, 6), (-2, 1), (-1,-2), A1 points correctly
(0,-3), (1,-2), (2, 1), (3, plotted and joined with
6) 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
a smooth curve
2
4
4a 2e + 6f 1 AO1
4b 2a2 + 5a 2 AO1 A1 2a2
A1 +5a
5a 6% 1 AO1 A1
5b 14 1 AO2 A1 do not accept un-
25
simplified versions
5c 0.4 1 AO2 A1
5d 145% 1 AO1 A1
6 Area = ½ base × 3m 2 AO2 M1 use of formula or
height similar
9=½b×6 A1
9 = 3b
b=3
7a 1 AO1 A1
3
7b 1 AO1 A1
1

7c 2 AO1 A1 –3 and 2 marked
3 2 A1 correct filled/unfilled
circles
8a 2 km 1 AO2
8b 10 mins 1 AO2
8c 20 mins = 10 km 30km/h 2 AO3 M1 identifies 20 mins
60 mins = 30km and 10km
A1 30km/h
9a 41 1 AO1
9b 35 37 37 38 40 40 2 AO2 M1 orders scores
40 41 41 41 45 A1
9c 395 ÷ 10 39.5 1 AO2 A1
9d 45 - 35 10 1 AO1 A1
9e They had a higher 2 AO3 1 mark for
mean – so on average comparing
did better but their mean with
range was a lot explanation
larger meaning they 1 mark for
were much more comparing
inconsistent. range with
explanation
10 a H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 2 AO1 A2 -1 for every forgotten
H7 H8 combination
T1 T2 T3 T4
T5 T6 T7 T8
10 b H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 ¼ 2 AO2 A2 oe
H7 H8
T1 T2 T3 T4
T5 T6 T7 T8

Mark scheme

1 1 4 9 16 25 36 2 AO1 A2 −1 for every mistake
2a 3.582427399568.. 1 AO1 AWRT A1
2b 3.58 1 AO1 f.t A1
3a Rhombus 1 AO1
3b Triangular based pyramid 1 AO1 Accept tetrahedron
3c Regular hexagon 1 AO1
3d Isosceles triangle 1 AO1
4b 3(x + 4) 1 AO1 A1
4b 4y(x − 2y) 2 AO1 A1 for 4y(x…)
A1 for − 2y
4c 6ab(2a + 3b) 2 AO1 A1 for 6ab(2a)
A1 for + 3b
5a 0.125 × 230 £28.75 2 AO1 M1
or A1
10% + 2.5%
5b 1.18 × 480 £566.40 2 AO1 M1
or finding 18% and adding A1
on
5c 0.946 × 60 £56.76 2 AO2 M1
or find 5.4% and A1
subtracting
6a A = πr2 77 m2 3 AO2 M1 π × r2 ÷ 2
r=7 A1 for AWRT 153.9
A = π × 49 A1 AWRT 77 m2
= 153.9380400
Semicircle so ÷2
Area = π × 49 ÷ 2
6b C = πd 36m 3 AO2 M1 π × d ÷ 2
d = 14 A1 AWRT 43.98
C = π × 14 A1 AWRT 36 m
= 43.9822971
Semicircle so ÷ 2 and +
diameter
Perimeter = π × 14 ÷ 2 + 14
7 v = u + at 5.5 m/s 3 AO2 M1 for attempt at
u=4 substitution
a = 0.5 M1 for v = 4 + 0.5 × 3
t=3 A1 for 5.5
v = 4 + 0.5 × 3
8 Not a sensible sample because these people obviously eat 2 AO3
out as they are eating at the restaurant.
9 Enlargement 3 AO2 A1 enlargement
Scale factor 0.5 A1 scale factor 0.5
Centre (3, 5) A1 centre (3, 5)
10 5 parts = 125 000 £225 000 3 AO2 A1 1 part = 25 000
1 part = 25 000 M1 9 parts in total
9 parts =225 000 A1 £225 000

11 45 Julie did better in her science 4 AO3 M1 writing marks for
= 86.5% test as if you change the one test in fraction
52
scores into percentages her format
50 percentage in science was A1 writing marks for
= 83.3%
60 86.5% and maths 83.3% one test in percentage
(or decimal)
A1 science
A1 explanation
of comparing
percentages

Mark scheme

1a 9 1 AO1
1b 121 1 AO1
1c 4 1 AO1
1d 243 1 AO1
2a T = 5.5 + 0.2n 1 AO1 A1
2b T = 5.5 + 0.2 × 15 £8.50 1 AO2 A1
2c 9.7 = 5.5 + 0.2n 21 2 AO2 M1 9.7 − 5.5
4.2 = 0.2 n A1
n = 21
3a 24 ÷ 3 = 8 16 2 AO1 A1 8
8 × 2 = 16 A1 16
3b 10% = 48 168 kg 2 AO1 M1 finding 10% and
20% = 96 another percentage such
30% = 144 as 5%, 20%, or 30%
5% = 24 A1
35% = 168
3c 25% = 16 $80 2 AO1 A1 find 25%
64 + 16 = 80 A1
4a 1080° 2 AO2 M1 attempt at a valid
method
A1
6 × 180 = 1080°
or
(n − 2) × 180 where n = 8
or
360 ÷ 8 = 45° external
180 − 45 = 135° internal
135 × 8
4b 180 – 60 = 120° 120° 1 AO1 A1
4c 360 ÷ 6 = 60° external 120° 2 AO2 M1
180 − 60 = 120° A1

