STAT1100 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Definition of Statistics

Statistics can be defined in two ways – plural and singular.

• In plural sense, statistics is any set of numerical data (e.g. vital statistics, monthly sales)

• In singular sense, statistics is a branch of science that deals with the collection, presentation, analysis
and interpretation of data

“Statistics is all about the study of the theory and applications of the scientific methods dealing with the
process of collecting, handling and using data for sound decision making.” Almeda, et al., 2010

“Statistics is the business of using the scientific method to answer research questions about the world.” -
Rumsey, 2003

INFORMATION EMPOWERS!

Statistics provides us with the tools we need to convert massive data volumes into pertinent information
that we can use to make better and more sensible decisions.

General Uses of Statistics

• Aids in decision-making
o provides comparison
o explains actions that has taken place
o justifies a claim or assertion
o predicts future outcome
o estimates unknown quantities

• Summarizes data for public use

Important Terms in Statistics

• Data is defined as the collection of observations or responses. These are facts or figures from which
conclusions may be drawn.

• A single data value is called a datum.

• A population is a collection of all elements under consideration in a statistical study.

• The sample is a subset of the population.

Any value generated from the population is a parameter - a numerical value that describes a
population.
Any value derived from the sample is a statistic - a numerical value that describes the sample.

Examples: Parameter or Statistic

1. A study of all 2223 passengers aboard the Titanic found that only 32% survived when it sank. The total
2223 and the percentage 32% are parameters.
2. In a large sample of households, the median monthly income is ₱10,500. The median ₱10,500 is a
statistic.
3. The author randomly selected 10 days and checked her daily water intake from the bullet journal. The
mean value is 2.7 liters and a standard deviation of 0.4 liters. In this example, we have statistics.

1.1.2 History of Statistics

• The term “statistics” originated from the Latin word “status”, which means “state”. In history,
statistics was primarily used to know the status of a country such as population, military capacity and
wealth.
• The use of the term “statistics” became popular only in the 18th century and its original definition was
“the science dealing with data about the condition of a state or community”.

• In 1662, John Graunt published statistical information about births and deaths. Graunt’s work was
followed by studies of mortality and disease rates, population sizes, incomes, and unemployment rates.
• Gottfried Achenwall used the word “statistik” at a German university in 1749 to mean the political
science of different countries.

PaFields of Statistics
1. Statistical Theory
- Deals with the development and exposition of theories that serve as bases of statistical methods. Also
referred as Theoretical Statistics or Mathematical Statistics.

• Theory is defined as a set of statements or principles devised to explain a group of facts or

phenomena, especially one that has been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted and can be used to
make predictions about natural phenomena.

2. Statistical Methods

- These are procedures and techniques used in the collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation
of data. Also referred as Applied Statistics.
• Procedure – a fixed, step-by-step sequence of activities that must be followed in the same order to
correctly performs a task.
• Technique – is a practical method, skill, or art applied to a particular task.

Statistical methods can be further divided into two areas: Descriptive and Inferential Statistics.

Areas of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics
• Includes all the techniques used in collecting, organizing, summarizing, and presenting the data.
• It only allow us to summarize or describe relevant characteristics of data without drawing conclusions
or inferences about a larger set.
• It utilizes numerical, tabular, and graphical methods to look for patterns in a data set, summarize the
information revealed in the data set, and present that information in a convenient form.

2. Inferential Statistics
• Includes all the techniques used in analyzing the sample data that will lead to generalizations about a
population from which the sample came from.
• It utilizes sample data to make conclusions or generalizations about the population.
• Includes interpreting, making inferences, estimating, hypothesis testing, determining relationships,
and making predictions.

1.1.4 Statistics in Different Fields

• In the government, policy makers use statistics as base of their decision. Preparation of local and
national budgets are dependent on statistics.

• Statistics-based researches boost the growth of natural science fields such as Biology, Chemistry,
Environmental Science, and Physics.
• Large business companies invest in acquisition of big data. They analyze it to know more of the
demographics, location, and personalities of their clients. It primarily aims to reach more target clients.

• Investors monitor the past patterns of the stock market to aid them in their investing decisions.
• Sport statistics are collected every game and broken down by team, by quarter, and even by player to
monitor the performance of the team and the player.
• In education, a researcher tests whether new methods of teaching are better than old ones using
statistical methods.
• Many people look at the weather forecasts such as temperature and rain fall before going out or doing
certain tasks.

