MODULE 3

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Batch 4

MAR 1-3, 2019 RBRA Training Room, Unit 1601 West Trade Center,
1:00PM - 9:00PM 132 West Avenue, Quezon City
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TOPIC OUTLINE
1. Introduction 4. Tension Members
1.1. What is a steel 4.1. General Provisions
1.2. Sections and Specification 4.2. Tensile Yielding
1.3. Applications 4.3. Tensile Rupture
1.4. Advantages and Disadvantages 4.4. Block Shear Failure
1.5. Types of Connections 5. Compression Members
2. Failures of Steel Structures 6. Design for Flexure
2.1. Fracture and Fatigue
2.2. Connection Failures 7. Combined Axial and Bending
2.3. Member Failures 8. Seismic Provisions
3. Design Philosophy 9. Workshop (10-Storey Building)
3.1. Allowable Stress Design
References
3.2. Load-Resistance-Factor Design
3.3. Load Combinations
3.4. AISC Steel Sections
3.5. Classifications of Steel Section

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Introduction

What is Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, widely used in
construction and other applications because of its high strength.

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Introduction

What is Steel
Carbon Steel
includes Low Carbon Steel (0.04 - 0.30%), Medium
Carbon Steel (0.31 - 0.60%), High Carbon Steel
(0.61% and 1.50%)

Stainless Steel Tool steel

a form of steel containing Type of is a term used for a variety of
chromium, resistant to tarnishing high-hardness, abrasion resistant
and rust
Steel steels

Alloy steel
steel with small amount of one or more alloying
elements other than carbon such as such as manganese,
silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium and aluminum

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ISO 9001:2008 Source: American Iron & Steel Institute (AISI)
Introduction

Sections and Specifications Types of Steel Sections

Hot Rolled Sections Cold Formed Sections Built-Up Sections

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

Material properties such as chemical content, yield strength and ultimate

strength are summarized in American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
specifications.

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications Expected Yield and Ultimate Strengths

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications Expected Yield and Ultimate Strengths

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

Mill tolerances on the cross section of a W-shape.

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

Mill tolerances on the cross section of a W-shape.

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

Anchor rods, foundation bolts, and other embedded items shall be set by ….

• The vertical variation in location from the specified top of anchor rod
location shall be equal to or less than plus or minus 13 mm.

• The horizontal variation in location from the specified position of each

anchor rod centerline at any location along its projection…..
Source: AISC 303, Sect 7.5.1

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

Effects of differential column shortening

For a member that consists of an

individual, straight shipping piece that
connects to a column, the variation in
the distance from the member working
point to the upper finished splice line of
the column shall be equal to or less
than plus 5mm and minus 8mm.
Source: AISC 303, Sect 7.13.1.2b

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Introduction

Sections and Specifications

Tolerances in plan location of column

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Introduction

Applications

Steel can be used in, buildings, towers, bridges, etc.

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Introduction

Applications

Steel can be used in, buildings, towers, bridges, etc.

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Introduction

Applications

Steel can be used in, buildings, towers, bridges, etc.

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Introduction

Applications

Steel can be used in, buildings, towers, bridges, etc.

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Introduction

Applications

Steel can be used in, buildings, towers, bridges, etc.

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Introduction

Applications

Steel can be used in, buildings, towers, bridges, etc.

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Introduction

Advantage and Disadvantages

Advantages of steel
• Higher Strength-to-Weight Ratio so it can provide large spans
• Fast erection and ability to construct in all seasons
• Easier to modify and reinforce if changes are made

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Introduction

Advantage and Disadvantages

Disadvantages of steel
• Requires Fire Protection
since steel has very small
resistance against fire as
compared to concrete.
Almost from 600-700C
half of steel strength
reduced.

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Introduction

Advantage and Disadvantages

Disadvantages of steel
• Requires Fire Protection since steel has very
small resistance against fire as compared to
concrete. Almost from 600-700C half of steel
strength reduced.

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Introduction

Advantage and Disadvantages

Disadvantages of steel
• Requires skilled workers and equipment to
ensure proper construction safety in the
assembly of all structural components

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Introduction

Advantage and Disadvantages

Disadvantages of steel
• Extensive field-welding
and bolted connection is
the most expensive in a
steel construction

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Introduction

Advantage and Disadvantages

Disadvantages of steel
• Susceptibility to corrosion -
High Maintenance costs in
corrosion protection such
as spray, board protection,
or concrete protection

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Introduction

Advantage and Disadvantages

Disadvantages of steel
• Susceptible to Buckling and
Fatigue - Member in
compression is critical to Crippling of Web and Flange

buckling. Also, cyclic

loadings will cause fatigue
stress that could lead to a
brittle failure

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Introduction

Type of Connections

Welded Connections - is a ★ Most Common Welding Process

process by which the parts to be 1. Flux Core-Arc Welding (FCAW)
connected are heated and fused, with
supplementary molten metal at the
joint. Upon cooling, the structural steel
and weld metal will act as one
continuous part where they are joined

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Introduction

Type of Connections

Welded Connections - is a ★ Most Common Welding Process

process by which the parts to be 2. Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW)
connected are heated and fused, with
supplementary molten metal at the
joint. Upon cooling, the structural steel
and weld metal will act as one
continuous part where they are joined

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Introduction

Type of Connections

Welded Connections - is a ★ Most Common Welding Process

process by which the parts to be 3. Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding (GTAW)
connected are heated and fused, with
supplementary molten metal at the
joint. Upon cooling, the structural steel
and weld metal will act as one
continuous part where they are joined

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Introduction

Type of Connections

Welded Connections - is a ★ Most Common Welding Process

process by which the parts to be 4. Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (SMAW
connected are heated and fused, with
supplementary molten metal at the
joint. Upon cooling, the structural steel
and weld metal will act as one
continuous part where they are joined

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Introduction

Type of Connections

Bolted Connections - A connection between structural members made with

plates and bolts as opposed to a riveted and welded construction.