5 4 AO2 A2 angles correctly
Walk
Bike/scooter calculated
Bus A1 pie chart accurately
Car drawn
Train
A1 sectors labelled
Sum = 120
360 ÷ 120 = 3° per person
Walk 57 × 3 = 171°
Bike 39 × 3 = 117°
Bus 10 × 3 = 30°
Car 14 × 3 = 42°
6a 3−7
−1 − −4 ( -43 ) 1 AO1 A1
6b (3 + 7) ÷ 2 = 5 (5, −2.5) 2 AO1 M1 valid method used

(−1 + −4) ÷ 2 = −2.5 A1
6c 42 + 32 = 25 5 3 AO3 M1 using Pythagoras
25 = 5 A1 25
A1 5
7 (x + 8)(x − 2) = 0 x = −8 or x = 2 4 AO1 A1 (x + ) (x − ) = 0
A1 ± 2 and ± 8
A1 (x + 8) (x − 2) =0
A1 x = –8 or x = 2
8a 36 4 4 2 AO2
=
99 11 11
8b 5÷8 0.625 2 AO1 M1

0. 6 2 5 A1
)
8 5. 5 0 2 0 4 0
9 16 × 30 = 480 m² £108 3 AO3 A1 480 m²

480 ÷ 20 = 24 A1 24
24 × 4.5 = A1 £108
24 × 4 = 96
24 × 0.5 = 12
Total = 108

Mark scheme

1 Factors of 98 14 2 AO1 M1 listing factors
1,98, 2, 49, 7, 14 of using prime
Of these 14 is the highest factorisation
factor of 168 A1
2a b8 1 AO1
2b s6 1 AO1
2c 15a b 2 3
2 AO1 A1 15a2
A1 b3
2d 3s 2 AO1 A1 3
A1 s
3 55° 3 AO2 A1 55°
Corresponding angles A1 corresponding angles
125° are equal and angles are equal
on a straight line add A1 angles on a straight
x up to 180° line add up to 180°
4 Angles in a triangle add up to x = 20° 4 AO3 M1 attempt to add

180° expressions
M1 set total to 180°
4x + 30 + x − 10 + 2x + 20 = 180 M1 attempt to solve
7x + 40 = 180 equation
7x = 140 A1 x = 20°
x = 20
5a 3 eggs 2 AO3 A2 –1 for each mistake
75 g sugar
90 g flour
75 g butter
1
1 tsp vanilla essence
2
5b 6 eggs – 3 batches 24 cakes 20 cakes 3 AO3 M2 correctly found

150 g sugar – 3 batches 24 number of cakes for
cakes 2 ingredients
150 g flour – 2.5 batches 20 A1 20 cakes
cakes
200 g butter – 4 batches 32
cakes
6a 3y + 11 ≥ 5y − 7 9≥y 2 AO1 M1 collect ys or
11 ≥ 2y − 7 constants
18 ≥ 2y A1
9≥y
6b 3 < 4x − 9 ≤ 23 3<x≤8 2 AO1 M1 collect constants
12 < 4x ≤ 32 A1
3<x≤ 8

6c 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 2 AO1 A2 -1 for each mistake
7 2 AO1
8a 196200 ÷ 109 × 100 £180 000 2 AO3 M1 ÷ 109 or 1.09
A1
8b 5720 ÷ 88 × 100 £6500 3 AO3 M1 88 or 0.88
M1 ÷ 88 or 0.88
A1
9a 35 ÷ 1.26 £27.78 2 AO2 M1
A1
9b 40 × 1.26 €50.40 2 AO2
9c 75 × 1.26 = €94.50 Better deal to pay in 3 AO3 M1 attempt to change
Compared to €90 Euros as £75 = €94.50 Euros to pounds or vice
versa
or M1 €90.40 or £71.43
90 ÷ 1.26 = £71.43 A1 chose Euros
Compared to £75

Mark scheme

1a −42 up to 9 51 °C 1 AO1 A1
9 − −42
1b (−15 + −11) ÷ 2 −13 °C 2 AO1 M1 identified 15 and −11 as
middle pair
A1
1c −15 + 20 5 °C 1 AO3 A1
2a 0 1 AO1 A1
2b 7 ÷ 10 1 AO1 A1 oe
2c 7 7 49 58 ÷ 100 3 AO2 M1 one multiplication
Red and red x = attempted
10 10 100
M1 2 multiplications added
Blue and blue
A1 oe
3 3 9
x =
10 10 100
Total
49 9 58
+ =
100 100 100
29
=
50
3 a = bc2 + f 3 AO1 M1 a - f = bc 2
a -f
a - f = bc 2 =c
b a -f
a -f M1 = c2
= c2 b
b
a -f
a -f A1 =c
=c b
b
4a 41, 48 1 AO1 A1
4b 7n − 1 1 AO1 A1
4c 7 × 21 −1 146 1 AO1 A1
4d 97 = 7n − 1 14th 2 AO2 M1 97 + 1
98 = 7n A1
14 = n
5a 1 42 cm3 3 AO2 1
(4 × 3) ×7 M1 (4 × 3)
2 2
A1 42
A1 cm3
5b 1 96 cm2 3 AO2 M1 breaking shape up into
(4 × 3) × 2 = 12 faces
2
5 × 7 = 35 A1 two correctly
4 × 7 = 28 calculated faces
3 × 7 = 21 A1 96 cm2
Total = 96
5c 1 cm2 = 100 mm2 9600 mm2 1 AO2 A1
96 × 100

