LESSON NO.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS

WHAT IS THIS LESSON ABOUT?

This lesson discusses the geometric design of a highway and railroad which refers to the physical
proportioning of facilities, as distinguished from other aspects of design such as structural
design.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this topic you should be:
▪ familiar with the terminologies used in geometric design.
▪ able to solve problems in geometric designs for highways and railways.

LESSON 4.1: INTRODUCTION

The emphasis of geometric design is to address the requirement of the driver and the vehicle
such as safety, comfort, efficiency, etc. The objective of geometric design is to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost. Proper geometric design
will help in the reduction of accidents and their severity. The geometric design of highways deals
with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway. Geometric design deals with
the dimensioning of the elements of highways, such as vertical and horizontal curves, cross
sections elements, sight distance consideration, gradients, and intersection. The design of these
features is to a great extend influenced by driver behavior and psychology, vehicle characteristics,
traffic characteristics such as speed and volume.

LESSON 4.2: CROSS-SECTIONS

One of the most important parts of developing a roadway design focuses on the selection and
configuration of the elements that comprise the roadway cross section. Aspects of the cross
section directly relates to the number of travel lanes to be provided and the width and location of
shoulder, median, slopes, embankments and ditches. The principal elements of a highway cross
section consist of the travel lanes, shoulders, and medians (for some multilane highways).
Marginal elements include median and roadside barriers, curbs, gutters, guard rails, sidewalks,
and side slopes. Figure 1 illustrates the cross section of a typical undivided two-lane rural highway
with a lane in each direction of travel and Figure 2 shows that for a multilane highway.

WIDTH OF TRAVEL LANES

Travel lane widths usually vary from 9 to 12 ft. Most arterials have 12-ft travel lanes since the
extra cost for constructing 12-ft lanes over 10-ft lanes is usually offset by the lower maintenance
cost for shoulders and pavement surface, resulting in a reduction of wheel concentrations at the
pavement edges. On two-lane, two-way rural roads, lane widths of 10 ft or 11 ft may be used, but

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two factors must be considered when selecting a lane width less than 12 ft wide. When pavement
surfaces are less than 22 ft, the crash rates for large trucks tend to increase and, as the lane
width is reduced from 12 ft, the capacity of a highway significantly decreases. Lane widths of 10
ft are therefore used only on low-speed facilities. Lanes that are 9 ft wide are used occasionally
in urban areas if traffic volume is low and there are extreme right-of-way constraints. Lane
separation is designated by longitudinal pavement markings. A normal crown, that is, a mild slope
in the pavement on either side of the centerline, is provided to facilitate the removal of water.
Depending on drainage requirements, crowns in the range of 1/8 to about 1/4 in./ft of width are
typical.

Figure 1. Typical Cross Section for Two-Lane Highways

Source: Garber, N.,& Hoel, L. (2001). Highway and Traffic Engineering. Brookes/Cole Publishing

Figure 2. Typical Cross Section for Multilane Highways (half section)

Source: Garber, N.& Hoel, L. (2001). Highway and Traffic Engineering. Brookes/Cole Publishing

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ROAD SHOULDERS OR VERGE
The shoulder of a pavement cross section is always adjoining with the traveled lane so as to
provide an area along the highway for vehicles to stop when necessary. Shoulders are also used
to laterally support the pavement structure. Shoulder surfaces range in width from 2 ft on minor
roads to 12 ft on major arterials.

MEDIANS
A median is the section of a divided multi-lane highway that separates the lanes in opposing
directions. The width of a median is the distance between the edges of the inside lanes, including
the median shoulders. The functions of a median include:
▪ Providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles
▪ Separating opposing traffic
• Providing stopping areas during emergencies
• Providing storage areas for left-turning and U-turning vehicles
• Providing refuge for pedestrians
• Reducing the effect of headlight glare
• Providing temporary lanes and cross-overs during maintenance operations

Medians can either be raised, flush, or depressed. Raised medians are frequently used in
urban arterial streets because they facilitate the control of left-turn traffic at intersections by using
part of the median width for left-turn-only lanes.
Flush medians are commonly used on urban arterials. They can also be used on freeways,
but with a median barrier. To facilitate drainage of surface water, the flush median should be
crowned. The practice in urban areas of converting flush medians into two-way left-turn lanes is
common, since the capacity of the urban highway is increased while maintaining some features
of a median.
Depressed medians are generally used on freeways and are more effective in draining surface
water. A side slope of 6:1 is suggested for depressed medians, although a slope of 4:1 may be
adequate. Median widths vary from a minimum of 4 to 80 ft or more. Median widths should be as
wide as possible but should be balanced with other elements of the cross section and the cost
involved. In general, the wider the median, the more effective it is in providing safe operating
conditions and a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles.

ROADSIDE AND MEDIAN BARRIERS

A median barrier is defined as a longitudinal system used to prevent an errant vehicle from
crossing the portion of a divided highway separating the traveled ways for traffic in opposite
directions. Roadside barriers, on the other hand, protect vehicles from obstacles or slopes on the
roadside. They also may be used to shield pedestrians and property from the traffic stream. The
provision of median barriers must be considered when traffic volumes are high and when access
to multilane highways and other highways is only partially controlled.

CURBS AND GUTTERS

Curbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete
(rolled asphalt curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to delineate pavement edges and
pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also used to control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce
right of way. Curbs can be generally classified as either vertical or sloping. Vertical curbs, (which

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may be vertical or nearly vertical), range in height from 6 to 8 in. with steep sides, and are
designed to prevent vehicles from leaving the highway. Sloping curbs are designed so that
vehicles can cross them if necessary.

