International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology

Vol-7, Issue-5; Sep-Oct, 2022

Journal Home Page Available: https://ijeab.com/

Journal DOI: 10.22161/ijeab

Peer Reviewed

Prevalence of Cashew Powdery Mildew Disease in

Western Province of Zambia
L. Chisengele1, A. Uaciquete2, P. W. Kachapulula1

1Department of Plant Science, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Zambia, Lusaka.

2Nuts Institute of Mozambique, Maputo

Received: 30 Sep 2022; Received in revised form: 18 Oct 2022; Accepted: 25 Oct 2022; Available online: 31 Oct 2022
©2022 The Author(s). Published by Infogain Publication. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract— Cashew powdery mildew disease (PMD) is the most devastating disease of cashew nuts
lowering nut yields and quality in Zambia and the rest of the world. Information on prevalence patterns
and timing of disease onset is vital to manage the disease in any country effectively. Cashew powdery
mildew disease incidence and severity were assessed from 160 farmers randomly chosen from all
agricultural camps in eight of the ten cashew-growing districts of the Western province of Zambia in April,
May, June and July 2020. A two-way ANOVA was used to compare disease severity by month and district.
Results showed significant differences (P < 0.001) in both PMD incidence and severity among different
districts, with the highest incidence in Limulunga (55.88 %) and the least in Sikongo District (36.49 %).
Disease severity was highest in Nalolo (57.49 %) and lowest in Sioma district (27.87 %). July registered
the highest (61.89 %), and April had the lowest (20.08%) incidence of the disease. PMD severity was
highest in July (51.69 %). The current study indicates that one of the best strategies to control PMD in this
cashew-growing province of Zambia is to include control measures such as the removal of water shoots
beginning February through March for all districts, chemical control beginning in April in Limulunga
district and delayed to May for the rest of the districts. The study has also identified the hotspots of PMD
that should be priority targets for disease management to maximize the use of limited resources.
Keywords— Anacardium occidentale, powdery mildew disease, incidence, severity

I. INTRODUCTION pests and diseases such as Helopeltis and powdery mildew,

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale Linn.) is an evergreen respectively. Although the relative extent of damage is by
perennial nut crop in the flowering family Anacardiaceae far unknown, powdery mildew is probably the most
(Majune et al., 2018; Ohler, 1979). It is native to devastating biotic factor in cashew production in Zambia.
northeastern Brazil but is widely grown in tropical The disease was first detected in Zambia in 1979
climates, including Zambia. The plant was introduced to (Uaciquete et al., 2003; Zhongrun & Masawe, 2014), and
Africa in the 16th century (Ohler, 1979) and to Zambia in it is known to be the major constraint to cashew production
the 1940s (NA, 2016). Cashew is an important crop for worldwide (Sijaona et al., 2006), associated with crop
nutrition and income generation worldwide (Majune et al., losses of 70 to 100% (Shomari & Kennedy, 1999; Sijaona
2018; Mange et al., 2014). & Shomari, 1987). The disease affects all young parts of
the shoot, including leaves, inflorescences, apples, and
The current cashew yield in Zambia stands at 0. 850
nuts, reducing the visual quality and yield of cashew
MT/ha despite having a potential of 1.3 MT/ha (NA,
apples and nuts (Glawe, 2008; Sijaona & Shomari, 1987)
2016). This low yield is due to various abiotic and biotic
as well as the nutritional status (Uaciquete et al.,2017).
factors that severely constrain cashew production in
Zambia (ZARI, 2018). Some of the biotic humpers include Although smallholder farmers have reported the
occurrence of PMD in Zambia, the extent of the damage

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Chisengele et al. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 7(5)-2022

has not been quantified (ZARI, 2018 Unpublished). In disease to generate information for improved management
addition, incidence and severity patterns and hotspots of of the disease in the cashew-growing region of Zambia.
PMD have yet to be systematically assessed, thereby
hindering the deployment of appropriate control strategies
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
for this disease in Zambia. In addition, knowledge of the
timing of disease onset in Zambia remains largely 3.1.1. Study Locations
unknown, yet such information is vital in triggering the The survey was conducted in 8 districts of the western
deployment of control measures. Currently, cashew province, namely, Kalabo, Limulunga, Lukulu, Mongu,
farmers in Zambia use chemical control in a haphazard Nalolo, Senanga, Sikongo and Sioma (Figure 1). The
manner, a situation that has resulted in the excessive use of districts were purposively selected because they are the
dangerous chemicals, engendering humans and the cashew-growing districts of the province. Both commercial
environment. Therefore, the current study sought to assess and family cashew orchards were assessed in the study.
the incidence and severity of cashew powdery mildew

Fig.1: Sampling sites in 8 cashew-growing districts of the Western Province of Zambia.

Map developed using the software ArcGIS version 10.7.1 from the GPS coordinates recorded during the survey.