1.1.5 Statistical Inquiry

A statistical inquiry is a designed research that provides information needed to solve a research
problem.
• Researchers can now find an appropriate statistical technique that will help them answer their
research problems because of the wide array of applications of the various statistical techniques used in
a statistical inquiry.

Partial list of general research objectives that can be accomplished by performing a statistical inquiry
1. Describe the characteristics of the elements in the population under study through the computation
or estimation of a parameter such as the proportion, total, and average.
2. Compare the characteristics of the elements in the different subgroups in the population through
contrasts of their respective summary measures.
3. Justify an assertion made by the researcher about a particular characteristic of the population or
samples.

4. Determine the nature and strength of relationships among the different variables of interest.
5. Identify the different groups of interrelated variables under study.
6. Reveal the natural groupings of the elements in the population based on the values of a set of
variables.
7. Determine the effects of one or more variables on a response variable.
8. Clarify patterns and trends in the values of a variable over time or space.

9. Predict the value of a variable based upon its relationship with another variable.
10. Forecast future values of a variable using a sequence of observations on the same variable taken
over time.

STAT1100 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Variables

• Variable – a characteristic or attribute of persons or objects which can assume different values or
labels under statistical study
Examples: sex, age, educational attainment, income, level of satisfaction
• Observation – realized value of a variable
• Data – collection of observations

Example 1: Below are illustrations of variables together with its possible observations

Example 2: Identify the population under study and variable/s of interest

a. The CLSU administration is interested in determining the COVID-19 vaccination status of their
students for the academic year 2022-2023
Population: set of all CLSU students for AY 2022-2023
Variable of Interest: vaccination status
b. The research division of certain pharmaceutical company is investigating the effectiveness of new diet
pill in reducing weight on male adults.
Population: set of all male adults who will take the diet pill
Variables of Interest: weight before taking the pill weight after taking the pill

Example 3:
Let us define the variable of interest as the age of the thirty CLSU BS Stat 1 students for AY 2022 – 2023.
Suppose we determine and the record the ages of all the 30 students as:
In a statistical inquiry, it is necessary to describe what we observe about the variable of interest in a
compact manner, such as a single number or a short label. This is done through determining the value or
label of our variables.
• Measurement – process of determining the value or label of the variable for a particular observational
unit.
• Observational Unit – individual persons, objects, places or events on which a variable is measured.

Types of Variables

1. Quantitative Variable – observations or values of the variables are expressed numerically that are
meaningful or indicate some sort of amount. It contains counts or measurements.
Example: age, allowance, number of students, weight, height, etc.

2. Qualitative Variable – observations or values of the variables are expressed categorically or

descriptive
Example: gender, religion, eye color, marital status, ID number, etc.

Kinds of Quantitative Variables

1. Discrete Variable - a variable which can assume finite or countably infinite number of values usually
measured by counting or enumeration, that is 0, 1, 2, 3 and so on answers the question “How many?”
Examples: number of students, number of pets, number of chairs, etc.
2. Continuous Variable - a variable which can assume infinitely many values corresponding to a line
interval gives rise to measurement answers the question “How much?”
Examples: height, weight, width, length, allowance, etc.

Levels of Measurement

Scales/Levels of Measurement for Variables

1. Nominal - qualitative data, classificatory scale, weakest level of measurement, numbers or symbols
are used simply for categorizing subjects into different (nonoverlapping) groups
Examples: Automobile, Color, Marital Status ,Sex, ID Number

2. Ordinal - qualitative data, classificatory with ordering scale, classifies data into categories that can be
ranked

Examples: Pizza Size, Class Ranking, Latin Honor, Level of Satisfactions

3. Interval - quantitative data, has the properties of the nominal and ordinal levels, and in addition, the
distances between any two numbers on the scale are of known sizes, has arbitrary zero ( Zero doesn't
mean nothing)
Examples:
Temperature (in ⁰F and ⁰C, pH Level, IQ scores, Calendar Year

4. Ratio - quantitative data, highest level of measurement, has the properties of nominal, ordinal and
interval levels, has absolute zero or true zero