GUARD RAILS
Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at sections with
high fills. Their main function is to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway. They are installed
at embankments higher than 8 ft and when shoulder slopes are greater than 4:1. Shapes
commonly used include the W beam and the box beam. The weak post system provides for the
post to collapse on impact, with the rail deflecting and absorbing the energy due to impact.

SIDEWALKS
Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas, but are uncommon in rural areas.
Nevertheless, the provision of sidewalks in rural areas should be evaluated during the planning
process to determine sections of the road where they are required. Generally, sidewalks should
be provided when pedestrian traffic is high along main or high-speed roads in either rural or urban
areas. When shoulders are not provided on arterials, sidewalks are necessary even when
pedestrian traffic is low. In urban areas, sidewalks should also be provided along both sides of
collector streets that serve as pedestrian access to schools, parks, shopping centers, and transit
stops, and along collector streets in commercial areas. Sidewalks should have a minimum clear
width of 4 ft in residential areas and a range of 4 to 8 ft in commercial areas.

CROSS SLOPES
Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and multilane highways without medians are
sloped from the middle downward to both sides of the highway, resulting in a transverse or cross
slope, with a cross section shape that can be curved, plane or a combination of the two. For high-
type pavement, the crown or slope is often 1% or 2%. However steeper slopes are recommended
because rain water, flow away more rapidly reducing the water
A parabola is generally used for curved cross sections, and the highest point of the pavement
(called the crown) is slightly rounded, with the cross slope increasing toward the pavement edge.
Plane cross slopes consist of uniform slopes at both sides of the crown.

SIDE SLOPES
Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks. They
also serve as a safety feature by providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles. When being
considered as a safety feature, the important sections of the cross slope are the hinge point, the
foreslope, and the toe of the slope as shown in Figure 3. The hinge point should be rounded since
it is potentially hazardous and may cause vehicles to become airborne while crossing it, resulting
in loss of control of the vehicle. The foreslope serves principally as a recovery area, where vehicle
speeds can be reduced and other recovery maneuvers taken to regain control of the vehicle. The
gradient of the foreslope should therefore not be high. Slopes of 3:1 (horizontal:vertical) or flatter
are generally used for high embankments. This can be increased based on conditions at the site.

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 Figure 3. Designation of Roadside Regions
Source: Garber, N.& Hoel, L. (2001). Highway and Traffic
Engineering. Brookes/Cole Publishing

LESSON 4.3: ROADWAY ALIGNMENT

The alignment of a highway is composed of vertical and horizontal elements. The vertical
alignment includes straight (tangent) highway grades and the parabolic curves that connect these
grades. The horizontal alignment includes the straight (tangent) sections of the roadway and the
circular curves that connect their change in direction. The design of the alignment depends
primarily on the design speed selected for the highway. The least costly alignment is one that
takes the form of the natural topography. It is not always possible to select the lowest cost
alternative because the designer must adhere to certain standards that may not exist on the
natural topography. It is important that the alignment of a given section has consistent standards
to avoid sudden changes in the vertical and horizontal layout of the highway. It is also important
that both horizontal and vertical alignments be designed to complement each other, since this will
result in a safer and more attractive highway. One factor that should be considered to achieve
compatibility is the proper balancing of the grades of tangents with curvatures of horizontal curves
and the location of horizontal and vertical curves with respect to each other.

SIGHT DISTANCES
Sight distance is defined as the length of the carriageway that the driver can see in both the
horizontal and vertical planes. When designing for the alignment of the road, two types of sight
distance are normally checked for adequacy: stopping sight distance (SSD) and passing sight
distance (PSD).

Stopping Sight Distance(SSD)

This is defined as the shortest distance required by the driver in order to be able to stop the
car before it hits an object on the highway. It is of primary importance to the safe working of a
highway. Table 1 indicates the stopping sight distances for the different design speeds. Both
desirable minimum and absolute minimum values are given.

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 Table 1. Stopping sight distances for different design speeds (source: TD 9/93 (DoT, 1993))

The distance itself can be subdivided into three constituent parts:

▪ The perception distance – length of highway travelled while driver perceives hazard
▪ The reaction distance – length of highway travelled during the period of time taken by the
driver to apply the brakes and for the brakes to function
▪ The braking distance – length of highway travelled while the vehicle actually comes to a
halt.

Figure 4. Stopping sight distance

As shown in figure 4, SSD is composed of two distances:

a. d1, distance traversed during perception plus brake reaction time. Brake reaction time
consists of perception time of about 1.5 seconds and action time of 1.0 second. Known
also as lag time.

𝑑1 = 𝑣𝑡

b. d2, distance required for stopping after brakes are applied. Short distance is required
when negotiating an uphill. This is taken care of by the sign of the gradient G. Known
as the braking distance.

𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑑2 = =
2𝑔𝑓 2𝑔(3.6)2 (𝑓 ± 𝐺)

Where
v = running speed, m/s or ft/s
t = reaction time, sec
g = 9.8 m/sec2 or ft/sec2
f = Coefficient of friction b/w tires & roadway (0.29-0.40)
G = gradient (+ for uphill; - for downhill)

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Problem
Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head-on collision of two cars
approaching from the opposite directions at 90 kph and kph. Assume a reaction time of 2.5
seconds, coefficient of friction of 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50 percent, in either case.

Solution:
Since the brake efficiency is 50% the wheel will skid through 50% of the braking
distance and rotate through the remaining distance. Therefore, the coefficient of
friction developed can be taken as 50% of the coefficient of friction f.

SSD for first car:

𝑣12 (90 𝑘𝑝ℎ)(2.50 s) (90)2

𝑺𝑺𝑫𝟏 = 𝑣1 𝑡 + = + = 153.60 𝑚
2𝑔𝑓 3.6 2(9.8)(0.5 × 0.7)(3.6)2

SSD for second car:

𝑣22 (60 𝑘𝑝ℎ)(2.50 s) (60)2

𝑺𝑺𝑫𝟐 = 𝑣2 𝑡 + = + = 82.20 𝑚
2𝑔𝑓 3.6 2(9.8)(0.5 × 0.7)(3.6)2

Minimum sight distance required to avoid collision is

SSD = SSD1 + SSD2 = 153.60 + 82.20 = 235.80 m.

