IMMEDIATE REASONING PPT Review

IMMEDIATE REASONING
DEDUCTIVE LOGIC (SOUND REASONING)

“IF… THE PAST MAY BE
NO RULE FOR THE
FUTURE, ALL
EXPERIENCE BECOMES
USELESS AND CAN GIVE
RISE TO NO INFERENCE
AND CONCLUSION.”
DAVID HUME
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE IS A
PROCESS OF REASONING
WHICH DRAWS ITS
CONCLUSION (DIRECTLY OR
IMMEDIATELY) FROM ONLY
ONE PROPOSITION,
WITHOUT THE SUPPORT OF
AN INTERMEDIARY
PROPOSITION (MEDIUM).
THIS CONCLUSION IS
KNOWN AS THE NEW
PROPOSITION; HOWEVER, IT
DOES NOT GENERATE A NEW
TRUTH.
KINDS OF IMMEDIATE
INFERENCE FORMAL
1. LOGICAL OPPOSITION Conversion
Obversion
2. LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE Contraposition
inversion
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
MATERIAL
Added determinant
Complex determinant
Omitted
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE
Converse relation
CONTRADICTORY
CONTRARY
LOGICAL OPPOSITION
SUBCONTRARY
SUBALTERN
ACCORDING TO ANDREW BACCHUBER,
THE STUDY OF THE KINDS OF
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE WILL BE
HELPFUL FOR THE FOLLOWING
REASONS:
1. IT WILL HELP TO RECOGNIZE THE
QUANTITY OF TERMS AND THE
QUANTITATIVE RELATIONSHIPS OF THE
SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE.
2. IT WILL HELP TO RECOGNIZE

EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONAL FORMS
OFTENTIMES, THE SAME TRUTH CAN BE
EXPRESSED IN VARIOUS FORMS. IT IS
IMPORTANT THAT WE KNOW WHICH
FORMS ARE EQUIVALENT AND WHICH
ARE NOT.
3. IT WILL HELP TO UNDERSTAND
THE RELATIONSHIP OF
PROPOSITIONS TO ONE
ANOTHER AS TO TRUTH OR
FALSITY- HOW IF ONE
PROPOSITION IS TRUE, CERTAIN
PROPOSITIONS MUST BE FALSE
OR VICE VERSA.
LOGICAL
OPPOSITION
LOGICAL OPPOSITION IS AN
INFERENCE WHEREBY THE MIND
PROCEEDS (DIRECTLY OR
IMMEDIATELY) FROM THE KNOWN
OR ASSUMED TRUTH OR FALSITY OF
ONE PROPOSITION TO THE TRUTH,
FALSITY, OR DUBITABLY
(DOUBTFULNESS) OF ANOTHER
PROPOSITION. THE LOGICAL
INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN THE
TRUTHS AND FALSEHOODS OF
PROPOSITIONS INVOLVING THE
SAME ITEMS ARE REFERRED TO AS
THEIR “OPPOSITIONS” (TWO SIDES
OF A COIN, HENCE NOT NEGATIVE).
FOUR (4) PROPOSITIONS WITH
OPPOSING RELATIONSHIPS
AFFIRMATION DENIAL
UNIVERSAL A- ALL S IS P. E- NO S IS P.
PARTICULAR I- SOME S IS P. O- SOME S IS NOT P.

NOT ALL S IS P.
A UNIVERSAL E
+ -
I PARTICULAR O
IN RELATING EACH OF THE FOUR
PROPOSITIONS TO EACH OTHER, WE
WOULD COME UP WITH FOUR KINDS
OF OPPOSITIONS:
A. CONTRADICTORY- THIS PERTAINS
TO THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN A
AND O; E AND I. PROVIDED THEY
CANNOT BE BOTH TRUE AND THEY
CANNOT BE BOTH FALSE (OPPOSITE
TRUTH VALUES)
B. CONTRARIETY- THIS PERTAINS TO
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A AND
E. PROVIDED THEY CANNOT BE BOTH
FALSE.
C. SUBCONTRARIETY- THIS PERTAINS
TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN I
AND O. PROVIDED THEY CANNOT BE
BOTH FALSE.
D. SUBALTERNATION- THIS PERTAINS

TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A
AND I; E AND O. PROVIDED ONE,
CALLED SUBALTERNANT, CANNOT BE
TRUE IF THE OTHER, CALLED
SUBALTERN, IS FALSE- THOUGH THE
LATTER MAY BE TRUE IF THE FORMER
IS FALSE.
A CONTRARIES E
S S
U U
B B
A A
L L
T CONTRADICTORIES T
E E
R R
N N
S S
I SUBCONTRARIES O
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF OPPOSITION

1. CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITION- THE
OPPOSITION OF A PAIR OF PROPOSITIONS
SO RELATED TO ONE ANOTHER THAT THEY
CANNOT BE TRUE OR FALSE AT THE SAME
TIME. THEY ARE A AND O, E AND I.
RULES GOVERNING CONTRADICTORY
OPPOSITION.
A. IF ONE OF THE CONTRADICTORY
PROPOSITIONS IS TRUE, THE OTHER IS
FALSE.
B. IF ONE OF THE CONTRADICTORY
PROPOSITIONS IS FALSE, THE OTHER IS
TRUE.
HENCE: T F, F T
If A is true, then O is false. If A is false, then O is true.
If E is true, then I is false. If E is false, then I is true.
If I is true, then E is false. If I is false, then E is true
If O is true, then A is false. If O is false, then A is true.

EXAMPLES:
IF A IS TRUE, THEN O IS FALSE
(A) IF ALL MURDERS ARE CRIMES- TRUE
(O) THEN, SOME MURDERS ARE NOT CRIMES.
– FALSE
IF A IS FALSE, THEN O IS TRUE

(A) IF ALL BIRDS ARE FLYING ANIMALS- FALSE
(O) THEN SOME BIRDS ARE NOT FLYING
ANIMALS.- TRUE
IF E IS TRUE, THEN I IS FALSE
(E) IF NO CHRISTIANS ARE ATHEISTS- TRUE
(I) THEN, SOME CHRISTIANS ARE ATHEISTS-FALSE
IF E IS FALSE, THEN I IS TRUE
(E) IF I AM NEVER PRESENT- FALSE
(I) THEN, I AM SOMETIMES PRESENT.- TRUE
IF I IS TRUE, THEN E IS FALSE

(I) IF SOME STUDENTS ARE DEAN’S LISTERS [T]
(E) THEN, NO STUDENTS ARE DEAN’S LISTERS.[F]
IF I IS FALSE, THEN E IS TRUE
(I) IF SOME DOGS ARE CATS [F]
(E) THEN, ALL DOGS ARE NOT CATS. [T]
IF O IS TRUE, THEN A IS FALSE
(O) IF SOME MEN ARE NOT WISE [T]
(A) THEN, ALL MEN ARE WISE. [F]
IF O IS FALSE, THEN A IS TRUE
(O) IF SOME VOTERS ARE NOT REGISTERED
[FALSE]
(A) THEN, ALL VOTERS ARE REGISTERED.[TRUE
EACH PAIR OF PROPOSITIONS
ILLUSTRATES CONTRADICTORY
OPPOSITION. NOTE HOW THE
PREDICATES OF THE PROPOSITIONS
ARE MUTUALLY OPPOSED. THEY
EXHIBIT THE 2ND PRINCIPLE IN LOGIC.
I.E., ”LAW OF CONTRADICTION”
HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY, SLEEP AND
AWAKE, ETC. WHAT MAKES THE TWO
PROPOSITIONS COMPLETELY
CONTRADICTORY IS THE IMPOSSIBILITY
OF THEIR BEING TRUE AND FALSE AT
THE SAME TIME.
NOTE: VERY HELPFUL IN DEBATE

2. CONTRARY OPPOSITION
THE EXISTING OPPOSITION BETWEEN
TWO PROPOSITIONS WHICH CANNOT
BE SIMULTANEOUSLY TRUE BUT CAN
BE SIMULTANEOUSLY FALSE. THE
CONTRARY PROPOSITIONS ARE A
AND E.
THE RULES GOVERNING CONTRARY
OPPOSITION:
A. IF ONE OF THE CONTRARY
OPPOSITIONS IS TRUE, THE OTHER IS
FALSE.
B. IF ONE OF THE CONTRARY
OPPOSITIONS IS FALSE, THE OTHER IS
DOUBTFUL.
T. F; F D
If A is true, then E is If A is false, then E is
false. doubtful.
If E is true, then A is If E is false, then A is