Examples: Height, Allowance, Number of Books, Age

SUMMATION NOTATION
• In Statistics, working with sums of numerical values is frequent
• Given a set of n observations represented by X1 as the first value, X2 as the
second value, and so on up to Xn as the nth value, then the sum can be expressed
as:
• read as “the summation of X sub i where i ranges from 1 to n”
Data Collection Methods

2.1 Data Collection Methods

1. Objective Method • data were collected by means of measuring or counting
Example: data collected from laboratory experiments
2. Subjective Method • information is provided by the respondents • point of
view, perception, beliefs, feelings, opinions, etc.
Example: personal interview, self-administered questionnaire
3. Use of Documented Data • researcher can obtain documented data or existing
records from previous studies of individuals or private, government, and
nongovernment agencies • researcher may find documented data in published or
written reports, unpublished documents, periodical, government websites, thesis
of graduate students, etc.
Data Collection Procedures
1. Interview
• there is a person-to-person contact or exchange of information between the
interviewer and interviewee
• more appropriate forobtaining complex emotional-laden topics probing
sentiments underlying an expressed opinion
• provides consistent and more precise information since the interviewee may
give clarifications
• time consuming and has limited field of coverage
2. Questionnaire
• data is collected by means of written responses based on a list of questions
which are relevant to the problems of the study
• inexpensive and can cover a wide area in a shorter period of time
• high possibility of incomplete response or may not return the questionnaire,
especially if it is mailed
3. Experimental
• used when the objective is to determine the cause and effect relationship of
certain phenomena under controlled conditions
• experiment = an operation where there is actual human interference with the
condition that can affect the variable under study
• if properly designed and executed, experiments will reveal a good deal of
accuracy
4. Observation
• the researcher observes the behavior of persons and their outcomes
• does not rely on the respondent’s willingness to provide information
• potential bias caused by the interviewing process is reduced and eliminated in
this method
5. Registration
• this method of collecting data is enforced by certain laws such as registration of
births, deaths, licenses, etc.
• information are kept systematized and made available to all because of the
requirement of the law

General Classifications of Collecting Data

Census
• complete enumeration
• process of obtaining information from every unit in the population
Example: 2020 Census of Population and Housing
DISADVANTAGES
* not always possible to get timely, accurate and economical data
* costly, especially if the number of units in the population is too large.
Survey Sampling
• also referred as sample survey
• process of obtaining information from the units in the selected sample
Example: survey of 20 randomly selected CLSU students
ADVANTAGES OF SURVEY SAMPLING
* reduce cost * greater scope
* greater speed * greater accuracy

2.2 Sampling
• Population is the totality of all elements/units in the study
• Population size (𝑵) is the total number of all elements/units in the population.
Example:
Population: All BSStat 1 students at CLSU AY 2022-2023
The population size is 𝑵 = 𝟑𝟐.

• Sample is the subset of population.

• Sample size (𝒏) is the total number of all elements/units in the sample
Example:

In this example, our sample is composed of Angelica, Janna, Ana Mariz, Alexis,
Sheen Elleine, Karl Roy, Algheirine, and Jean Claude.
The sample size is 𝒏 = 𝟖.
• Sampling Frame is the complete list of elements/units in the population from
which a sample is drawn. This is very important before performing any sampling
techniques.
• Sampling is the process of selecting a sample from the population. The sampling
method can either be probability sampling method or nonprobability sampling
method.
Types of Sampling Method
1. Probability Sampling
 each unit in the population has a known, non-zero probability of
selection, and have equal chances of being selected as a sample
 if a probability sampling design is implemented well, an investigator can
use a relatively small sample to make inferences about an arbitrary large
population

2. Nonprobability Sampling
 elements of the population are taken depending to a large extent on
the personal feelings or purpose of the researcher and without
regard for some chance mechanism for choosing an element
 the elements in the population do not have equal chances of being
selected as a sample
Remarks:
 Whenever possible, probability sampling is used because there is no
objective way of assessing the reliability of inferences under
nonprobability sampling
 What we want is a sample that is representative of the population
 The sampling frame is required in the execution of probability
sampling methods
Probability Sampling Methods
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

• This involves selecting anybody from the sampling frame entirely at random.
• Highly recommended if the units in the population are homogeneous with
respect to the characteristic under study.
• This can be performed in two ways:
▪ without replacement (a chosen element is not replaced/returned before
the next selection is made)
▪ with replacement (a chosen element is replaced before the next selection
is made)

SRS Techniques
1. Lottery Technique / Draw Lots
i. All names in the sampling frame are written on separate papers
which are physically similar in form (to avoid bias).
ii. These are placed on a bowl or small box and thoroughly mixed.
iii. Draw the number of sheets or papers (corresponds to the sample
size) randomly without looking at them.

