18.4.

2019

Chapter - 5

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One of the important variables in the

atmosphere is temperature. The study of
temperature variation, both horizontally and
vertically has considerable significance in the
study of meteorology.

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There are three scales which may be used to measure temperature though only
Celsius and Kelvin are used in meteorology. The figures show the melting point of
ice and the boiling point of water (at standard pressure) in each scale.

The FAHRENHEIT scale: +32 and +212 degrees.

The CELSIUS (or Centigrade) scale: 0 and +100 degrees.

The KELVIN (or Absolute) scale: +273 and +373 Kelvin.

Conversion factors:

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The standard means of measurement on the ground is a

mercury thermometer placed in a Stevenson Screen.
Electrical resistance thermometers may be used where
the screen is not readily accessible to the observer.

A Thermograph (similar in its output to a barograph) will
also be found inside the screen. The Stevenson screen is
a louvred box 4 feet (1.22 m) above the ground.

Upper air temperature (and pressure and humidity) are
Radiosonde, - a device transmitting
measured using a Radiosonde,
continuous readings whilst being carried aloft beneath a
balloon. Rate of climb is 1200 fpm and maximum ceiling
between 65 000 and 115 000 ft. Earlier devices were
tracked using radar to determine position and to
determine wind speed. Modern systems use GPS to
provide a 3D position to send with the data.

Aircraft readings, though often the only way in which
atmospheric temperature may be measured over the
oceans and other areas far away from meteorological
stations, are not as accurate as they are affected by
compressibility and lag. The electrical thermometer will
give a digital readout of temperature and this can be
automatically calibrated and transmitted on some
modern aircraft.
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The main source of heat for the troposphere is the sun.

Solar Radiation. Radiation from the sun is of Short wave-
wave-
length (λ) and passes through the troposphere almost
without heating it at all.

λ = 0.15 - 4 microns (micron = µ = 10 -6 m)

Some solar radiation is reflected back to the upper air
from cloud tops and from water surfaces on the earth. The
rest of this radiation heats the earth’s surface. The process
whereby the surface is heated by solar radiation is called
insolation.
insolation.

Four processes heat the troposphere:
◦ Terrestial Radiation
◦ Conduction
◦ Convection
◦ Condensation

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Terrestrial Radiation.
◦ The earth radiates heat at all times. It is relatively long wave radiation λ = 4
to 80 microns, peaking at 10 m.
◦ This radiation is absorbed by the so-called greenhouse gases giving rise to
the lapse rate in the troposphere, principally water vapour, carbon dioxide
and methane. The increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the
troposphere is one of the factors contributing to global warming. (Note: the
global warming phenomenon is much more complex than this.)

Conduction.
Conduction. Air lying in contact with the earth’s surface by day will be heated by
conduction. At night air in contact with the earth’s surface will be cooled by
conduction. Because of the air’s poor conductivity, the air at a higher level will
remain at the same temperature as during the day and an inversion will result.

Convection.
Convection. Air heated by conduction will be less dense and will therefore rise.
This will produce up currents called thermals or convection currents. These will
take the warm air to higher levels in the troposphere. This and terrestrial
radiation are the two main processes heating the troposphere.

Condensation.
Condensation. As the air is lifted it will cool by the adiabatic process and the
water vapour in the air will condense out as visible droplets forming cloud. As
this occurs latent heat will be released by the water vapour and this will add to
the heating of the troposphere.

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Temperature Variation with Height

◦ We have seen that although our source of heat is the sun,
because of the troposphere’s virtual transparency to
insolation, it is in fact heated (by long wave IR) from the
surface upwards.
◦ Thus as we move further and further from the surface we
would expect the heating effects to diminish.

Lapse Rate
◦ The rate at which temperature falls with an increase in
height is called the Lapse Rate. An ideal uniform
atmosphere would show a constant lapse rate rather like
the ISA, which is
◦ 0.65°C/100 m (1.98°C (2°) per 1000 ft.)

Isotherm
◦ If temperature remains constant with height it is called an
isothermal layer.

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Inversions
◦ Where the temperature increases with an increase in height, then we have what is
called an inversion. We have already seen that at night we can expect an inversion
above the surface, but this can occur in many different ways.

◦ Radiation, on a night of clear skies, will also

result in a temperature inversion above the
surface. This is called a Radiation Inversion.

◦ When we look at cloud formation, we shall

see that because of turbulence in the layer
closest to the surface we can have an
inversion at a height of 2 or 3 thousand
feet.

◦ Quite often, at the tropopause instead of

the temperature remaining constant, it may
show a slight rise for a few thousand feet.

◦ At the higher levels of the stratosphere, temperature will show an increase with
height (in ISA from 20 km to 32 km the temperature increases at 1 1°°C per km).

◦ In a high pressure system, air descends at the centre. As the air descends it will be
heated adiabatically (more of this later) and will be warmer than the air at a lower
level. This is called a Subsidence Inversion.
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The surface air temperature measured in a Stevenson screen is subject to considerable

variations:
◦ Latitude Effect,
◦ Seasonal Effect,
◦ Diurnal Variation and

multiple effects due to cloud and wind.

