LAB MANUAL

CLASS-XII
2021-22

SYLLABUS FOR PRACTICAL FOR TERM -I

EXPERIMENTS:

1. To determine resistivity of two /three wires by plotting a graph between

potential versus current.
2. To find resistance of a given wire/ standard resistor using metre bridge.
3. To compare the EMF of two given primary cell using potentiometer.
4. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method
and to find its figure of merit.

ACTIVITIES:

1. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

2. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a
battery resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the
components that are not connected in proper order and correct the
circuit and also the circuit diagram.
3. To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a
steady current.

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 OHM’S LAW

EX: NO: 1
DATE:
AIM To determine resistivity of a two / more wires by plotting a graph between
potential difference versus current.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A wire of unknown resistance, battery eliminator, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat,
plug key, connecting wires
FORMULA:
Ohm's law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical state
of the conductor remains unchanged.
V  I, V = RI
Where R is the constant of proportionality and is termed as the electrical resistance
of the conductor the graph between V and I will be a straight line passing through
the origin

R = 1/Slope
I (A)

V(volt)

Resistivity:

S.I. Unit of resistivity is ohm meter.

Circuit diagram:

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect various components - resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter and

ammeter as shown in the Circuit diagram
2. Note whether pointers in ammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on
the measuring scale.
3. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Insert the key and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that
current passing through the resistance wire is minimum.
5. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
6. Remove the key and allow the wire to cool, Shift the rheostat contact slightly to
increase the applied voltage.
7. Now, calculate the resistivity of the material of the wire using the formula,

                        

RESULT: 1. Resistance of the wire (from graph) = Ω

2. Resistivity of material of wire 1 = Ωm.

Resistivity of material of wire 2 = Ωm

PRECAUTIONS
1. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter in series with the
circuit. It should be ensured that current enters at the positive terminal and leaves
at the negative terminal
2. Zero error in measuring instruments should be noted.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The connections may be loose.
2. The ratio V/I may not be constant due to heating caused by continuous passage
of current.

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Wire -1
S.NO Voltmeter Reading (V) Ammeter Reading (A) R=V/I(Ω)

Wire -2
S.NO Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading (A) R=V/I(Ω)
(V)

Radius of the wire:

Pitch=1mm, least count=0.01mm, zero error =______div,
zero correction (c) = ________ div

S.No P.S.R. H.S.C. C.H.S.C. Diameter: TR= P.S.R. +C.H.S.C. x

x 10 -3 m div div L.C. x 10 -3 m

MEAN (D)= x10 -3 m

Radius R = D/2= x10 -3 m

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CALCULATION:
Plot a graph between the potential difference across the wire (V) and the current (I)
flowing through it.
R = 1/Slope

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 METER BRIDGE

EX: NO:2
DATE:

AIM: To find the resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using a metre bridge.

APPARATUS:
Metre bridge, a wire about 1m long, a resistance box, a rheostat, galvanometer, a
jockey, one-way key, a cell or battery eliminator, thick connecting wires, screw
gauge.
PRINCIPLE:
A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge.
R l
=
S 100−l
Where l is the balancing length.

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the circuit as shown with unknown resistance wire of known length.
2. Introduce some resistance R in the circuit from the resistance box.
3. Bring the jockey J at the middle of the wire, adjust R to get null deflection in
the galvanometer i.e. l 1 = l 2 and x = R.
4. Choose R and find the balancing length.
5. Repeat for different values of resistance R.
6. Interchange the position of the resistances S and R.

RESULT: Resistance of the wire= Ω

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3. The plug in the key should be inserted only at the time of taking
observations.
4. Null points should be in the middle of the wire (30 cm to 70 cm).
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. The resistances of end pieces / metal strips may not be negligible.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO. R (Ω) Balancing length Mean S=R

(100−l)
Length AB = l x10- Length BC = (100-l) Ω
l
2
m x
10 -2 m

Mean (S) = Ω

CALCULATION:

Resistance of the wire = Ω

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 POTENTIOMETER
EX: NO: 3
DATE:
AIM: To compare the emf of two given primary cells using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer, a Leclanche cell, a Daniel cell, DPDT Switch, a
resistance box, galvanometer, Rheostat, connecting wires
Formula: E1 α l1, E2 α l2
E 1 l1
=
E 2 l2
where E1 and E2 are emfs of two cells, l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths when E1
and E2 are connected to the circuit respectively.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the circuit connections as shown in the circuit.
2. Check all the positive terminals are connected to the terminal A.
3. Check the opposite side deflection
4. Connect E1 and find out the balancing length l1
5. Connect E2 and find the balancing length l2.
6. Adjust the rheostat and repeat the experiment in the same manner.
7. Record the observations
8. Find the ratio l1 / l2 for each set of observation

RESULT: The ratio of emf of two primary cells =

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Jockey should be pressed gently on the potentiometer wire to prevent formation
of any kinks in it.
2. Position of rheostat contact should not be disturbed before finishing the task of
finding the balance length with both
the cells.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The area of cross section of the potentiometer wire may not be uniform
throughout its length.
2. Avoid continuous discharge of the two cells whose emf is to be compared by
keeping the keys open when E1 and E2 are not in use.
3. The length measurement may have error if the potentiometer wire is not taut
and along the scale on the board.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO. Balancing length for Balancing length for

lechlanche cell (l1) x 10 m
-2
Daniel cell(l2) x 10-2 m E 1 l1
=
E 2 l2

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 FIGURE OF MERIT OF GALVANOMETER
EX: NO: 4
DATE:
AIM: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection
method and to find its figure of merit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: A moving coil galvanometer, a battery or a battery

eliminator, 4 dial High Resistance box, Two Dial Low resistance box,
Galvanometer, Key

RS
PRINCIPLE: galvanometer resistance G = R−S where R- high variable
resistance, S- low variable resistance
figure of merit of the galvanometer:

E
k = ( R+G)θ , E- emf of the supply

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the components as per the circuit
2. Adjust the high resistance R so that the galvanometer shows even number of
deflections
3. Note down the R value and the deflection achieved θ.
4. Connect the shunt S and adjust to get the θ/2 deflections in the
galvanometer.
5. Repeat the experiment for various θ and calculate the mean value of k

RESULT:
1. Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method, G = 
2. Figure of merit of galvanometer, k = ampere/division

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The battery must be of constant emf

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 2. All connections must be tight

SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. The emf of the battery may not be constant
2. Resistance box may not provide a accurate resistance to the circuit

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
T.NO. R(Ω) θ-div θ S(Ω) RS (R +G) θ
div G = R−S Ω
2 Ω-div

MEAN= Ω-div

CALCULATION:

E
k = ( R+G)θ = A/div

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 ACTIVITY -1
DATE:
AIM: To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
APPARATUS: Battery, resistors, ammeter, voltmeter, key and rheostat.
PROCEDURE:
i) Connect the components ammeter, rheostat and resistors in series with each
other and also with battery.
ii) Connect ammeter in series to measure current and voltmeter in parallel, to
measure potential difference across R.
iii) Assembly of all in the electrical circuit is complete.
CONCLUSION: Assembly of all the components in an electric circuit is
complete.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT:

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 ACTIVITY – 2
DATE:
AIM: To study the variation in potential drop with length for a constant current
flowing through the potentiometer wire.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer, d c supply, voltmeter, ammeter rheostat and
connecting wire.
FORMULA: As constant current flowing through the wire of uniform area of
cross-section the potential drop between any two points is directly proportional to
its length.
V
Vα l, l
¿ constant = potential gradient .

PROCEDURE:
i) Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
ii) Note down the readings in the voltmeter by placing the jockey at 50cm, 150 cm,
250 cm, 350 cm, and 450 cm constant current.
iii) Draw the graph between V & l
V
iv) Measure the slope of the graph which gives l .

