GCWK1 Module

ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT COLLEGE
COURSE PACKET IN
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
(NATURAL SCIENCE 2)
Prepared By:
Garengen G. Saya-ang, LPT

Instructor
2020
Poblacion, Aurora, Zamboanga del Sur, 7020
i
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Prepared by: Garengen G. Saya-ang, LPT

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Letter to the Students
My Dear Students,
Welcome to the 1st Semester at Zamboanga del Sur
Provincial Government College. I hope that your summer was filled
with new adventures and special memories together with your
loved ones despite of the pandemic that we are experiencing today.
I’ am Miss Garengen G. Saya-ang your General Chemistry instructor
and I’ am looking forward to working with you this school year. This
will be an extremely and fruitful year with much to learn.
This course packet is very relevant to you. This includes all
the concepts, ideas, and activities that will cater your needs. You
can come to school for your laboratory works along with the safety
protocols but it depends to the schedule being arrange. Make sure
that you can notice and answer the learning materials being posted.
Finish and pass it on time as part of your requirement to the course
also a responsibility as a student.
Let’s work hand in hand for the betterment of the future.
Let’s embrace one another as we face the adversities of the new
normal. Golden rule: Be good to me and I will be good to you!! Stay
tune! Enjoy the ride!
Sincerely yours,
Garengen G. Saya-ang
Facebook: Ga Ren Gen
Contact No: 09101627698
Email address: [email protected]
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Table of Contents
Contents Page Number
Cover page i
Preface/Letter to the Students ii
Table of Contents iii
Course Outline iv
Week 1
Lesson 1: Chemistry and Matter 3
Introduction to Chemistry 3
Lesson 2: What is Matter? 4
States of Matter 5-8
Properties of Matter 8-11
Classification of Matter 11-18
Methods of Classifying Matter 18-20
Week 2
Lesson 3: Measurements 26
Accuracy and Precision 26-27
Metric System 27-31
Significant Digits 31
Density measurement 32-33
Week 3
Lesson 4: Atom 36
Atomic Theory 36-38
Quantum Mechanical Description of an Atom 38-40
Main energy levels, sublevels and orbitals 40-42
Quantum numbers 42-43
Week 4
Lesson 5: Chemical Bonding 47
Ionic bond 47-49
Covalent bond 49-50
Lewis dot symbols 50-58
Week 5
Lesson 6: Chemical Formulas 62
Naming Chemical Compounds 62-65
Writing chemical formulas 65-70
Balancing equation 70-75
Week 6
Lesson 7: Stoichiometry 79
Atomic mass 79-80
Avogadro’s number 80-81
The mole concept 82-83
Percent composition 83-84
Types of chemical reactions 84
Mass relationship in chemical reaction 85
Week 7
Lesson 8: Gases 89
Pressure of a gas 89
The gas laws 89-90
Ideal gas equation 91-92
Zamboanga del Sur Provincial Government College
General Chemistry
1st Semester School Year 2020-2021
COURSE CODE: NAT. SCI. 2

COURSE TITLE: General Chemistry
COURSE DESCRIPTION: This course is about on the fundamental chemical concepts and
principles that covers the structure of matter; atomic structure and chemical bonding; and
chemical reactions: classification, stoichiometry and energetics.
UNIT CREDIT: 5 Units (5 hours/week)

PREREQUISITE: None
CO- REQUISITE: None
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. Matter and Measurement

Chemistry: definition and scope
Matter: classification and physical states; physical and chemical
properties
Measurements: units and handling numbers
Problem solving: dimensional analysis/factor-label method
2. Atoms, Ions and Molecules

Atomic theory
Structure of the atom: nucleus and electrons
Isotopes: atomic number and mass number
Ions: cations and anions
Molecules: Chemical formulas and naming compounds
3. Electronic Structure of Atom

Atomic orbitals and Electronic Configurations
4. Periodic Relationships among Elements

Development of Periodic Table
Periodic classification of elements
5. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry

Ionic bonds and Covalent bonds
Lewis structures and Octet rule
6. Quantitative Relationships in Chemical Reactions
Atomic mass and Molar Mass
Mole Concept and Avogadro’s number
Percent composition of compounds
Chemical reactions and chemical equations
Stoichiometry: amounts of reactants and products
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7. States of Matter
Nature and properties of Gases
Gas Laws
GRADING SYSTEM
Major Exams 50%
Quizzes, Worksheets, Experiments, Participation 50%
100%
Prepared by: Noted by: Approved by:
GARENGEN G. SAYA-ANG VANESSA P. CANOY JEHUEL NATHAN R. DACULIO

Course Facilitator Program Head Academic Head
Date Signed: _______________
2
To my students:
You are now about to start the first lesson for Week 1. Read the learning materials below
then answer the comprehension check questions, worksheet and experiment that follow and
do the Exercise No. 1 and 2.
Lesson I – Chemistry and Matter
What is Chemistry?
 is the study of matter and the chemical reactions between substances.
 Is also the study of matter’s composition, structure, and properties.
 is sometimes called “the central science,” because it bridges physics with other natural
sciences, such as geology and biology.
Branches of Chemistry
Today, chemistry has become a very diverse subject with large numbers of branches.
Modern chemistry can be categories into five main branches which are discussed below. The five
main branches of chemistry are Physical chemistry, Analytical chemistry, Inorganic chemistry,
Organic chemistry, and Biochemistry.
Physical Chemistry
 is the combination of Physics and Chemistry. Physical Chemistry has a good overlap with
some of the branches of Physics. It is a sub-branch of science that deals with the study
of macroscopic properties like pressure, volume etc.; atomic properties like ionization
energy, electronegativity, valency etc. It also deals with the structure of matter and
energy.
Ex: Ice melts at 0 degree Celsius.
Analytical Chemistry
 It is a branch of Chemistry that focusses on qualitative and quantitative methods