Disease incidence and severity Assessment Table 1: Powdery mildew disease severity standard used
Disease incidence and severity were assayed on 160 trees in the study (modified from Nathaniels, 1990)
at the first flash, flowering and panicle initiation stages of Infection
cashew from April to July 2020, as done previously Scale Infection
(Sijaona et al., 2006). Depending on the size of the 0 No lesions
plantation, the zigzag or transact-walk sampling method Powdery mildew fungus covering less than 5%
was used to pick at least 20 cashew trees in each farmer's 1 of the leaf
field (Gomez & Gomez, 1984). PMD incidence and
Powdery mildew fungus covering 5% - 15% of
severity were assessed per field and sampling date, based 2 the leaf
on the previously standardized scale (Nathaniels, 1990;
Powdery mildew fungus covering 15% - 25% of
1996; Sijaona & Mansfield, 2001) as shown in table 1 3 the leaf
below;
Powdery mildew fungus covering 25% - 35% of
4 the leaf
Powdery mildew fungus covering more than
5 35% of the leaf
The north and south sides of the tree canopy were scored
based on the above standard (Table 1) using a 1 m x 1 m
quadrant (Majune et al., 2019). Four rounds of scoring,

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Chisengele et al. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 7(5)-2022

one month apart, corresponding with the phenological of interaction between district or location and month of
stages indicated previously (Adiga et al., 2019), were sampling. Means were separated using the Bonferroni test
conducted for both PMD incidence and severity. Severity at a 5% significance level because of its advantage of
scores were converted to percentages for ease of allowing the comparison of several variables to avoid
presentation. Tree means were used to perform the false data appearing statistically significant.
statistical Analysis for PMD severity.

IV. RESULTS
III. DATA ANALYSIS
Cashew Powdery mildew disease incidence across
Data were checked for normality, and where necessary,
districts and months
arcsine transformed prior to Analysis (Gomez & Gomez,
1984). However, only actual means are presented for There were significant differences (P < 0.001) in PMD
clarity. A 4 x 8 two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) incidence and severity among the different districts and
was used to assess variability in incidence and severity months (table 2). The incidence and severity in districts
among districts and months and to check for the presence depended on the month of assessment.
Table 2.0 Mean squares for Analysis of variance of cashew powdery mildew disease incidence and severity across districts
evaluated from Western Province.
Source of variation d.f MS PMD Incidence MS PMD everity
District 7 2287.5*** 9081.854***
Month 3 63463.6*** 41741.4***
District x Month 21 1157*** 3097.08***
Error 608 113.7*** 55.04***
Total 639
*** Data significant at P = 0.01; d.f- degree of freedom, ms- mean square

The highest severity was recorded in Nalolo (57.48%), Fisher’s protected least significant difference test
followed by Sikongo (50.61%), while Sioma had the performed at P = 0. 05
Severity The highest severity was recorded in July (51.69%, table
District (%) Incidence (%) 4), followed by June (50.9%), while April had the lowest
Sioma 27.84a 47.15b severity (18.27%). The months with the highest incidence
Limulunga 29.45ab 55.88c of PMD were June (61.89%) and July (61.96%), followed
by May (42.49%), while April had the least (20.08 %).
Lukulu 31.53b 36.49a
Senanga 31.89 b
49.14b Table 4.0: PMD severity and incidence by month in the
Western Province of Zambia in 2020
Mongu 37.58c 44.51b
Severity Incidence
Kalabo 38.73c 47.23b
Months (%) (%)
Sikongo 50.61d 46.32b
April 18.27a 20.08a
Nalolo 57.48e 46.12b b
May 31.69 42.49b
Mean 37.102 46.61
June 50.9c 61.89c
lowest severity (27.84%). The district with the highest
July 51.69d 61.96c
incidence was Limulunga (55.88 %, table 3), followed by
Mean 38.14 46.6
Senanga (49.14%), while Sikongo had the least (36.49
a
%). Means followed by the same letter within the column are
not statistically different at P=0.05
Table 3.0: PMD severity and incidence by the district in
the Western Province of Zambia in 2020 The disease incidence in the districts depended on months
a as there was a significant location-by-month interaction
Means followed by the same letter within the column are
which was observed as shown in graphs 1 and 2 below;
not statistically different by

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Chisengele et al. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 7(5)-2022

Graph 1. PMD incidence from April to July 2020

Graph 2. PMD severity from April to July 2020

V. DISCUSSION to 280C, a range very supportive of PMD (Sijaona et al.,

Prevalence of CPMD by district 2001). In addition, inappropriate cultural practices such as
lack of selective thinning, formative pruning, top-working,
This study determined the incidence and severity of
gap filling using grafted seedlings, clonal and polyclonal
cashew powdery mildew disease in the Western Province
seedlings, intercropping, the possible emergence of a new
of Zambia. The results showed that Limulunga district had
and virulent pathotype, and a possible narrow genetic base
the highest PMD incidence (55.88%) while Sikongo
of the cashew population in Zambia could be responsible
district had the lowest (36.9%). These results indicate that
for the observed high incidence and severity in the study
PMD is widespread in the locations studied. These
sites (Milheiro & Evaristo, 1994; Prasad et al., 2000).
relatively high occurrences of PMD in cashew nuts could
However, studies are needed on the virulence of the causal
be due to the predominant use of susceptible planting
organism in Zambia to confirm this. Although the
materials (Wonni et al., 2017; Masawe, 1996) or
prevalence rates were high in all districts, Limulunga has
favourable environmental conditions for developing PMD.
much higher rates than the rest of the province. Although
The temperatures during study periods ranged from 150C
the results clearly show variation in the prevalence of

