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 DRYING

Reference
Treybal, McCabe, Geankoplis
• Module-5 DRYING: Introduction to drying,
Rate of drying, Batch drying mechanism, the
mechanism of moisture movement during
drying, classification and design of dryer. (5)
• CRYSTALLIZATION: Introduction to
crystallization, Theory of Crystallization,
Formation and growth of crystals, crystal yield,
Rate of crystallization
 Classification of Dryers
• Batch or continuous
• Isothermal or Adiabatic
• For solids or slurry or solution
 Classification – Batch or Continuous
• Batch • Continuous
 Tunnel dryer
– Direct Dryers  Drum dryer
 Try dryer  Turbo rotating shelf dryer
 Truck dryer
 Through circulation screw
 Through circulation dryer dryer
– Indirect dryers
 Rotary dryer,
 Vacuum shelf dryer  Through circulation rotary
 Agitated pan dryer dryer
 Freeze dryer  Spray Dryer
 Fluidized bed dryer
 Spouted bed dryer
 Pneumatic dryer
 Classification of dryers- material
handled
• Solids and paste • Slurry solution
 Tray  Spray
 Screen conveyer  Thin Film
 Tower/Rotary shelf  Drum Dryer
 Rotary dryer
 Screw conveyer
 Fluidized bed
 Flash dryer
Solid Gas contact in adiabatic dryer
• Cross circulation
• Through circulation
• Shower
• Fluidized bed
• Continuous fluidization
• Drops suspended in
gaseous phase as in
Spray dryer
TRAY/
TRUCK DRYER
• Batch Dryer, which can be
classified as:
• Direct
• Indirect – Vacuum shelf
• Truck or Tray Dryer
• Vacuum –indirect/N2 flow

• Bed depth – 5 to 15cm

• Velocity – 2-5m/s • A=Fresh air inlet; B= Exhaust
• Time – 3-48 hours. • C= Fan; D= Motor
• E= Heater; F= Deflector
• G= Baffles; H= Racks
• I= truck wheels
Cross Circulation Tray Dryer
Through circulation
Tray Tower
• Through
circulation dryer
• Coarse, granular
flaky materials
• Sticky material by
Preforming
– Nodules by
Extrusion
– Granulation by
screens
– Briquetting
BATCH - AGITATED DRYER
Continuous – Tunnel Dryer
 Through circulation screen dryer

• 25 to 150mm thick bed; 2 m wide, 4 to 50m length

• 5 to 120min residence time
• Coarse, granular, flaky or fibrous material,
• Preformed sticky material
Continuous- rotating shelf dryer
TOWER DRYER/TURBODRYER
 Continuous- rotating shelf dryer
TOWER DRYER/TURBO DRYER
• Series of circular trays • Gas velocity 0.6 to 2.4m/s
• Solid feed dropped on the • Bottom trays are for cooling
topmost tray, and exposed
to hot air/gas as cross
circulation
• Air is heated by heating
elements all around and
circulated by turbofans
• The solids are then scraped
off and dropped to the tray
below.
• Cross circulation and
shower
ROTARY
DRYER
 ROTARY DRYER
• Revolving cylindrical shell slightly inclined1-3 m
dia, peripheral speed 20-25m/min
• Feed entered at the elevated end and flows
towards the exit as the shell rotates the material
are lifted by lifting flights, and then showers to
the shell base.
• Hot air flows co current or counter current
• Direct or indirect
• Mass velocity of gas 2000-25000 kg/m2h
• 120-175 oC steam heated air/550-800for flue gas
 DESIGNING OF ROTARY DRYER
Hold up in Rotary Dryer Volumetric Heat transfer
for zero air flow, coefficient In rotary dryer
• 𝑋=
2.5𝐹′ • 𝑈𝑎 = 𝐾𝐺 𝑛 Τ𝐷
𝑆𝑁0.9 𝐷 • 𝑈𝑎 = volumetric HTC in W/m3K
• X = hold up in % dryer
volume • G in kg/m2s, D in m
• D =diameter, m • n= 0.67
• N = Hz • K=f(number of flights)
• S = slope m/m • Using SI units
• F = feed rate m3/sm2 • 𝐾 = 20 𝑛𝑓 − 1
Hold up with air flow: • 𝑈𝑎 = 20 𝑛𝑓 − 1 𝐺 0.67 Τ𝐷
• 𝑋𝑎 = 𝑋 ± 𝐾𝐺′
 ROTARY DRYER – Design data
• Diameter of rotary dryer – 1 to several meters
• Length
– 5 to 8D
– Rotolouvres 2 to 4D
• Slope from free end to product end
– 0 to -5 degrees
– Cocurrent drying of light material +ve slope maybe used
• Peripheral speed
– 0.1 to 0.5 m/s, 0.35 to0.4 m/s is common
• Number of flights per circle
– 2.4 to 3D [D in feet]
• Flight depth
– 1Τ12 𝑡𝑜 1Τ8 𝐷
 ROTARY DRYER-Design Data
• Air inlet temperature - varies between 100 to
800oC, [200oc for heat sensitive material]
• Air outlet temperature varies between 50 and
150oC. Generally 100oC.
• Gas velocity – selected by considering the
possible entrainment of solids typically 0.5 to
2.5m/s [check terminal velocities of particles]
• G, Air mass velocity 0.5 to 5.0kg/m2 s. typically
1.4kg/m2s
• Residence time : 15 minutes to 1 hour
• For most economic operation Nt is between 1.5
to 2.5.
Rotary dryers
a.Indirect
b.Indirect
-steam tube
c.Indirect
-Direct
ROTOLOUVER THROUGH CIRCULATION
ROTARY DRYER
• Slowly rotating
taper drum fitted
with louvers to
support the solids
• Drying hot air is
passed though the
louver beneath the
solid.
• No dusting as the
material is not
showered
Screw Conveyer
dryer

