1

Vectors and Vector Functions

Definitions: 2
1. Scalar: A quantity which is completely indicated by its magnitude only is called a scalar.
For example , time, mass, length, temperature, work, electric charge, electric potential, real number,
statistical data are all scalar quantities.
To represent a scalar, we need a unit and a real number.

2. Vector : A quantity which is completely indicated by its magnitude as well as direction is called a
vector.
For example, displacement, velocity, acceleration, weight, force are all vector quantities.
A vector is represented by an arrow (or) a directed line segment. The length of the arrow represents
the magnitude of the vector and the arrow points in the direction of the vector. We denote a vector
by printing a letter in boldface (v) or by putting an arrow above the letter ( 𝒗) or simply (ഥ
𝒗 ).

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For example, a particle moves along a line segment from point A to point B. Then, the 3
corresponding displacement vector 𝒗ഥ, has initial point A and terminal point B and we
ഥ = 𝑨𝑩.
indicate this by writing 𝒗

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 Types of vectors: 4
i) Null vector (or) zero vector: A vector whose magnitude is zero is called a null vector (or)
zero vector and is denoted by 𝟎ഥ.
The initial and terminal points of a zero vector are coincident. Its direction is arbitrary.

A non-zero vector is called a proper vector.

ii) Unit vector: A vector whose magnitude is 1 (unity), is called a unit vector.
ഥ
𝒂
If 𝒂 ഥ is any vector and 𝒖
ഥ≠𝟎 ഥ is a unit vector in the direction of 𝒂
ഥ, then 𝒖ഥ = .
|ഥ
𝒂|

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iii) Equal vectors: Two vectors are said to be equal if they
have the same magnitude and the same or parallel direction. 5
From the figure, 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑪𝑫 = 𝑬𝑭.

iv) Position Vector of a Point: The position vector of a point P

(𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 ) with respect to an arbitrarily chosen origin is the vector
𝑶𝑷 and it is represented by

𝑶𝑷 =< 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 >.

Where the coordinates 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 and 𝒂𝟑 are called the components of

vector 𝑶𝑷.

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 6
v) Negative of a vector: a vector whose magnitude is the same
as that of a given vector 𝒗 but has opposite direction is
ഥ and it is denoted by − 𝒗
called the negative of 𝒗 ഥ.
ഥ =𝑨𝑩, then − 𝒗
Clearly, if 𝒗 ഥ = 𝑩𝑨.

Definition of Vector Addition: If 𝒖 ഥ and 𝒗ഥ are vectors positioned so the

ഥ is at the terminal point of 𝒖
initial point of 𝒗 ഥ , then the sum 𝒖ഥ+𝒗
ഥ is the
vector from the initial point of 𝒖ഥ to the terminal point of 𝒗ഥ.

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Definition of Scalar Multiplication: If c is a scalar and 𝒖 ഥ is
a vector, then their product cഥ 𝒖 is a vector whose magnitude 7
is |c| times the magnitude of 𝒖 ഥ and whose
direction is same as 𝒖ഥ if c > 0 and is opposite to 𝒖
ഥ if c < 0.
ഥ then cഥ
ഥ =𝟎,
If c =0 or 𝒖 ഥ
𝒖=𝟎

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8

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 ഥ = < 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 >
Magnitude (or) Length: The magnitude (or) length of the vector 𝒂
𝒂| and it is defined as
is denoted by the symbol |ഥ
9

Example 1: Find the vector represented by the directed line segment with initial point A (2,-3,4)
and terminal point B (-2,1,1).
Sol:

ഥ = <-2,1,5>, find |ഥ
ഥ = <4,0,3> and 𝒃
Example 2: if 𝒂 ഥ 𝒂
ഥ + 𝒃,
𝒂| and the vectors 𝒂 ഥ 𝟑𝒃
ഥ − 𝒃, ഥ and 𝟐ഥ ഥ
𝒂 − 𝟓𝒃.
Sol:

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 10

ഥ
Standard basis vector 𝒊,ҧ 𝒋 ҧ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌:
ഥ =< 𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟏 > be three vectors in three
Let 𝒊ҧ = <1,0,0>, 𝒋 ҧ =< 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟎 >, and 𝒌
dimensional space. Then 𝒊,ҧ 𝒋ҧ and 𝒌 ഥ are vectors that have length 1and point
ഥ are
in the directions of the positive x-, y-, z- axes. These vectors 𝒊,ҧ 𝒋 ҧ and 𝒌
called the standard basis vectors and any vector in 3-dimensional space
ഥ
can be expressed in terms of 𝒊,ҧ 𝒋 ҧ and 𝒌.

