The following are the different factors to be considered in selecting a

good site for rice production, as stated in the Competency-Based Learning

Module (CBLM) for Rice Production:

1. Soil. A rice field should possess the following attributes:

a. high clay content
b. a 2:1 ratio of top clay mineral montmorillionite
c. medium amount of organic matter
d. good drainage
e. top soil 18 – 20 cm deep
f. soil pH range of 6.2 -7.0

2. Climate. Climate change is one of the factors posing challenge to

rice production nowadays. These factors include rainfall, sunlight,
wind velocity, and temperature.

a. Rainfall. In rainfed areas, the start of the rainy season

determines the planting time. This is because the source of
water supply for non-irrigated rice field comes directly from
rainfall. On the other hand too much rainfall causes floods
that submerged the plants. Water directly affects the
photosynthetic activity of the rice plant.

b. Sunlight. It is the foremost source of energy of all plant life.

When water supply is not limited, sunshine is the most
important climatic factor that influences rice yield.
Therefore, site should be free of any barrier to sunlight

c. Temperature. It is a limiting factor in rice production.

However, in the Philippines, temperature is almost constant,
hence, it is not a critical problem.

d. Wind velocity. Gentle wind is beneficial to rice plant because

new air blown around the plant causes replenishment of
carbon dioxide. Strong wind such as heavy wind during
typhoon may cause lodging and shattering of rice grain,
reduction of photosynthetic activities and may enhance
growth of bacterial leaf diseases.

3. Location. Farm location greatly affects the profitability of rice

production. The following are some factors to consider:

a. the farm should be near the road to facilitate ease of

transport.
b. there should be available laborers in the different stages of
rice production.
c. good irrigation and drainage.
d. proximity to drying pavement and other post-harvest
facilities

The following are the steps in repairing levees.

1. Clean the levees. Trim the thick portions of both sides of the
levees using a bolo. Patch all rat holes, breaks, and soft
spots.
2. Repair the levees by using soil which has been broken up
during the first plowing for patching soft spots and cracks.
Break up and rebuild the portion of the levees containing
rat holes.
3. Patch-up/cover/fill the levee with mud making sure that all
cracks are sealed properly.
4. Dikes must be cleaned to remove pest, compact to prevent
seepage, and maintain at 15 cm high x 20 cm wide to
prevent rat burrowing. Ditches will ensure even water
distribution and drainage.

The characteristics of certified seeds are the following:

1. pure
2. clean
3. with the same size and shape
4. 85% or higher percentage of germination
5. free from seed borne diseases

The following are the desirable characteristics

of high yielding rice varieties:

1. Early maturing and non-seasonal (100 – 130 days from

seeding to maturity)
2. Resistant to pest, diseases, drought and lodging
3. Nitrogen-responsive (this means that when you apply
nitrogen to the rice plant, the yield increases)
4. High grain weight (6 – 7 mg)
5. High grain milling quality (whole )
6. High milling recovery (66% -70%)

There are other factors to consider in the selection of good

seeds aside from the desirable characteristics, and these are:

1. Genetic purity. The seed should not be mixed with other rice
variety.
2. Physical purity of composition. Seeds should be free from inert
matter, chaff, and weed seeds. They must be clean.
3. Moisture content. The ideal moisture content of rice seeds for
sowing is 14%.
4. Capacity of the seed to germinate or viability. The international
standards for viability require a minimum of 80% germination.

The four general classifications of agricultural seeds according

to their purity and quality are as follows:

1. Breeder seeds. This is the purest seed of rice varieties obtained

through selection, introduction, and hybridization.
Hybridization means that a selected seed is planted and during
the reproductive stage , it is crossed with another plant.
2. Foundation seeds. This type of seed is produced from breeder
seeds in the government seed farm where its varietal purity is
maintained.
3. Registered seeds. This seed is produced from the foundation
seed.
4. Certified seeds. This type of seed is produced from the
registered seed.

Proper Way of Pulling Seedlings

1. Irrigate the seedbed overnight to a depth of at least 3-5

centimeters
to soften the soil and facilitate pulling of seedlings
2. Hold the seedlings close to the base and gently pull them.
3. Another method is to use a scythe to cut through the soil half
inch below the stem, This method is faster, and avoids stress
and damage to the stem while ensuring that adequate roots of
the seedlings are retained.
4. Bundle them in any convenient size for ease of handling.
Transplanting seedling

1. Straight row planting. Seedlings are transplanted in straight

rows where definite spacing is maintained between plants.