• 75 to 600 mm shell up to 6m long

• 2 to 30 rpm
• Shell 10 to 60% full
• Handles material too fine and too sticky for
rotary dryer.
• Solvent recovery possible.
Fluidized
bed dryer
 Drying time-
30 to 120 for surface
drying
15 to 30 minutes for
internal diffusion
 Particles heated exit
dry bulb temperature
of gas so heat
sensitive material the
gas should be cool.
 Design
– Circular cross section
– Batch, replaces tray
dryer
– Rectangular – Plug
flow
RECTANGULAR
FLUIDIZED BED DRYER SPOUTED BED DRYER
PNEUMATIC
CONVEYER /FLASH
DRYER

• Drying takes place

during transportation
• Time 3-4 s
• Temperature of gas is
high 650oC
• Heat sensitive material
• Pulverizer
incorporated for
simultaneous size
reduction and drying
• Pneumatic
Dryer
 FREEZE DRYING
• Freeze-drying is accomplished by reducing the product temperature so that most
of the product moisture is in a solid state, and by decreasing the pressure around
the product, sublimation of ice can be achieved. When product quality is an
important factor for consumer acceptance, freeze-drying provides an alternative
approach for moisture removal.
• The heat- and mass-transfer processes during freeze-drying are unique. Depending
on the confIguration of the drying system , heat transfer can occur through a
frozen product layer or through a dry product layer. Obviously, heat transfer
through the frozen layer will be rapid and not rate-limiting. Heat transfer through
the dry product layer will be at a slow rate due to the low thermal conductivity of
the highly porous structure in a vacuum. In both situations, the mass transfer will
occur in the dry product layer. The diffusion of water vapor would be expected to
be the rate-limiting process because of the low rates of molecular diffusion in a
vacuum.
• The advantages of the freeze-drying process are superior product quality resulting
from low temperature during sublimation and the maintenance of product
structure. These advantages are balanced against the energy-intensive aspects of
the product freezing and vacuum requirements.

PFVP Dehydration 28
• If the water vapour pressure of a food is held below 4.58 Torr (610.5
Pa) and the water is frozen, when the food is heated the solid ice
sublimes directly to vapour without melting . The water vapour is
continuously removed from the food by keeping the pressure in the
freeze drier cabinet below the vapour pressure at the surface of the ice,
removing vapour with a vacuum pump and condensing it on
refrigeration coils. As drying proceeds a sublimation front moves into
PFVP Dehydration 29
the frozen food, leaving partly dried food behind it.
 PROCESS PARAMETERS: Pressure and
Condenser temperature

The factors that control the water vapour pressure gradient are:
 • the pressure in the drying chamber
 • the temperature of the vapour condenser, both of which
should be as low as economically possible
 • the temperature of ice at the sublimation front, which
should be as high as possible, without melting.
• In practice, the lowest economical chamber pressure is
approximately 13 Pa and the lowest condenser temperature is
approximately 35ºC.
PFVP Dehydration 30
 METHOD OF SUPPLYING HEAT
• Radiant Heating
• Contact heating by heating from shelves,
opposite to the side from where evaporation
takes place
• Microwave and dielectric heating.
• For granular material, hot air
Tunnel freeze dryer
 COLLAPSE TEMPERATURE

• Theoretically the temperature of the ice could be raised to just

below the freezing point. However, above a certain critical collapse
temperature the concentrated solutes in the food are sufficiently
mobile to flow under the forces operating within the food structure.
When this occurs, there is an instantaneous irreversible collapse of
the food structure, which restricts the rate of vapour transfer and
effectively ends the drying operation..

PFVP Dehydration 33
SPRAY DRYER
SPRAY DRYER
 SPRAY DRYER
• Large diameter to prevent the droplets from
touching the walls – 2.5 to 9 m diameter
Height 25 m
• Hot air 80 to 760oC[ cold air near the wall so
that they do not stick to wall]
• Average drop diameter 20 micron disk
atomizer to 180 micronspray nozzle.
• Residence time – 36 seconds in cocurrent, and
25 to 30 seconds in countercurrrent.
 SPRAY DRYER
The advantages of spray dried products:
– Very short drying time, so heat sensitive material can be handled
– Products are hollow and porous, making the product easily reconstituted.
– Products can be made free flowing, bulk density, appearance, flow properties.
– It can yield dry products directly from slurry, solution
– Can combine various steps – evaporator, crystalizer, dryer, size reduction, size
classification.

Major limitations are :

– Bulky
– Poor in thermal efficiency as a large volume of hot gas is discharged.

APPLICATIONS –
 Chemical Industry :Calcium carbonate, aluminium chloride, zeolite etc’:
 General Industry: detergent, latex, dyes, aromatics, perfumes
 Medical and pharmaceuticals : blood plasma, vaccinations albumin, plant extracts
 Food : milk, baby food, coffee, egg, fruit juice etc.
 Microencapsulation - spray drying of prepared emulsions consisted of water
solution of modified cellulose and fish oil.
 Englobing
APPLICATION: SPRAY DRYING, MICRONIZATION,
MICROENCAPSULATION, ENCLOBING
 SPRAY DRYER
• Drying of drops:
• Evaporation rate depends on contact time , which is dependent on the
terminal velocity of particle and height of dryer.
• Two main periods of evaporation are:
1. Initial period of high velocity
2. Free fall region after decelerated to terminal velocity
• Drops attaining terminal velocity the rate of evaporation can be
determined by approximation equation for evaporation of pure liquid.
𝜌λ 𝑑𝑜 2 − 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑡=
8 𝑘𝑓 ∆𝑇
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝑑𝑜 = initial diameter, 𝑑𝑡 = dia at time t, 𝜌= density
𝑘𝑓 = thermal conductivity of fluid, ∆𝑇 = Temperature difference, λ = latent
heat