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Chisengele et al. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 7(5)-2022

PMD in the study sites and that genetic-environmental susceptible tissue (Uaciquete et al., 2003; Uaciquete et al.,
interactions may have contributed to the observed 2017) and unfavourable environmental conditions
differences in powdery mildew prevalence, it is (Nathaniels et al., 1996), hence the lower disease
improbable that the environment had a significant impact prevalence observed for April in all the study sites. The
on the incidence and severity of PMD in the study sites higher prevalence of the disease observed in Zambia from
since the environmental conditions for the study sites do May through to July could be attributed to a more
not differ significantly. The sites lie in the same extended period of availability of susceptible tissue, a
agroecological zone with similar rainfall, temperature, and favourable environmental condition, and a virulent
humidity. Therefore, such observations are more likely pathogen (Agrios, 2005), as it coincides with the most
resulting from the effect of host susceptibility and susceptible phenological developmental stages of cashew
pathogen virulence differences from one district to the next (Adiga et al., 2019). Zhai et al. (2021) reported that the
PMD (Majune et al., 2018; Sijaona et al., 2005; Sijaona et highest combined and mixed effects of temperature
al., 2006). This study clearly shows that Limulunga should variables and the duration of leaf development to the
receive proportionately higher mitigation efforts compared maturation of rubber PMD are strongly influenced by both
to other district districts in order to prevent losses due to extrinsic and intrinsic factors, as that found in oak trees,
PMD in the district. which are highly affected by winter temperature and
Prevalence of CPMD by month phenology (Marcais et al., 2018). The observed PMD
progress in the study areas could also be related to the
In general, the PMD incidence and severity were very low
inoculum density in cashew trees (Martins et al., 2018).
in April when the temperatures were slightly high and
Although the present study did not investigate the effect of
increased with a reduction in temperatures from May to
temperature from one month to the next and leaf
July, which has the coldest days or lowest temperatures in
development phenology on cashew PMD severity, this is
the Western Province. This could be because the
very likely for cashew, as observed from previous studies
epidemic's development is favoured by dry and cold
(Uaciquete et al., 2013; Nathaniels & Kennedy, 1996;
conditions (Glawe, 2008; Waller et al., 1992; Milheiro &
Adiga et al., 2019).
Evaristo, 1994). This is supported by previous studies
(Majune et al., 2018; Agrios, 2005; Lopez, 2008; Suffert et Cross-cutting issues
al., 2011) that showed that three factors necessary for the The above observations have led to the hypothesis that
disease to occur included host susceptibility, pathogen chemical applications for disease mitigation require more
virulence, and a low temperature. In addition, earlier frequency in some regions than others because of climatic
studies (Shomari & Kennedy,1998) demonstrated that O. differences. This suggests that disease mitigation in
anarcadii conidial germination and cashew tissue infection Sikongo, Nalolo, Mongu, and Limulunga districts should
by a PMD pathogen occurred over a wide range of begin in mid-April and in May for the rest of the districts
temperatures and humidity. Therefore, environmental to manage the disease effectively. This is because the
factors that promote the fungus's growth and viability are disease control severity threshold should be 20% or above
expected to result in higher PMD disease prevalence before reaching the economic threshold (Sijaona et al.,
(Shomari & Kennedy, 1999). Furthermore, differences in 2001). Therefore, severe losses in both cashew nut quality
weather conditions are expected over time and between and quantity would be experienced if disease control is not
various cashew production areas (Nathaniels & Kennedy, done by this time. Field observations showed that the
1996). Therefore, the different district patterns of epidemic dwarf cashew genotypes exhibited high levels of disease
development observed in the study sites agree with the tolerance compared to the common giant genotypes in the
findings reported in different regions of Tanzania leaf-flushing phenological stages but were both susceptible
(Nathaniels et al., 1993; Nathaniels, 1990) and at the inflorescence and flowering stages (unpublished).
Mozambique (Uaciquete et al., 2003; Nathaniels, 1994; This observation suggests that chemical control of the
Topper et al., 2000). disease for the dwarf genotypes could start at the
The phenological development stages of cashew nuts that inflorescence and flowering stages for the dwarf genotypes
are very susceptible to PMD attack are the leaf, shoot, and the leaf-flushing development stage for the common
inflorescence, flowering, and fruit development stages giant genotypes, as this would be more economical even
(Adiga et al., 2019). In Zambia, these development stages for resource-limited farmers. The variation in microclimate
occur from April to September. From December to early likely plays a role in the development and the evolution of
April, the cashew's principal growth stage is the vegetative the disease in the study locations as it was associated with
leaf development stage, with minimal availability of the types of cashew genotypes, location, and the
phenology of the trees (Lopez, 2008; Suffert et al., 2011).

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Chisengele et al. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 7(5)-2022

phenology. SciELO journals. Dataset.

https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.6504539.v1
VI. CONCLUSION AND
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