2. Random transplanting.This method of transplanting has no

specific distance in planting.

The Macro and Micro Elements of the Soil and their Functions

Nitrogen (N)
Functions:
 Stimulates growth of the leaves and stems
 It gives dark green color to plant

Deficiency symptoms:
 Pale yellow in color
 Lower leaves will die early
 Short and stunted plant

Excess of nitrogen causes the plant to lodge before

booting which will cause decrease in the yield of rice. If you
observe the plants to be dark green it is already prone to
lodging. Do not apply nitrogenous fertilizer anymore.

Sources of Nitrogen
1. Ammonium sulfate (21 – 0 – 0)
2. Ammonium phosphate (16 – 20 – 0)
3. Urea (46 – 0 – 0)
4. Organic fertilizer
5. Liquid fertilizer

Phosphorous (P)
Functions:
1. Encourages root growth
2. Hastens maturity of the plant
3. Helps in the production of seeds

Deficiency symptoms:
 Not enough tillers per hill

Sources:
1. Superphosphate (0-20-0)
2. Ammonium phosphate(16-20-0)
3. Triphosphate(0-45-0)
4. Complete fertilizer (14-14-14)
5. Liquid fertilizer
6. Organic fertilizer

Potassium (K)
Functions:
1. Increases the vigor of the plant.
2. Plant becomes more resistant to disease.
3. Stalks become stronger.
4. Grains become bigger and plump.

Deficiency symptoms:
 Plant growth, root development, and seed development
are usually reduced.

Sources:
1.Muriate of potash (0-0-60)
2.Complete fertilizer (14 – 14 – 14

Kinds of Fertilizer
1. Organic fertilizer refers to the fertilizer that comes from
decayed plant and animal residues such as:

a. Animal manure. Animal manures are especially

valuable in crop production. In addition as plant
food, they supply large amounts of organic matter to
the soil. The composition depends chiefly on the
kind of manure and the condition of their storage.
Well-decomposed manure is better than fresh. These
are main components in composting and vermicomposting.

b. Green manures are green growing plants that are plowed

under. Leguminous plants are mainly used for this
purpose due to their capacity to produce nutrients in
their root nodules. Upon decomposition, nutrients
become available to new crops grown in the area. Green
manure supplies the crop its needed nutrients like
nitrogen and others.

c. Compost is an organic material consisting of very fine,

thoroughly decomposed mixture of manure, plant
parts, and other organic matter. It contains mineral
elements needed for plant growth. It is prepared by
piling up animal manure, soil, crop residues, lime or
wood ashes. It could also be produced through vermicomposting
using African night crawlers (ANC) worms
which produce cast which is a very good source of
organic material.

2. Inorganic Fertilizer. These are the commercial fertilizers.

They are concentrated form of plant food which maybe
complete or incomplete. A complete fertilizer contains all the
three macro elements (NPK). An incomplete fertilizer
contains only one or two of these elements – N, P or K.

Inorganic fertilizers are classified according to the number

of fertilizer elements present.
a. Single element fertilizers. These contain only
one element. Examples:
Ammonium sulphate(21-0-0)
Urea (46-0-0)
Ordinary superphosphate (20-0-0)
Muriate of potash (0-0-60)

b. Incomplete fertilizers. These fertilizers contain

only two fertilizer elements. Examples:
114
Mono-ammonium phosphate (21-53-0)(18-46-0)
and (16-20-0) (11-18-0)

c. Complete Fertilizers. These contain all three

major elements, N,P,K in percentages indicated
respectively by the three numerals .Examples:
12-12-12, 14-14-14, 12-24-12, 10-25-25, 5-10-
16

Types of Irrigation System

a. Reservoir type. A large dam or a small water impounding dam

is constructed across a stream of river where water is
impounded for irrigation and for domestic use. The flow of
irrigation water is dependent on the selection of the methods of
water distribution to meet the water needs of the service area.
The rotation method is usually employed to ensure even
distribution of available water supply and to ensure that a
wider area will be supplied with irrigation water.

b. The run-off-the-river type. In this method a controllable gate

is constructed along the river or stream . When water outlet is
closed, water level rise which could be diverted to the canals
and laterals. The quantity of water entering the main canal is
regulated at the intake gate. The available water supply is
dependent on the elevation at the source. As a general rule, the
supply is proportionate to the height of the source and volume
flowing from the source. During periods of high flow when
available supply becomes abundant, the continuous method is
usually practiced. When the supply is scarce, the rotational
method is employed.

c. Pumping type. This method makes use of a pump powered by

an engine installed to draw water from underground or open
sources like rivers and lakes. The available water supply is
dependent upon the capacity of the pumps and the water level.
Energy is used to run the system, hence, higher operation
expenses are incurred. When using this type, never allow the
rice paddies to dry and have cracks, which will cause water
seepage making irrigation more expensive.