to analyse properties of matter. In short, it deals with the analysis of chemicals. It has
huge applications in chemical industries to maintain the quality of the final finished
product. In real life, the steps in the analysis are separation, identification and finally
quantification. In separation, we separate the constituents from the mixture. After
isolating the desired sample, we identify its constituent by qualitative analysis. And
finally, we estimate the concentration of analyses by quantitative analysis.
Ex: Nitrogen content can be determined using Kjedahl method
Inorganic Chemistry
 It is a branch of Chemistry which deals with the study of inorganic compounds.
Inorganic compounds are compounds which do not contain carbon-hydrogen bond.
Inorganic compounds largely found beneath the earth surface: rocks and minerals, and
others are produced in chemical industries. Inorganic chemicals have applications in
paint, pigment, coating, fertilizer, surfactant, disinfectant, solar power industries. The
largest inorganic chemicals produced in the world are sulphuric acid, hydrogen,
nitrogen, ammonia, chlorine, phosphorus pentaoxide, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid,
sodium hydroxide.
Ex: The bond present between sodium and chlorine in NaCl is ionic.
Organic Chemistry
 It is a branch of Chemistry which deals with the study of organic compounds. organic
compounds are compounds which contain carbon-hydrogen bond. Carbon is capable of
forming long C-C chains (called catenation). It is because of this property of carbon, it
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forms a tremendous number of compounds. This is a reason why organic compounds
exceed inorganic compounds. Other than carbon and hydrogen, the elements widely
found in organic compounds are oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and halogens
(fluorine, chlorine and iodine). Organics compounds are used in agriculture, food,
medicine, polymer, textile, insecticide, pharmaceutical, rubber, fuel, and consumer good
industries. Some of the industrial important organic chemicals are methane, ethylene,
propylene, 1,2-dichloroethylene, methanol, isopropyl alcohol, butane, acetylene,
polystyrene, glycerol, acetone, acetic acid, acetic anhydride, urea, toluene, phenol,
aniline. glucose, fructose, starch etc.
Ex: Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a combination of low-molecular
weight hydrocarbons.
Biochemistry
 is the field of science that emphases on the study of chemical processes inside the
biological system. Biochemistry is a new field compare to the above branches of
chemistry. Professionals in this arena of Chemistry are called Biochemist. Biochemistry
focusses on uses of chemistry to better understand biological systems like respiration,
digestion, cellular metabolism etc. Biochemists work on diseases like cancer to develop
better treatment; they also study molecular genetics to improve genes.
Ex: Carbohydrates are energy-storage molecules.
Importance of Chemistry
We study chemistry because:
o It can be applied to all aspects of life (development of pharmaceuticals, leaf color