6 1 – 20 2:3 2 AO1 A1 8:12
Prime 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 A1 2:3
8:12
( )
7 a) 2 +-3 1 AO1 A1
-1 + 2 ( ) -1
1
7 b) 1 AO1 A1
( ) 3 x -3
3 x 2
( ) -9
6
7 c) 1 AO1 A1
( 2 x 2--1 ) ( )
2 x -3 - 2 -8
5
7 d) 1 AO2 For any value of k
( ) 2k
-k
8 a) y
4 AO3 M1 sensible scale drawn M1
120
scale labelled
100
A2 points plotted – 1 for each
80
mistake (max 2)
Sales
60
8 b) 40 2 AO3 M1 line of best fit drawn

20 M1 answer read off line of
0
x
best fit
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Temperature
9 3x – 2y = 1 (x3) x=3 4 AO2 M1 multiply LHS through to

4x – 3y = 0 (x2) y=4 get same x or y co-efficient
M1 subtract equations
9x – 6y = 3 (1) A1 x = 3 or y = 4
8x – 6y = 0 (2) A1 second unknow
(1) – (2)
x=3
Sub into 3x – 2y = 1
9 – 2y = 1
2y = 8
y=4

Mark scheme

A1 AWRT 0.0000002
1 0.00000021 2 AO1
A1 0.00000021
A1 x2 + 3x − 4x – 12
2a x2 + 3x – 4x − 12 x2 − x − 12 2 AO1
A1 simplified
A1 ± 6 and ± 2
2b (x − 6)(x − 2) 2 AO1
A1 (x − 6)(x − 2)
Northampton
230
M1 attempt at sketch
3 50° 2 AO3
A1
Exeter
360 − 230 = 130°

180 − 130 = 50°
8 + 10 + 18 + quarter circle
Quarter circle radius 8
M1 identifies quarter
C = πd
circle
C = π × 16
4a 48.6 cm 4 AO2 M1 π × d ÷ 4
Quarter so ÷ 4
A1 AWRT 12.6
(π × 16) ÷ 4 = 12.566706
A1 AWRT 48.6
8 + 10 + 18 + (π × 16) ÷ 4
= 48.5663706
8 × 10 + quarter circle
Quarter circle radius 8 M1 identifies quarter
A = πr2 circle
4b A = π × 64 130.3 cm2 4 AO2 M1 π × r2÷4
Quarter so ÷ 4 A1 AWRT 50.3
π × 64 ÷ 4 = 50.26548 A1 AWRT 130.3
8 × 10 + π × 64÷4 = 130.26548
3+5=8
M1 identifies 8 parts or
24 ÷ 8 = 3
5 9 : 15 2 AO1 that 1 part = 3
3 × 3 =9
A1
5 × 3 = 15
reflection A1 reflection
90° A1 90°
6 4 AO1
anticlockwise A1 anticlockwise
around (−1, −1) A1 around (−1, −1)

7 h Fre MP MP × fre 41.1 4 AO2 M1 mid points
0 ≤ h < 10 8 5 40 M1 mid points ×
10 ≤ h < 30 9 20 180 frequencies
30 ≤ h < 40 24 35 840 A1 2920
40 ≤ h < 60 18 50 900 A1 41.1
60 ≤ h < 100 12 80 960
Sum = 2920
2920 ÷ 71 = 41.1
8 120 × 1.0353 £133.05 3 AO2 M1 × 1.035
M1 × 1.035 ×1.035 ×
1.035 or × 1.0353 give for
incorrect percentage
A1
9 122 + 162 20 cm 3 AO2 M1 use of Pythagoras
= 144 + 256 A1 400
= 400 A1 20
400 = 20
10 2.45 ÷ 6 = Packs of 4 are the best offer 4 AO3 M1 attempt to try and find
0.408333 Pack of 6 at 41p per tine price per tin or to scale up
Pack of 9 at 42p per tin purchase to a common
3.80 ÷ 9 = Pack of 4 at 38p per tin number of tins
0.4222222 A1 price per tin for the
three
1.52 ÷ 4 = 0.38 A1 correct choice
A1 explanation
11 Tan θ = opp ÷ 36° 4 AO1 A1 identifies tan as correct
adj trigonometric function to
Tan θ = 8 ÷ 11 use
θ = tan-1(8 ÷ 11) A1 8 ÷ 11
θ = 36.027 M1 uses an inverse
trigonometry function
A1 36°

REVISION TEST 1 – HIGHER
Mark scheme

1 Ratio of 1 : 6 : 2 Richard £15 3 AO1 M1 for ratio
Sabah £90 seen
135 ÷ 9 = 15 Tariq £30
M1 for 135 ÷ 9
15 × 1 = 15
15 × 6
15 × 2 A1
2a 16 = 5x – 24 x=8 1 AO1
40 = 5x
8=x
2b 12 + 3x = 7x − 24 x=9 2 A02
12 = 4x − 24
36 = 4x
9=x
3a 5 cm
Area = 30 cm2 3 AO3 M1 for splitting
1 cm shape (any
split)
6 cm
M1 attempted
areas of
5 cm separate parts
2 cm A1
8 cm
5×1=5
3×3=9
2 × 8 = 16
Total = 30 cm2
3b 5 cm
Perimeter = 32 2 AO3 M1 Find
1 cm cm missing
2 cm lengths
6 cm
3 cm A1
5 cm
2 cm
8 cm
5+1+2+3+5+2+8+6
= 32 cm
4 Gradient = (11 − 5) ÷ (5 − 2) y = 3x − 4 4 AO3 M1 (11 − 5) and
=3 (5 −2)
Sub in to find c A1 gradient 3
11 = 3 × 5 + c M1 sub in
c = −4 gradient to
find c
A1 y = 3x − 4