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Introduction

Type of Connections

Riveted Connections
• Rivets are fixed, in
opposition with mobile
connections, and
permanent which means
they cannot be
dismantled.
• In comparison with bolts,
their main advantages are
their cheapness and the
better stiffness provided
to the joints.

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Fracture is the separation of stressed solid into two or more parts

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Fracture is the separation of stressed solid into two or more parts

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Fracture is the separation of stressed solid into two or more parts

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Fracture is the separation of stressed solid into two or more parts

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Fracture is the separation of stressed solid into two or more parts

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Fracture is the separation of stressed solid into two or more parts

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Fracture is the separation of

stressed solid into two or more parts

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Fracture is the separation of stressed solid into two or more parts

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Testing For Fracture

The most common test for estimating steel fracture toughness is the Charpy
Vee Notch (CVN) developed around 1905.

The specimen is either cooled or heated to a specified temperature and

impacted with a striker on the opposite side of the notch causing fracture of
the specimen.

Barsom and Rolphe (1999) correlate CVN testing with fracture toughness.

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Testing For Fracture

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Testing For Fracture

The Crack Tip Opening
Displacement (CTOD)
test, originally known as
the Crack Opening
Displacement (COD) test
was first developed by
Wells in the United
Kingdom in the 1960s.

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Fatigue is a limit state of crack initiation and growth resulting from repeated
application of live loads.

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Failures of Steel Structures

Fracture and Fatigue

Fatigue is a limit state of crack initiation and growth resulting from repeated
application of live loads.

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Design Philosophy

Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

ASD – designing members and connections such that calculated stresses do

not exceed specified material stresses when subjected to appropriate load
combinations.

required strength ≤ allowable strength

Ra is the required strength

Ra ≤ Rn/Ω Rn is the nominal strength
Ω is the factor of safety

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Design Philosophy

Load-Resistance-Factor Design (LRFD)

LRFD – designing members and connections using loads and resistance

factors such that no applicable limit state is reached when subjected to
appropriate load combinations.

required strength ≤ design strength

Ru is the required strength

Rn is the nominal strength
Ru = ΣγiQni ≤ ΦRn γi is the load factor
Qni is the load
Φ is the resistance factor

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Design Philosophy

Load-Resistance-Factor Design (LRFD)

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Design Philosophy

Load-Resistance-Factor Design (LRFD)

LRFD ASD

1. Nominal Capacities and Resistance

1. Factor of Safety - a single
Factors - for uncertainties in material
variable is used to handle
properties, construction tolerances, etc.
uncertainty in both load and
capacity
2. Load Factors - for uncertainties in
variable loads

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Design Philosophy

Load-Resistance-Factor Design (LRFD)

Load-Resistance Factor Design Allowable Stress Design

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Design Philosophy

AISC Steel Sections

W-shapes have essentially parallel inner and

outer flange surfaces

M-shapes have a sloped inside flange face or other

cross-section that do not meet the criteria for W, S,
or HP shapes

S-shapes have a slope of approximately 16

and 2/3 percent (2 on 12) on the inner
flange surfaces

HP-shapes (also known as bearing piles) have web and

flanges of equal thickness and the depth and flange
width are nominally equal

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Design Philosophy

AISC Steel Sections

Elements - A structural shape consists of elements that make up its shape.

W-SHAPE C-SHAPE L-SHAPE

consists of five elements, it consists of three elements, it consists of two elements,
two elements for each one element for each flange one element for each leg
flange and one web. and one web

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Compact section
Classification of Steel Sections

capable of developing a fully plastic stress distribution and possessing a rotation

capacity of approximately three before the onset of local buckling.

Non-Compact section
Section that is able to develop the yield stress in its compression elements
before local buckling occurs, but unable to develop a rotation capacity of three.

Slender-Element section
Cross section possessing plate components of sufficient slenderness such that
local buckling in the elastic range will occur.

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Compact
Plastic moment can be
reached without local buckling
Compact

Axial Stress
Non-Compact
Non-Compact
Local buckling will occur but Slender
only after initial yielding

Slender
Local buckling will occur prior
to yielding Axial Shortening

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Flange is restrained by the web at one edge.

Failure is localized at areas of high stress

(maximum moment) or imperfections.
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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Flange is restrained by the web at one edge.

Failure is localized at areas of high stress

(maximum moment) or imperfections.
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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Flange is restrained by the web at one edge.

Failure is localized at areas of high stress

(maximum moment) or imperfections.
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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Web is restrained by the flanges.

Failure is localized at areas of

high stress
(maximum moment) or
imperfections.

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Web is restrained by the flanges.

Failure is localized at areas of

high stress
(maximum moment) or
imperfections.

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Web is restrained by the flanges.

Failure is localized at areas of

high stress
(maximum moment) or
imperfections.

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

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Tension Members

General Requirements

TENSION MEMBERS

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Tension Members

General Requirements

Tension Member is usually

a slender structural element that
is used to resist tensile forces.

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Tension Members

General Requirements

Source: NSCP

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Tension Members

General Requirements

504.2 Tensile Strength

The design tensile strength, ΦtPn, and the allowable tensile strength, Pn/Ωt, of
tension members shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit states
of tensile yielding in the gross section and tensile rupture in the net section.