change in the fall etc.).
o It is part of your curriculum! Chemistry serves biology, engineering agriculture, geology,
physics, etc.
o It has considerable impact on society
- Health and medicine
- Food and agriculture
- Materials and technology
- Energy and environment
Lesson II – Matter
What is Matter?
 is anything that possesses mass and occupies space. In other words, one which you can
weigh and measure volume is matter. Matter includes everything which satisfies the
above two conditions: mass and volume. As we know, all substances around us compose
of atoms. Atoms have mass and occupy space; hence they are matter. So, we can say
that anything which is composed of atoms is matter. Some of the examples of matter
are pen, banana, phone, car, rocket, milk, water, air etc. We ourselves are
made up of atoms; so, we also are matter.
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Atom, phone, books, pen, car, and rocket are all examples of matter.
Note: Not all things observed in nature is matter. Subatomic particles like photons do not have
mass. Also, subatomic particles are not normal objects which follow classical laws; their behavior
and properties are administered by quantum principles. We cannot include these particles in
matter.
States of Matter
In the cold winter season, water starts to freeze and a layer of ice forms on the surface
of the water. This phenomenon is observed in rivers and lakes in colder countries. When a vessel
filled with water is kept on a kitchen stove, it boils. We can see the water vapour leaving the
vessel. Therefore, water exists in forms: solid as ice, liquid as water, gas as vapour. These
different forms of water are called states of matter. A state of matter is a distinct form of matter.
There are four classical or fundamental states of matter, viz. solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. The
latter among the four is not common in comparison to the rest three.
Solid
In solids, constituent particles are very close to each other. The freedom of movement in
solids is less. This is because of strong attractive forces among the particles. Thus, solids have a
definite volume and a definite shape. Solids deform only when subjected to an external force.
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Examples of solids (left to right: a solid block, sodium chloride structure, and
diamond)
The constituent particles of solids do possess internal energy because of which the
particles vibrate about their mean position. The vibration increases with the rise in temperature.
Various properties associated with solids are elasticity, plasticity, rigidity, malleability, ductility,
conductivity etc. Solids can further classify as amorphous (or non-crystalline) and crystalline
solids. In amorphous solids, the particles are randomly arranged; there is no orderly repeating
pattern. Examples of amorphous solids include rubber, chalk, plastic etc. While in crystalline
solids, the particles are regularly arranged in a symmetrical manner to form a unit cell. This cell
is repeated over the entire crystal. The examples are this form of solids are sodium chloride, ice,
sugar, diamonds, rubies, metals etc.
Solids on heating convert into liquids. This is called melting of solids. When ice is left
open in air, it slowly melts to form liquid water. The Solid can directly transform into gas through
a process of sublimation.
Liquid
Liquids come between solids and gases. The constituent particles in liquids are close to
each other. Though, they are not as close as in solids. Intermolecular forces among particles are
relatively stronger in comparison to gases but weaker to solids. The particles in liquids can easily
move around each other. Liquids have a definite volume but not a definite shape. They assume
the shape of a container in which they are placed. Most liquids are incompressible. Some of the
properties associated with liquids are density, flowability, conductivity, viscosity, refractive index,
surface tension. Liquids on heating transform into gases by process of vaporisation. But on
freezing they solidify.
The molecules of liquids are less densely packed in comparison to solids. They are
move around each other.
Gas
Gases have neither a definite volume nor a definite shape. They take the volume and
shape of a container in which they are stored. The constituent particles of gases are far apart
from each other. The intermolecular force of attraction is very weak. The particles can move
freely in any direction. The velocity of particles in gases is much higher relative to liquids and
gases. Since the particles in gases are far apart, there is a lot of empty space between the
particles. So, they can easily compress. Gas has the lowest density compare to solid and liquid.
Some of the properties pertaining to gases are density, pressure, temperature, viscosity. Gases
can liquefy under compression or cooling. This process is called condensation of liquids. They
can also to directly transform into solid through a process deposition (or desublimation).
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A gas consists of loosely packed molecules.
Plasma
Plasma is the last fundamental state of matter. Unlike the above three, it does not exist
in normal condition. It is generated when gas is heated to extreme temperature or there is a
high voltage difference between two points. In such extreme conditions, electrons in atoms get
energize and depart from the parent atoms. These dissociated electrons move freely in space. It
is also known as ionization of the gas.
Examples of plasma (left to right: lighting, Sun's corona, and electric sparks)
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Solid Liquid Gas Plasma
Definite shape and Definite volume but takes the shape takes the shape
volume takes the shape of its and volume of its and volume of its
container container container
Particles can only Particles can move Particles can freely Particles can freely
vibrate around each other travel travel
High density Moderate density Low density Low density
Incompressible Incompressible Compressible Compressible
No flow ability Flowable Flowable Flowable
May or may not May or may not Usually does not Conducts
conduct electricity conduct electricity conduct electricity electricity
Properties of Matter
All Substances behave differently based on their characteristics and attributes. These
characteristics and attributes are the properties of matter. With the knowledge of properties of
substances, chemists can predict their behaviour, nature, and their interactions with other
substances. Some of these properties can merely be identified by simple observation while some
require experimentation.
There are two ways in which we can classify properties of matter. Based on how
properties are determined, they can be classified into two categories: physical properties and
chemical properties. Based on the dependence of properties on the amount of a substance, we
can classify them into intensive properties and extensive properties. The figure below explains
the same.
Properties of Matter (Chemical and Physical, Intensive and Extensive)
Physical Properties
Physical properties can be measured or determined without altering the chemical identity
of a substance. The chemical composition of a substance remains fixed during the measurement
of physical properties; in other words, there is no chemical change.
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Note: In the estimation of physical properties, no chemical change occurs, but physical change
may occur. Physical change is a change in which physical appearance is affected. There is no
breaking or formation of chemical bonds. For example, Ice melts to water is a physical change,
no chemical composition is altered. Some of the examples of physical change are melting of
solids, boiling of liquids, freezing of liquids, physical mixing, separation of a mixture, shape
deformation, ripping of paper.
Examples of physical properties are taste, colour, odour, density, melting
point, boiling point etc.
Examples of physical change (clockwise from top left: drying, ripped paper, melting,
chopped wood, and distillation)
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Chemical Properties
Chemical properties can only be estimated through a chemical change. It means a
substance changes its original identity during the measurement of its chemical properties. The
chemical change is nothing but a chemical reaction. Substances whose properties are to be
estimated are lost during the measurement. Chemical properties of a substance are indications
of the chemical nature of the substance like reactivity towards acids and bases, combustibility,
flammability, acidity, basicity.
Chemical change alters the chemical composition of a substance. The original substance
is destroyed. Consider the corrosion of iron. In corrosion, iron reacts with oxygen to form iron
oxide. The original iron is permanently destroyed to produce iron oxide. The chemical
composition of the original material is completely altered. Other examples of chemical
change are milk turning sour, burning of paper, combustion of petrol or any other
fuel, fermentation.
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Example of chemical change (clockwise from top left: digestion, photosynthesis,
firefox, nuclear bombing, combustion, and rusting)
Intensive Properties
A property of a substance or system is called intensive when it is independent of the
amount of the substance. It is a bulk property. The property does not change with the size of a
system. Intensive properties are the same for 1 gram of a substance or 1 kilogram, 1 cm3 or