RESULT: Potential gradient= v/m.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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MODEL GRAPH

TABULAR COLUMN:
S.NO. V(volt) l x10-2 m

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 ACTIVITY-3
DATE:
AIM: To draw the circuit diagram of given open circuit comprising a battery,
rheostat, resistance, ammeter, voltmeter and key. Mark the components that are not
connected in proper order, correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.
APPARATUS: Battery, key, rheostat, ammeter, resistance, voltmeter and
connecting wires.
PROCEDURE:
i) Draw the circuit diagram in your note book.
ii) Identify the various components in the circuit
iii) Mark the components that are not connected in proper order.
iv) Correct the connections according to the correct circuit diagram) close the key
and check the function of circuit elements.
RESULT: The corrected circuit assembled in proper order is found functional on
checking.
Non-functional open circuit Functional closed circuit

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 TERM-2

SYLLABUS FOR PRACTICAL FOR TERM -II

EXPERIMENTS:

1. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u

and v or between 1/u and 1/v.
2. To find the focal length of convex mirror using convex lens.
3. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting
a graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
4. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward
bias and reverse bias.

ACTIVITIES:

1. To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed

collection of such items.
2. To observe the lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on
a glass slab.
3. To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using
two lenses from the given set of lenses.

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 CONVEX LENS
EX. NO: 1
DATE:
AIM: To determine the focal length of given convex lens from U-V graph.
APPARATUS: Illuminated wire gauze, convex lens, stand, screen and metre
scale.
PROCEDURE:
i) Focus the distant object on the screen using convex lens.
ii) the distance between the screen and the lens gives the approximate focal
length,
iii) Choose the U values (2f, 2f -3, 2f+3, etc.)
iv) Adjust the screen to get the clear image on the screen for various U.
v) Tabulate the observations.
vi) Draw the graph between U and V.
vii) Find the focal length from the graph.
RESULT: Focal length of the give convex lens from U-V graph = x10-2m.
PRECAUTIONS: i) Avoid parallax error. ii) X & Y axes must have same scale.
SOURCES OF ERRORS: i) Parallax error may not be removed perfectly.
ii) The given convex lens may be very thick.
RAY DIAGRAM

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MODEL GRAPH

TABULAR COLUMN
S.NO. U x10-2 m V x10-2 m

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 CONVEX MIRROR
EX.NO: 2
DATE:
AIM: To find the focal length of convex mirror using convex lens.
APPARATUS: Source box, screen, convex lens, convex mirror and metre scale.
PROCEDURE:
i) Mount the convex lens and convex mirror in front of the source box and
adjust the both to get the clear image by the side of the source box.
ii) Note the position of convex lens and convex mirror.
iii) Remove the convex mirror and adjust the screen to get the clear image on
the screen
iv) Note the position of the screen.
v) The difference between the positions of convex mirror and the screen gives
radius of curvature.
vi) Calculate the focal length of convex mirror is R/2.
RESULT: The focal length of convex mirror = x 10-2 m.
PRECAUTIONS: i) Avoid parallax error, ii) stand, source and screen must be in
the same straight line.
SOURCES OF ERROR: i) Parallax error may not be removed perfectly; ii) Focal
length of the lens may not be small.
RAY DIAGRAM:

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TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO POSITION POSITION POSITION Distance R

f= 2 x
OF OF CONVEX OF between the
CONVEX MIRROR (M) SCREEN(I position of M 10-2 m
LENS (L) ) to I
R = MI x 10-2
m

MEAN f = ……..x10-2 m

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 GLASS PRISM
EX. NO: 3
DATE:
AIM: To draw i-d curve using a glass prism.
APPARATUS: Glass prism, drawing board, pins and paper.
PROCEDURE:
i) Fix the paper on the drawing board.
ii) Draw the base of the prism and name ABC.
iii) Draw the normal on the face AB, also draw the incident ray at angle of 30°
with the normal.
iv) Fix two pins on the incident ray (P & Q).
v) Fix two more pins on the side AC of the prism in line with the legs of P &Q.
vi) Join PQ and RS.
vii) Produce PQ forward and RS backward.
viii) Measure the angle of deviation.
ix) Repeat the experiment for various angles of incidence x) draw the graph between i
and d.
RESULT: Angle of minimum deviation:
PRECAUTIONS: i) Angle of incidence should lie between 30° - 60° ii) Distance
between the pins should be more than 5cm.
SOURCES OF ERROR: i) Angles may be measured wrong. ii) Distances
between the pins may be too short.
Ray diagram

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S.NO. Angle of Angle of
incidence i deviation d TABULAR COLUMN

MODELGRAPH

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 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
EX. NO: 4
DATE:
AIM: To study the forward and reverse characteristics of a diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: semiconductor diode, ammeter (milli) and voltmeter.