Using LRFD, ΦtPn

Using ASD, Pn/Ωt

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Tension Members

Tensile Yielding Tensile yielding in gross section,

Ag = is the gross area of the member

Fy = specified yield stress of the material

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Tension Members

Tensile Rupture Tensile rupture in the net section,

Ae = effective net area = AnU ≤ 0.85Ag

An = net area
Fu = ultimate stress of the material

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Tension Members

Tensile Rupture

The net area, An:

For non-staggered holes:

An = Ag – n(d + 3)t

For staggered holes:

An = Ag – n(d + 3)t + Σ(s2/4g)t

s = the stagger, or spacing of adjacent

holes parallel to the loading direction
g = the gage distance transverse to the
loading direction

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Tension Members

Tensile Rupture U is the shear lag factors

Shear Lag Factors for the Connections to Tension Members

Table D3.1 (AISC360)

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Tension Members

Tensile Rupture U is the shear lag factors

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Tension Members

Tensile Rupture U is the shear lag factors

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Tension Members

Tensile Rupture

Example of x for
the shear lag, U

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Tension Members

Tensile Rupture

Determination of l for U of bolted

connections with staggered holes.

Determination of l for calculation of U for

connections with longitudinal and transverse welds.

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Tension Members

Block Shear Failure

It is possible to cause rupture shear failure in the base metal before the
capacity of the higher strength bolts is reached. This block shear must be
checked in certain situations, such as the bolted connections of tension
members.

Failure Surface for Block Shear Rupture Limit State

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Tension Members

Block Shear Failure

The available strength for the limit state of block shear rupture along a shear
failure path or paths and a perpendicular tension failure path shall be
determined as follows:

Rn = 0.60FuAnv + UbsFuAnt ≤ 0.60FyAgv + UbsFuAnt

Φ = 0.75 (LRFD) Ω = 2.00 (ASD)

Anv = net area subject to shear
Agv = gross area subject to shear

Ant = net area subject to tension
Where the tension stress is uniform, Ubs = 1
Where the tension stress is nonuniform, Ubs = 0.5

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Tension Members

Block Shear Failure

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Compression Members

General Provisions

COMPRESSION MEMBERS

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Compression Members

General Provisions

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Tension Members

General Requirements
P
Compression Member is a structural element
that is used to resist primarily compressive forces.

The effective length factor, K, for calculation of

column slenderness, KL/r, shall be determined in
accordance with Chapter C, (AISC 360).

L = laterally unbraced length of the the member

r = governing radius of gyration
K = effective length factor (Section C2)

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P
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Compression Members

General Provisions

Effective length can be the distance between two consecutive inflection points,
or the distance between two consecutive points of zero moment.
P2
P3
P1
P4

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Compression Members

General Provisions

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Compression Members

General Provisions

Euler Buckling Load - the maximum axial load that a slender member in
compression can withstand without buckling.

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Compression Members

General Provisions

Euler Buckling Load - the maximum axial load that a slender member in
compression can withstand without buckling.

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Compression Members

General Provisions

The design compressive strength, ΦcPn, and the allowable compressive strength,
Pn/Ωc, are determined as follows.

Φc = 0.90 (LRFD) Ωc = 1.67 (ASD)

flexural buckling

Pn
torsional buckling
shall be the lowest value of

flexural-torsional buckling

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Compression Members

General Provisions

FLEXURAL BUCKLING OF MEMBERS WITHOUT SLENDER ELEMENTS

Ag = cross-sectional area of member

Fy = specified yield stress of steel
E = modulus of elasticity of steel
r = radius of gyration
Fe = elastic buckling stress
= 𝜋2E/(Lc/r)2

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Compression Members

General Provisions

TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF SINGLE ANGLES

AND MEMBERS WITHOUT SLENDER ELEMENTS

Ag = cross-sectional area of member

Fy = specified yield stress of steel
E = modulus of elasticity of steel
r = radius of gyration
Fe = elastic buckling stress

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Compression Members

General Provisions

TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF SINGLE ANGLES

AND MEMBERS WITHOUT SLENDER ELEMENTS

For doubly symmetric

members twisting about
the shear center

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Compression Members

General Provisions

TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF SINGLE ANGLES

AND MEMBERS WITHOUT SLENDER ELEMENTS

For singly symmetric members

twisting about the shear center
where y is the axis of symmetry

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Compression Members

General Provisions

TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF SINGLE ANGLES

AND MEMBERS WITHOUT SLENDER ELEMENTS

For unsymmetric members twisting about the shear center, Fe is the lowest root
of the cubic equation

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Compression Members

General Provisions

TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF SINGLE ANGLES

AND MEMBERS WITHOUT SLENDER ELEMENTS

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Compression Members

General Provisions

TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF SINGLE ANGLES

AND MEMBERS WITHOUT SLENDER ELEMENTS

Cw = warping constant, mm6

G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel 77,200MPa
Ix, Iy = moment of inertia about the principal axes, mm4

J = torsional constant, mm4

Kx = effective length factor for flexural buckling about x-axis

Ky = effective length factor for flexural buckling about y-axis

Kz = effective length factor for torsional buckling about the longitudinal axis
Lx, Ly, Lz = laterally unbraced length of the member for each axis, mm
Lcx, Lcy, Lcz = effective length, KxLx, KyLy, KzLz respectively

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Compression Members

General Provisions

TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF SINGLE ANGLES

AND MEMBERS WITHOUT SLENDER ELEMENTS

ro = polar radius of gyration about the shear center, mm

rx = radius of gyration about x-axis, mm

ry = radius of gyration about y-axis, mm

xo, yo = coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid, mm

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Compression Members

General Provisions

SINGLE-ANGLE COMPRESSION MEMBERS

flexural buckling or flexural-torsional buckling need not be considered when

b/t ≤ 0.71√(E/Fy)

Effect of eccentricities can be neglected when,

1. Members are loaded at the ends in compression through the same one leg.
2. Members are attached by welding or by connections with a minimum of two bolts.
3. There are no intermediate transverse loads.
4. Lc/r as determined in this section does not exceed 200.
5. For unequal leg angles, the ratio of long leg width to short leg width is less than 1.7.