1 m3. The density of water is 1000 kg m−3, and it is an intensive property. So, the density of
water always will be 1000 kg m−3 irrespective of the mass and/or volume of water.
Some of the examples of intensive properties are density, colour, temperature,
conductivity, refractive index, malleability, lustre, hardness etc.
Extensive Properties
Extensive properties are which depend on the amount of a substance or the size of a
system. An extensive property is directly proportional to the amount of a substance. One litre of
a bottle holds one-litre water and two litres of a bottle holds two-litre water. Thus, the volume is
an extensive property. An extensive property is the additive of subsystems. In other words, the
extensive property of the total system is the sum of extensive properties of every subsystem. If
there are two water bottles of the volume of 1 L each, the total volume is the sum of each bottle
which is 27 L. Examples of extensive properties are mass, volume, length, enthalpy,
Classification of Matter
Matter is anything which has mass and occupies space. Examples of matter are books,
phones, laptops, water, juices, coffee, air, Earth, Moon, Sun, and anything which is composed of
atoms. Based on physical characteristics, we can classify matter into two main categories: pure
substances and mixtures. Mixtures can further divide into homogeneous and heterogeneous
mixtures and pure substances into elements and compounds. The figure below explains the
same.
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Note: Classification of matter should not confuse with states of matter. A state of matter is a
distinct form in which matter exists. The four fundamental states of matter are solid, liquid,
gases, and plasma.
Pure Substances
A substance is a pure substance when all constituent particles of the substance have the
same chemical properties. In pure substance, the composition of constituent particles is fixed i.e.
it does not vary from sample to sample. Most of the substances that we use in our day to day
life are not pure substances. Some of the examples of pure substances are water; metals
like iron, copper, calcium, silver, gold etc; salts like sodium chloride, calcium
carbonate, potassium nitrate etc; gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
hydrogen, helium etc.
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Examples of pure substances (clockwise from top left: copper dendrites, gold
biscuits, a glass of pure water, and liquid nitrogen.)
Pure substances are normally not found in nature. But they are produced by industries,
for example, refining of dore bar (semi-pure gold) by the Wohlwill process, extraction of calcium
carbonate from a quarry, electrolysis of sodium chloride to produce hydrogen gas.
Consider a gold bar. Constituent particles in the gold bar are its atoms. Each atom in the
gold bar is identical to other atoms and they all have the same chemical properties. Thus, we say
it is a pure substance. Similarly, the constituent particles of pure water are its molecules (H2O).
The water is represented by these molecules, which are identical and show the same chemical
properties.
Based on the nature of constituent particles, we can subcategorise pure substances into
elements and compounds.
Elements
Pure substances in which constituent particles are composed of the one type of atoms
are called elements. Some of the examples are elements are sodium, calcium, silver,
gold, sulphur, phosphorus, helium, neon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen &c. The
constituent particles of elements can be atoms or molecules. Atoms include sodium
(Na), calcium (Ca), silver (Ag), gold (Au), helium (He), neon (Ne). Molecules include
hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), chlorine (Cl2) etc. The figure below depicts
the same.
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A representation of atoms (top three) and molecules (bottom three)
For an element, a constituent particle can consist of one or more atoms, but an
important point is all the atoms should be the same type. As of 2019, there are 118 elements
known to us, and they are listed in the modern periodic table. The most abundant elements in
the universe are hydrogen and helium.
Compounds
When constituent particles of a pure substance are composed of different atoms, it is
called a compound. Examples of compounds are water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrogen chloride (HCl), ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), glucose (C6H12O6), sodium
chloride (NaCl), potassium hydroxide (KOH) etc.
A representation of compounds
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In compounds, two or more different atoms combine to form a constituent particle. The
atoms of a constituent particle are chemically bonded to each other. We cannot separate the
atoms of a constituent particle by any physical methods.
Elements can interact among themselves to form compounds, for example, hydrogen and
oxygen react to form water. The properties of elements may or may not resemble its respective
compound. Hydrogen and oxygen are gases while their compound water is liquid. Hydrogen is
flammable and oxygen supports fire while water extinguishes the fire. It is interesting to note,
just by combinations of a few elements, we can get countless compounds. Water is the most
abundant compound not only in Earth but also in the entire universe.
Mixtures
In contrast to pure substance, a mixture contains different constituent particles. A
mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances. In a mixture, the composition of
individual components can vary at any scale. Most of substances in the world are mixtures. Some
of the examples of mixtures are air, seawater, steel, sand, rocks, concrete, petrol, diesel,
medicines, milk, juices, tea, coffee, food and many others.
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Examples of heterogeneous mixtures (clockwise from top left: seawater, juice,
coffee, milk, coin, and sand)
In mixture, each ingredient retains its properties. Consider an example of coffee. Typical
ingredients in coffee are roasted coffee, sugar, cream, spice like cinnamon, and water. When a
person drinks coffee, each ingredient in coffee contributes to its taste. Also, in mixture individual
components are not bonded chemically. There is no chemical bond among the ingredients of
coffee. Seawater is a mixture of water, sand, minerals and salts dissolved in it. Steel is also a
mixture mainly of carbon and iron. Air support life on the Earth is also a mixture of various
gases. The main components in the air are nitrogen which roughly accounts for 79 % and
oxygen which is approximately 21 %. It is possible to separate the components of a mixture by
physical methods such as hand picking, distillation, filtration, crystallisation, sedimentation etc.
Homogeneous Mixture
In homogeneous mixtures, the components of the mixture are uniformly distributed
through the mixture. The composition of components does not vary from sample to sample
provided the sample size is considerably large to the size of components. The components in a
homogeneous mixture are well mixed. The examples of homogeneous mixtures are air,
sugar solution, tap water etc. Homogeneous mixtures aka solutions. Air is a solution
of various gasses like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour. Tap water is a
solution of water and other components dissolved in it such as calcium carbonate,
sodium chloride etc.
Heterogeneous Mixture
Heterogeneous mixtures are do not have a uniform distribution of components. The
composition of components does vary from sample to sample. Sometimes, the components are
visible by naked eyes and can be handpicked, for example, the mixture of sand and gravel
or the mixture of marble balls and stones. We can easily identify the individual
components and separate them by our hands. Consider the below figure the mixture
of sunflower seed and sand. It is a heterogeneous mixture. We can comfortably
identify the black seeds from the sand and we can separate them manually.
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Mixture of sunflower seeds and sand
Suspension
Suspensions are a special type of heterogeneous mixtures in which components can be
separated through sedimentation. In sedimentation, the particles get separated with the help of
gravity. When a heterogeneous mixture is immersed in a fluid, the heavier particles settle at the
bottom leaving the lighter particles to float on the surface of the fluid. Examples are dust on
grains, chalk powder mix with gravel, mud etc. In suspension, the diameter of
particles should be sufficiently large (more than 1 micron) to settle down.
Colloid
A colloid is another case of heterogeneous mixtures in which microscopic particles are
suspended in a fluid. The difference between suspension and colloid is the size of suspended
particles. In colloids, the size of suspended particles is smaller than that of suspensions. Because
of the small sizes, the particles in colloid stay suspended in the fluid for a very long period of
time. Colloids apparently appear as homogeneous mixtures but are not. The classical example
of colloids is milk. Milk appears as a homogeneous mixture which is false. When we
examine milk under a microscope, we can observe fats and protein suspended in
water. With the help of filtration, we can separate these fats and proteins from the
water. Other examples are fog, blood, gelatin, ink.
Difference among element, compound, homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture

Element Compound Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Composed of one Composed of Combination of 2 or Combination of 2 or
type of atom different atoms more pure more pure
substances substances
Each partice Each partice Individual Individual
resembles in resembles in components have components have
chemical chemical different chemical different chemical
properties properties properties properties
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The composition The composition The composition is The composition
is the same from is the same from the same from varies from sample to
sample to sample sample to sample sample to sample sample
Cannot be Can be separated Can be separated by Can be separated by
separated by chemical physical methods physical methods
methods
Difference among element, compound, homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture
Separation of Mixtures
Not everyone is out searching for gold (and not many of those searchers is going to get
much gold, either). In a chemical reaction, it is important to isolate the component(s) of
interest from all the other materials so they can be further characterized. Studies of biochemical
systems, environmental analysis, pharmaceutical research – these and many other areas of
research require reliable separation methods.
Here are a number of common separation techniques:
Chromatography
Chromatography is the separation of a mixture by passing it in solution or suspension

or as a vapor (as in gas chromatography) through a medium in which the components move at
different rates. Thin-layer chromatography is a special type of chromatography used for
separating and identifying mixtures that are or can be colored, especially pigments.
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Distillation
Distillation is an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more pure

liquids. Distillation is a purification process where the components of a liquid mixture are
vaporized and then condensed and isolated. In simple distillation, a mixture is heated and the
most volatile component vaporizes at the lowest temperature. The vapor passes through a
cooled tube (a condenser), where it condenses back into its liquid state. The condensate that is
collected is called distillate.
In the Figure above , we see several important pieces of equipment. There is a heat source, a
test tube with a one-hole stopper attached to a glass elbow and rubber tubing. The rubber
tubing is placed into a collection tube which is submerged in cold water. There are other more
complicated assemblies for distillation that can also be used, especially to separate mixtures,
which are comprised of pure liquids with boiling points that are close to one another.
Evaporation
Evaporation is a technique used to separate out homogenous mixtures where there is

one or more dissolved solids. This method drives off the liquid components from the solid
components. The process typically involves heating the mixture until no more liquid remains,
Prior to using this method, the mixture should only contain one liquid component, unless it is
not important to isolate the liquid components. This is because all liquid components will
evaporate over time. This method is suitable to separate a soluble solid from a liquid. Once the
sea water in these evaporation ponds has evaporated, the salt can be harvested.
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Filtration
Filtration is a separation method used to separate out pure substances in mixtures

comprised of particles some of which are large enough in size to be captured with a porous
material. Particle size can vary considerably, given the type of mixture. For instance, stream
water is a mixture that contains naturally occurring biological organisms like bacteria, viruses,
and protozoans. Some water filters can filter out bacteria, the length of which is on the order of
1 micron. Other mixtures, like soil, have relatively large particle sizes, which can be filtered
through something like a coffee filter.
Instructions:
Now that you had learned
about the basic concepts of chemistry,
do the succeeding activities. Use
separate blank sheet for your answers
in experiments and worksheets.
Experiment:
Matter on the Move
 https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_LA_matter_on_th
e_move.pdf
 https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/LA_matter_on_the_move.
pdf
Further notes:
 https://www.csudh.edu/Assets/csudh-sites/chemistry/docs/chem-108/classification-and-
properties-of-matter.pdf
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rW75KSj-kMM
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QQsybALJoew
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Worksheet:
 https://1.cdn.edl.io/WkutrsNPOQgBgEqztWV8OnPm8IjZemYAHsWTWi5jfFgXl1lJ.pdf
Comprehension Check:
1. Define these terms:
a. matter b. mass c. weight d. substance e. mixture
2. Give an example of homogeneous mixture and an example of a heterogeneous mixture.
3. What is difference between a physical property and a chemical property?
4. Give an example of an intensive property and an example of an extensive property?
To check your answer, feel free to contact your course facilitator through any of the
following:
 Facebook: Ga Ren Gen
 Contact No: 09101627698
 Email address: [email protected]
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General Chemistry
List of References
1. Chang, Raymond (2009) General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts, Fifth Edition
International Edition 2009, McGraw-Hill Companies, 1221 Avenue New York, NY10020.
Copyright 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2. Goldberg, D. (2005), Theory and Problems of Beginning Chemistry, Third Edition. McGraw-
Hill Companies. 1221 Avenue New York, NY10020 Copyright 2005 by The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc. All rights reserved
3. https://www.britannica.com/science/matter
4. http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/pre/chemsci.html
5. http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/General_Chemistry/Introduction
22
General Chemistry
EXERCISE No. 1
Matter
NAME: _________________________________________________SCORE: ___________
INSTRUCTOR: __________________________SECTION: ________ DATE: ____________
1. Classify each of the following as:

(Homogeneous, Heterogeneous, Element, Compound)
a. Oxygen f. Bronze
b. Table salt g. Diamond
c. Sea water h. Carbon dioxide
d. Wine i. Gasoline
e. Air j. Milk
2. Classify each of the following as a chemical or physical change:
a. Burning gasoline f. Making ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen
b. Making ice cubes g. Digesting food
c. Boiling oil h. Breaking of glass
d. Melting lead i. Sawing wood
e. Rusting iron j. Ripening of mango
3. Determine if physical or chemical property. If physical, identify whether extensive or
intensive.
a. melting point of copper f. boiling point of water
b. hardness of a metal g. specific gravity of aluminum
c. ability of iron to corrode h. volume of hydrogen gas
d. density of water i. air pressure of a tire
e. human body temperature j. flammability of gasoline
23
General Chemistry
EXERCISE No. 2
Matter
NAME: _________________________________________________SCORE: ___________