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections for forward bias.
2. Increase the forward bias, note down the ammeter and voltmeter reading.
3. Repeat the experiment for reverse bias of the diode by changing the connection.
4. Plot the forward and reverse bias characteristic curve.
Result: The I-V characteristic curves are drawn for forward bias of a diode

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections must be tight
2. The voltmeter and ammeter readings must be recorded accurately.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The given diode may be faulty
2. The connections may be loose.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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TABULAR COLUMN:

FORWARD BIAS
Voltmeter Ammeter
Reading(V) Reading
I(mA)

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 REVERSE BIAS

Voltmeter Ammeter
Reading(V) Reading
I(mA)

ACTIVITY –1
DATE:
AIM: To identify a diode, a LED, a resistor and
a capacitor from mixed collection of such
items.
APPARATUS: A mixed collection of
electronic components such as diodes, light emitting diodes (LED s), resistors,

capacitors and a multimeter.

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PRINCIPLE:
Diode: A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward biased. It does
not emit light while conducting.
Light emitting diode (LED): An LED is also a two-terminal device. It conducts
when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light
while conducting.
Resistor: A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts when operated with ac as
well as dc voltage.
Capacitor: A capacitor is a two-terminal device. It does not conduct with dc
voltage.

PROCEDURE:
1. Check the physical appearance of the component.
2. If the component has two terminals, it could be a resistor, a capacitor, a
diode or LED.
3. Look for colour bands, if it has a typical set of three colour bands followed
by a silver or gold band, the component is a resistor.

26
 4. Connect the multimeter terminals to the component terminals and watch for
multimeter deflection keeping the multimeter knob in resistance mode.
5. If the multimeter shows a deflection, the component could be a resistor, a
diode or LED.
6. If the deflection is accompanied with emission of light, the component is an
LED.
7. If no light is emitted then interchange the multimeter terminals connected to
the component.
8. If the component still gives deflection in a multimeter, then the component
is a resistor.
9. If the pointer of the multimeter shows deflection when its terminals are
connected across the component in one direction and does not show
deflection when the terminal, of the multimeter in opposite direction and
also there is no emission of light, then the component is a diode.
10. If the multimeter does not show any deflection on connecting its terminals
either wat to component, then it is a capacitor.

RESULT: A diode, an LED. a resistor and a capacitor are identified from a mixed
collection.

ACTIVITY –2
DATE:
AIM: To observe the lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a
glass slab.

27
APPARATUS: A sheet of white paper, glass slab, drawing board, pins, metre scale
and pencil.
PROCEDURE:
i) Fix the sheet of white paper on the drawing board.
ii) Draw the boundary of a glass slab ABCD.
iii) Draw the normal in CD and incident ray making an angle of 30° with the
normal (PQ)
iv) Fix two pins on PQ and view the legs of the pins on the opposite side.
v) Fix two more pins so that all lie in the same straight line,
vi) Join the points namely RS to the side AB.
vii) Draw the normal at the point of incidence of the emergent ray.
viii) Produce the incident ray and measure the perpendicular distance between
incident ray produced and emergent ray,
ix) Repeat the experiment for various thickness of glass slat.
x) Tabulate the observations.

CONCLUSION:
i) The incident ray produced is parallel to the emergent ray.
ii) The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the
thickness of the slab.

RAY DIAGRAM:

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TABULAR COLUMN:
T.No. t x 10-2 m d x 10-2 m

29
 ACTIVITY –3
DATE:
AIM: To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two
lenses from a given set of lenses.
APPARATUS: convex lenses of known focal length, scale and screen.
PROCEDURE:
i) Focus the lens 1 and lens II towards the distance object separately.
ii)Adjust the screen to get the clear image on the screen.
iii)
Measure the distance between lens I and screen gives f1 and similarly for
lens II (f2).
iv) Tie both the lenses and find the focal length of combination by the same
method (f).
CONCLUSION:
f1 =
f2 =
1 1 1
By calculation f
= +
f1 f2

f=
From experiment f =

RAY DIAGRAM

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO. f 1 x 10-2 m f 2 x 10-2 m f x 10-2m f (from

experiment)
x 10-2m

----------------

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