5a 2 3 13 2 AO1 M1 common
+ denominator
15 10 30
4 9 A1
= +
30 30
13
=
30
5b 2 2 11 2 AO2 M1 change
1 - mixed number
5 3 15
7 2 to improper
= - fraction
5 3
21 10
= - A1
15 15
11
=
15
5c 6 3 9 2 AO1 M1 multiply
x numerators
7 8 28 and
18 denominators
=
56
9 A1 simplified
= answer
28
5d 1 2 AO1 M1 ‘flip’ and
14 7
÷ 1 multiply
15 10 3
14 10 A1 answer as a
= x
15 7 mixed number
2 2
= x
3 1
4
=
3
1
=1
3
6a 12 ÷ 8 = 1.5 9 cm 2 AO2 M1 12 ÷ 8
So scale factor small to big is ×1.5 A1 9 cm
6 × 1.5 = 9 cm
6b 2 2.5 cm 2 AO2 M1 8 ÷ 12
8 ÷ 12 = A1 5 cm
3
1
7.5 × = 5 cm (AB)
49
So AC = 7.5 − 5
= 2.5 cm
6c ABE and ACD are similar hence AEB and 40° 1 AO2 A1 with reason
EDC are equal
or
corresponding angle are equal
7a 1 1 AO1

7b 1 AO1
1
49
7c 27 = 3
9 2 AO2
3
M1 3
32 = 9 A1
1
7d 2 AO2 M1 reciprocate
( )
16 2
25 1
5
4
or
1
4
A1
( )25 2
=
16
=( )5
4
8 aw + b = w - h 3 AO2 M1 attempt to
b +h
w= collect w only
b + h = w - aw 1 -a on one side
b + h = w(1 - a) M1 factorise w
A1
b +h
=w
1 -a
9 Upper quartile = 28 + 12 =40 Accurately 3 AO2 M1 for upper
drawn box plot quartile of 40
calculated
Lowest = 19
Lower quartile M1 for box plot
= 28 seen with 3
Median = 33 or 4 values in
Upper quartile correct place
= 40
Highest = 58 A1 for box plot
seen with all
values correct

Mark scheme

1 x 2 AO2 A1 for correct gradient
y= +3 A1 for correct y intercept
2
2a 3x + 12 1 AO1
2b 2x2 − 10x 2 AO1 A1 2x2
A1 − 10x
2c 5x − 20 + 3x + 30 8x + 10 2 AO1 A1 brackets expanded
8x + 10 correctly
A1 answer simplified correctly
3 C = πd 868 4 AO2 A1 π × 44
= π × 44 A1 AWRT 138.2 cm
= 138.230077 A1 120000 cm
A1 868
1.2 km = 120 000 cm
120 000 ÷ (π × 44)
= 868.117871141
4 Buys 16% 5 AO3 M1 3.79 × 4
£3.79 × 4 = £15.16 A1 17.60
Earns A1 profit £2.44
30 × £0.42 = £12.60 M1 profit ÷ 15.16 × 100
10 × £0.50 = £5 A1 AWRT 16%
Total = £17.60
Profit
£17.60 − £15.16
= £2.44
% profit 2.44 ÷ 15.16
=0.1609
5 5 × 6.5 = 32.5 9.5 3 AO2 M1 5 × 6.5
6 × 7 = 42 A1 42
42 − 32.5 = 9.5 A1 9.5
6a d ∝ t2 d = 4.9t2 4 AO3 A1 d = kt2
d = kt2 M1 substitutes values into
44.1 = k × 9 formula above
k = 4.9 A1 4.9
A1 d = 4.9t2
6b d = 4.9 × 52 122.5 m 2 AO2 M1 substitutes values into
= 122.5 m own formula
A1 122.5
6c 110=4.9t2 4.74 seconds 3 AO2 M1 substitutes values into
t = (110 ÷ 4.9) own formula
= 4.738035 M1
A1
7 98.5 × 42.5 4058.75 m² 2 AO1 M1 for 98.5 × 42.5 seen

8 Histogram 5 AO2 M1 axis drawn and labelled
F.d A2 frequency densities found
0.8 (−1 for each error, max −2)
A1 bars drawn in correct
0.45 widths (ignore heights)
1.6 A1 bars correct heights
0.9
0.3
9 Tan 35 = 9.5 ÷ PQ 33° 5 AO2 M1 finding PQ

PQ = 9.5 ÷ Tan 35 A1 9.5 ÷ Tan 35seen
PQ = 13.567406 or AWRT 13.6
M1 Tan A = PQ ÷ SQ
Tan A = PQ ÷ 20.5 A1 Tan A = AWRT 0.66
Tan A= 0.661824686 A1 AWRT 33
A=33.49757