Directions: Complete the Concept Map of Matter. Use the diagram below for your entry.
MATTER
24
Weekly Output:
 Exercises No. 1 and 2
 Experiment No. 1
 Worksheet No. 1
Keep them in your Portfolio and submit to your Course Facilitator during the face-to-
face session for Week 2.
End of Week 1
25
General Chemistry
To my students:
You are now on the 2nd week of this course. Before you start working on the lessons for this
week make sure that you have submitted to your course facilitator the requirements of Week 1.
For this week you will learn Lesson 3. Read and watch the learning materials below then answer
the Comprehension Check questions, worksheet and experiment that follow and do the Exercise
No. 3.
Lesson III – Measurements
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the correct value for that measurement.
The precision of a measurement system is refers to how close the agreement is between
repeated measurements (which are repeated under the same conditions). Measurements can
be both accurate and precise, accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, or neither.
The distribution of darts on a dartboard shows the difference between accuracy and precision.
Assume that three darts are thrown at the dartboard, with the bulls-eye representing the
true, or accepted, value of what is being measured. A dart that hits the bulls-eye is highly
accurate, whereas a dart that lands far away from the bulls-eye displays poor accuracy. The figure
above demonstrates four possible outcomes.
1. The darts have landed far from each other and far from the bulls-eye. This grouping
demonstrates measurements that are neither accurate nor precise.
2. The darts are close to one another, but far from the bulls-eye. This grouping demonstrates
measurements that are precise, but not accurate. In a laboratory situation, high precision
with low accuracy often results from a systematic error. Either the measurer makes the
same mistake repeatedly or the measuring tool is somehow flawed. A poorly calibrated
balance may give the same mass reading every time, but it will be far from the true mass
of the object.
3. The darts are not grouped very near to each other, but are generally centered around the
bulls-eye. This demonstrates poor precision, but fairly high accuracy. This situation is not
desirable in a lab situation because the "high" accuracy may simply be random chance
and not a true indicator of good measuring skill.
26
4. The darts are grouped together and have hit the bulls-eye. This demonstrates high
precision and high accuracy. Scientists always strive to maximize both in their
measurements.
The Metric System

In the United States, both the U.S. customary measurement system and
the metric system are used, especially in medical, scientific, and technical fields. In most
other countries, the metric system is the primary system of measurement. If you travel to other
countries, you will see that road signs list distances in kilometers and milk is sold in liters.
People in many countries use words like “kilometer,” “liter,” and “milligram” to measure the
length, volume, and weight of different objects. These measurement units are part of the
metric system.
Unlike the U.S. customary system of measurement, the metric system is based on 10s.
For example, a liter is 10 times larger than a deciliter, and a centigram is 10 times larger than a
milligram. This idea of “10” is not present in the U.S. customary system—there are 12 inches in
a foot, and 3 feet in a yard…and 5,280 feet in a mile!
So, what if you have to find out how many milligrams are in a decigram? Or, what if you
want to convert meters to kilometers? Understanding how the metric system works is a good
start.
What is Metric?
The metric system uses units such as meter, liter, and gram to measure length, liquid
volume, and mass, just as the U.S. customary system uses feet, quarts, and ounces to measure
these.
In addition to the difference in the basic units, the metric system is based on 10s, and
different measures for length include kilometer, meter, decimeter, centimeter, and millimeter.
Notice that the word “meter” is part of all of these units.
The metric system also applies the idea that units within the system get larger or
smaller by a power of 10. This means that a meter is 100 times larger than a centimeter, and a
kilogram is 1,000 times heavier than a gram. You will explore this idea a bit later. For now,
notice how this idea of “getting bigger or smaller by 10” is very different than the relationship
between units in the U.S. customary system, where 3 feet equals 1 yard, and 16 ounces equals
1 pound.
Length, Mass, and Volume
The table below shows the basic units of the metric system. Note that the names of all metric
units follow from these three basic units.
Length Mass Volume
basic units
meter gram liter
other units you may see
kilometer kilogram dekaliter
centimeter centigram centiliter
millimeter milligram milliliter
27
In the metric system, the basic unit of length is the meter. A meter is slightly larger than
a yardstick, or just over three feet. The basic metric unit of mass is the gram. A regular-sized
paperclip has a mass of about 1 gram.
Among scientists, one gram is defined as the mass of water that would fill a 1-
centimeter cube. You may notice that the word “mass” is used here instead of “weight.” In the
sciences and technical fields, a distinction is made between weight and mass. Weight is a
measure of the pull of gravity on an object. For this reason, an object’s weight would be
different if it was weighed on Earth or on the moon because of the difference in the
gravitational forces. However, the object’s mass would remain the same in both places because
mass measures the amount of substance in an object. As long as you are planning on only
measuring objects on Earth, you can use mass/weight fairly interchangeably—but it is worth
noting that there is a difference!
Finally, the basic metric unit of volume is the liter. A liter is slightly larger than a quart.
The handle of a shovel is A paperclip weighs about 1 A medium-sized container of

about 1 meter. gram. milk is about 1 liter.
Though it is rarely necessary to convert between the customary and metric systems,
sometimes it helps to have a mental image of how large or small some units are. The table
below shows the relationship between some common units in both systems.
Common Measurements in Customary and Metric Systems
Length 1 centimeter is a little less than half an inch.
1.6 kilometers is about 1 mile.
1 meter is about 3 inches longer than 1 yard.
Mass 1 kilogram is a little more than 2 pounds.
28 grams is about the same as 1 ounce.
Volume 1 liter is a little more than 1 quart.
4 liters is a little more than 1 gallon.
Prefixes in the Metric System
The metric system is a base 10 system. This means that each successive unit is 10 times
larger than the previous one.
The names of metric units are formed by adding a prefix to the basic unit of
measurement. To tell how large or small a unit is, you look at the prefix. To tell whether the
unit is measuring length, mass, or volume, you look at the base
28
Prefixes in the Metric System
met
er
kilo- hecto- deka- gra deci- centi- milli-
m
liter
1,000 100 10 10 100 1,000
bas
times larger times larger times larger times smaller times smaller times smaller
e
than base than base than base than base than base than base
units
unit unit unit unit unit unit
Using this table as a reference, you can see the following:

A kilogram is 1,000 times larger than one gram (so 1 kilogram = 1,000 grams).
A centimeter is 100 times smaller than one meter (so 1 meter = 100 centimeters).
A dekaliter is 10 times larger than one liter (so 1 dekaliter = 10 liters).
Here is a similar table that just shows the metric units of measurement for mass, along
with their size relative to 1 gram (the base unit). The common abbreviations for these metric
units have been included as well.
Measuring Mass in the Metric System
kilogram hectogram dekagram gram decigram centigram milligram

(kg) (hg) (dag) (g) (dg) (cg) (mg)
1,000
100 grams 10 grams gram 0.1 gram 0.01 gram 0.001 gram
grams
Since the prefixes remain constant through the metric system, you could create similar
charts for length and volume. The prefixes have the same meanings whether they are attached
to the units of length (meter), mass (gram), or volume (liter).
Converting Units Up and Down the Metric Scale
Converting between metric units of measure requires knowledge of the metric prefixes
and an understanding of the decimal system—that’s about it.
For instance, you can figure out how many centigrams are in one dekagram by using
the table above. One dekagram is larger than one centigram, so you expect that one dekagram
will equal many centigrams.
In the table, each unit is 10 times larger than the one to its immediate right. This means
that 1 dekagram = 10 grams; 10 grams = 100 decigrams; and 100 decigrams = 1,000
centigrams. So, 1 dekagram = 1,000 centigrams.
Example
Problem How many milligrams are in one decigram?
29
kg hg dag g dg cg mg Identify locations of
milligrams and decigrams.
^ ^
Decigrams (dg) are larger

than milligrams (mg), so you
expect there to be many mg
in one dg.
×10 ×10 Dg is 10 times larger than a

cg, and a cg is 10 times
kg hg dag g dg cg mg larger than a mg.
^ ^
→ → Since you are going from a

larger unit to a smaller unit,
multiply.
1 dg  10  10 = 100 mg Multiply: 1  10  10, to find

the number of milligrams in
one decigram.
Answer There are 100 milligrams (mg) in 1 decigram (dg).
Example
Problem Convert 1 centimeter to kilometers.
km hm dam m dm cm mm Identify locations of

kilometers and centimeters.
^ ^
Kilometers (km) are larger

than centimeters (cm), so
you expect there to be less
than one km in a cm.
÷10 ÷10 ÷10 ÷10 ÷10 Cm is 10 times smaller than

a dm; a dm is 10 times
km hm dam m dm cm mm smaller than a m, etc.
^ ^
← ← ← ← ← Since you are going from a

smaller unit to a larger unit,
divide.
1 cm ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 = Divide: 1 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷
0.00001 km 10 ÷ 10, to find the number
of kilometers in one
centimeter.
Answer 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.00001 kilometers (km).
30
Once you begin to understand the metric system, you can use a shortcut to convert
among different metric units. The size of metric units increases tenfold as you go up the metric
scale. The decimal system works the same way: a tenth is 10 times larger than a hundredth; a
hundredth is 10 times larger than a thousandth, etc. By applying what you know about decimals
to the metric system, converting among units is as simple as moving decimal points.
Here is the first problem from above: How many milligrams are in one decigram? You
can recreate the order of the metric units as shown below:
This question asks you to start with 1 decigram and convert that to milligrams. As
shown above, milligrams is two places to the right of decigrams. You can just move the decimal
point two places to the right to convert decigrams to milligrams: .
The same method works when you are converting from a smaller to a larger unit, as in
the problem: Convert 1 centimeter to kilometers.
Note that instead of moving to the right, you are now moving to the left—so the decimal
point must do the same:
Significant Digits
Significant Digits - Number of digits in a figure that express the precision of a
measurement instead of its magnitude. The easiest method to determine significant digits is
done by first determining whether or not a number has a decimal point. This rule is known as
the Atlantic-Pacific Rule. The rule states that if a decimal point is absent, then the zeroes on the
Atlantic/right side are insignificant. If a decimal point is Present, then the zeroes on the
Pacific/left side are insignificant.
General Rules for Determining Number of Significant Figures

1. All nonzero digits are significant.
2. Zeros are also significant with two exceptions:
1. Zeros preceding the decimal point.
2. Zeros following the decimal point and preceding the first nonzero digit.
3. Terminal zeros preceding the decimal point in amounts greater than one is an
ambiguous case.
Rules for Numbers WITHOUT a Decimal Point