Minimum stopping sight distance is normally computed for wet pavement condition. Table below
serves as guide for computation of SSD for different design speeds. For design speeds greater
than or equal to 80 kph, the running speed is taken as 85 percent of the design speed. For design
speeds less than or equal to 30 kph, full value of design speed is assumed for running speed.

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Overtaking Sight Distance/Passing Sight Distance
Overtaking sight distance is of central importance to the efficient working of a given section of
highway. Overtaking sight distance only applies to single carriageways. There is no full overtaking
sight distance (FOSD) for a highway with a design speed of 120km/hr since this design speed is
not suitable for a single carriageway road.
For two-lane highways, passing sight distance is the shortest distance required for a vehicle
to safely pull out of a traffic lane, pass a vehicle traveling in the same direction, and return to the
correct lane without interfering either with the overtaken vehicle or opposing traffic. Along curves,
this is the length of the road that must be visibly free of obstructions in order to permit a vehicle
moving at the design speed to pass a slower-moving vehicle.

Figure 5. Passing or overtaking maneuver

As shown in figure 5, PSD is composed of four distances:

a. d1, distance travelled during perception and reaction time and during the initial
acceleration to the point on encroachment on the left lane
𝑣0 𝑡1 𝑎𝑡12
𝑑1 = +
3.6 2

b. d2, distance travelled while overtaking vehicle occupies any part of the left lane
(opposing lane)
𝑣𝑡2
𝑑2 = ; 𝑡 = 7.6 ~ 11.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
3.6 2

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 c. d3, distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing
vehicle.
𝑑3 = 15 ~ 80 𝑚

d. d4, distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing
vehicle occupies the left lane
2
𝑑4 = 𝑑2
3

In many cases, it is very difficult to meet the full PSD requirement. Table 6.3 shows the
summary of PSD values for various design speeds. Minimum PSD is often taken as the sum of
2
𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + 𝑑4 . Comparing these values with SSD, the requirement for passing sight distance is
3
about two to three times that of SSD. While it is absolute to provide SSD all the time, it will be
very expensive to provide PSD all the time as this would mean very gentle horizontal and vertical
curves. In practice, PSD should be provided in long sections of roads so that drivers will have the
opportunity to overtake one-third of the time. Values for different design speeds are given in the
table below.

Problem
A vehicle moving at a speed of 50 mph is slowing traffic on a two-lane highway. What passing
sight distance is necessary, in order for a passing maneuver to be carried out safely? Assume
that the following variables have the values given:

Passing vehicle driver's perception/reaction time = 2.5 sec

Passing vehicle's acceleration rate = 1.47 mph/sec
Initial speed of passing vehicle = 50 mph
Passing speed of passing vehicle = 60 mph
Speed of slow vehicle = 50 mph

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Speed of opposing vehicle = 60 mph
Length of passing vehicle = 22 ft
Length of slow vehicle = 22 ft
Clearance distance between passing and slow vehicles at lane change = 20 ft
Clearance distance between passing and slow vehicles at lane re-entry = 20 ft
Clearance distance between passing and opposing vehicles at lane re-entry = 250 ft
Assume also that the passing vehicle accelerates to passing speed before moving into the
left lane.

Solution:

Calculate d1: This distance includes the distance traveled during the perception/reaction
time and the distance traveled while accelerating to the passing speed.

Distance traveled during the perception/reaction time,

(5279.75 𝑓𝑡) 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑑 = 𝑣0 𝑡1 = 50 𝑚𝑝ℎ [ 1 𝑚𝑖
] [3600 𝑠] = 183.3 𝑓𝑡

Distance traveled during the acceleration portion,

𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑖2 + 2𝑎𝑠
(5279.75 𝑓𝑡) 1 ℎ𝑟 2 (5279.75 𝑓𝑡) 1 ℎ𝑟 2
{60 𝑚𝑝ℎ [ 1 𝑚𝑖
] [ ]}
3600 𝑠 𝑓
= {𝑣50 𝑚𝑝ℎ [ 1 𝑚𝑖
] [ ]}
3600 𝑠 𝑖
+
(5279.75 𝑓𝑡) 1 ℎ𝑟
2 {1.47 𝑚𝑝ℎ/𝑠 [ ] [3600 𝑠]} 𝑑
1 𝑚𝑖

𝑠 = 550.1 𝑓𝑡

Solving for d1

𝑑1 = 𝑑 + 𝑠 = 183.3 + 550.1 = 733.4 𝑓𝑡

Calculate d2: Distance the passing vehicle travels while in the left lane.
While in the left lane, the passing vehicle must traverse the clearance distance
between itself and the slow vehicle, the length of the slow vehicle, the length of
itself, and the length of the clearance distance between itself and the slow vehicle
at lane re-entry. The distance covered is:

𝐷 = 20 + 22 + 22 + 20 = 84 𝑓𝑡

Relative speed of passing vehicle with reference point on the slow vehicle is,
(5279.75 𝑓𝑡) 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑉 = 60 𝑚𝑝ℎ − 50 𝑚𝑝ℎ = 10 𝑚𝑝ℎ [ 1 𝑚𝑖
] [3600 𝑠] = 14.67 𝑓𝑡/𝑠

The time t2 it takes the passing vehicle to traverse these distances relative to the
slow vehicle

𝐷 84
𝑡= = = 5.72 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑉 14.67

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 Solving for d2
(5279.75 𝑓𝑡) 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑑2 = 𝑣𝑡2 = 60 𝑚𝑝ℎ [ ][ ] × (5.72 𝑠) = 503.36 𝑓𝑡
1 𝑚𝑖 3600 𝑠

d3: The distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the moment the
passing vehicle returns to the right lane. This distance was given as 250 ft.

d4: This distance is the final component of the passing sight distance and is defined as the
distance the opposing vehicle travels during 66% of the time that the passing vehicle is in
the left lane.