• Then solid deposition commences, a crust or solid film is rapidly formed

which increases the resistance to transfer
 SPRAY DRYER:
The types of atomizer

(i) high pressure nozzle- genrally may

be fan type and swirl type,

(ii) high speed disk atomizer – for

very large capacity. The diameter of
discis range between 25 to
450mm.The rotational speed – 200Hz
– 1000Hz

(iii) Gaseous energy – two fluid

atomizer- with high speed gas stream
impinges [velocity between 50m/s to
sonic velocity] on a liquid jet or film. Pressure atomizer
This gives droplets of 20 micron, finer
than other types of atomizer
 SPRAY DRYER: DISC ATOMIZER
(a)Sharp edged flat disc (b)bowl (c)Vane-disk
(d)Air Blast
 SPRAY DRYER :DISK ATOMIZER
𝐷 𝑋 0.6 𝜇 0.2 𝜎𝜌 𝐿 0.1
𝐿 𝑝
• DD 𝑆 = 0.4
𝑟 𝜌𝐿 𝑛𝑟 2 𝑋 𝑋2

• 𝐷𝑆 = Average drop diameter

• r= disk radius
• X= spray mass rate per unit length of disk periphery
• 𝜌𝐿 =Density of liquid
• 𝜌𝐿 𝑛𝑟 2 = disk rotational speed
• 𝜇= Viscosity of liquid
• 𝜎𝜌𝐿 𝐿𝑝
• 𝜎𝜌𝐿 𝐿𝑝 = disk periphery2𝜋𝑟
TYPES OF CONTACT
GAS SOLID in
SPRAY DRYER

(a) Counter current

(b) Mixed Flow
(c) Co current
(d) Parallel flow
 DRUM DRYER
• Slowly revolving internally steam heat metal drum dips into
a trough containing the slurry or solution
• Thickness controlled by spreader knife
• From solution : Liquid evaporates, solid precipitates from
solution, at constant temperature,
• From slurry : the solvent evaporates at constant
temperature till the solids are just dry
• the dried product are heated to the surface temperature of
drum
• solid scraped off from the drub by another knife.
• Each drum limited to 35m2
• Rate of evaporated 0.003-0.02 kg/m2s
• Contact time – 6-15 s, Heat transfer coefficient 1-
2kW/m2K.
• Vacuum drum drying for lower temperature.
 drum dryer
VACUUM DOUBLE DRUM SINGLE DRUM
TYPE OF FEEDING
DRUM DRYERS
(a) Single drum
dip feed
(b) Single drum
pan feed
(c) Single drum
splash feed
(d) Double
drum, dip
feed
(e) Double
drum, top
feed
Drum dryers
 Thin film dryer
• Dry free flowing product
from slurry or solution
• Top section - Vertical
agitated evaporator dryer
• Bottom section – removal
of moisture from the wet
solid
• 100-200 kg/m2 hour.
• High thermal efficiency as
no hot air is used
• Recovery of solvent
possible.
• Expensive and limited
HTA.
Dryer Selection
PFVP 51
PFVP 52
• Repeat the numerical if 80 to 5% are dry basis

PFVP 53
Drying Rate Curve

• Flow of moisture through

food
• Moisture content vs time
• Drying rate
• Kg moisture removed/cm2
hour. humidity chart and drying rate curve 54
DRYING RATE CURVE
• A’-B= Initial adjustment period
• B-C = constant drying rate period,
when the surface is completely
covered with water,
• C-D First falling rate period,
• Dry patches appear on the
surface, water supplied to the
surface by diffusion, void spaced
has water in continuous phase
and air in dispersed phase
• D-E Second falling rate period-
same as C-D, but air in continuous
phase and water in dispersed
phase, hence rate reduces faster
• C= first critical free moisture
content
• D= second critical free moisture
content
55
Drying rate curve

• Let 𝑊𝑠 = weight of dry solid

• W= weight of wet solid
𝑊−𝑊𝑆 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
• 𝑋 = ,
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
• Rate of drying:
𝑊𝑆 𝑑𝑋
• 𝑅=− , 𝑘𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐴 𝑑𝑡

56
 Time required for drying
𝑊𝑆 𝑑𝑋
• 𝑅=−
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑊𝑆 𝑋1 1
• 𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡 = ‫𝑋𝑑 𝑅 𝑋׬‬
𝐴 2
• For constant rate period:
𝑊𝑆
• 𝑡= 𝑋1 − 𝑋2
𝐴𝑅𝑐
• Where, 𝑅𝑐 = rate at constant rate period
• For straight falling rate period,
• 𝑅 = 𝑎𝑋 + 𝑏
𝑡 𝑊𝑆 𝑋1 1
• 𝑡= ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡 = ‫𝑋𝑎 𝑋׬‬+𝑏 𝑑𝑋
𝐴 2
𝑊𝑆 𝑎𝑋 +𝑏 𝑊𝑆 𝑅 𝑊𝑆 𝑋1 −𝑋2 𝑅1
• 𝑡= 𝑙𝑛 1 = 𝑙𝑛 1 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑎𝐴 𝑎𝑋2 +𝑏 𝑎𝐴 𝑅2 𝐴 𝑅1 −𝑅2 𝑅2

57
 DRYING CHARACTERISTICS
• Water moves from the interior of the MATERIAL to the
surface by the following mechanisms:
 liquid movement by capillary forces, particularly in porous
material
 diffusion of liquids, caused by differences in the concentration of
solutes at the surface and in the interior of the material
 diffusion of liquids which are adsorbed in layers at the surfaces
of material
 water vapour diffusion in air spaces within the material caused
by vapour pressure gradients.
• The three characteristics of air that are necessary for
successful drying when the food is moist are:
– 1. moderately high dry-bulb temperature
– 2. low RH, percentage saturation
– 3. high air velocity

humidity chart and drying rate curve 58

 Temperature patterns in dryers
Continuous Countercurrent and
Batch Dryer adiabatic dryer
 Calculation of heat load
𝑞𝑇
• = 𝑐𝑝𝑠 𝑇𝑠𝑏 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎 +
𝑚ሶ 𝑠
𝑋𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑣 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎 + 𝑋𝑎 − 𝑋𝑏 λ +
𝑋𝑏 𝑐𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑏 − 𝑇𝑣 + ሺ𝑋𝑎 −