Mark scheme

1 y 5 AO2 M1 table or similar drawn
x -2 -1 0 1 A1 correct co-ordinates
y 5 0 -3 -4 6 (1, −4), (2, −3), (3, 0), (4, 5)
A1 correct co-ordinates
4
(−2, 5), (−1, 0), (0, −3)
x 2 3 4 M1 axis drawn correctly
A1 points correctly plotted
y -3 0 5 2
and joined with a smooth
(−2, 5), (−1, 0), (0, −3), (1, curve
−4), (2, −3), (3, 0), (4, 5)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
2
4
2a 14 1 AO2 A1 do not accept

25
un-simplified versions
2b 0.1875 1 AO2 A1
2c 145% 1 AO1 A1
3 1 3m 2 AO2
Area = base × height M1 use of formula or
2
1
similar
9= b×6 A1
2
9 = 3b
b=3
4a H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 2 AO1 A2 −1 for every forgotten
H7 H8 combination
T1 T2 T3 T4
T5 T6 T7 T8
4b H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 1 2 AO2 A2 oe
H8 2
T1 T2 T3 T4
T5 T6 T7 T8
5a 1 2 4 AO2 k
sį s= A1 s =
d d d
k M1 substitutes values into
s=
d formula above
k A1 2
4= 2
0.5 A1 s =
k =2 d
2
s=
d
5b 2 10 2 AO2 M1 substitutes values into

s= own formula
0.2
A1 10

5c 2 10 2 AO2 M1 substitutes values into
0.05 = own formula
d
2
A1
d=
0.05
d = 40
6 Factorise the quadratic 13 cm by 8 cm 7 AO3 M1 attempt to factorise
(2x + 1)(x + 2) A1 (x + 2)(2x + 1)
So side lengths 2x + 1 and M1 adds side lengths
x+2 A1 sides lengths total 6x
Add these twice each to find +6
the perimeter M1 sets perimeter = 42
2x + 1 + x + 2 + 2x + 1 + x + 2 A1 x = 6
= 6x + 6 A1 13 cm by 8
6x + 6 = 42
x=6
2x + 1= 13
x+2=8
7a −2a 1 AO1
7b 2a + b 1 AO2
7c 1 2 AO2
a− b
2
7d MB = a + b 2 4 3 AO3
1 ME = a+ b
BE = AB 3 3
3
1
BE = (b – a)
3
ME = MB + BE
1
= a + b + (b − a)
3
2 4
= a+ b
3 3
8a 1 AO1
2 2
8b ( 4 x 7 x 7 x 9)
42 1 AO2
=2×7×3
8c 2 AO2
2+2 2+ 2 + 2 4+3 2 A1 two parts of 2 + 2 2 +
=2+3 2 +2 2 + 4
A1 4 + 3

Mark scheme

1a 3.582427399568.. 1 AO1 AWRT A1
1b 3.58 1 AO1 f.t A1
2a 4y(x − 2y) 2 AO1 A1 for 4y(x…)
A1 for −2y
2b 6ab(2a + 3b) 2 AO1 A1 for 6ab(2a
A1 for +3b
2c (x − 4)(x + 4) 2 AO1 A1 (x − a)(x + a)
A1
3a 0.125 × 230 £28.75 2 AO1 M1
or A1
10% + 2.5%
3b 1.18 × 480 £566.40 2 AO1 M1
or finding 18% and adding on A1
3c 0.946 × 60 £56.76 2 AO2 M1
or find 5.4% and subtracting A1
4a A = πr2 77m2 3 AO2 M1 π x r2 ÷ 2
r=7 A1 for AWRT 153.9
A = π × 49 A1 AWRT 77 m2
= 153.9380400
Semicircle so ÷ 2
Area = π × 49 ÷ 2
4b C = πd 36m 3 AO2 M1 π × d ÷ 2
d=14 A1 AWRT 43.98
C = π x 14 A1 AWRT 36 m
= 43.9822971
Semicircle so ÷ 2 and + diameter
Perimeter = π × 14 ÷ 2 + 14
5 Enlargement 3 AO2 A1 enlargement
Scale factor −0.5 A1 scale factor 0.5
Centre (1, 1) A1 centre (3, 5)
6a Gradient = −3 Y = 2 − 3x 3 AO2 M1 identifies
−4 = −3x × 2 + c gradient
−4 = −6 + c M1 subs. Gradient
c=2 and point (2, −4) Into
y = mx + c
A1
6b 1 1 AO1
3

7 5.87 or −1.87 5 AO2 M1 substitution into
-- 4 ± (-4)2 - 4 x 1 x -11
x= quadratic formula
2 x 1
A1 4 and 16 seen or
4 ± 16 + 44 implied
x=
2 4 + 60
4 + 60 A1
x= = 5.8739833 2
2
4 - 60
4 - 60 A1
x= = -1.8729833 2
2
A1 5.87 and −1.87
8 Cones circumference 216° 8 AO3 M1 cones
= 2πr circumference
= 2π × 9 A1 AWRT 56.549
=56.54866776 M1 use of Pythagoras
A1 15 cm
Radius of sector of circle M1 full circles
= 122 + 92 circumference using
calculated l
= 144 + 81 A1 AWRT 94.248
= 225 = 15 M1 Cones
Circumference of sectors full circle circumference ÷
2πr sectors full circle
= 2π × 15 circumference
= 94.2477796 A1 216°
Fraction of circle used
Cones circumference ÷ sectors full
circle circumference
= 2π × 9 ÷ 2π × 15
= 0.6
0.6 × 360 = 216°