(5279.75 𝑓𝑡)
𝑑4 = 60 𝑚𝑝ℎ [ ] × (5.7 × 0.66) = 325.6 𝑓𝑡
1 𝑚𝑖

𝑃𝑆𝐷 = 733.4 + 503.33 + 250 + 325.6 = 𝟏𝟖𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 𝒇𝒕

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
The horizontal alignment of a highway, railway, or transit guideway represents the projection
of the facility on a horizontal plane. It consists of straight sections of the road (known as tangents)
connected by curves. The curves are usually segments of circles, which have radii that will provide
for a smooth flow of traffic. The design of the horizontal alignment entails the determination of the
minimum radius, determination of the length of the curve, and the computation of the horizontal
offsets from the tangents to the curve to facilitate locating the curve in the field. In some cases, to
avoid a sudden change from a tangent with infinite radius to a curve of finite radius, a curve with
radii varying from infinite to the radius of the circular curve is placed between the circular curve
and the tangent. Such a curve is known as a spiral or transition curve. There are four types of
horizontal curves: simple, compound, reversed, and spiral.

Simple Curves
The curve is a segment of a circle with radius R,

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Where:
PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.
PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex
T = Length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT. It is known as subtangent.
R = Radius of simple curve, or simply radius.
L = Length of chord from PC to PT. Point Q as shown below is the midpoint of L.
Lc = Length of curve from PC to PT. Point M in the the figure is the midpoint of Lc.
E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the curve.
m = Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint of chord.
I = Deflection angle (also called angle of intersection and central angle). It is the
angle of intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended by PC and PT at O
is also equal to I, where O is the center of the circular curve from the above
figure.
x = offset distance from tangent to the curve. Note: x is perpendicular to T.
θ = offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in the curve
D = Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a length of curve equal
to one station. In English system, one station is equal to 100 ft and in SI, one
station is equal to 20 m.
Sub chord = chord distance between two adjacent full stations.

Formulas:

Length of tangent, T
Length of tangent (also referred to as subtangent) is the distance from PC to PI. It is the same
distance from PI to PT.

I
T = R tan
2

External distance, E
External distance is the distance from PI to the midpoint of the curve.

I
E = R sec −R
2

Middle ordinate, m
Middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the chord.

I
m = R − R cos
2

Length of long chord, L

Length of long chord or simply length of chord is the distance from PC to PT.

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 I
L = 2R sin
2
Length of curve, Lc
Length of curve from PC to PT is the road distance between ends of the simple curve.

LC = Stationing of PT − Stationing of PC

An alternate formula for the length of curve using the degree of curve.

20I
SI units: (1 station = 20 m) LC =
D

100I
English system: (1 station = 100 ft) LC =
D

If given the stationing of PC and PT:

LC = Stationing of PT − Stationing of PC

Length of long chord, L

The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by an arc (arc basis) or chord (chord basis)
of one station. It will define the sharpness of the curve. In English system, 1 station is equal
to 100 ft. In SI, 1 station is equal to 20 m. It is important to note that 100 ft is equal to 30.48 m
not 20 m.

Arc Basis:

20 2 R
= (SI Units )
D 360

100 2 R
= ( English System )
D 360

Chord Basis:

D 10
sin = (SI Units )
2 R
D 50
sin = (English System)
2 R

Problem No.1

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The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 36° 30'. Compute the radius if the external distance
is 12.02 m.

Solution:
I R
cos =
2 R+E
R
cos 1815 =
R + 12.02
R cos 1815 + 12.02 cos 1815 = R
R − R cos 1815 = 12.02 cos 1815
R(1 − cos 1815) = 12.02 cos 1815
12.02 cos 1815
R=
(1 − cos 1815)
R = 226.94 m.

Problem No.2
Given the following elements of a circular curve: middle ordinate = 2 m; length of long chord = 70
m. Find its degree of curve, use arc basis.

Solution:
Apply Pythagorean theorem to solve for the radius

(R - 2)2 + 352 = R 2
(R 2 - 4R + 4) + 1225 = R 2
4R = 1129
R = 307.25 m

Degree of curve (arc basis):

20 2 R
=
D 360
20 2 (307.25)
=
D 360
D = 3.7

Compound Curves
A compound curve consists of two (or more) circular curves between two main tangents joined
at point of compound curve (PCC). Curve at PC is designated as 1 (R1, L1, T1, etc) and curve at
PT is designated as 2(R2, L2, T2, etc).

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 Where:
PC = point of curvature
PT = point of tangency
PI = point of intersection
PCC = point of compound curve
T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
V1 = vertex of the first curve
V2 = vertex of the second curve
I1 = central angle of the first curve
I2 = central angle of the second curve
I = angle of intersection = I1 + I2
Lc1 = length of first curve
Lc2 = length of second curve
L1 = length of first chord
L2 = length of second chord
L = length of long chord from PC to PT
T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2
θ = 180° - I
x and y can be found from triangle V1-V2-PI.
L can be found from triangle PC-PCC-PT

Formulas:

Finding the stationing of PT

Given the stationing of PC:

Sta PT=Sta PC+Lc1+Lc2

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 Given the stationing of PI:
Sta PT=Sta PI−x−T1+Lc1+Lc2

Reversed Curve
Reversed curve, though pleasing to the eye, would bring discomfort to motorist running at
design speed. The instant change in direction at the PRC brought some safety problems. Despite
this fact, reversed curves are being used with great success on park roads, formal paths,
waterway channels, and the like.