• Heat feed (solid+liq.) to

vapourization temperature
• Latent heat to convert liquid
to vapor
• Head solid to final
temperature
• Heat vapour to final
temperature
• Heat air or other gasses to
final temperature
 Heat transfer coefficient in dryers
• In dryers heat transfer coefficients vary from
section to section – preheat, vaporizaion , solids
heating, for any section :
𝑞 = 𝑈 𝐴∆𝑇
• Volumetric Heat Transfer coefficient: Heat
transfer area is surface area of the solids. In some
dryers like
Rotary dryer, screw conveyor dryer, it is difficult
to determine hence a volumetric heat transfer
coefficient is used Ua, Watt/m3K
• 𝑞𝑇 = 𝑈𝑎 𝑉∆𝑇
 Heat-transfer unit
• Some adiabatic dryer, specially ROTARY DRYER, are
rated in terms of Heat transfer units.
𝑇ℎ𝑏 𝑑𝑇ℎ
• 𝑁𝑡 = ‫ 𝑇 𝑇׬‬−𝑇
ℎ𝑎 ℎ 𝑠
𝑇ℎ𝑏 −𝑇ℎ𝑎
• 𝑁𝑡 =
∆𝑇
When initial liquid content is very high and most of the heat transferred is for
vaporization, LMTD between dry bulb and wet bulb temperature can be taken for ∆𝑇
𝑇ℎ𝑏 −𝑇𝑤𝑏 − 𝑇ℎ𝑎 −𝑇𝑤𝑎
• ∆𝑇 =
𝑙𝑛 𝑇ℎ𝑏 −𝑇𝑤𝑏 Τ 𝑇ℎ𝑎 −𝑇𝑤𝑎
• For water air system: 𝑇𝑤𝑎 = 𝑇𝑤𝑏 , and if 𝑇𝑣 = 𝑇𝑤𝑏
𝑇ℎ𝑏 −𝑇𝑤𝑏
• 𝑁𝑡 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑇ℎ𝑎 −𝑇𝑤𝑏
 CROSS CIRCULATION DRYING
𝑀𝑣 𝑘𝑦 𝑦𝑖 −𝑦 𝐴
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 =
1−𝑦 𝐿
ℎ𝑦 𝑇−𝑇𝑖 𝐴
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 =
𝞴𝑖
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 = Rate of evaporation A= Area of drying
• 𝑀𝑣 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑘𝑦
• ℎ𝑦 = heat transfer coefficient
• 𝑘𝑦 = Mass transfer coefficient
• T= Temp of gas 𝑇𝑖 = Temperature at interface
• 𝑦= mole fraction of vapour in gas
• 𝑦𝑖 = mole fraction of vapour at interface
• 𝞴𝑖 = latent heat at 𝑇𝑖
 Cross Circulation drying
• Turbulent flow in tray dryer:
ℎ𝑦 𝐷𝑒
• 𝑁𝑢 = = 0.037 𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑘
OR
Dittus Boelter Equation
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 , where n is 0.4 for fluid being heated
and 0.3 for fluid being cooled.
• Correction for entrance effect:
ℎ𝑖 𝐷 0.7
=1+
ℎ∞ 𝐿
• L/D in tray dryers only 2 to 4 Equivalent diameter to be used for D. [for
other driers L/D>50 it can be neglected
• Constant drying rate equation:
𝑚ሶ 𝑣 ℎ𝑦 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑖
𝑅𝑐 = =
𝐴 λ𝑖
Design of tray dryer – cross circulation
Reference: McCabe Smith
 Through Circulation drying
ℎ𝐷
• = 1.17𝑅𝑒 0.585 𝑃𝑟1/3
𝑘
𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝜌
• 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
• Heat transferred from the gas to a thin section
of bed:
• −𝑚𝑔ሶ 𝑐𝑠 𝑑𝑇ℎ = ℎ𝑑𝐴 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑤
𝑇ℎ𝑏 −𝑇𝑤 ℎ𝐴
• 𝑙𝑛 =
𝑇ℎ𝑎 −𝑇𝑤 𝑚ሶ𝑔 𝑐𝑠

66
Designing of through circulation tray
dryer
Ref: McCabe Smith
 Thermal efficiency
• Thermal efficiency is the percentage of the
energy supplied that is used in evaporating the
water or solvent.

• Energy loss =
• sensible heat of warm moist air that is vented
• +Sensible heat of the discharged solid
• + heat loss to the surrounding
 Heat and Mass balance in a cross flow dryer
• 𝑚ሶ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
ሶ and 𝑚𝑔ሶ = 𝑚ሶ𝐹 + 𝑚ሶ𝑅
• 𝑚𝑔ሶ 𝐻𝑏 = 𝑚ሶ𝐹 𝐻𝐹 + 𝑚ሶ𝑅 𝐻𝑅
𝑇𝑏 +𝑇𝑎
• 𝑞1 = ℎ𝐴 − 𝑇𝑤𝑏 [Heat for vapourization]
2
• 𝑞2 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
ሶ 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝐹 𝑐𝑠 [Heat loss with vent]
• 𝑞3 = 𝑚ሶ𝐹 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝐹 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑚ሶ𝑅 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑎 𝑐𝑠
• 𝑞3 = 𝑐𝑆 𝑚𝑔ሶ 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑚ሶ𝐹 𝑇𝐹 + 𝑚ሶ𝑅 𝑇𝑎 [supplied]
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 = 𝑞1 Τλ and 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑞1 /𝑚𝑔ሶ 𝑐𝑠
• 𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝑏 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 /𝑚𝑔ሶ
• 𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝐹 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 /𝑚𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
ሶ
CRYSTALLIZATION