false. doubtful.
TO SAY THAT A PROPOSITION IS DOUBTFUL

MEANS THAT IT MAY EITHER BE TRUE OR
FALSE. THE TRUTH AND FALSITY OF THE
PROPOSITION IS INFERRED ONLY THROUGH
ACTUAL STATEMENTS. IN THEORY, WHEN ONE
OF THE UNIVERSAL PROPOSITIONS IS FALSE
ITS CONTRARY IS DOUBTFUL. IN PRACTICE,
WHEN THERE IS ALREADY A SPECIFIC
UNIVERSAL PROPOSITION THE IMMEDIATE
INFERENCE MAY EITHER BE TRUE OR FALSE.
EXAMPLES
IF A IS TRUE, THEN E IS FALSE
(A) IF ALL STUDENTS ARE LEARNERS [T]
(E) THEN, NO STUDENTS ARE LEARNERS.[F]
IF E IS TRUE, THEN A IS FALSE

(E) IF NO CATS ARE CANINE [T]
(A) THEN, ALL CATS ARE CANINE.[F]
IF A IS FALSE, THEN E IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)

E THAT IS TRUE
(A) IF ALL WOMEN ARE MEN (F)
(E) THEN, NO WOMEN ARE MEN. (T)
E THAT IS FALSE
(A) IF ALL WOMEN ARE PREGNANT [F]
(E) NO WOMEN ARE PREGNANT. [F]
IF E IS FALSE, THEN A IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)
A THAT IS TRUE
(E) IF NO VOTERS ARE CITIZENS [F]
(A) THEN, ALL VOTERS ARE CITIZENS. [T]
A THAT IS FALSE
(E) IF NO CANDIDATES ARE HONEST [F]
(A) THEN, ALL CANDIDATES ARE HONEST. [F]
3. SUBCONTRARY OPPOSITION
EXISTING OPPOSITION BETWEEN TWO
PROPOSITIONS WHICH CANNOT BE
SIMULTANEOUSLY FALSE BUT CAN BE
SIMULTANEOUSLY TRUE. THE
SUBCONTRARY PROPOSITIONS ARE I
AND O.
RULES GOVERNING SUBCONTRARY
OPPOSITION:
A. IF ONE OF THE SUBCONTRARY
PROPOSITIONS IS FALSE, THE OTHER IS
TRUE.
B. IF ONE OF THE SUBCONTRARY
PROPOSITIONS IS TRUE, THE OTHER IS
DOUBTFUL.
F T; T D
If I is true, then O is If I is false, then O is
doubtful. true.
If O is true, then I is If O is false, then I is

doubtful. true.
EXAMPLES
IF I IS TRUE, O IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)
O THAT IS TRUE
(I) IF SOME LAWYERS ARE LIARS [T]
(O) THEN, NOT ALL LAWYERS ARE
LIARS. [T]
O THAT IS FALSE
(I) SOME MEN ARE MORTAL [T]
(0) SOME MEN ARE NOT MORTAL. [F]
IF O IS TRUE, THEN I IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)
I THAT IS TRUE
(O) IF SOME ATHLETES ARE NOT VARSITIES [T]
(I) THEN, SOME ATHLETES ARE VARSITIES.[T]
I THAT IS FALSE
(O) IF SOME ANIMALS ARE NOT PLANTS [T]
(I) THEN, SOME ANIMALS ARE PLANTS. [F]
IF I IS FALSE, THEN O IS TRUE
(I) IF SOME DINOSAURS ARE STILL ALIVE [F]
(0)THEN, SOME DINOSAURS ARE NOT ALIVE. [T]
IF O IS FALSE THEN I IS TRUE
(O) IF SOME CANDIDATES ARE NOT VOTERS [F]
(I) THEN, SOME CANDIDATES ARE VOTERS. [T]
4. SUBALTERN OPPOSITION
EXISTING OPPOSITION BETWEEN TWO
PROPOSITIONS WHICH CAN BE SIMULTANEOUSLY
TRUE OR FALSE. THE SUBALTERN PROPOSITIONS
ARE A AND I; E AND O.
THE RULES:
A. IF THE UNIVERSAL PROPOSITION (A/E) IS TRUE,
THEN THE PARTICULAR PROPOSITION (I/O) IS ALSO
TRUE.
B. IF THE UNIVERSAL PROPOSITION (A/E) IS FALSE,
THEN THE PARTICULAR PROPOSITION (I/O) IS
DOUBTFUL.
C. IF THE PARTICULAR PROPOSITION (I/O) IS TRUE,
THEN THE UNIVERSAL PROPOSITION (A/E) IS
DOUBTFUL.
D. IF THE PARTICULAR PROPOSITION (I/O) IS FALSE,
THEN THE UNIVERSAL PROPOSITION (A/E) IS ALSO
FALSE.
UNIVERSAL T T, F D
PARTICULAR T D, F F
If A is true, then I is true. If E is true, then O is true.
If I is true, then A is If O is true, then E is
doubtful. doubtful
If A is false, then I is If E is false, then O is
doubtful. doubtful
If I is false, then A is If O is false, then E is
false. false
EXAMPLES
IF A IS TRUE, THEN I IS TRUE
(A) IF ALL DOGS ARE ANIMALS [T]
(I) THEN, SOME DOGS ARE ANIMALS. [T]
IF E IS TRUE, THEN O IS TRUE