To determine the right amount of water to use, consider the

following:

1. Rice variety. You may need more water for the late maturing
varieties than early maturing varieties.
2. Season. Wet season crops need less water than dry season
crops.
3. Types of soil. Clay or clay loam soil needs less water than light
soil such as sand.
4. Presence of weeds. Flooding the field always prevent the
growth of weeds.

Water may be lost through the following processes:

1. Evaporation. It is the direct loss of water from the water

surface or moist soil surface. The amount of water that
evaporates is influenced by high intensity of sunlight, strong
and dry wind, and high temperature. Second crop rice
production which is on time with the summer season needs
more water to sustain growth and yield.
2. Transpiration. It is the loss of water from the leaves.
Transpiration is affected by the weather condition. More water
will be lost during dry season which explains the need of
constant irrigation.

3. Seepage. Water moves sideways within the soil. It may pass

through the dike or below the ground. This can be minimized if
the dikes and levees are well-maintained.

4. Percolation. It is the downward flow of water. Its occurrence is

high if the soil is sandy, deep, and has a deep water table.
Well-puddled rice paddies minimize percolation and tend to
hold water efficiently.

The six stages of rice growth when the rice field has to be
drained:

1. during transplanting
2. early stage of growth
3. weeding
4. fertilizer application
5. maximum tillering stage
6. two weeks before harvesting

The types of weeds commonly found in rice fields are:

1. Grasses. These are monocotyledonous plants which have long

narrow leaves, usually flat leaves with parallel veins and round
hollow stem. Among these are:
a. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pens
Common name: bakbaka or galut-galut (Iloc.),
kawadkawad (Tag.), Bermuda grass or runners (Eng.)
b. Echinochloa glabrescens Muriro
Echinochloa crusgalli sbsp. Hispidula
Common name: marapagay (Iloc.), bayakibok (Tag.),
Barnyard grass (Eng.) and lagton (Bicol)
c. Echinochloa colona (L.) Link
Common names: dukayang or bulang (Iloc.), pulang
puwit (Tag.), jungle rice (Eng.)
d. Paspalum sp
Common name: karunsi (Iloc.), plastic grass (Eng.)
e. Rottboellia chochichinensis (L)
Common name: marapagay, sagisi (Iloc.), aguingay (Tag.)

2. Sedges. These are weeds with triangular stem, long narrow

leaves and modified rhizomes for storage and propagation.
Examples are:
a. Fimbrystilis littoralis Gaud
Common name: siraw-siraw (Iloc.), ubud-ubod, taulat
(Tag.), gumi (Pangasinan), sirisibuyas (Bicol)
b. Cyrperus iria (L)
Common name: payong-payong (Iloc.), umbrella sedge
(Eng.)
c. Scirpus maritimus( L)
Common name: bawang-bawang, marilango,
marabawang or buslig (Iloc.), apulid (Tag.), bulrush
(Eng.)
d. Cyperus dif formis (L.)
Common names: marabutones, ballayang (Iloc.), payongpayong,
tagataga (Tag.)
e. Cyperus rotundus (L.)
Common name: barsanga (Iloc.), mutha (Eng.)
f. Schenoplectus grossus (L.) Palla
Common names: bilid-bilid (Iloc.), giant bulrush (Eng.),
Tikiw (Tag.)

3. Broadleaves. These are dicotyledonous plants with netted

veined leaves. Among the most common in rice fields are:

a. Monochoria vaginalis Presl

Common name: gabing uwak, biga-bigaan (Tag.), billagut
(Iloc.), Upi-upi (Bicol)
139
b. Ipomoea aguatica (Forssk)
Common name: balangeg (Iloc.), kangkong (Tag.),
swamp cabbage (Eng.)
c. Sphenoclea zeylanica (Gaertn.)
Common names: sili-silian (Tag.), marasili (Iloc.)
d. Ipomoea triloba (L. Common names: marakamote (Iloc.)
kamokamoteha Tag.)