Where:
PC = point of curvature
PT = point of tangency
PRC = point of reversed curvature
T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
V1 = vertex of the first curve
V2 = vertex of the second curve
I1 = central angle of the first curve
I2 = central angle of the second curve
Lc1 = length of first curve
Lc2 = length of second curve
L1 = length of first chord
L2 = length of second chord
T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2

Formulas:

Finding the stationing of PT

Given the stationing of PC:

Sta PT=Sta PC+Lc1+Lc2

Given the stationing of PI:

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 Sta PT=Sta V1−T1+Lc1+Lc2

Reversed Curve for Nonparallel Tangents

The figure below is an example reversed curves of unequal radii connecting non-parallel
tangents.

Reversed Curve for Parallel Tangents

The figure below is an example of reversed curves of unequal radii connecting two parallel roads.

Problem No.3
A reversed curve with diverging tangent is to be designed to connect to three traversed lines for
the portion of the proposed highway. The lines AB is 185 m, BC is 122.40 m, and CD is 285 m.
The azimuth are Due East, 242°, and 302° respectively. The following are the cost index and
specification:

Type of Pavement = Item 311 (Portland Cement Concrete Pavement)

Number of Lanes = Two Lanes
Width of Pavement = 3.05 m per lane
Thickness of Pavement = 280 mm
Unit Cost = P1,800 per square meter

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It is necessary that the PRC (Point of Reversed Curvature) must be one-fourth the distance BC
from B.

a) Find the radius of the first curve.

b) Find the length of road from A to D. Use arc basis.
c) Find the cost of the concrete pavement from A to D.

Solution:

a. For the radius of the first curve:

1 1
𝑇1 = 𝐵𝐶 = (122.4) = 30.6 m.
4 4
𝑇2 = 𝐵𝐶 − 𝑇1 = 122.4 − 30.6 = 91.8 m.
𝑇1 30.6
𝑅1 = = = 122.73 m.
𝑡𝑎𝑛 1 4° 𝑡𝑎𝑛 1 4°
𝑇2 91.8
𝑅2 = = = 159.00 m.
𝑡𝑎𝑛 30 ° 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 0°

b. For the length of road from A to D. Using arc basis.

2𝜋(122.73)(28°) 𝜋(159)(60°)
𝐿 = 154.40 + + + 193.20
180° 180°
𝐿 = 154.40 + 59.98 + 166.50 + 193.20
𝐿 = 574.08 m.

c. Cost of concrete pavement

Page | 18
 For area of road pavement:
𝜋[119.68 + 6.10)2 − 119.682 ](28°)
𝐴 = 154.40(6.10) +
360°
𝜋[(155.95 + 6.10)2 − 155.952 ]60°
+ +
360°
193.20(6.10) + 193.20(6.10)
𝐴 = 160.50 + 365.86 + 1015.68 + 1178.52
𝐴 = 2720.56 m2 .

Cost of concrete pavement:

C = 1,800(2720.56) = Php 4,897,008

Spiral Curve
Spirals are used to overcome the abrupt change in curvature and superelevation that occurs
between tangent and circular curve. The spiral curve is used to gradually change the curvature
and superelevation of the road, thus called transition curve.

Where:
TS = Tangent to spiral

Page | 19
 SC = Spiral to curve
CS = Curve to spiral
ST = Spiral to tangent
LT = Long tangent
ST = Short tangent
R = Radius of simple curve
Ts = Spiral tangent distance
Tc = Circular curve tangent
L = Length of spiral from TS to any point along the spiral
Ls = Length of spiral
PI = Point of intersection
I = Angle of intersection
Ic = Angle of intersection of the simple curve
p = Length of throw or the distance from tangent that the circular curve has been
offset
X = Offset distance (right angle distance) from tangent to any point on the spiral
Xc = Offset distance (right angle distance) from tangent to SC
Y = Distance along tangent to any point on the spiral
Yc = Distance along tangent from TS to point at right angle to SC
Es = External distance of the simple curve
θ = Spiral angle from tangent to any point on the spiral
θs = Spiral angle from tangent to SC
i = Deflection angle from TS to any point on the spiral, it is proportional to the
square of its distance
is = Deflection angle from TS to SC
D = Degree of spiral curve at any point
Dc = Degree of simple curve

Formulas:

Distance along tangent to any point on the spiral:

Page | 20
Formulas:

Distance along tangent to any point on the spiral:

L5
Y =L−
40R 2L2s

At L=Ls; Y=Yc

L3
Y =L−
40R 2

Offset distance from tangent to any point on the spiral:

L3
X=
6RLs

At L=Ls; X=Xc

L2s
Xc =
6R

Length of throw:

1 L2
p= Xc = s
4 24R

Spiral angle from tangent to any point on the spiral (in radian):

L2
=
2RLs

At L=Ls; θ=θc

Ls
s =
2R

Deflection angle from TS to any point on the spiral:

1 L2
i= =
3 6RLs

Page | 21
At L=Ls; i=is

1 L
i = s = s
3 6R

This angle is proportional to the square of its distance

i L2
= 2
i s Ls

Tangent distance:

Ls I
Ts = + (R + P ) tan
2 2

Angle of intersection of simple curve:

Ic = I − 2s

External distance:
R+P
Es = −R
I
cos
2

Degree of spiral curve:

D L
=
DC Ls
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Once the horizontal alignment has been determined, the vertical alignment of the section of
highway in question can be addressed. Again, the vertical alignment is composed of a series of
straight-line gradients connected by curves, normally parabolic in form. These vertical parabolic
curves must therefore be provided at all changes in gradient. The curvature will be determined by
the design speed, being sufficient to provide adequate driver comfort
with appropriate stopping sight distances provided.
The desirable maximum vertical gradients are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Desirable maximum vertical gradients

Page | 22
 In difficult terrain, use of gradients steeper than those given in Table 3 may result in significant
construction and/or environmental savings. The absolute maximum for motorways is 4%. This
threshold rises to 8% for all-purpose roads, with any value above this considered a departure
from standards (DoT, 1993). A minimum longitudinal gradient of 0.5% should be maintained
where possible in order to ensure adequate surface water drainage.