Mark Scheme

1a 24 ÷ 3 = 8 16 2 AO1 A1 8
8 × 2 = 16 A1 16
1b 10% = 48 168 kg 2 AO1 M1 finding 10% and another
20% = 96 percentage such as 5%, 20%,
30% = 144 or 30%
5% = 24 A1
35% = 168
1c 25% = 16 $80 2 AO1 A1 find 25%
64 + 16 = 80 A1
2a 1080° 2 AO2 M1 attempt at a valid method
A1
6 × 180 = 1080°
or
(n − 2) ×180 where n = 8
or
360 ÷ 8 = 45° external
180 − 45 = 135° internal
135 x 8
2b 180 − 60 = 120° 120° 1 AO2 A1

2c 360 ÷ 6 = 60° external 120° 2 AO2 M1
180 − 60 = 120° A1
3a 3−7 1 AO1 A1
−1 − −4 ( ) -4
3
3b (3 + 7) ÷ 2 = 5 (5, -2.5) 2 AO2 M1 valid method used
(−1 + −4) ÷ 2 = −2.5 A1
3c 42 + 32 = 25 5 3 AO3 M1 using Pythagoras
25 = 5 A1 25
A1 5
4 (x + 8)(x − 2) = 0 x = −8 or x = 2 4 AO1 A1 (x + ) ( x − ) = 0
A1 ± 2 and ± 8
A1 (x + 8) ( x - 2) =0
A1 x = −8 or x = 2
5 Angles in a triangle add up to Largest angle 5 AO3 M1 attempt to add expressions
180° 110° M1 set total to 180°
M1 attempt to solve equation
4x + 30 + x −10 + 2x + 20 = 180 A1 x = 20°
7x + 40 = 180 A1 110°
7x = 140
x = 20
Angles are 10°, 110° and 60°

6 . . 3 AO2
x = 0. 36
. .
100 x = 36. 36
99 x = 0.36
36
x=
99
36 4
=
99 11
7a 54, 70 2 AO1
7b n2 + 3n 3 AO2 M1 attempt to find 2nd

difference
M1 comparison to n²
A1
8 A y = x2 3 A01 A3 (−1 for every mistake or
B xy = 4 omission, max −3))
C y = cos (x)
D y = sin (x)
E y = x3
F x2 + y2 = 25
9 28.10 × 30 = 843 £33 3 AO3 A1 843
22.50 × 14 = 315 A1 528
843 – 315 = 528 A1 33
528 ÷ 16 = 33

Mark scheme

1a s6 1 AO1
1b 15a 2 b 3 2 AO1 A1 15a2

A1 b3
1c 3s 2 AO1 A1 3
A1 s
1d 16x12 2 AO1 A1 16
A1 x12
2 Angle BAD = 56 124° 3 AO2 M1 Angle at the centre is
Angle at the centre is double the double the angle at the radius
angle at the radius M1 Opposite angles in a cyclic
Angle BCD = 180 – 56 = 124 quadrilateral (ABCD) sum to
Opposite angles in a cyclic 180°
quadrilateral (ABCD) sum to A1 124°
180°
3 1 m=100 cm 1 700 000 cm3 2 AO1 A1 1 000 000
1 m3=1 000 000 cm3 A1 1 700 000
4a 8 + 10 + 18 + quarter circle 48.6 cm 4 AO2 M1 identifies quarter circle
Quarter circle radius 8 M1 πxd÷4
C = πd A1 AWRT 12.6
C = π x 16 A1 AWRT 48.6
Quarter so ÷4
(π x 16)÷4 = 12.566706
8 + 10 + 18 + (π x 16)÷4
= 48.5663706
4b 8 × 10 + quarter circle 130.3 cm2 4 AO2 M1 identifies quarter circle
Quarter circle radius 8 M1 π × r2 ÷ 4
A = πr2 A1 AWRT 50.3
A = π × 64 A1 AWRT 130.3
Quarter so ÷4
π x 64÷4 = 50.26548
8 × 10 + π × 64 ÷ 4 = 130.26548
5a 3 < 4x – 9 ≤ 23 3<x≤8 2 AO1 M1 collect constants
12 < 4x ≤ 32 A1
3<x≤8
5b 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 2 AO1 A2 -1 for each mistake

5c 5 AO2 A1 line x = −2 shown dotted
10 A1 line x = 4 shown solid
9 A1 line y = 0 shown solid
8 A1 line x + y = 6 shown solid
A1 trapezium identified
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
6a 196 200 ÷ 109 × 100 £180 000 2 AO3 M1 ÷ 109 or 1.09

A1
6b 5720 ÷ 88 × 100 £6500 3 AO3 M1 88 or 0.88
M1 ÷ 88 or 0.88
A1
7 1500 g = £16 Better deal to 6 AO3 M1 scaled up weights
800 g = €10.50 by in France. A1 scaled up correctly
In UK £1.07 for M1 converted one cost into
100 g = £1.0666666 100 g, which in other currency
100 g = €1.3125 Euros is €1.34 A1 converted correctly
A1 chose France
£1.066666 × 1.26 = €1.344 A1 reason explained

Mark scheme

1 3.75 × 4 = 15 90p 5 AO3 A1 £15 spent
Drink 4 so 20 left M1 20% of cost spent
20% of £15 = £3 A1 15 + 3 = £18
15 + 3 = 18 M1 wanted income ÷20
18 ÷ 20 = 0.9 A1 90p
2a 0 1 AO1 A1
2b 7 1 AO1 A1 oe
9
2c 6
red 3 AO2 M1 correct number of branches
9
A1 probabilities on branches
7 red A1 colours at ends of branches
10 3 blue
9
7
red
3 9
10 blue
2 blue
9
2d Red and then blue 3 AO2