DISADVANTAGE
If the population is big, the lottery technique is not recommended since it requires the preparation of a
large number of individual sheet for each unit in the population.
2. Use of Random Number
i. Each name in the sampling frame has been numbered from 1 to 𝑁.
Example:

ii. Generate 𝑛 random numbers. You can produce random numbers

using a table of random numbers, a calculator, or a computer
application. We will use this website’s random number generator:
https://www.calculatorsoup.com/calculators/statistics/random-
number-generator.php

iii. The random numbers generated will correspond to your selected

sample based on the numbered sampling frame
 2. Systematic Sampling
 Systematic sampling with a “random start” is a method of
selecting a sample by taking every k th unit from an ordered
population, where the first unit being selected at random
 k is called the sampling interval

Selection Procedure:
a. Make a list of the
sampling units and
number them
from 1 to N
b. Determine k using the
formula 𝑘 = N⁄𝑛
and round off to
the nearest whole
number
c. Select a random start r, where 1 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑘.
The corresponding r is the first unit of the
sample.
d. The other units of the sample corresponds to 𝑟 + 𝑘, 𝑟 + 2𝑘, … and so on

Example: N=20, n=5 Sampling interval (k) = 𝑁 𝑛 = 20 5 = 4 Random start (r) =

(choose from 1 to k) = suppose we choose 3 as the random start

3. Stratified Sampling
 The population is divided into two or more non-overlapping groups
called strata, according to some criterion such as geographic location,
 grade level, age, or income. All members of a stratum share the specific
characteristics.
 Random samples are drawn from each stratum.
 This can be performed in two ways
▪ Equal allocation
▪ Proportional allocation
- the percentage of these sample taken from each stratum is
proportionate to the percentage that each stratum is within the population.

 Subdivide the population into at least two different subgroups (or

strata) so that subjects within the same subgroup share the same
characteristics (such as gender or age bracket), then draw a sample from
each subgroup.

Example: Suppose we want to select a sample of 30 students from 50 students, 20

of which are males and 30 are females, with sex as the strata.

4. Cluster Sampling
The entire population is divided into pre-existing segments called clusters. Then
clusters will be randomly selected using simple random or systematic sampling,
and every member of each selected cluster is included in the sample
Example: A researcher wants to survey CLSU faculty members. She use cluster
sampling as her sampling method with the college as clusters. She decided to
randomly choose 5 clusters (colleges) from the 9 colleges.

After selecting these 5 colleges, all the faculty members from those selected
clusters will be considered as sample

5. Multistage Sampling
Multistage sampling is a sampling technique wherein sampling is done at two or
more hierarchical stages.
Example of hierarchical stages is in considering samples from different
geographical areas: In Philippines, there are regional level, provincial level, city
level, barangay level, etc.
Since there is more than one stage of sampling, you can use many probability
sampling methods.

Example: Selecting a sample from the population of CLSU students

Hierarchical Stages: university level – college level – program level – student level
Stage 1: You can use SRS to choose which college will you consider
 Stage 2: From those selected colleges, you use equal stratified sampling to get
two programs or courses in each selected college
Stage 3: In each selected program or courses, I can use again SRS to get sample
students for each programs.
Further stages may also be performed, considering the year level and blocks (or
sections) of students.

Types of Nonprobability Sampling

1. Purposive Sampling
- Sampling with a “purpose” in mind.
2. Convenience Sampling
- Sample elements are selected for the convenience of the
researcher.
3. Quota Sampling
- Sample elements are selected until the quota controls are satisfied.
4. Snowball sampling
- Survey subjects are selected based on referral from other survey
respondents.
Examples:
Sampling Method
Study/Scenario
Used
A researcher divides a group of students according to gender, major field, and low,
average, and high grade point average. Then she randomly selects six students from Stratified Sampling
each group to answer questions in a survey
Out of 10 hospitals in a municipality, a researcher selects one and collects records
Cluster Sampling
for a 24-hour period on the types of emergencies that were treated there
The subscribers to a magazine are numbered. Then a sample of these people is Simple Random
selected using random numbers. Sampling
Every 10th bottle of Energized Soda is selected, and the amount of liquid in the Systematic
bottle is measured sampling
2.3 Presentation of Data
Three methods of presenting data:
1. Textual method
2. Tabular method
3. Graphical method