Vertical Parabolic Curve

Vertical curves are used to provide gradual change between two adjacent vertical grade lines.
The curve used to connect the two adjacent grades is parabola. Parabola offers smooth transition
because its second derivative is constant. For a downward parabola with vertex at the origin, the
standard equation is:
x2
y =−
4a

From calculus, the first derivative is the slope of the curve.

x
y' = −
2a

The value of y' above is linear, thus the grade diagram (slope diagram) for a summit curve is
downward and linear as shown in the figure below. The second derivative is obviously constant
1
y" = −
2a

which is interpreted as rate of change of slope. This characteristic made the parabola the
desirable curve because it offers constant rate of change of slope.

Elements of Vertical Curve

PC = point of curvature, also known as BVC (beginning of vertical curve)

PT = point of tangency, also known as EVC (end of vertical curve)
PI = point of intersection of the tangents, also called PVI (point of vertical
intersection)
L = length of parabolic curve, it is the projection of the curve onto a horizontal
surface which corresponds to the plan distance.

Page | 23
 S1 = horizontal distance from PC to the highest (lowest) point of the summit (sag)
curve
S2 = horizontal distance from PT to the highest (lowest) point of the summit (sag)
curve
h1 = vertical distance between PC and the highest (lowest) point of the summit
(sag) curve
h2 = vertical distance between PT and the highest (lowest) point of the summit
(sag) curve
g1 = grade (in percent) of back tangent (tangent through PC)
g2 = grade (in percent) of forward tangent (tangent through PT)
A = change in grade from PC to PT
a = vertical distance between PC and PI
b = vertical distance between PT and PI
H = vertical distance between PI and the curve

Symmetrical Parabolic Curve

In this section, symmetrical parabolic curve does not necessarily mean the curve is symmetrical
at L/2, it simply means that the curve is made up of single vertical parabolic curve. Using two or
more parabolic curves placed adjacent to each other is called unsymmetrical parabolic curve. The
figure shown below is a vertical summit curve. Note that the same elements hold true for vertical
sag curve.

Properties of Parabolic Curve and its Grade Diagram

1. The length of parabolic curve L is the horizontal distance between PI and PT.
2. PI is midway between PC and PT.
3. The curve is midway between PI and the midpoint of the chord from PC to PT.
4. The vertical distance between any two points on the curve is equal to area under the grade
diagram. The vertical distance c = Area.
5. The grade of the curve at a specific point is equal to the offset distance in the grade
diagram under that point. The grade at point Q is equal to gQ.

Page | 24
Formulas for Symmetrical Parabolic Curve

The figure shown above illustrates the following geometric properties of parabolic curve. Note that
the principles and formulas can be applied to both summit and sag curves. Rise=run x slope.

1
a= g1L
2
1
b = g 2L
2

Location of highest or lowest point of the curve. Neglecting the sign of g1 and g2:

From PC = S1 and from PT = S2

g1L g 2L
S1 = S2 =
g1 + g 2 g1 + g 2

Vertical distance = area under the grade diagram:

1
h1 = g1S1
2
1
h2 = g 2S2
2

Other formulas:
1
H= L ( g1 + g 2 )
8
( 21 L )
2
x2
=
y H

Sample Problem
A descending grade of 6% and an ascending grade of 2% intersect at Sta 12 + 200 km whose
elevation is at 14.375 m. The two grades are to be connected by a parabolic curve, 160 m long.
Find the elevation of the first quarter point on the curve.

Solution:

Page | 25
From the grade diagram:

S1 L
=
g1 g1 + g 2
S1 160
=
0.06 0.06 + 0.02
S1 = 120 m.

Horizontal distance from the lowest point to point Q:

sQ = S1 − 40 = 120 − 40
sQ = 80 m.

Grade at point Q by ratio and proportion of triangles:

gQ 0.06
=
sQ S1
0.06sQ 0.06 ( 80 )
gQ = =
S1 120
gQ = 0.04

Elevation of PC:
Elev PC=Elev V+80(0.06)
Elev PC=14.375+80(0.06)
Elev PC=19.175 m

Difference in elevation between PC and Q:

DEPC−Q = shaded area in the grade diagram
DEPC−Q = (1/2)(gQ+0.06)(40)
DEPC−Q = (1/2)(0.04+0.06)(40)
DEPC−Q = 2 m

Page | 26
Elevation of the first quarter point Q:
Elev Q = Elev PC−DEPC−Q
Elev Q = 19.175 − 2
Elev Q = 17.175 m

Length of Crest Vertical Curves

Provision of a minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) is the only criterion used for design of a
crest vertical curve. There are two possible scenarios that could control the design length: (1) the
SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve, and (2) the SSD is less than the length of the
vertical curve.

Consider the case when the SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve as
shown in the figure above, where the driver’s eye height in a vehicle on the grade at point C
is H1 ft. and the object at point D seen by the driver is H2 ft. The driver’s line of sight
is PN ft and the SSD is S ft. The line of sight, PN, may not necessarily be horizontal,
but the value used in calculations for SSD considers the horizontal projection.

The SSD S is

L
S = X1 + + X2
2
Note:
A is the algebraic difference between the two straight-line gradients.
X1 and X2 can be determined from grades G1 and G2 and their algebraic difference A.