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 11

ഥ = <1,-2,6> can be written as

Similarly, the vector 𝒂

Example 3: If a = i + 2 j − 3k and b = 4i + 7k , express the vector 2a + 3b in

terms of i , j and k

Sol:
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Example 4: Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2i − j − 2k .
Sol:
12

Example 5: Find a vector that has the same direction as <-2,4,2> but has length 6.
Sol:

Example 6:

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Example 7: Find a unit vector that has the same direction as the given vector.
13

The Dot Product:

Example 8:
Sol:

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Example 9:
Sol: 14

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Example 10:
Sol: 15

Example 11: Find the angle between the vectors. (first find an exact expression and then
approximate to the nearest degree)

i) a= 3,1 and b = 0,5

ii) a = 1,2,3 and b = 4,0,−1
iii) a = 2,2,−1 and b = 5,−3,2
iv) a = j + k and b = i + 2 j − 3k
v) a = 2i + j + k and b = 3i + 2 j − k

Sol: Please try yourself.

Result: Two non-zero vectors a and b are perpendicular or orthogonal if and

only if a  b = 0 .

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Example 12: Show that a = −i + 2 j + 5k is perpendicular to b = 3i + 4 j − k .
Sol: 16

Note: Two non-zero vectors a and b are parallel if a = cb , where c is a scalar.

Example 13: Show that the vectors a = 2i + 6 j − 4k and b = −3i − 9 j + 6k are parallel.

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Example 14: Determine whether the given vectors are orthogonal, parallel or neither.

i) a = − 5,3,7 , b = 6,−8,2
17
ii) u = − 3,9,6 , v = 4,−12,−8
iii) a = 2,2,−1 , b = 4,−4,2
iv) u = i − j + 2k , v = 2i − j + k
v) u = a, b, c , v = − b, a,0

Sol: Please try yourself.

Example 15: For what values of b are the vectors − 6, b,2 and b, b 2 , b orthogonal?
Sol: Please try yourself.

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WORK:
18
The work (W) done by a constant force F in moving an object from the point P to the
point Q is defined as the product of the component of the force along D and the
distance moved. Where the constant force F = PR pointing in some direction as shown
in the figure and D = PQ is the displacement vector. R

That is,

ഥ
𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝐷 S
P Q
= F D cos

=F D

W = F  D

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Example 16: A force is given by a vector F = 3i + 4 j + 5k and moves a particle from the
19
point P(2,1,0) to the point Q(4,6,2) . Find the work done.

Sol:

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Example 17: A woman exerts a horizontal force of 25lb on a crate as she pushes it up a
ramp that is 10ft long and inclined at an angle of 20  above the horizontal. Find the 20
work done on the box.

Sol: Please try yourself.

Example 18: A wagon is pulled a distance of 100m along a horizontal path by a constant
force of 50N. The handle of the wagon is held at an angle of 30  above the horizontal.
How much work is done?

Sol: Please try yourself.

Example 19: A constant force with vector representation F = 10i + 18 j − 6k moves an

object along a straight line from the point (2,3,0) to the point (4,9,15) . Find the work
done if the distance is measured in meters and the magnitude of the force is measured in
Newtons.

Sol: Please try yourself.

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 21
A wagon is pulled a distance of 100 m along
a horizontal path by a constant force of 70 N.
The handle of the wagon is held at an angle
of 35° above the horizontal.

▪ Find the work

done by the force.

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The Cross Product:

Definition: If a = a1 , a 2 , a3 and b = b1 , b2 , b3 , then the cross product of a and b is the

22
vector

i j k
a  b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

a2 a3 a a3 a a2
=i −j 1 +k 1
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2

= i (a2b3 − b2 a3 ) − j(a1b3 − b1a3 ) + k (a1b2 − b1a2 )

Note: a  b is the defined only when a and b are three-dimensional vectors.

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Example 20: If a = 3,2,4 and b = 1,−2,−3 , then find a  b .
23
Sol:

Example 21: Show that a  a = 0 for any three- dimensional vector a .

Sol: If a = a1 , a 2 , a3 , then

i j k
a  a = a1 a2 a3
a1 a2 a3

a2 a3 a a3 a a2
=i −j 1 +k 1
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2

= i (a2 a3 − a2 a3 ) − j (a1a3 − a1a3 ) + k (a1a2 − a1a2 )

= i (0) − j (0) + k (0)

=0
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Theorem: The vector a  b is orthogonal to both a and b .

Proof: Let a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k 24

i j k
a  b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

a2 a3 a a3 a a2
=i −j 1 +k 1
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2

And (a  b ) a = i
a2 a3 a a3 a a2
a1 − j 1 a2 + k 1 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2

= i (a2b3 − b2 a3 )a1 − j (a1b3 − b1a3 )a2 + k (a1b2 − b1a2 )a3

= a1a2 b3 − a1b2 a3 − a1a2 b3 + b1a2 a3 + a1b2 a3 − b1a2 a3

=0

Since (a  b ) a = 0 , therefore a  b is orthogonal to a . Similarly, we can show that

(a  b ) b = 0 . Therefore, a  b is orthogonal to both a and b .
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Right-hand Rule: (Or Right-hand system)
25
If the fingers of your right hand curl in the direction of a rotation (through an angle less
than 180 ) from a to b , then your thumb points in the directions of a  b .