The Angular Elevation of the Sun

Latitude Effect.
◦ At the Equator only a small area is heated by the sun’s radiation and therefore will be subject to the greatest
heat/unit area. At the poles the sun’s rays will cover a larger area and there will be the least heat/unit area.

◦ The actual distance of polar regions from the sun is only fractionally more than that from the Equator, and
the effect may be ignored.

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Seasonal Effect.
◦ The Vernal (Spring) and autumnal equinoxes occur about 21 March and 21
September respectively.
◦ Then the sun is directly over the Equator and maximum heating will occur there.
About 21 June the sun reaches its most northerly latitude (Summer Solstice for the
Northern Hemisphere) and maximum heating will occur in the Northern Hemisphere.
◦ But the land (and sea) continues to heat up and maximum temperatures are found
around late July or early August in temperate latitudes.
◦ Around 21 December the sun reaches its most southerly latitude (Winter Solstice for
the Northern Hemisphere) and minimum heating occurs. But the land (and sea)
continues to cool down and minimum temperatures are experienced around late
January or early February in temperate latitudes.

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Diurnal Variation - (Note: This Assumes Clear Skies and Light Winds and No
Change in Air Mass)
◦ The sun is at its highest elevation at noon, but for two to three hours after this time, the
earth is receiving more solar radiation than it is giving up as terrestrial radiation. A balance
between incoming and outgoing radiation is reached on average at 1500 local time when
maximum temperatures can be expected.

Note: the actual time of maximum temperature varies with latitude and time of year, earlier in
winter later in summer, but 1500 local time is a good average for temperate latitudes.

◦ From 15:00 onwards, the temperature falls continuously until a little after sunrise. The
lowest temperature occurs at about sunrise plus 30 minutes when once again we get a
balance between incoming and outgoing radiation.

◦ Diurnal Variation (DV) is greatest with clear skies and little wind. DV varies with a number of
factors, but in temperate latitudes is about +/- 6 degrees about the mean.

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Cloud cover by day. By day some of the solar radiation is

reflected back by the cloud tops and maximum temperature
(T Max) is reduced.

Cloud cover by night. By night terrestrial radiation is

absorbed and radiated back to the earth’s surface from
the clouds. T min is increased.

Effect of wind by day. By day wind will cause turbulent mixing of

the warm air at the surface with cold air above, reducing T max.
Wind will also reduce the time the air is in contact with the warm
ground.

Effect of wind by night. By night there will normally be

an inversion above the surface and wind will cause cold
air to be turbulently mixed with warm air above thus
increasing T min.

In summary, wind or cloud cover will cause T max to be reduced and T min to be increased. Therefore DV will
be reduced.

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DV over sea.
◦ As the Specific Heat (SH) of water is unity, compared to other substances whose SH is much
less, and as the temperature rise is inversely proportional to the Specific Heat, the diurnal
temperature variation over the sea is small, generally less than 1°
1°C.

Nature of the Surface

◦ Sea.

The sea takes a long time to heat (and cool) and as we have seen has a very small DV.

The difference in DV values between land and sea is the cause of sea breezes. The minimal DV of
sea temperature is the reason why the most common form of fog, radiation fog, never forms
over the sea.

When the angular elevation of the sun is low, much solar radiation is reflected back to the
atmosphere.

◦ Land.

Bare rock, sand, dry soil, tarred roads and concrete runways attain a higher temperature by
insolation than woods, lakes, grasslands and wet soil.

The temperature difference between air above concrete runways and adjacent grass can be as
much as 4 degrees. Higher temperature surfaces provide strong up currents called thermals or
convection currents.

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Note that the sea temperature

remains “cool” in July in the
Northern Hemisphere but the
desert land areas of Africa and
neighbouring Asia get very warm.
Air over snow covered surfaces is
very cold. Some 80% of solar
radiation is reflected from snow
surfaces.

Snow does not prevent the earth
from radiating its heat. Hence
surface air temperatures over
snow will become colder day by
day. Temperatures in Siberia can
reach -72°
72°C after a long cold
winter. This very cold air results
in high density and the
development of anticyclones.

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Over Land.

Air in a valley will tend to be more static than air in an exposed
position. Therefore by night the air is in contact with the ground
for a longer time and the air temperature is lower than on a hill.
Additionally, in a valley, cold air tends to sink from the hills
above at night, again causing lower temperatures. It is for these
reasons that mist and fog tend to form firstly in valleys.

Over Oceans.

The fact that seas tend to have a very small DV of temperature
has been stated before.
before. On a wide scale this means that in winter
the sea is warmer than the land and thus there is a widespread
movement of air from land to sea (monsoon effect). There is an
opposite tendency in summer.

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Air tends to retain its temperature and humidity

for a considerable time, therefore air from high
latitudes will bring lower temperatures to UK. A
southerly wind, however, will normally provide an
increase in temperature.

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