The minimum length of the vertical curve for the required sight distance is:

2
2  H1 + H2 
Lmin = 2S −  (for S > L)
A

If the object is assumed to have zero height (H2 = 0), then

Page | 27
 2H1
Lmin = 2S −
A

If the object is assumed to be at the driver’s eye height (H1 = H2):

8H1
Lmin = 2S −
A

When the sight distance is less than the length of the crest vertical curve, the configuration
shown in the figure above applies. Similarly, the properties of a parabola can be used to show
that the minimum length of the vertical curve is:

AS 2
Lmin = − 2
(for S < L)
 2H1 + 2H2 
 

If the object is assumed to have zero height (H2 = 0), then

AS 2
Lmin = −
2H1

If the object is assumed to be at the driver’s eye height (H1 = H2):

AS 2
Lmin = −
8H1

Sample Problem:
A vertical crest curve on a single carriageway road with a design speed of 85 km/hr is to be built
in order to join an ascending grade of 4% with a descending grade of 2.5%. The motorist’s eye
height is assumed to be 1.05m while the object height is assumed to be 0.26m.
a. Calculate the minimum curve length required in order to satisfy the requirements
of minimum sight stopping distance
b. Recalculate the minimum curve length with the object height assumed to be zero.

Solution:
a. From Table the desirable minimum stopping distance for 85 km/hr is 160m.
1
H = L ( g1 + g 2 )
8
1
H = (160 )( 0.04 − 0.025 )
8
H = 1.3 m

Since H> H1, S < L as the sight distance is contained within the curve length.

Page | 28
 Lmin = −
AS 2
=
 0.04 − ( −0.025) (160)2
=
(0.065)(160)2
= 353.29 m
2 2 2
 2H1 + 2H2   2(1.05) + 2(0.26)   2(1.05) + 2(0.26) 
     

b. Since H2 = 0:
AS 2 0.065(160)2
Lmin = − = = 792.38 m
2H1 2(1.05)

Therefore, the required crest curve length more than doubles in value if the object height is
reduced to zero.

SUPERELEVATION
Super-elevation or cant or banking is the transverse slope provided at horizontal curve to
counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the outer edge of the pavement with respect to the
inner edge, throughout the length of the horizontal curve. When the outer edge is raised, a
component of the curve weight will be complimented in counteracting the effect of centrifugal
force. In order to find out how much this raising should be, the following analysis may be done.
The forces acting on a vehicle while taking a horizontal curve with superelevation is shown in
figure below.

Consider the force diagram in the figure above. If the vehicle is traveling around a curve with a
radius R at a constant speed v, there will be a radial acceleration toward the center of the curve
(toward the left in the diagram) of v2/R, which will be opposed by a force of (Wg)(v2/R). Other
forces acting on the vehicle are its weight W and the forces exerted against the wheels by the
roadway surface. These forces are represented by two components: the normal forces N1 and
N2 and the lateral forces F1 and F2. For highway vehicles F1 and F2 are friction forces, so
F1  N1 and F2  N2
where µ is the coefficient of friction between the tires and the roadway.

Page | 29
 v2 V2
R= or R=
g (f + e ) 127(f + e )
v2 V2
e= −f or e= −f
gR 127R
Where:

e = superelevation rate
v = velocity in km/hr
R = radius of curvature in meters
f = side friction
g = gravitational constant

Sample Problem:
What is the minimum radius of curvature allowable for a roadway with a 100 km/h design
speed, assuming that the maximum allowable superelevation rate is 0.12? Compare this with
the minimum curve radius recommended by AASHTO. What is the actual maximum
superelevation rate allowable under AASHTO recommended standards for a 100 km/h design
speed, if the value of f is the maximum allowed by AASHTO for this speed? Round the answer
down to the nearest whole percent.

Solution:
v2 1002
R= = = 328 m.
127(f + e ) 127(0.12 + 0.12)

Minimum radius recommended by AASHTO is 490 m. Actual maximum superelevation rate for
AASHTO recommended standards for 100 km/h is

V2 1002
e= −f = − 0.12 = 0.041
127R 127(490)

Page | 30
EARTHWORKS & VOLUMES
Earthworks are required for many types of construction such as roads and railways,
dams, tunnels, buildings, swimming pools and tanks. For many of these construction projects,
the surveyor is required to set out the extent of excavation and calculate quantities of material to
be exported or imported.

End Area

V=
( A1 + A2 ) L
2

Prismoidal Formula

L
V= ( A1 + 4Am + A2 )
6
where: A m = area of mid-section

Prismoidal Formula
D1 D2

C1 C2

A1 A2

Page | 31
 V = VE − Vcp
L
V= (C1 − C2 )( D1 − D2 )
12

where: VE = volume by end area

Vcp = prismoidal correction
C1 & C2 = the centre line depths of cut ( or heights of fill ) for the cross sections
D1 & D2 = the centre line depths of cut ( or heights of fill ) for the cross sections

Sample Problem:
Given the cross section notes below of the ground which will be excavated for a
roadway, compute the volume of excavation between Station 4+000 and 4+020 by:
a) End area method
b) Prismoidal formula
c) Prismoidal correction.