Theorem: If  is the angle between a and b (So, 0     ), then

a  b = a b sin 

Corollary: Two non-zero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if a  b = 0

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 Note: The standard basis vectors i , j and k follow the right-hand rule. That is
26
i j=k j  i = −k jk = i k  j = −i k i = j i k = − j

Observe that i  j  j  i

Properties of vector product:

Theorem: If a, b and c are vectors and c is a scalar, then

1. a  b = −b  a
2. (ca )  b = c(a  b ) = a  (cb )
3. a  (b + c ) = a  b + a  c
4. (a + b )  c = a  c + b  c
5. a  (b  c ) = (a  b )  c
6. a  (b + c ) = (a  c )b − (a  b )c

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 Note: The product a  (b  c ) is called the scalar triple product of vectors a, b and c
27
If a = a1 , a 2 , a3 , b = b1 , b2 , b3 and c = c1 , c 2 , c3 , then we can write the scalar triple
products as a determinant:

a1 a2 a3
a  (b  c ) = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

Coplanar vectors: If the scalar triple products a  (b  c ) is zero then the vectors a, b
and c must lie on the same plane and they are said to be coplanar vectors.

Example 21: Use the scalar triple product to verify that the vectors
a = 2i + 3 j + k , b = i − j, and c = 7i + 3 j + 2k are coplanar.

Sol:

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 Example 22: Use the scalar triple product to show that vectors
28
a = 1,4,−7 , b = 2,−1,4 , and c = 0,−9,18 are coplanar.

Sol: Please try yourself.

Example 23: Use the scalar triple product to determine whether the points P(1,0,1),
Q (2,4,6), R(3,-1,2) and S(6,2,8) lie in the same plane.

Sol: Please try yourself.

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Torque (  ):
29
If a force F acting on a rigid body at a point given by a position vector r , (for example,
if we tighten a bolt by applying a force to a wrench as shown figure,

we produce a tuning effect) then the torque  (relative to the origin) is defined to be
cross product of the position and force vectors

 = rF

and it measures the tendency of the rigid body to rotate about the origin. The direction
of the torque vector indicates the axis of rotation.
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 Example 24: A bolt is tightened by applying a 40-N force to a 0.25-m wrench as shown
in figure. Find the magnitude of the torque about the centre of the bolt.

Sol: Given that F = 40 N

30
r = 0.25m

and  = 75

The magnitude of the torque vector is

 = rF

= r F sin 

= (0.25)(40) sin 75 = 10 sin 75  9.66 N .m = 9.66 Joules

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Vector Functions and Space Curves 31

Definition: A vector function is a function whose domain is set of real

numbers and range is a set of vectors. In notations, we can write the vector
function r (t ) as

r (t ) = f (t )i + g (t ) j + h(t )k

OR

𝑟ҧ 𝑡) = 𝑓 𝑡), g 𝑡), ℎ(𝑡)

where f(t), g(t) and h(t) are the component functions of r (t ) and t
represents time in most applications of vector functions.

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Space Curve: If f(t), g(t) and h(t) are continuous real-valued functions on an interval I.
Then the set C of all points (x, y, z) in space, where 32
x = f (t ), y = g (t ), z = h(t )

and t varies throughout the interval I, is called a space curve. These equations are called
parametric equations of C and t is called a parameter.

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Derivative of a Vector Function:
Definition: The derivative lim r ' (t ) of a vector function r (t ) is defined in same way as for
33
real-valued functions.

dr r (t + h) − r (t )
r ' (t ) = = lim
dt h→0 h

Second derivative: r ' ' (t ) = (r ' (t ))'

Third derivative: r ' ' ' (t ) = (r ' ' (t ))'

Theorem: If r (t ) = f (t )i + g (t ) j + h(t )k , where f, g, and h are differentiable functions,

then
ഥ
𝒓 ′(𝒕) = 𝒇′ 𝒕)𝒊ҧ + 𝐠 ′ 𝒕)𝒋ҧ + 𝒉′(𝒕)𝒌

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Example 25: Find the derivative of the vector function.
34
(i) r (t ) = t ,1 − t , t
2

(ii) r (t ) = cos3t , t , sin t

(iii) r (t ) = i − j + e 4t k

Sol:

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Differentiation Rules:

Theorem: Suppose u and v are differentiable vector function C is a scalar and f(t) is a 35
scalar function (real-valued function) then

(1)
d
u (t ) + v (t ) = u (t ) + v (t )
dt
(2)
d
c  u (t ) = c  u (t ) = c  u (t )
d
dt dt
(3)
d
 f (t ) u (t ) = f (t ) u (t ) + f (t ) u (t )
dt
(4)
d
u (t )  v (t ) = u (t )  v (t ) + u (t )  v (t )
dt
(5)
d
u (t )  v (t ) = u (t )  v (t ) + u (t )  v (t )
dt
(6)
d
u ( f (t )) = u ( f (t ))  f (t ) (chain rule)
dt

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Integral of a Vector Function:
The definite integral of a continuous vector function r (t ) can be defined in the same way
36
as for real-valued functions except that integral is a vector.

If r (t ) = f (t )i + g (t ) j + h(t )k , then

b
b  b  b 
a r (t )dt =  a f (t )dt i +  a g (t )dt  j +  a h(t )dt k
    

Fundamental theorem of calculus:

 r (t )dt = R (t )a = R (b) − R (a),

b
b

ഥ ′ 𝒕) = 𝒓(𝒕)
Where R (t ) is an anti-derivative of r (t ) , that is 𝑹

Note: We use the notation  r (t ) dt for indefinite integrals

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 Example 26: Evaluate the integrals:
37
 4 
1
2t
(i) 0  1 + t 2 1 + t 2 dt
 j + k

 (3sin )
2
(ii) 2
t costi + 3 sin t cos2 tj + 2 sin t costk dt
0

 i + 2tj + ln tk )dt
t
(iii) ( e

Sol:

Example 27: Find r (t ), if r ' (t ) = sin ti − costj + 2tk , and r (0) = i + j + 2k .

Sol:

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Arc Length:
The arc length (L) of a space curve which is defined by the vector equation
38
r (t ) = f (t )i + g (t ) j + h(t )k

Or equivalently, by the parametric equations

x = f (t ), y = g (t ), z = h(t ), where a  t  b

and f’(t), g’(t), h’(t) are continuous, is given by

𝒃

𝑳= |𝒓 ′(𝒕)|𝒅𝒕
𝒂

Example 28: Find the length of the curve.

(i) r (t ) = 2 sin t ,5t ,2 cost , − 10  t  10

(ii) r (t ) = t 2 , sin t − t cos t , cost + t sin t , 0  t  

(iii) r (t ) = 2ti + et j + e −t k , 0  t  1
(iv) r (t ) = t 2 i + 2tj + ln tk , 0  t  e

Sol:
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Example 29: Find the length of the arc of the circular helix with vector equation
r (t ) = costi + sin tj + tk from the point (1,0,0) to the point (1,0,2 ) . 39
Sol:

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Velocity and Acceleration:
Suppose a particle is moving in space and its position vector at time t is r (t ) . Then 40
The velocity of the particle at time ‘t’ is given by

v (t ) = r ' (t )

The speed of the particle at time ‘t’ is the magnitude of the velocity vector, i.e. v (t ) .

dS
 speed = v (t ) = r ' (t ) = = the rate of change of distance with respect to time.
dt

The acceleration of the particle is defined as the derivative of the velocity.

a (t ) = v ' (t ) = r ' ' (t )

Example 30: The position vector of a particle is given by r (t ) = sin ti + tj + costk . Find its
velocity, speed and acceleration at when t = 0.

Sol:
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Example 31: Find the velocity, acceleration and speed of a particle with the given
position vector. 41
(i) r (t ) = 2ti + et j + e −t k
(ii) r (t ) = t 2 , e t , te t

(iii) r (t ) = t 2 + 1, t 3 , t 2 − 1
(iv) r (t ) = 2 cost ,3t ,2 sin t
(v) r (t ) = t 2 , ln t , t
(vi) r (t ) = e t (costi + sin tj + tk )
(vii) r (t ) = t sin ti + t costj + t 2 k

Sol: Please try yourself.

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Example 32: A moving particle starts at an initial position r (0) = 1,0,0 with initial
42
velocity v (0) = i − j + k . Its acceleration is a (t ) = 4ti + 6tj + k . Find its velocity and
position at time t.

Sol:

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Example 33: Find the velocity and position vectors of a particle that has the given
acceleration and the given initial velocity and position. 43
(i) a (t ) = i + 2 j + 2tk , v (0) = 0, r (0) = i + k
(ii) a (t ) = ti + t 2 j + cos 2tk , v (0) = i + k , r (0) = j
(iii) a (t ) = k , v (0) = i − j, r (0) = 0
(iv) a (t ) = −10k , v (0) = i + j − k , r (0) = 2i + 3 j

Sol: Please try yourself.

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END