Methods in Controlling Weeds

A. Physical/mechanical method. Weeds can be controlled by
means of:
1. hand pulling or hand weeding
2. use of mechanical weeders or rotary weeder possible
when transplanted, using the straight row planting and
mechanical seeder in direct row planting
3. efficient use of irrigation water which prevents the
emergence of all kinds of weeds
B. Cultural method. This involves good land preparation and
flooding during land preparation to remove weed seeds, closer
140
crop spacing, and use of varieties that are taller and will
produce more tillers early in the season.
C. Chemical Control. Herbicides may be used to kill weeds or
suppress their growth.
Chemical control is cheaper than hand weeding and can
be used in all rice environments. However, the continued use of
the same herbicides leads to build-up of perennial weeds which
are difficult to control with herbicide. This can be prevented by
hand or mechanical weeding periodically. Herbicides are
applied either pre-emergence (before weeds germinate) or postemergence
(after weeds have germinated) in granular or
sprayable form.

Major Insect Pests

1. Rice whorl maggot (Hydrellia philippinia) Local name: ngilaw ti

pagay, ngilaw ti taltalon (Iloc.), langaw-bukid (Tag.)

2. Rice caseworm (Nymphula depuntalis) Local name: kutalo

(Iloc.).

3. Common armyworm (Mythimna separate Walker). Local name:

arabas (Iloc.)

4. Cutworm (Spodoptera litura). Local names: tariptip (Qui.)

arabas (Cag.)

5. Rice stemborers. Local name: rusok (Cag.)

6. Rice leaffolder (Cnaphalacrocis medinalis) Local name:

balbalkot, igges nga aglukot ti bulong (Iloc.).

7. Green leafhoppers (Nephotettix spp) Local name: berde a

sepsep (Iloc.), berdeng ngusong kabayo (Tag.).

8. Brown planthoppers (Nilaparvata lugens) Local name: kolor

kape a sepsep (Iloc.).

9. Rice bugs (Leptocorisa oratorious) Local name: dangaw (Iloc.)

Viral Diseases

1. Tungro. The most destructive among virus diseases, this

usually occurs in a lowland ricefield

2. Yellow dwarf. The disease usually occurs sporadically in fields.

Infection often takes place during the late stages of plant
growth.

3. Grassy stunt. This is prevalent in farms employing an

overlapping rice cropping system.

Bacterial Diseases

1. Bacterial leaf blight. (Xanthomonas campestris). It is

widespread in the country especially in areas with high rainfall
and humidity.

2. Bacterial leaf streak. (Xanthomonas campestris pv.

Oryziccola). This disease does not reduce yield if low rates of
nitrogen are applied although it may lower yields of susceptible
varieties.

Fungal Diseases

1. Rice blast. (Pyricularia oryzae). This is the most common

disease of rice infecting plants at any stage of growth.

2. Cercospora leafspot (Sphaerulina oryzina Hara). The long axis

of this spot is parallel with the veins of the leaf.

3. Brown spot or Helminthosporium leaf spot

(Helminthosporium oryzae). This disease is probably present in
all rice producing areas. It infects all stages of a rice plant.

4. Stem rot (Helminthosporium sigmoidium). Infection of the

disease occurs near the water line usually at the maximum
tillering stage up to the milk stage.

5. Sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani). The disease occurs during

the heading stage to the milk stage

6. Sheath rot (Sanocladium oryzae Sawada). The fungus is

seedborne and infection takes place through the stomata and
wounds.

Methods of Harvesting Rice

1. Manual is the method of harvesting rice with the use of sickle

and scythe.
2. Mechanical is the method of harvesting rice with the use of a
reaper or combine harvesters.
Whatever method is used in harvesting always take note of the
169
following:
 Harvest at the right time and moisture content (20-25% MC).
Too early harvesting results in difficulty in separating grains
from the panicle and immature grains from the head will be
ground during milling.
 Avoid delays in threshing after harvesting, within an overnight
that the harvested rice is stacked specially if it is wet, the grain
quality is affected.
 Use the proper machine in threshing. There are some
machines that allow lots of grain to go with the hay during
threshing.
 Clean the grain properly after threshing

Factors to consider in choosing the appropriate system of

threshing:
a. availability of labor
b. capital outlay of the farm
c. timeliness of harvesting
d. field layout and field accessibility (combine harvester requires a
certain field layout and access)
e. rice variety (some varieties are more prone to lodging)
f. demand for quality rice
g. demand for straw (some threshers damage the straw making it
less available).