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Compression Members

General Provisions

SINGLE-ANGLE COMPRESSION MEMBERS

For angles that For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected through the
are individual longer leg
members or are
web members of
planar trusses with
adjacent web
members attached
to the same side
of the gusset
For unequal-leg angles connected through the shorter leg, Lc/r above
plate or chord
shall be increased by adding 4[(bl/bs)2 −1], but Lc/r ≥ 0.95L/rz.
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Compression Members

General Provisions

SINGLE-ANGLE COMPRESSION MEMBERS

For angles that For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected through the
are web members longer leg
of box or space
trusses with
adjacent web
members attached
to the same side
of the gusset
plate or chord For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios less than 1.7 and
connected through the shorter leg, Lc/r above shall be increased by

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adding 6[(bl /bs)2 − 1], but Lc /r ≥0.82L/rz
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Compression Members

General Provisions

SINGLE-ANGLE COMPRESSION MEMBERS

L = length of member between work points at truss chord centerlines, mm


Lc = effective length of the member for buckling about the minor axis, mm

bl = length of longer leg of angle, mm

bs = length of shorter leg of angle, mm

ra = radius of gyration about the geometric axis parallel to the connected leg
rz = radius of gyration about the minor principal axis, mm

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Compression Members

General Provisions

BUILT-UP MEMBERS

For intermediate
connectors that are
bolted snug-tight

For intermediate connectors that are welded or are connected by means of

pre- tensioned bolts with Class A or B faying surfaces

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Compression Members

General Provisions

BUILT-UP MEMBERS

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Compression Members

General Provisions

MEMBERS WITH SLENDER ELEMENTS

Slender Element Members Excluding Round HSS

The effective width, be, (for tees, this is de; for webs, this is he) for slender elements is determined as:

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Compression Members

General Provisions

MEMBERS WITH SLENDER ELEMENTS

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Compression Members

General Provisions

MEMBERS WITH SLENDER ELEMENTS

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Compression Members

General Provisions

MEMBERS WITH SLENDER ELEMENTS

Round HSS
The effective area, Ae, is determined as follows:

D = outside diameter of round HSS, in. (mm)

t = thickness of wall, in. (mm)
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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

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Classifications of Steel Section

Width-to-Thickness Ratios: Compression Elements Members
Subject to Axial Compression - Table B4.1a (AISC360)

Flanges of rolled I-shaped sections,

plates projecting from rolled I-shaped
sections, outstanding legs of pairs of
angles connected with con- tinuous
contact, flanges of channels, and
flanges of tees

b/t ≤

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Width-to-Thickness Ratios: Compression Elements Members
Subject to Axial Compression - Table B4.1a (AISC360)

Flanges of built-up I-shaped sections

and plates or angle legs projecting
from built-up I-shaped sections

b/t ≤

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Width-to-Thickness Ratios: Compression Elements Members
Subject to Axial Compression - Table B4.1a (AISC360)

Legs of single angles, legs of double angles with separators, and all other
unstiffened elements

b/t ≤

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Width-to-Thickness Ratios: Compression Elements Members
Subject to Axial Compression - Table B4.1a (AISC360)

Webs of doubly symmetric rolled and built-up I-shaped sections and channels

h/tw ≤

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Width-to-Thickness Ratios: Compression Elements Members
Subject to Axial Compression - Table B4.1a (AISC360)

Stems of tees

b/t ≤

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Width-to-Thickness Ratios: Compression Elements Members
Subject to Axial Compression - Table B4.1a (AISC360)

Walls of rectangular HSS

b/t ≤

Flange cover plates and diaphragm plates between lines of fasteners or welds

b/t ≤

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Design Philosophy

Classifications of Steel Section

Width-to-Thickness Ratios: Compression Elements Members
Subject to Axial Compression - Table B4.1a (AISC360)

All other stiffened elements

b/t ≤
Round HSS

D/t ≤

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Compression Members

General Provisions

Braced Frame – lateral

stability is provided by diagonal
bracing, shear walls, or
equivalent means.

Unbraced Frame – lateral

stability depends upon the
bending stiffness of rigidly
connected beams and columns.

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Compression Members

General Provisions

For braced frames, K<1.0 For moment frames (unbraced), K>1.0

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Compression Members

General Provisions

Alignment Charts (AISC Table C-C2.2)

Provides approximate values for the effective length factor based on idealized
boundary conditions. Alignment charts evaluate the rigidity of the joints at each
end of a column.

Column segments are defined by rigid connections with beams.

The rotational restraint provided by beams at the end of a column are a

function of the rotational stiffnesses of the members rigidly attached to the
joint.

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Compression Members

General Provisions
G joint = ∑ (Ec I c Lc ) ∑ (E I g g Lg )

GA = as defined by equation
GB = 1.0 for column rigidly attached to a rigid footing
GB = 10 for column “pinned” to a supporting footing

A When the alignment chart is used to evaluate K

there is an implicit assumption that elastic
buckling controls.

Ginelastic =
∑ (EI / L )
column
= Gelasticτ a
∑ (EI / L )
beam

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Compression Members

General Provisions Stiffness Reduction Factor, τa

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Compression Members

General Provisions Stiffness Reduction Factor, τa

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Compression Members

General Provisions Stiffness Reduction Factor, τa

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Flexural Members

Beams of Symmetric Sections

FLEXURAL MEMBERS

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Flexural Members

Flexural Stress in Beams

A beam is a combination of a tension

and compression element. In the
figure, the top flange is in tension
M
while the bottom flange is in
compression.