1. Textual Presentation
Collected data may be organized and presented in a narrative or textual form. It is
the simplest method of presenting data.
Advantages:
o This presentation gives emphasis to significant figures and comparisons.
o It is the most appropriate approach when there are only a few significant
figures or information to be presented.
Example:

“As of August 14, 2022, 64.6% of the total Philippine populations were
vaccinated with the last dose of primary series.”

“Between May 1 and August 14, 2022, there were 280 COVID-19 related deaths
reported in the Philippines.”
2. Tabular Presentation
 Tables are designed to summarize facts revealed by enquiry and to present
them in such a way that all the important factors contained in the data
under review are displayed.
 This method takes the form of arranging statistical data in columns and
rows
 Tabulation is the process of condensation of data into tables.
 Parts of a Statistical Table
1. Heading – consists of table number,
title, and headnote
2. Box Head / Caption – contains the
column heads which describe the data
3. Stub / Classes – the portion of the
table comprising the first column on the
left
4. Field / Body – main part of the table
that contains the substance or figures of
the data
3. Graphical Presentation
 A graph or chart is a device showing numerical values or relationships in
pictorial form
 In a graph, the main features and implications of a body of data can be
grasped at a glance
 It can simplify a concept that would otherwise have been expressed in so
many words.
 Bar graph uses bars to compare data across categories of a variable. The
size of the bar represents the frequency or percentage of a particular
category.
 Line graph use to display the trend or
pattern of values of a variable over time.

 Pie Chart use to show how part of the data compares in size to the
whole circle. The circle is divided proportionally to the relative
frequency (percentages) and portion of the circles are allocated to the
different groups or categories.

 Pictograph is a way of showing data using images.

 Scatterplot displays the relationship between two quantitative variable

 Infographic

o collection of imagery, charts, and minimal text that gives an easy-

to-understand overview of a topic.
2.4 Organization of Data

 First step in data analysis

 In its organized form, important features of the data become clear and
apparent.
Raw Data are the collected data which have not been arranged or organized.
These are data in their original form.
Array is an ordered arrangement of data according to magnitude. We also refer to
the array as sorted data or ordered data.

Note: The array is not a summarized data set. It is

simply an ordered set of observations. We consider
both the raw data and array as ungrouped data.
  The frequency distribution table (FDT) is a table that summarizes raw data
by showing the number of observations that belong in the different
categories or classes. We also refer to this as grouped data.
 To construct the FDT, we group the observed values into classes or
categories, and count the number of observations that belong in each class.
 It is a summarized form of the raw data or array wherein we do not see the
actual observed values.
Ungrouped FDT and Grouped FDT

Ungrouped FDT
 also referred as single-value grouping or qualitative FDT, since it is usually
used for qualitative data
 the classes are the distinct categories or values of the variable
 organized tabulation of variable that usually contains three columns –
listing of classes of the variable, frequency, and percentage (optional)
 constructed for:
✓ qualitative data
✓ quantitative data with only a few unique values

Steps for Ungrouped FDT:

1. Define the classes by enumerating each unique category or value.
2. Count the number of observations falling under each class.
3. A column of percentage can be included

Example 2: Suppose the following data set shows the favorite color of 12 students
Yellow Black Blue Blue Red Blue
Black Green Red Yellow Black Black
Table 2. Distribution of Student’s Favorite Subject
Favorite Color Frequency Percentage
Yellow 2 16.77%
Black 4 33.33%
Blue 3 25.00%
Yellow 2 16.67%
Red 1 8.33%
 Answer:
Table 3. Distribution of Family by
Number Of Children
No.of Frequency Percentage
Children
0 7 14%
1 8 16%
2 11 22%
3 14 28%
4 8 16%
5 2 4%
Grouped FDT
 also referred as grouping by class intervals or quantitative FDT
 the classes are intervals of values of the variable
 constructed for:
✓ quantitative data with many values
 it has two necessary columns – list of class intervals and frequency
 additional columns can also be added for other values such as class mark,
true class boundary, relative frequency, cumulative frequencies, and
relative cumulative frequencies

Steps in Constructing Grouped FDT:

Step 1. Put the Data in array Step 2. Determine the Range
Step 3. The number of class intervals, 𝒌, can be assigned or computed. If
computed, round-off to the nearest whole number. To solve for 𝑘, two formulas
can be used.