Reference
McCabe Smith
Coulson & Richardson

1
• Module-5 DRYING: Introduction to drying,
Rate of drying, Batch drying mechanism, the
mechanism of moisture movement during
drying, classification and design of dryer. (5)
• CRYSTALLIZATION: Introduction to
crystallization, Theory of Crystallization,
Formation and growth of crystals, crystal yield,
Rate of crystallization. (5)

2
 CRYSTAL AND CRYSTALLIZATION
• A Crystal is a solid body • .Crystals can be
with plane faces i which classified according to
the atoms are arranged seven general crystal
in an orderly repetitive system
array
• Crystallization is
formation or production
of crystallization from a
solution or a melt. It
may be:
• Solution crystallization
• Melt crystallization

3
 Industrial Crystallizer
• Industrial crystallization from • Filtration and
solution, crystals are formed centrifugation to
by creating supersaturation remove Mother liquor
either by cooling or separated from the
evaporation crystals
• The crystals are recovered • Washing of crystal to
from magma, [mixture of reduce amount of
crystallizer and the mother mother liquor waste.
liquor]. • Drying and Air tight
• Objectives in crystallization: packaging of crystals
 Good yield to avoid caking of the
 High purity crystals [cementing of
crystals during
 Proper crystal size and storage]
 crystal size crystallization
[CSD}
4
TYPICAL CRYSTALLIZATION PROCESS

5
 Classification of crystallizers
• Batch or Continuous.
• Basis of method of creation of supersaturation
– Cooling with negligible evaporation
• When solubility decreases markedly with temperature eg;
– Evaporation with little or no cooling- Evaporator
Crystallizer
• When solubility independent of temperature eg NaCl
– Cooling and evaporation in adiabatic evaporator-
vacuum evaporator
•

6
• Basis of method of suspending the growing
product crystals
– Circulating liquid
– Circulating magma
• Crystals for product size control
– Remove bigger particles allowing smaller to grow
– Mixed Suspension mixed product removal MSMPR
• Crystallizers with nucleation control
– Dissolve small crystals, allowing only the big ones to
grow

7
Batch Open Tank Crystallizer

• Tank crystallisers
 vary from shallow pans to large cylindrical tanks.
 Non Agitated or Agitated

8
 SWENSON WALKER SCRAPED SURFACE CRYSTALLIZER
• The Swenson-Walker scraped-surface unit, which is used for processing
inorganic salts that have a high temperature solubility coefficient with water,
is a shallow semi-cylindrical trough, about 600 mm wide and 3–12 m long,
fitted with a water-cooled jacket.
• A helical scraper rotating at 0.8–1.6 Hz, keeps the cooling surfaces clean and
enhances growth of crystals by moving them through the solution which
flows down the sloping trough.
• Several units may be connected in series and the capacity is determined by
the heat transfer rate which should exceed 60 kWfor economic operation,
with heat transfer coefficients in the range 50–150 W/m2 deg K.
• Double pipe scraped surface crystallizer: Cooling wter flows in the annulus.
Internal agitated with spring loaded scrapers wipe the wall wipe the wall and
provide High Heat Transfer coefficients and hence high production. Such units
range from 75 to 600 mm in diameter and 0.3 to 3 m long.

9
(a)CIRCULATING LIQUID AND (b) CIRCULATING MAGMA
CRYSTALIZER

• ddd

10
VACUUM CRYSTALLIZER.

11
DRAFT TUBE BAFFLE A slow-speed propellor agitator is located
in a draught tube that extends to a small
CRYSTALLIZER distance below the liquor level.
Hot, concentrated feed-stock, enters at
the base of the draught tube, and the
steady movement of magma and feed-
stock to the surface of the liquor produces
a gentle, uniform boiling action over the
whole cross-sectional area of the
crystalliser.
The degree of supercooling thus produced
is less than 1 deg K and, in the absence of
violent vapour flashing, both excessive
nucleation and salt build-up on the inner
walls are minimised.
The internal baffle forms an annular space
free of agitation and provides a
settling zone for regulating the magma
density and controlling the removal of
excess nuclei.
An integral elutriating leg below the
crystallisation zone to effect some degree
of product classification.

12
 EQUILIBRIUM IN
CRYSTALLIZATION PROCESS

13
 Examples of
solubility curve

3 types of solubility curves

1. Solubility increasing with
temperature Sodium thiosulphate
2. Solubility not dependent on
temperature
3. Inverted solubility curve:
solubility decreasing with
temperature 14
 Phase equilibria for system with different
hydrates . Example Mg𝑆𝑂4 ,

Line “eagfhij” Solidification

line to form crystal from
solution:
 “ab” Mg𝑆𝑂4 , 12𝐻2 𝑂
 “bc” Mg𝑆𝑂4 , 7𝐻2 𝑂
 “cd” Mg𝑆𝑂4 , 6𝐻2 𝑂
 Above “d” Mg𝑆𝑂4 , 𝐻2 𝑂
Area“pae” Mixture of ice+
sat. soln,
Point “a” eutectic –
Mechanical Mix of ice and
Mg𝑆𝑂4 , 12𝐻2 𝑂
15
Solubility and Heat of solution at Infinite dilution of
some inorganic compounds in water