V
If εc = εt < εy , then behavior is elastic. εt

If εc = εt > εy , then behavior is plastic.

εc
Stress Distribution

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Flexural Members

Flexural Stress in Beams

f < Fy f = Fy f = Fy f = Fy

Beam Section M < My M = M y = Fy S x M y < M < Mp M = Mp = FyZx

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) The section is elastic

(b) Section is elastic except for the extreme fibers which already yields
(c) Outer fiber are plastified while inner fibers remain elastic
(d) Section is entirely plastic

Mp
Shape factor, ξ= (independent of material properties)
My
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Flexural Members

Flexural Stress in Beams

Nominal flexural strength as a function of the flange width-to-thickness

ratio of rolled I-shape (Table B4.1b)

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Flexural Members

Flexural Stress in Beams

Nominal flexural
strength as a function
of unbraced length
and moment gradient

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Flexural Members

Formation of Collapse Mechanism

• Once the plastic moment strength Mp has

been reached, the section can offer no
additional resistance to rotation, behaving
as a hinge but with constant resistance
Mp, a condition known as plastic hinge.

• The creation of enough plastic hinges will

cause the formation of a collapse
mechanism.

• In general, any combination of three

hinges, real or plastic, in a span will
result in a collapse mechanism.

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Flexural Members

Categories of Member Behavior

1. Plastic moment strength Mp is achieved along with large deformation. Deformation ability,
called rotation capacity, is essentially the ability to undergo large flange strain without
instability.

2. Inelastic behavior where plastic moment strength Mp is achieved but little rotation
capacity is exhibited, because of inadequate stiffness of the flange and/or web to resist
local buckling, or inadequate lateral support to resist lateral-torsional buckling, while the
flange is inelastic.

3. Inelastic behavior where the moment strength Mr, the moment above which residual
stresses cause inelastic behavior to begin, is reached or exceeded; however, local
buckling of the flange or web, or lateral-torsional buckling prevent achieving the plastic
moment strength Mp.

4. Elastic behavior where moment strength Mcr is controlled by elastic buckling; any or all
of local flange buckling, local web buckling, or lateral-torsional buckling

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Flexural Members

Categories of Member Behavior

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Flexural Members

Lateral Torsional Buckling

• Consider the compression flange of a beam laterally supported only at its ends.

• If the compression flange were a pure rectangular column, it will buckle about axis 1-1.

• However, the compression flange is restrained from buckling about its weak axis (i.e. axis
1-1) by its web.

• At higher compressive loads the rectangular flange will tend to buckle by bending about
axis 2-2. This sudden buckling of the flange about its strong axis in a lateral direction is
known as Lateral buckling.

• However, due to imperfections in the beam and loading (i.e. beams are not straight, not
homogeneous, not loaded in exactly the plane assumed for design and analysis), causing
twisting moments on the beam. Thus, the stresses in points A and B are not the same.

• The combined effect of all these is known as Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB) –

combined translation and rotation

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Flexural Members

Lateral Torsional Buckling Pure Column Analogy

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Flexural Members

Lateral Torsional Buckling

Types of Lateral Support

1. It is the compression flange that
needs to be laterally supported to
prevent LTB.
2. Laterally unsupported beams could
fail by LTB before reaching the
plastic moment.

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 Yielding Limit State (AISC F2.1)

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 Compression Flange Local Buckling
Limit

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 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Limit State
• Lp and Lr are tabulated
in the “Zx Table” for W-
Shapes of Fy = 50 ksi
steel.
• Iy, ry, and Cw are
section properties
summarized in Manual
Part 1.
• Fy is a material
property, as defined by
ASTM specifications.
• E and G are material
properties, constant
for all structural steels.

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 Lateral-torsional buckling
nominal moment strength
equations are based on
critical buckling strength
of the compression
flange.
• These equations assume
that the compression
flange is at the same
stress level for its entire
beam length. However,
this is only true for a
constant moment
diagram.
• Therefore, the design
strength must be adjusted
upwards for other
moment gradients.
• The Cb factor modifies
the buckling equations for
nonconstant moment
diagrams that results in
nonconstant compressive
flange stresses.
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 Common Values for Cb

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W-Shape Selections by Zx
• For φb = 0.90, Ωb = 1.67, and Fy =
50 ksi
• The table is organized in
descending order of Zx values.
• Therefore, the table is also
organized in descending order of
φbMpx and Mp/Ωb values.
• The members are grouped. The
head of each group is indicated in
boldface print, indicating that it is
the lightest member of the group.
• This table is very useful when it is
known that the Yielding Limit
State governs.

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 Importance of width-thickness ratios λ
 

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Compression Flange Local Buckling Limit

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 Design of Members in
Combined Axial and
Bending

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Categories of Combined Axial and Bending
along with the likely mode of failure:
1. Axial tension and bending; failure usually by yielding
2. Axial compression and bending about one axis; failure by
instability in the plane of bending, without twisting.
(transversely loaded beam-columns that are stable with regard
to lateral-torsional buckling are an example of this category.)
3. Axial compression and bending about the strong axis; failure by
lateral-torsional buckling.
4. Axial compression and biaxial bending – torsionally stiff sections;
failure by instability in one of the principal directions. (W shapes
are usually in this category.)
5. Axial compression and biaxial bending – thin-walled open
sections; failure by combined twisting and bending on these
torsionally weak sections.
6. Axial compression, biaxial bending, and torsion; failure by
combined twisting and bending when plane of bending does not
contain the shear center.