(E) IF ALL DOGS ARE NOT CATS [T]
(O) THEN, NOT ALL DOGS ARE CATS. [T]
IF I IS FALSE, THEN A IS FALSE

(I) IF SOME BOOKS ARE PENS [F]
(A) THEN, ALL BOOKS ARE PENS. [F]
IF O IS FALSE, THEN E IS FALSE
(O) IF SOME MEN ARE NOT MORTALS [F]
(E) THEN, NO MEN ARE MORTALS. [F]
IF I IS TRUE, A IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)

A THAT IS TRUE
(I) IF SOME STUDENTS ARE LEARNERS [T]
(A) THEN, ALL STUDENTS ARE LEARNERS. [T]
A THAT IS FALSE
(I) IF SOME STUDENTS ARE SCHOLARS [T]
(A) THEN, ALL STUDENTS ARE SCHOLARS [F]
IF O IS TRUE, THEN E IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)
E THAT IS TRUE
(O) IF SOME DEVILS ARE NOT GOOD [T]
(E) THEN, ALL DEVILS ARE NOT GOOD. [T]
E THAT IS FALSE
(O) IF SOME WOMEN ARE NOT PREGNANT [T]
(E) THEN, NO WOMEN ARE PREGNANT. [F]
IF A IS FALSE, THEN I IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)

I THAT IS TRUE
(A) IF ALL WOMEN ARE MOTHERS [F]
(I) THEN, SOME WOMEN ARE MOTHERS. [T]
I THAT IS FALSE
(A) IF ALL PROFESSORS ARE NON-
PROFESSIONALS [F]
(I) THEN, SOME PROFESSORS ARE NON-
PROFESSIONALS. [F]
IF E IS FALSE, THEN O IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)

O THAT IS TRUE
(E) IF NO CANDIDATES ARE LAWYERS [F]
(O) THEN, SOME CANDIDATES ARE NOT
LAWYERS. [T]
O THAT IS FALSE
(E) IF NO CANDIDATES ARE FILIPINOS [F]
(O) THEN, SOME CANDIDATES ARE NOT
FILIPINOS. [F]
SUMMARY OF RULES
CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITION T --- F, F --- T
CONTRARY OPPOSITION T --- F, F --- D
SUBCONTRARY OPPOSITION F --- T, T --- D
SUBALTERN OPPOSITION
UNIVERSAL T --- T, F --- D
PARTICULAR T --- D, F --- F

IMMEDIATE REASONING PPT Review

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IMMEDIATE REASONING

DEDUCTIVE LOGIC (SOUND REASONING)

2. IT WILL HELP TO RECOGNIZE

PARTICULAR I- SOME S IS P. O- SOME S IS NOT P.

D. SUBALTERNATION- THIS PERTAINS

THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF OPPOSITION

If E is true, then I is false. If E is false, then I is true.

If I is true, then E is false. If I is false, then E is true

If O is true, then A is false. If O is false, then A is true.

IF A IS FALSE, THEN O IS TRUE

IF I IS TRUE, THEN E IS FALSE

NOTE: VERY HELPFUL IN DEBATE

If E is true, then A is If E is false, then A is

TO SAY THAT A PROPOSITION IS DOUBTFUL

IF E IS TRUE, THEN A IS FALSE

IF A IS FALSE, THEN E IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)

If O is true, then I is If O is false, then I is

IF E IS TRUE, THEN O IS TRUE

IF I IS FALSE, THEN A IS FALSE

IF I IS TRUE, A IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)

IF A IS FALSE, THEN I IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)

IF E IS FALSE, THEN O IS DOUBTFUL (T/F)

CONTRARY OPPOSITION T --- F, F --- D

SUBCONTRARY OPPOSITION F --- T, T --- D

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