7
7 3 21 15
x =
10 9 90
Blue and then red
3 7 21
x =
10 9 90
Total
21 21 42
+ =
90 90 90
7
=
15
3 a = bc 2 + f 3 AO1 M1 a - f = bc 2
a -f
=c
a - f = bc 2 b a -f
M1 = c2
a -f b
= c2
b a -f
a -f A1 =c
=c b
b
4a 1 42 cm3 3 AO2 1
(4 × 3) × 7 M1 (4 × 3)
2 2
A1 42
A1 cm3

4b Hypotenuse of triangular cross 96 cm2 4 AO2 M1 breaking shape up into
section faces
32 + 4 2 = 5 M1 using Pythagoras’ theorem
to fin missing edge
1
A1 two correctly calculated
(4 × 3) × 2 = 12 faces
2
A1 96 cm2
5 × 7 = 35
4 × 7 = 28
3 × 7 = 21
Total = 96
4c 1 cm2 = 100 mm2 9600 mm2 1 AO2 A1
96 × 100
5a 1 AO1 A1
( 2-1+-+ 32 ) ( -11 )
5b 1 AO1 A1
( 3x - 3
3x 2 ) ( )
-9
6
5c 1 AO1 A1
( 22xx-2 --1)
3-2
( -85 )
5d 1 AO2 For any value of k
( -2kk )
7 3x − 2y = 1 (x3) x=3 4 AO2 M1 multiply LHS through to get
4x − 3y = 0 (x2) y=4 same x or y coefficient
M1 subtract equations
9x − 6y = 3 (1) A1 x = 3 or y = 4
8x − 6y = 0 (2) A1 second unknow
(1) − (2)
x=3
Sub into 3x − 2y = 1
9 − 2y = 1
2y = 8
y=4
7a 90 km/h 1 AO1
7b 0 to 60 in 15 minutes 240 kms2 3 AO2 M1 identifies 60 km in 0.25
Acceleration is change in speed hour
÷ time M1 60 ÷ 0.25
60 ÷ 0.25 = 240 km s−2 A1 240
7c Area under graph 40 km 4 AO3 M1 area under graph
Trapezium, width 30 minutes = 1
0.5 hour M1 h(a + b)
2
1 1
× 0.5 (90 + 70) A1 × 0.5 (90 + 70)
2 2
= 40 km A1 40

Mark scheme

1a x2 + 3x − 4x - 12 x2 − x − 12 2 AO1 A1 x2 + 3x − 4x − 12
A1 simplified
1b (x − 6)(x − 2) 2 AO1 A1 ± 6 and ± 2
A1 (x − 6)(x − 2)
1c 18 x 3 y -2 3x2y2 2 AO1 A1 3
A1 x2y2
48 xy -4
= 3x 2 y 2
2 41.1 4 AO2 M1 mid points

MP ×
h Fre MP M1 mid points x
Fre frequencies
0 ≤ h < 10 8 5 40 A1 2920
A1 41.1
10 ≤ h < 30 9 20 180
30 ≤ h < 40 24 35 840
40 ≤ h < 60 18 50 900
60 ≤ h <
12 80 960
100
Sum = 2920
2920÷71 = 41.1
3 120 × 1.0353 £133.05 3 AO2 M1 × 1.035
M1 × 1.035 × 1.035 ×
1.035 or × 1.0353 give for
incorrect percentage
A1
4 a2 = b2 + c2−2bc cos (A) 40° 6 AO2 M1 cosine rule
a=8 A1 substituted values
b=7 correctly
c = 12 A1 193 and 168
64 = 49 + 144 – 2 × 7 × 12 M1 rearranged to make
cos (A) cos(A) subject
64 = 193 – 168 cos (A) 129
M1 cos−1( )
129 168
cos (A) =
168 For pupils values
129 A1 AWRT 40°
A = cos−1( )
168
= 39.8381498

5 a = 2.35 – 2.45 Max = 39.47368421 5 AO2 A1 shows range of values
b = 11.95 – 12.05 Min = 35.5670103 for at least one of the
c = 115 – 125 variable
M2 correctly chosen large/
Max = 3 × 125 ÷ (11.95 − small values chosen for
2.45)= 39.47368421 max and min
Min = 3 × 115 ÷ (12.05 − A1 39.47368421
2.35) = 35.5670103 A1 35.5670103
6 43.5 − 35 = 8.5 24% 3 AO1 M1 difference in prices