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 Design of Members in Combined Axial and Bending

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 Design of Members in Combined Axial and Bending

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 NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE
PHILIPPINES 2015
SEISMIC PROVISION FOR STRUCTURAL
STEEL BUILDING
______________________________________________________________________________

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SECTION 514 STRUCTURAL STEEL BUILDING PROVISIONS
The Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings, shall govern the design, fabrication and erection of structural
steel members and connections in the seismic load resisting systems (SLRS) and splices in columns that are not part
of the SLRS, in buildings and other structures.

These provisions shall apply when the seismic response modification coefficient, R, is taken greater than 3,
regardless of the seismic design category.

When R is less than 3, the structure is not required to satisfy there provisions.

SECTION 515 REFERENCED SPECIFICATIONS, CODES, AND STANDARDS

SECTION 516 GENERAL SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

The required strength and other seismic provisions for seismic Zones 2 and 4 including limitations on height and
irregularity shall be specified in the NSCP code

The design story drift shall be determined as required in the NSCP code

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SECTION 517 LOADS, LOAD COMBINATIONS, AND NOMINAL STRENGTH
517.1 Loads and Load Combinations

The loads and load combinations shall be as stipulated by the NSCP code. Where amplified loads are
required by these Provisions, the horizontal portion of the earthquake load E (as defined by the NSCP) shall be
multiplied by the overstrength factor, Ωo, prescribed by the NSCP code.

517.2 Nominal Strength

The nominal strength of systems, members and connections shall comply with the specification, except
as modified throughout these Section

SECTION 518 STRUCTURAL DESIGN DRAWINGS, AND SPECIFICATIONS,

SHOP DRAWINGS, AND ERECTION DRAWINGS

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SECTION 519 MATERIALS
519.2 Material Properties for Determination of
Required Strength of Members and Connections

When required in these Provisions, the required

strength of an element (a member or a connection) shall be
determined from the expected yield stress, RyFy, of an
adjoining member, where Fy is the specified minimum yield
stress of the grade of steel to be used in the adjoining members
and Ry is the ratio of the expected yield stress to the specified
minimum yield stress, Fy, of that material.

The available strength of the element, φRn for LRFD

shall be equal to or greater than the required strength, where
Rn is the nominal strength of the connection.

The expected tensile strength, R t F u , and the

expected yield strength, RyFy, are permitted to be used in lieu
of Fu and Fy, respectively, in determining the nominal strength,
Rn, of rupture and yielding limit states within the same member
for which the required strength is determined.

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SECTION 520 CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
520.1 Scope

Connections, joints and fasteners that are part of the seismic load resisting system (SLRS) shall comply with
Specification Section 510, and with the additional requirements of this Section.

The design of connections for a member that is a part of the SLRS shall be configured such that a ductile
limit state in either the connection or the member controls the design

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SECTION 521 MEMBERS
521.1 Scope - Members in the Seismic Load Resisting System (SLRS) shall comply with the specification and section 521
521.2 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling

521.2.1 Compact
When required by these provisions, members of the SLRS shall have flanges continuously connected to the web or webs and
the width-thickness ratios of its compression elements shall not exceed the limiting width-thickness ratio, λp, from table 502.4.1

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SECTION 521 MEMBERS
521.2 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling

521.2.2 Seismically Compact

When required by these provisions, members of the SLRS shall have flanges continuously connected to the web or webs and
the width-thickness ratios of its compression elements shall not exceed the limiting width-thickness ratio, λp, from table 521-1

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SECTION 521 MEMBERS
521.3 Column Strength

When Pu/ΦPn (LRFD) > 0.4, as appropriate, without consideration of the amplified seismic load, the following requirements shall be met:

Pu = required axial strength of a column using LRFD load combinations, N

Pn = nominal axial strength of a column, N

1. The required axial compressive and tensile strength, considered in the absence of any applied moment, shall be determined using the
load combinations stipulated by the NSCP code including the amplified seismic load

2. The required axial compressive and tensile strength shall not exceed either of the following:

a. The maximum load transferred to the column considering 1.1Ry (LRFD), as appropriate, times the nominal strengths of the connecting
beam or brace elements of the building

b. The limit as determined from the resistance of the foundation to overturning uplift

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SECTION 521 MEMBERS
521.4 Column Splices
521.4.1 General

The required strength of column splices in the SLRS shall equal the required strength of the columns

In addition, welded column splices that are subject to a calculated net tensile load effect determined using the load combinations
stipulated by the NSCP code including the amplified seismic load, shall satisfy both of the following requirements:

1. The available strength of partial-joint-penetration (PJP) groove welded joints, if used, shall be at least equal to 200 percent of the
required strength.

2. The available strength for each flange splice shall be at least equal to 0.5RyFyAf, where RyFy is the expected yield stress of the column
material and Af is the flange area of the smaller column connected

Column web splices shall be either bolted or welded, or welded to one column and bolted to the other. In moment frames using bolted
splices, plates or channels shall be used on both sides of the column web.

The centerline of the column splices made with fillet welds or partial-joint-penetration groove welds shall be located 1.2m or more away
from the beam-to-column connections. When the clear height between beam-to-column connections is less than 2.4m, splices hall be at
half the clear height.