Importance of Cleaning Rice grain

1. Clean grain has higher market value.

2. Clean grain is easier to dry.
3. Clean grain has better storability.
4. It produces better quality of milled rice.
5. It reduces dockage at time of milling.
6. Seed cleaning will reduce susceptibility to diseases and will
improve germination .

Methods of Cleaning

1. Winnowing. Lighter materials such as unfilled grains, chaffs,

weed seeds, and straw can be removed from the grain by using
a blower, air fan, or by wind. Recover only the heavier grains.
2. Screening/sifting. Using sifter or a net smaller materials
such as weed seeds, soils particles and stones can be removed
by sieving the grain through a smaller sized screen (1.4 mm or
less sieve opening).
3. Blowing.Using the thresher or mechanical blower to clean the
rice grains and using its blower to remove all unfilled grains ,
weed seeds, and chaff.

Importance of Drying Rice Grains

1. Improves the storability of grains

2. Obtains higher market value
3. Prevents pest infestation and damage caused by
microorganisms
4. Proper drying

In
order to prevent heavy losses during storing, here are the guidelines
to follow:

1. After drying the rice grains, store them properly if you are not
going to sell immediately. Safe storage involves the
preservation of the quality and quantity of grain for future use.
Thus, protect your harvest from bad weather, pests,
microorganisms, chemicals, moisture, and other types of
contamination.
2. Clean sacks before use to remove insect pests.
3. Do not stack the sacks of rice on a concrete floor, it will
accumulate moisture. Use a stacking tray made of wood.
4. Separate old and new grain stocks.
5. Separate and mark different varieties by storing them in
different sacks. Handle sacks with care to avoid damage and
spillage.
6. Cover the stacked bags of rice with plastic sheet or other
covering materials.
7. Clean bodega/warehouse prior to new grain storage and
maintain cleanliness of the surroundings to discourage
rodents’ infestation.
8. Visit the storage area regularly to observe any grain damage,
changes in grain temperature, increase in moisture content,
and any indication of grain deterioration.
9. Avoid storing fertilizer and insecticides near the rice stock to
ensure safety and maintain market quality.
10. Make use of a bait for rodents if necessary.

To obtain high milling recovery, observe the following:

1. Clean and dry grains immediately after harvest. Allow to

temper overnight or longer before milling to minimize grain
breakage.
2. Do not mix different varieties. Mixed varieties adversely affect
the performance of the mill.

IMPORTANT THINGS TO REMEMBER

 Harvesting is the process of collecting mature rice crop from

the field.
 Threshing is the process of separating rice grain from the
panicle.
 The maturity indices of rice are: a) 80-85% of the grains are
straw colored b) grains have 20-25% moisture content of the
grain c) based on maturity date
 Methods of harvesting are manual or mechanical.
 The choice of selecting the method in threshing depends upon
the availability of labor, capital outlay of the farm, time of
harvesting, field layout, demand for quality, and demand for
straw.
 Observe the safety measures in harvesting, threshing, and
milling.
 Clean rice is easier to dry.
 Clean rice when properly dried to improve the storability.
 Clean and properly dried rice grains have higher market value.
 Clean and properly dried rice grains obtain good milling
quality.
 Store rice grain for future use.
 Observe safety precautions when using chemicals, especially in
the control of pests in the storage barn.
 The moisture content of rice grains for storage is 14 percent.
 Sundrying can be done 1-2 days (fair weather) or 8-11 hours if
mechanical dryer is used.

Post-Harvest Activity (RICE)

Harvesting
Harvesting is the process of collecting the mature rice crop from the field. Paddy harvesting activities
include reaping, stacking, handling, threshing, cleaning, and hauling.

Storage
The purpose of any grain storage facility is to provide safe storage conditions for the grain in order to
prevent grain loss caused by adverse weather, moisture, rodents, birds, insects and micro-organisms like
fungi.
By-products
The main by-products of rice are rice straw, rice husks or hulls, and rice bran. With proper management,
each by-products can be utilized for better purposes such as for energy and non-energy uses (e.g., for
agriculture sector and animal fodder production).

Drying
Drying is the process that reduces grain moisture content to a safe level for storage. It is the most critical
operation after harvesting a rice crop. Delays in drying, incomplete drying, or ineffective drying will reduce
grain quality and result in losses.

Milling
Milling is a crucial step in post-production of rice. The basic objective of a rice milling system is to remove
the husk and the bran layers, and produce an edible, white rice kernel that is sufficiently milled and free
of impurities.