7.38L 0 12.285R
Sta 4+000
+1.92 +3.15 +5.19
8.82L 0 10.08R
Sta 4+000
+2.88 +2.52 +3.72

The roadway is 9 m. wide with side slope of 1.5:1

Page | 32
Solution:

a. By End Area Method

A1 =
(1.92 + 3.15 )( 7.38 ) − (1.92)( 2.88 ) + ( 5.19 + 3.15 )(12.285 ) − (7.785 )(5.19 ) = 46.97 m2
2 2 2 2

A2 =
( 2.88 + 2.52)( 8.82) − 4.32 ( 2.88 ) + ( 3.72 + 2.52)(10.08 ) − (5.58 )(3.72) = 36.66 m2
2 2 2 2
L ( A1 + A2 ) 20 ( 46.97 + 38.66 )
VE = = = 856.30 m3
2 2

b. By Prismoidal Formula

Cross-section at mid-section

3.15 + 2.52
C1 = = 2.835 m.
2
1.92 + 2.88
h1 = = 2.4 m.
2
5.19 + 3.72
h2 = = 4.455 m.
2

Am =
( 2.4 + 2.835 )( 8.1) − ( 2.4 )( 3.6 ) + ( 2.835 + 4.455 )(11.1825 ) + ( 6.6825 )( 4.455 ) = 42.76 m2 .
2 2 2 2
L
V = ( A1 + 4 Am + A2 )
6
L
V = ( 46.97 + 4(42.76) + 38.66 ) = 855.57 m3
6

c. By Prismoidal Correction

L
VC = (C1 − C2 )( D1 − D2 )
12
20
VC = ( 3.15 − 2.52 )(19.865 − 18.90 ) = 1.01325 m3
12
VP = VE − VC = 856.3 − 1.01325 = 855.27 m3

Page | 33
LET’S TRY THIS!

1. A roadway is being designed for a speed of 70 mi/h. At one horizontal curve, it is known
that the superelevation is 8.0% and the coefficient of side friction is 0.10. Determine the
minimum radius of curve (measured to the traveled path) that will provide for safe vehicle
operation. (p. 78, Priciples of Highway Engineering)
2. An equal-tangent vertical curve is to be constructed between grades of 2.0% (initial) and
+1.0% (final). The PVI is at station 110 + 00 and at elevation 420 ft. Due to a street crossing
the roadway, the elevation of the roadway at station 112 + 00 must be at 424.5 ft. Design
the curve. (p. 53, Priciples of Highway Engineering)

HOW MUCH HAVE YOU LEARNED?

1. Given two intersecting streets of 30 meters between curbs having an azimuth 25° and
270°. The two street car rails are to be laid so that their center lines coincide with the
center line of each street and on such radius that the center of track will clear the face of
a 4.5 meter radius curve at least 6.6 meters. Determine the maximum radius of the curve.
2. The long chord of a compound curve is 425 meters long and the angles that it makes with
tangents of the curve are 20° and 24° respectively. Find the radius R1 and R2 of the
compound curve if the common tangent is parallel to the long chord.
3. Two tangents intersects at an angle of 46°40’ are to be connected by a reversed curved.
The tangent distance from the point of intersection of the tangents to the P.T. of the
reversed curve is 48.60 meters. The bearing of the back tangent is S 43° 20’ W. If the
radius of the curve through the P.C. is 240 meters, determine the radius of the other
branch of the curve. The distance from the point of intersection of tangents to the P.C. of
the reversed curve is 360.43 meters.
4. A descending grade of 4.2% grade intersect an ascending grade of 3% at Station
11+488.00 of elevations 20.80 meters. These two center grade-lines are to be connected
by a 260 meter vertical parabolic curve. At what station is the cross-drainage pipes be
situated? If the overall outside dimension of the R.C. pipes to be installed is 95 cm and
the top of the culvert is 30 cm below the sub-grade, what will be the invert elevation at the
center?
5. An unsymmetrical parabola curve has a forward tangent of -8% and a backward tangent
of +5%. The length of the curve on the left side of the curve is 40 meters long while that
of the right side is 60 meters long. At Station 66+780 and at elevation 110 meters.
Determine the height of fill at the outcrop. Also, determine the elevation of curve at Sta.
6+820.
6. A grade ascending at the rate of 5% meets another grade descending at the rate of 4% at
the vertex of elevation 20 m. and stationing 5+000. Solve for the stationing and elevation
of the summit of the vertical parabolic curve which will connect the grade lines for a safe
sight distance of 150 m., the height of the eyes of the drivers above the pavement at each
end of the sight distance being 1.5 meters.

Page | 34
 7. A spiral 80 meter long connects a tangent with a 6°30’ circular curve. If the stationing of
the T.S. is 10+000, and the gauge of the tract on the curve is 1.5 m., determine the
following:
a. The elevation of the outer rail at the mid-point, if the velocity of the fastest train
to pass over the curve is 60 kph.
b. The spiral angle at the first quarter point.
c. The deflection angle at the end point.
d. The offset from the tangent at the second quarter point.
8. From the following cross-section notes, compute the corrected volumes of cut and fill, the
road bed being 6 m. wide in cut and 4.8 m. in fill. The side slope for both cut and fill is 1:1.

5.04 0.6 5.46

Sta 3+000 + 0.39
−2.64 0 +2.46
5.82 1.02 4.80
Sta 2+980 +0.60
−3.42 0 +1.80

REFERENCES
C. S. Papacostas, P. D. (2009). Transportation Engineering and Planning. New Delhi: PHI
Learning Private Limited.
Deakin, R. (2005). Retrieved from www.mygeodesy.id.au.
Garber, N., & &Hoel, L. (2001). Highway and Traffic Engineering. Brookes/Cole Publishing.
Mannering Fred, W. S. (2004). Principles of Highway Engineering & TrafficAnalysis. Muze Inc.
Mathalino Engineering Mathematics. (n.d.). Retrieved from Mathalino.com:
https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/surveying-and-transportation-engineering/simple-
curves-or-circular-curves
Mathew, D. T. (2009, December 31). NPTEL. Retrieved from
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105/101/105101087/
Rogers, M. (2003). Highway Engineering. Paris: Blackwell Publishing.
Wright, P. H. (2003). Highway Engineering. Wiley & Sons.

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