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SECTION 521 MEMBERS
521.5 Column Base

The available strength of concrete elements at the column base, including anchor rod
embedment and reinforcing steel, shall be in accordance with ACI 318, Appendix D

521.5.1 Required Axial Strength

The required axial strength of column bases, including their attachment to the foundation,
shall be the summation of the vertical components of the required strengths of the steel
elements that are connected to the column base

521.5.2. Required Shear Strength

The required shear strength of column bases, including their attachments to the foundations,
shall be the summation of the horizontal component of the required strengths of the steel
elements that are connected to the column base as follows:

1. For diagonal bracing, the horizontal component shall be determined from the required
strength of bracing connections for the SLRS

2. For Columns, the horizontal component shall be at least equal to the lesser of the ff:
a. 2RyFyZx Where H = height of storey, which may be taken as the distance between the
centerline of floor framing at each of the levels above and below, or the distance
between the top of floor slabs at each of the levels above and below.

b. The shear calculated using the load combinations of the NSCP code, including the
amplified seismic load
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SECTION 521 MEMBERS
521.5.3 Required Flexural Strength

The required flexural strength of column bases, including their attachment to the foundation, shall be the summation of the required
strengths of the steel elements that are connected to the column base as follows:

1. For diagonal bracing, the required flexural strength shall be at least equal to the required strength of bracing connections for the SLRS

2. For columns, the required flexural strength shall be at least equal to the lesser of the following:

a. 1.1RyFyz
b. The moment calculated using the the load combinations of the NSCP code, including the amplified seismic load.

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SECTION 522 SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (SMF)
SMF are expected to withstand significant inelastic deformations when subjected to the forces resulting from the motions of the design
earthquake.

SECTION 523 INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAMES (IMF)

IMF are expected to withstand limited inelastic deformations in their members and connections when subjected to the forces resulting
from the motions of the design earthquake.

SECTION 524 ORDINARY MOMENT FRAMES (OMF)

IMF are expected to withstand minimal inelastic deformations in their members and connections when subjected to the forces resulting
from the motions of the design earthquake.

SECTION 525 SPECIAL TRUSS MOMENT FRAMES (STMF)

STMF are expected to withstand significant inelastic deformations within a specially designed segment of the truss when subjected to the
forces resulting from the motions of the design earthquake.

STMF shall be limited to span lengths between columns not to exceed 20m and overall depth not to exceed 1.8m.

The columns and truss segments outside of the special segments shall be designed to remain elastic under the forces that can be
generated by the fully yielded and strain-hardened special segment

SECTION 526 SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAMES (SCBF)

SCBF are expected to withstand significant inelastic deformations when subjected to the forces resulting from the motions of the design
earthquake.

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SECTION 527 ORDINARY CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAMES (OCBF)
OCBF are expected to withstand limited inelastic deformations in their members and connections when subjected to the forces resulting
from the motions of the design earthquake.

SECTION 528 ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAMES (EBF)

ECBF are expected to withstand significant inelastic deformations in the links when subjected to the forces resulting from the motions of
the design earthquake.

The diagonal braces, columns, and beam segments outside of the links shall be designed to remain essentially elastic under the
maximum forces that can be generated by the fully yielded and strain-hardened links, except where permitted in this section.

In buildings exceeding five stories in height, the upper story of an EBF system is permitted to be designed as an OCBF or a SCBF and still be
considered to be part of an EBF system for the purposes of determining system factors in the NSCP code

SECTION 529 BUCKLING-RESTRAINED BRACED FRAMES (BRBF)

BRBF are expected to withstand significant inelastic deformations when subjected to the forces resulting from the motions of the design
earthquake.

SECTION 530 SPECIAL PLATE SHEAR WALLS (SPSW)

SPSW are expected to withstand significant inelastic deformations in the webs when subjected to the forces resulting from the motions of
the design earthquake.

The Horizontal Boundary Element (HBE) and Vertical Boundary Element (VBE) adjacent to the webs shall be designed to remain essentially
elastic under the maximum forces that can be generated by the fully yielded webs, except that plastic hinging at the ends of HBEs is
permitted.

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SECTION 522 SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (SMF)
522.1 Scope

SMF are expected to withstand significant inelastic deformations when subjected to the forces resulting from the motions of the design
earthquake.

522.2 Beam-to-Column Connections

522.2.1 Requirements

Beam-to-Column connections used in the SLRS shall satisfy the following 3 requirements:

1. The connection shall be capable of sustaining an interstory drift angle of at least 0.04 radians.
2. The measured flexural resistance of the connection, determined at the column face, shall equal at lease 0.80Mp of the connected
beam at an interstory drift angle of 0.04 radians
3. The required shear strength of the connection shall be determined using the following quantity for the earthquake load effect E:

E = 2[1.1RyMp]/Lh

Where Ry = ratio of the expected yield stress to the specified minimum yield stress, Fy
Mp = Nominal Plastic flexural strength, N-mm
Lh = distance between plastic hinge locations, mm

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SECTION 522 SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (SMF)
522.3 Panel Zone of Beam-to-Column Connections (Beam Web Parallel to Column Web)
522.3.1 Shear Strength

The required thickness of the panel zone shall be determined in accordance with the method used in proportioning the panel zone of
the tested or prequalified connection.

As a minimum, the required shear strength of the panel zone shall be determined from the summation of the moments at the column
faces as determined by projecting the expected moments at the plastic hinge points to the column faces.

The design shear strength shall be ΩvRv,

wherein Ωv = 1.0 for LRFD
Rv = nominal shear strength, according to he limit state of shear yielding

522.3.2 Panel Zone Thickness

The individual thickness, t, of column webs and double plates shall conform to the following requirement:

t≥(dz + wz)/90 (Eq 522-2)

wherein t = thickess of column web or double plate,mm
dz = panel zone depth between continuity plates,mm
wz = panel zone width between column flanges,mm

Alternatively, when local buckling of the column web and double plate is prevented by using plug welds joining them, the total panel
zone thickness shall satisfy Eq 522-2

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SECTION 522 SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (SMF)
 

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SECTION 522 SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (SMF)
522.7 Lateral Bracing at Beam-to-Column Connections

522.7.1 Braced Connections

Column flanges at beam-to-column connections required lateral bracing only at the level of the top flanges of the beams, when the
webs of the beams and column are coplanar, and a column is shown to remain elastic outside of the panel zone.