16
Solubility and Melting point of some organic
compounds in water

17
CRYSTAL YIELD: Material balance in crystallizer
• 𝑤1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤2 =initial and final masses of solvent in the liquor,
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
• 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
• 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 =initial and final concentration of solution.
• 𝑦= crystal yield [ mass of crystal formed]
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
• 𝑅 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
• 𝐸=
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
• s
• Initial water= water in final mother liquor+ water in water of
crystallization, in crystal+ water evaporated.
𝑅−1
• 𝑤1 = 𝑤2 + 𝑦 𝑅 + 𝑤1 𝐸
• Solute Balance:
• 𝑤1 𝑐1 = 𝑤2 𝑐2 + 𝑦Τ𝑅
𝑅−1
• 𝑤1 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 𝑤1 1 − 𝐸 − 𝑦 + + 𝑦 Τ𝑅
𝑅 18
 Theoretical Crystal Yield
𝑅−1
𝑤1 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 𝑤1 1 − 𝐸 − 𝑦 + + 𝑦 Τ𝑅
𝑅
𝟏 𝑅−1 𝟏 − 𝒄𝟐 𝑹 − 𝟏
𝒚 − 𝒄𝟐 =𝒚 = 𝒘𝟏 𝒄𝟏 − 𝒄𝟐 𝟏 − 𝑬
𝑹 𝑅 𝑹
𝒄𝟏 − 𝒄𝟐 𝟏 − 𝑬
𝒚 = 𝑹𝒘𝟏
𝟏 − 𝒄𝟐 𝑹 − 𝟏
• R= Ratio of (molecular mass of hydrate/molecular mass of
anhydrous salt)
• E= ratio (Mass of solvent evaporated/mass of solvent in the initial
solution)
• 𝑤1 = Initial mass of solvent in the liquor
• 𝑤2 = final mass of solvent in liquor
• 𝑐1 = initial concentration of solution expresses as mass of
anhydrous salt/mass of solvent
• 𝑐2 = final concentration of solution expressed as mass of anhydrous
salt/mass of solvent
19
Solubility of NaCl and Sucrose in
gm/100g water
Temperature oC NaCl Sucrose

0 35.6 179

10 35.7 190

20 35.8 204

30 36.1 219

40 36.4 238

60 37.1 287

80 38.1 362

100 39.8 487

20
• Calculate crystal yield when a 100 kg hot
saturated sucrose solution at 100oC is cooled
to 20oC. [C12H22O11]

• Calculate the crystal yield when a 100 kg of

saturated salt solution at 25oC is evaporated
to remove 50 % of the water.

21
 HEAT BALANCE IN CRYSTALLIZER
• When an anhydrous solid compound, whose solubility
increases with increasing temperature, dissolves isothermally in
a solvent, heat is absorbed by the solution.
• This amount of heat per mole of compound in an infinite amount of
solvent varies with temperature, is the heat of solution at infinite dilution,
∆𝑯∞ 𝑺𝑶𝑳 .
• The solubility of anhydrous NaCl is seen to increase slowly with increasing
temperature from 10 to1000 C. Correspondingly, the heat of solution at
infinite dilution is modestly endothermic (+) at room temperature.
• In contrast, the solubility of anhydrous KNO3 increases more rapidly with
increasing temperature, resulting in a higher endothermic heat of
solution.
• For compounds that form hydrates, heat of solution at infinite dilution
may be exothermic for the anhydrous form, but becomes less negative
and often positive as higher hydrates are formed by
𝐴. 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 = 𝐴(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂
•
𝑴𝒈𝑺𝑶𝟒 𝑴𝒈𝑺𝑶𝟒 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑴𝒈𝑺𝑶𝟒 6𝐻2 𝑂 𝑴𝒈𝑺𝑶𝟒 7𝐻2 𝑂

∞
∆𝐻𝑆𝑂𝐿 ,kj/mol -88.3 -58.3 -2.3 +13.3
22
• Compounds whose solubility decreases with
temperature, the dissolution is exothermic,
+ve heat of solution
• For compounds whose solubility does not
change with temperature, there is no heat
evolution/absorption.
• At equilibrium heat of crystallization = (-Heat
of solution)

23
• An energy balance calculation around a
crystallizer is complex because in involves no
only integral heat of solution but also the
specific heats of solute and solvent and heat
of vaporization of the solvent .
• The calculation is easy with enthalpy mass
fraction diagram for the system including

24
Solubility and Heat of Solution at Infinite Dilution for some inorganic
compoiunds in water ( A +ve Heat of solution is Endothermic)

25
26
Phase and
Enthalpy Concentration
Diagram for 𝑀𝑔 𝑆𝑂4

27
• A 32.5% solution of MgSO4 at 120oF (48.9oC)is
cooled without appreciable evaporation to 70oF
(21.1oC) in a batch water cooled crystallizer. How
much heat must be removed from the solution
per 1000kg of crystals?
• Solubility at 70oF = 0.259 mass fraction MgSO4
• Enthalpy:
• 120oF, 0.325 = -33Btu/lb
• 70oF, 0.325 = -78.4 Btu/lb.

28
29
 CLASSIFICAITON OF NUCLEATION
• Primary Nucleation
– Homogeneous
nucleation
– Heterogeneous
nucleation
• Secondary Nucleation
– Fluid shear nucleation
– Contact nucleation

30
 SUPERSATURATION
Supersaturation, mole fraction of solute:∆𝑦 = 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑠
• Where y, ys= mole fraction of solute in super satu soln.
and saturated solution
Molar super-saturation, moles/unit volume:∆𝑐 = 𝑐 − 𝑐𝑠
• Where c, cs = molar conc of solute in supersaturated
and solution and saturated solution

∆𝑐 ∆𝑦
• Fractional Super saturation, 𝑠 = =
𝑐𝑠 𝑦𝑠
𝑦 𝑐
• Concentration Ratio, 𝛼 = =
𝑦𝑠 𝑐𝑠