Step 4. Determine the class size (𝒄). Round off with the same decimal places as
the raw data.

Step 5. Determine and enumerate the class intervals. Each class interval is defined
by its class limits – lower limit (𝐿𝐿) and upper limit (𝑈𝐿). We use the following
rules:

Step 5.1. The lowest data or the minimum is always set as the lower limit of the
first class, that is 𝐿𝐿1 = minimum. In our example, 16 is the lowest score.

Step 5.2. The next lower limit is obtained by 𝐿𝐿next = 𝐿𝐿previous + 𝑐. Example for
the 2 nd class interval, 𝐿𝐿2 = 𝐿𝐿1 + 𝑐 = 16 + 8 = 24. The pattern continues until you
create 𝑘 classes.
Step 5.3. Set the upper limits using the formula 𝑈𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑐 − 1 unit of measure.
Since our data are all whole numbers, then 1 unit of measure = 1. So, for the first
class interval, 𝑈𝐿1 = 𝐿𝐿1 + 𝑐 − 1uom = 16 + 8 − 1 = 23 . Continue this until you get
the upper limits of each class intervals.

Check if the class limit covers the maximum value. If not, simply increase the number of classes.

Step 6. Count the frequency (f) or the number of observations that fall in each
class intervals.

Other Columns of the Grouped FDT

Step 7. Class Mark (CM). The class mark is the midpoint of a class interval, that is
Step 8. True Class Boundary (TCB). The TCBs reflect the continuous property of the data. We have
upper and lower TCB.
• 𝑳𝑻𝑪𝑩 = 𝑳𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟓(𝟏𝐮𝐨𝐦)
• 𝑼𝑻𝑪𝑩 = 𝑼𝑳 + 𝟎. 𝟓(𝟏𝐮𝐨𝐦)

Step 9. Relative Frequency (RF). The relative frequency of a class is the ratio of
class frequency to the total number of observations, 𝑛, and is expressed in
percentage.

Step 10. Cumulative Frequency (CF) – accumulated frequency

• < 𝑪𝑭 = no. of observations ≤ 𝑼𝑳
• > 𝑪𝑭 = no. of observations ≥ 𝑳𝑳
Step 11. Relative Cumulative Frequency (RCF) – ratio of class cumulative
frequency to the total number of observations

Graphical Presentations of Grouped FDT

1. Histogram

2. Frequency Polygon

-special type of line graph that plots the class frequencies at the midpoint of the
classes and connect the plotted points by means of straight lines.
- Place the class frequencies on the 𝑦 − axis and the class marks on the 𝑥 − axis.
- The term “polygon” implies a closed shape with several sides. Thus, we need to
close our frequency polygon. To close the frequency polygon, add an additional
class mark at both ends of the classes.
3. Ogive
- Plot of the cumulative frequency distribution
- Use this to determine the number of observations below or above a particular
class boundary.
- The less than ogive, or < ogive, is the plot of < CF against the UTCB.
- The greater than ogive, or > ogive, is the plot of > CF against the LTCB.

If we superimpose the < ogive and the > ogive,

the point of intersection gives us the value of
the median.
Here, if we estimate the value in 𝑥 −axis
corresponding to the intersection point of the
ogives it gives a value around 29.5.

Illustration
The following data represent the height of trees in meters, measured to the
nearest tenth, of a sample of 50 trees in a certain region. Set up a (complete)
frequency distribution.
Solution:
 Make an Array

 Compute for 𝑅, 𝑘, and 𝑐.

 Set-up the FDT

 Determine the lower limits of each class interval.

 Determine the upper limits of each class interval. Add additional class, if
necessary
 Since the data are in the nearest tenth, 1uom = 0.1.
𝑈𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑐 − 1uom → 𝑈𝐿1 = 𝐿𝐿1 + 𝑐 − 0.1 = 4.3 + 0.8 − 0.1 = 5.0
 Count the frequency for each class.

 Compute for TCB.

 Compute for CM

 Compute for the RF, CF, RCF