It shall be permitted to assume that the column remains elastic when the ratio calculated using Eq522-3 is greater than 2.0

When a column cannot be shown to remain elastic outside of the panel zone, the following requirements shall apply:

The column flanges shall be laterally braced at the levels of both the top and bottom beam flanges. Lateral bracing shall be either direct
or indirect.

Note: Direct lateral support (bracing) of the column flange is achieved through use of braces or other members, deck and slab,
attached to the column flange at or near the desired bracing point to resist lateral buckling.
Indirect lateral support refers to bracing that is achieved through the stiffness of members and connections that are not
directly attached to the column flanges, but rather act through the column web or stiffener plates.

Each column-flange lateral brace shall be designed for a required strength that is equal to 2 percent of the available beam flange
strength Fybftbf

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SECTION 522 SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (SMF)
522.7 Lateral Bracing at Beam-to-Column Connections

522.7.2 Unbraced Connections

A column containing a beam-to-column connection with no lateral bracing transverse to the seismic frame at the connection shall be
designed using the distance between adjacent lateral braces as the column height for buckling transverse to the seismic frame and shall
conform to Specification 508, except that:

1. The required column strength shall be determined from the appropriate load combinations in the NSCDP code, except that E shall be
taken as the lesser of:
a. The amplified seismic load
b. 125 percent of the frame available strength based upon either the beam available flexural strength or panel zone
available shear strength.

2. The slenderness L/r for the column shall not exceed 60

3. The column required flexural strength transverse to the seismic frame shall include that moment caused by the application of the
beam flange force specified in Section 522.7.2 in addition to the second-order moment due to the resulting column flange displacement.

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SECTION 522 SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (SMF)
522.8 Lateral Bracing of Beams

Both Flanges of beams shall be laterally braced with a maximum spacing of Lb = 0.06ry(E/Fy).

Braces shall meet the provision of EQs A-1-7 of the Specification where Mr=Mu=RyZFy and Cd=0

In addition, lateral braces shall be placed near concentrated forces, changes in cross-section, and other locations where analysis
indicates that a plastic hinge will form during inelastic deformation of the SMF.

The required strength of lateral bracing provided adjacent to plastic hinges shall be Pu=0.09Mu/ho, where ho is the distance between
flange centroids; and the required stiffness shall meet the provisions of Eq. A-1-8 of Appendix A-1.6 of the Specification.

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SECTION 522 SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES (SMF)
 

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Yielding

Lateral-Torsional Buckling

When Lp <Lb ≤Lr

When Lb>Lr

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 Load Transfer for Positive Flexural Strength

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Nondestructive Testing of Welded Joints
5a. Procedures
Ultrasonic testing (UT), magnetic particle testing (MT), penetrant testing (PT), and radiographic testing (RT), where
required, shall be performed by QA in accordance with AWS D1.1/D1.1M.

CJP Groove Weld NDT

For structures in risk category III or IV, UT shall be performed by QA on all com- plete-joint-penetration (CJP) groove
welds subject to transversely applied tension loading in butt, T- and corner joints, in material 5/16 in. (8 mm) thick or
greater. For structures in risk category II, UT shall be performed by QA on 10% of CJP groove welds in butt, T- and corner
joints subject to transversely applied tension loading, in materials 5/16 in. (8 mm) thick or greater.

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 MODELING

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General Stability Requirements

Stability of the structure and its elements shall consider the ff:

• flexural, shear, axial, connection deformations, etc… that contributes to

the displacements of the structure

• second-order effects that includes P-Δ and P-δ effects

• geometric imperfections

• stiffness reductions due to inelasticity, including the effect of partial yielding

of the cross section which may be accentuated by the presence of residual
stresses

• uncertainty in system, member, and connection strength and stiffness. All

load-dependent effects shall be calculated at a level of loading corresponding
to LRFD load combinations or 1.6 times ASD load combinations.
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General Stability Requirements
Direct Analysis Method

Elastic Analysis

Inelastic Analysis

Alternative Methods

Effective Length Method

First-Order Analysis Method

Advanced Analysis

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Stiffness Modifier

The analysis of the structure to determine the required strengths of

components shall use reduced stiffnesses, as follows:

• A factor of 0.80 shall be applied to all stiffnesses that are considered to

contribute to the stability of the structure. It is permissible to apply this
reduction factor to all stiffnesses in the structure.
Source: AISC 360-16, Section C

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Stiffness Modifier

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Stiffness Modifier

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Stiffness Modifier

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Stiffness Modifier

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Stiffness Modifier

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Stiffness Modifier

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 WORKSHOP

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Design Parameters

DEAD LOADS: EARTHQUAKE PARAMETERS

Unit Weight of Concrete 24.0 kN/cu.m Seismic Source Type A

Unit Weight of Steel 77.0 kN/cu.m Soil Profile Type SC
Ceiling Assembly 0.20 kPa Seismic Zone Factor, Z 0.40
Utilities 0.10 kPa Dist. To Seismic Source 7.40 km
Floor Finish 0.60 kPa
Floor Toppings 0.60 kPa
Movable Partition 0.50 kPa
Roofing Materials 0.10 kPa
Water Proofing 0.60 kPa LIVE LOADS
150mm thk CHB 3.10 kPa
100mm thk CHB 3.00 kPa Residential 2.0 kPa
Roof Deck Same as occupancy

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Architectural Floor Plans

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Architectural Floor Plans

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Architectural Floor Plans

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Architectural Floor Plans

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