8.5 ÷ 35 = 0.242857 M1 ÷ old price
A1 24%
7 6 5 AO2 A1 6
7 -1 6.8333333 M1 attempt to use 6 as
x
x 6.853659 next value of x
6.854093 A1 6.83333
1 6 A1 6.854093
6 6.833333 Suggest 6.85 A16.85
6.833333 6.853659
6.853659 6.854093
8 x2 + y2 = 100 19.8 units 8 AO3 M1 sub in x + 1

y=x+2 A1 x2+ x2+ 4x + 4 = 100
x2 + (x + 2) 2 = 100 M1 make one side of
x2+ x2+4x + 4 = 100 quad. =0
2x2+ 4x − 96 = 0 A1 factorise
x2 + 2x − 48 = 0 A1 solve
(x + 8)(x − 6) = 0 A1 find co-ordinates
x = -8 or x = 6 M1 use of Pythagoras
(−8, −6) and (6, 8) A1 AWRT 19.8
Pythagoras
142 +142
= 196 +196
= 392
= 19.79898987

a
1 b
2 3 c
4e
Clues
Across Down
1 The times tables are examples of these. a n × n × n is the __ of n.
2 Whole numbers divisible by 2. b Numbers with only two factors.
3 Another word for factor. c Whole numbers that are not exactly divisible
4 Numbers in the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, … by 2.
5 An even prime number. d Number that divides into another with no
6 The result of a multiplication. remainder.
e HCF of 12 and 18.
Crossword puzzle © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Crossword puzzle © Cambridge University Press, 2015
Polygon diagrams © Cambridge University Press, 2015
Polygon diagrams © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Angle facts
• Angles round a point add up to 360°.

• Angles on a straight line add up to 180°.
• Vertically opposite angles are equal.
• Corresponding angles are equal.
• Alternate angles are equal.
• Co-interior angles add up to 180°.
• Angles in a triangle add up to 180°.
• All angles in an equilateral triangle are 60°.
• The base angles in an isosceles triangle are equal.
• The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two opposite interior angles.
• Interior angles in a polygon equal (n - 2) × 180° where n is the number of sides.
360
• Exterior angles of any polygon add up to 360°. For a regular polygon, the size of one exterior angle = where n is
n
the number of sides.
Anglefacts
Angle facts ©©Cambridge
CambridgeUniversity
UniversityPress,
Press 2015
Required formulae – Foundation
Circumference of a circle 2πr or πd

Area of a circle πr2
Pythagoras’ theorem a2 + b2 = c2
opp
sin θ=
hyp
Trigonometry adj
cos θ=
hyp
opp
tan θ=
adj
Requiredformulae
Required formulae – Foundation
– Foundation ©©Cambridge
CambridgeUniversity
UniversityPress,
Press 2015
Required formulae – Higher
Circumference of a circle 2πr or πd

Area of a circle πr2
Pythagoras’ theorem a2 + b2 = c2
opp
sin θ=
hyp
Trigonometry adj
cos θ=
hyp
opp
tan θ=
adj
2
-b ± b - 4ac
Quadratic formula x=
2a
a b c
Sine rule = =
sin A sin B sin C
Cosine rule a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
1
Area of a triangle ab sinC
2
Requiredformulae
Required formulae – Higher
– Higher ©©Cambridge
CambridgeUniversity
UniversityPress,
Press 2015
1 cm squared paper © Cambridge University Press, 2015
1 cm squared paper © Cambridge University Press, 2015
2 mm graph paper © Cambridge University Press, 2015
2 mm graph paper © Cambridge University Press, 2015
y
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
y
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
Axis grids from –10 to 10 in x and –10 to 10 in y © Cambridge University Press, 2015
Axis grids from –10 to 10 in x and –10 to 10 in y © Cambridge University Press, 2015
Square dotted paper © Cambridge University Press, 2015
Square dotted paper © Cambridge University Press, 2015
Isometric
Isometric grid
grid paper
paper © Cambridge University
© Cambridge Press,
University 2015
Press, 2015
Isometric
Isometric dotted
dotted paper
paper © Cambridge University
© Cambridge Press,
University 2015
Press, 2015
Cube
Rectangular prism
Triangular prism
Nets of common 3D solids (1) © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Nets of common 3-D solids (1) © Cambridge University Press, 2015
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
Nets of common 3D solids (2) © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Nets of common 3-D solids (2) © Cambridge University Press, 2015
C
Foundation Exercise 31A question 1 diagram © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Circle outlines © Cambridge University Press, 2015
Circle outlines © Cambridge University Press, 2015

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Brighter Thinking

i © Cambridge University Press, 2015

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

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Information on this title:

© Cambridge University Press 2015

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

First published 2015

Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/ukschools

Cover image © 2013 Fabian Oefner www.fabianoefner.com

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

ii © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Changes to GCSE Mathematics 1

1F / 1H Working with integers 9

iii © Cambridge University Press, 2015

31F / 33H Transformations in a plane 237

Literacy in mathematics – helping your students to do their best 307

iv © Cambridge University Press, 2015

STUDENT BOOK SUPPORT

GENERAL ADVICE AND SUPPORT

– use of a calculator is permitted

– use of a calculator is not permitted

v © Cambridge University Press, 2015

GCSE MATHEMATICS ONLINE FOR AQA

Student Book answers

Problem-solving Book answers

Homework Book answers

vi © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Changes to GCSE Mathematics

Where problems require candidates to ‘use and apply standard techniques’

1 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Where problems require candidates to ‘use and apply standard techniques’ or

Additions to foundation tier

2 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

3 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

4 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

angles and lengths in rightangled

5 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Additions to higher tier

7 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Topics that have been removed

8 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

1F / 1H Working with integers

What your students need to know

• Integers, directed numbers

Common misconceptions and other issues

9 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

SECTION 1F / 1H: BASIC CALCULATIONS

Exercise 1A (F) / 1A (H)

Starters, plenaries, enrichment and assessment ideas

10 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

11 © Cambridge University Press, 2015

Starters, plenaries, enrichment and assessment ideas

Exercise 1B (F) / 1B (H)