𝛼 =1+𝑠

31
32
Miers Theory
SOLUBILITY
SUPER SOLUBILITY
CURVE

The driving force for crystallization is the thermodynamic super

saturation. Labile and Metastable super saturation conditions
describe conditions, under which spontaneous (primary
nucleation) would or would not occur. Metastable zone can be
represented by means of solubility, super solubility diagram.
33
• Whilst the (continuous) solubility curve can be determined accurately, the
position of the (broken) supersolubility curve is less certain as it is
influenced by factors such as the rate at which the supersaturation is
generated, the degree of agitation and the presence of crystals or
impurities. In the stable unsaturated zone, crystallisation is impossible. In
the metastable supersaturated zone, spontaneous nucleation is
improbable although a crystal would grow, and in the unstable or labile
saturated zone, spontaneous nucleation is probable but not inevitable.
• If a solution at A is cooled without loss of solvent along ABC, spontaneous
nucleation cannot occur until C is reached. Although the tendency to
nucleate increases once the labile zone is reached, some solutions
become too viscous to permit nucleation and set to a glass.
• Supersaturation can also be achieved by removing solvent and ADE
represents such an operation carried out at constant temperature.
Because the solution near the evaporating surface is more highly
supersaturated than the bulk solution, penetration into the labile zone
rarely occurs and crystals at the surface fall into the solution and induce
nucleation, often before bulk conditions at E have been reached.
Industrial crystallisers often combine cooling and evaporation.

34
 HOMOGENEOUS NUCLEATION
• Unit of crystals: molecules, atoms or ions
• The units are at random motion. They can
momentarily join to form a cluster – a loose
aggregate.. Occasionally they may grow to an
embryo which is the beginning of a lattice
arrangement and the formation of new and
separate phase. , if supersaturation is large
enough a thermodynamic equilibrium is
reached a nucleus is formed which grow to
form crystals.
• 𝑪𝒍𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 → 𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒓𝒚𝒐 → 𝒏𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒖𝒔 →
→ 𝒄𝒓𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍;

35
 HOMOGENEOUS NUCLEATION:EQUILIBRIUM BY
KELVIN EQUATION
• OSTWALD RIPENING: Smaller crystal due to higher surface
energy per unit mass has higher solubility than a bigger
crystal. A small crystal can be in equilibrium with a
supersaturated solution. If a large crystal is also present,
the smaller crystal dissolve and the larger one grow till the
smaller one disappears

• KELVIN EQUATION {Solubility as a function of particle size}:

4𝑉𝑀 𝜎
𝑙𝑛𝛼 =
𝜗𝑅𝑇𝐿
 L= crystal size; 𝑉𝑀 = molar volume of crystal
 𝛼= ratio of concentration of supersaturated and saturated
solution
 σ= average interfacial tension between solid and liquid
 𝜗 =number of ions per molecule of solute(=1 for molecular
crystals)
36
 HOMOGENEOUS NUCLEATION: RATE
OF NUCLEATION
• From theory of chemical kinetics:
2
16𝜋𝜎 3 𝑉𝑀 𝑁𝑜
• 𝐵0 = 𝐶𝑒𝑥𝑝 −
3 𝜗2 𝑅𝑇 3 𝑙𝑛𝛼 2
• 𝐵0 = nucleation rate number/cm3.s
• C= frequency factor, statistical measure of the rate of
formation of embryo that reach the critical size.
• 𝑉𝑀 = molar volume of crystal
• 𝑁𝑜 = Avogadro Number 6.0222 𝑥 1023 molecules/gmol
 𝛼= ratio of concentration of supersaturated and saturated
solution
 σ= average interfacial tension between solid and liquid
 𝜗 =number of ions per molecule of solute (=1 for molecular
crystals)
 R= gas constant, 8.3143 𝑥107ergs/g mol.K
37
 HETEROGENEOUS NUCLEATION
• The catalytic effect of solid particles on nucleation rate :
reduces the energy required for nucleation.
 C= frequency factor, statistical measure of the rate of
formation of embryo that reach the critical size=107
 𝒍𝒏𝜶 = 𝜶 − 𝟏 = 𝒔
2 3
16𝜋𝑉 𝑀 𝑁 𝜎
𝑜 𝑜
𝐵 𝑜 = 1025 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −
3𝜗 2 𝑅𝑇 3 𝑠 2
 𝐵 0 = nucleation rate number/cm3.s
 𝑉𝑀 = molar volume of crystal
 𝑁𝑜 = Avogadro Number 6.0222 𝑥 1023 molecules/gmol
 𝛼= ratio of concentration of supersaturated and saturated
solution
 σ= average interfacial tension between solid and liquid
 𝜗 =number of ions per molecule of solute (=1 for molecular
crystals)
 R= gas constant, 8.3143 𝑥107 ergs/g mol.K
38
 4𝑉𝑀 𝜎
• 𝑙𝑛𝛼 = R= 8.314 m3Pa/kgmol
𝜗𝑅𝑇𝐿

39
• Assuming that the rate of heterogeneous
nucleation of potassium chloride is consistent
with an apparent interfacial tension of
2.5ergs/cm2, Plot the nucleation rate as a
function of s at a temperature of 300K.
[Crystal Density = 1.988gm/cm3]
• What would be the size of nucleus in equilibrium
with a super saturation of 0.29 when the growth
rate is 1 /cm3s
[Use Kelvin Equation]
40
 SECONDARY NUCLEATION
• Formation of nuclei due to te influence of
existing macroscopic crystals in magma.
• FLUID SHEAR
• CONTACT- contact with one another or with
the walls of the crystallizer and impellor

41
 NUCLEATION RATE IN COMMERCIAL
CRYSTALLIZER
• Overall rate of Nucleation in a commercial
crystallizer
𝐵0 = 𝐵𝑠𝑠 + 𝐵𝑐𝑖 + 𝐵𝑐𝑐
• 𝐵𝑠𝑠 = rate of nucleation due to supersaturation
• 𝐵𝑐𝑖 = rate due to contact with impeller
• 𝐵𝑐𝑐 = rate due to crystal – crystal contact

42
 Undesired Nucleation
• Initial breeding: During
addition of seed crystals,
many small crystals
formed during drying and
storage wash off and form
nucleus
• Growth related spurious
nucleation due to very
large value of
supersaturation
 Needle breeding
 Veiled growth

43
 CRYSTAL GROWTH
• The growth of crystal:
• 𝑦𝑠 = saturated conc.
1. Crystal units diffuses from the
solution to the surface of • 𝑘𝑠 = surface reaction coefficient K=
crystal overall rate coefficient
2. The molecules or ions must • Equation for surface reaction rate:
be accepted by the crystal 𝑚ሶ
= 𝑘𝑠 𝑦′ − 𝑦𝑠
and organized into the space 𝑠𝑝
lattice. 𝑚ሶ
= 𝐾 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑠
• The mass transfer equation: 𝑠𝑝
𝑚ሶ 1
𝑁𝐴 = = 𝑘𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑦′ 𝐾=
𝑠𝑝 1Τ𝑘 𝑦 + 1Τ 𝑘 𝑠
• 𝑁𝐴 = molar flux, moles per unit
time per unit area
• 𝑚ሶ = rate of mass transfer, mol / h
• 𝑠𝑝 = surface area of crystal
• 𝑘𝑦 = mass transfer coefficient
• 𝑦 = conc. In the bulk 𝑦′ = conc.
at interface

44
 CRYSTAL GROWTH RATE, G
• Volume of the crystal=𝑣𝑝 𝑚ሶ
• = 𝐾 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑠
• 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ=L 𝑠𝑝

𝑣𝑝 ∝ 𝐿3 • Assuming crystal to have

𝑣𝑝 = 𝑎𝐿3 sphericity =1[𝜑 = 1]
• Mass of the particle • 𝑠𝑝 = 6𝑣𝑝 Τ𝐿 = 6𝑎𝐿2 ;
• 𝑚 = 𝑣𝑝 𝜌𝑀 = 𝑎𝐿3 𝜌𝑀 • 𝑚ሶ = 6𝑎𝐿2 𝐾 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑠
𝑑𝑚 ሶ 𝑑𝐿
• 𝑚ሶ = 𝑑𝑡
2
= 3𝑎𝐿 𝜌𝑀 𝑑𝑡 3𝑎𝐿2 𝜌𝑀 𝐺 = 6𝑎𝐿2 𝐾 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑠
𝑑𝐿
= G = Growth rate
𝑑𝑡 2𝐾 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑠
• 𝑚ሶ = 3𝑎𝐿2 𝜌𝑀 𝐺 𝐺=
𝜌𝑀

45
 ΔL law of crystal growth
• If all crystals in magma grow in a uniform supersaturation field and at
the same temperature and if all crystals grow from birth at a rate
governed by the supersaturation, then all crystals are not only
invariant but also have the same growth rate that is independent of
size.
𝐺≠𝑓 𝐿
∆𝐿 = 𝐺∆𝑡
• ΔL= growth of each crystal in magma
• Δt= time interval
• G=dL /dt= growth rate
2𝐾 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑠
𝐺=
𝜌𝑀
K= overall mass transfer coefficient
1
𝐾= where ky= mtc in liquid, ks=surface reaction coefficient
1Τ𝑘𝑦 +1Τ𝑘𝑠
• 𝜌𝑀 =molar density

46
Designing of MSMPR(Mixed Suspension
Mixed Product Removal) Crystallizer
• Steady state
• Suspension completely mixed
• Super-saturation uniform
• No crystal in feed
• ΔL law applies
• Ideal mixed – CSTR
• Product magma leaves the crystallizer at
equilibrium
• No Crystal breakage
47
 Crystal population density function n
• N =total cumulative number
of crystals per unit volume
of suspension of size L and N
smaller
• n= crystal population
density = slope of N vs L
curve
𝑑𝑁
• 𝑛= n as a function of L can be
𝑑𝐿
• n=number of crystals/Lmm obtained from screen
• n characterizes nuclear analysis curve
growth rate in a crystallizer

48
• a = crystal shape factor.
• vp= volume of a particle
𝑚
• ∆𝑁 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑔 𝑔
∆𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑊𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑊𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝑛= = =
∆𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑥 ∆𝐿 𝜌 𝑎𝐿3 ∆𝐿

49
 Population material balance
• Basis : timeΔt
• Amount of crystals withdrawn =Δn x ΔL
• Amount of out flow = Q L/hr
• Composition of out flow = composition of magma
in crystallizer
𝑛∆𝐿 ∆𝑛 ∆𝐿 ∆𝑛 𝐺∆𝑡 ∆𝑛 𝐺
• =− =− =−
𝑉 𝑄 ∆𝑡 𝑄 ∆𝑡 𝑄
∆𝑛 ∆𝐿 𝑄 ∆𝐿 𝑛 𝑑𝑛 1 𝐿
− = = or ‫𝑛׬‬0 𝑛 = − ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝐿
𝑛 𝑉𝐺 𝐺𝜏 𝐺𝜏
𝐿
• 𝑙𝑛 𝑛 = − + 𝑙𝑛 𝑛0
𝐺𝜏
• From plot of ln n vs L no and G can be obtained
50
 Design equations
• Average size in mm of mass distribution
𝐿𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 3.67𝐺𝜏
• Predominant particle size
𝐿𝑝 = 3.00𝐺𝜏
• Nucleation rate:
𝐵0 = 𝐺𝑛0
• Prediction of cumulative weight fraction obtained:
1 − 𝑊𝑓 = 𝑒 −𝑥 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 Τ2 + 𝑥 3 Τ6
• 1 − 𝑊𝑓 =cumulative wt fraction at opening L mm
• x= L/G𝜏

51
• Calculate Population Mesh Wt %
density and nucleation -14 + 20 4.4
growth rates for crystal -20+28 14.4
samples of urea from -28+35 24.2
screen analysis. The
-35+48 31.6
slurry density (g of
crystals) is 450gm/lit, the -48+65 15.5
crystal shape factor a is -65+100 7.4
1.00 the crystal density is -100 2.5
1.335 g/cm3, residence
time is 3.38 hours The
screen analysis from the
reference is as follows:

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53