1. START counting for sig. figs. On the FIRST non-zero digit.
2. STOP counting for sig. figs. On the LAST non-zero digit.
3. Non-zero digits are ALWAYS significant
4. Zeroes in between two non-zero digits are significant. All other zeroes are insignificant.
31
Example 1:
The first two zeroes in 200500 (four significant digits) are significant because they are
between two non-zero digits, and the last two zeroes are insignificant because they are after
the last non-zero digit.
It should be noted that both constants and quantities of real world objects have an
infinite number of significant figures. For example if you were to count three oranges, a real
world object, the value three would be considered to have an infinite number of significant
figures in this context.
Example 2:
How many significant digits are in 5010?
Solution
Start counting for significant digits On the first non-zero digit (5).
Stop counting for significant digits On the last non-zero digit (1).
5 0 1 0 Key: 0 = significant zero. 0 = insignificant zero.
3 significant digits.
Rules for Numbers WITH a Decimal Point
START counting for sig. figs. On the FIRST non-zero digit.
STOP counting for sig. figs. On the VERY LAST digit (regardless whether or not the last digit is a
zero or non-zero number).
Non-zero digits are ALWAYS significant.
Any zero AFTER the first non-zero digit is STILL significant. The zeroes BEFORE the first non-
zero digit are insignificant.
Example 3
The first two zeroes in 0.058000 (five significant digits) are insignificant because they are
before the first non-zero digit, and the last three zeroes are significant because they are after
the first non-zero digit.
Example 4
How many significant digits are in 0.70620?
Solution
Start counting for significant digits On the first non-zero digit (7).
Stop counting for significant digits On the last digit (0).
0 . 7 0 6 2 0 Key: 0 = significant zero.0 = insignificant zero.
5 significant digits.
Density
Density, mass of a unit volume of a material substance. The formula for density
is d = M/V, where d is density, M is mass, and V is volume. Density is commonly expressed in
units of grams per cubic centimetre. For example, the density of water is 1 gram per cubic
centimetre, and Earth’s density is 5.51 grams per cubic centimeter. Density can also be
expressed as kilograms per cubic metre (in MKS or SI units). For example, the density of air is
1.2 kilograms per cubic metre. The densities of common solids, liquids, and gases are listed in
textbooks and handbooks. Density offers a convenient means of obtaining the mass of a body
32
from its volume or vice versa; the mass is equal to the volume multiplied by the density
(M = Vd), while the volume is equal to the mass divided by the density (V = M/d).
The weight of a body, which is usually of more practical interest than its mass, can be obtained
by multiplying the mass by the acceleration of gravity. Tables that list the weight per unit
volume of substances are also available; this quantity has various titles, such as weight density,
specific weight, or unit weight. See also specific gravity. The expression particle density refers
to the number of particles per unit volume, not to the density of a single particle, and it is
usually expressed as n.
Instructions:
about the basic concepts of
measurements, do the succeeding
activities. Use separate blank sheet for
your answers in experiments and
worksheets.
Experiment:
 https://www.mlbgsd.k12.pa.us/cms/lib/PA09000085/Centricity/Domain/83/lab_-
_accuracy_and_precision.pdf
Further notes:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEeSQvMCPLg
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kOJFSH_Bn9U
 https://www.splashlearn.com/math-vocabulary/geometry/metric-
system#:~:text=The%20metric%20system%20is%20a,and%20weight%20(mass
)%20respectively.&text=As%20we%20move%20to%20the,the%20unit%20to%2
0its%20left.
Worksheet:
• https://1.cdn.edl.io/QlwiMtszMHcJfiIOVYfI73j2GD61KEEMWZHJAj4VSewhZidx.pdf
1. Explain the origin of Metric System
2. Define density. What units do chemists normally use for density? Is density an intensive or extensive
property?
following:
 Contact No: 09101627698
33
General Chemistry
EXERCISE No. 3
Measurements
NAME: _________________________________________________SCORE: ___________
1. How many significant figures are there in each of the following numbers?
a. 0.012 b. 0.10203 c. 36.042 d. 6401.0 e. 32100 f.

0.0402
2. Round off two significant figure:
a. 91.621 b. 7.329 c. 0.677 d. 0.003249 3. 5.88
3. Express the following numbers in scientific notation with 3 significant figures.
a. 0.351 b. 602.1 c. 0.000128 d. 628122
II. Problem Solving

𝑔
1. A 335.0 cc sample of urine has a mass of 342.6 g. What is the density, in ⁄𝑚𝐿, to
three decimal places?
𝑔
2. The density of methanol at 20 C is 0.791 ⁄𝑚𝐿. What is the mass, in grams, of a 280
mL sample?
3. The density of the titanium is 4.54 g/mL. What is the volume, in milliliters, of 163 g of
titanium?
4. Normal body temperature is 98.6 K. What is the temperature in C?
5. Thermometers are often filled with liquid mercury, which melts at 234 C. What is the
melting point of Hg in K?
34
Weekly Output:
 Exercise 3
 Worksheet No. 2
End of Week 2
35
General Chemistry
To my students:
You are now on the 3rd week of this course. Before you start working on the lessons for this
No. 4.
Lesson IV – Atom
Atom
 Smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release of electrically charged
particles. It also is the smallest unit of matter that has the characteristic properties of
a chemical element. As such, the atom is the basic building block of chemistry.
The concept that atoms play a fundamental role in chemistry is formalized by the modern
atomic theory, first stated by John Dalton, an English scientist, in 1808. It consists of three
parts:
1. All matter is composed of atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are the same; atoms of different elements are different.
3. Atoms combine in whole-number ratios to form compounds.
These concepts form the basis of chemistry.
Although the word atom comes from a Greek word that means “indivisible,” we
understand now that atoms themselves are composed of smaller parts called subatomic
particles. The first part to be discovered was the electron, a tiny subatomic particle with a
negative charge. It is often represented as e−, with the right superscript showing the negative
charge. Later, two larger particles were discovered. The proton is a more massive (but still tiny)
subatomic particle with a positive charge, represented as p+. The neutron is a subatomic
particle with about the same mass as a proton but no charge. It is represented as either n or
n0. We now know that all atoms of all elements are composed of electrons, protons, and (with
one exception) neutrons. Table 3.1 “Properties of the Three Subatomic Particles” summarizes
the properties of these three subatomic particles.
Table 3.1 Properties of the Three Subatomic Particles
Name Symbol Mass (approx.; kg) Charge
Proton p+ 1.6 × 10−27 1+
36
Name Symbol Mass (approx.; kg) Charge
Neutron n, n0 1.6 × 10−27 none
Electron e− 9.1 × 10−31 1−
Shell atomic model in the shell atomic model, electrons occupy different energy
levels, or shells. The K and L shells are shown for a neon atom.
Most of the atom is empty space. The rest consists of a positively charged nucleus
of protons and neutrons surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The nucleus is
small and dense compared with the electrons, which are the lightest charged particles in
nature. Electrons are attracted to any positive charge by their electric force; in an atom, electric
forces bind the electrons to the nucleus.
Because of the nature of quantum mechanics, no single image has been entirely
satisfactory at visualizing the atom’s various characteristics, which thus forces physicists to use
complementary pictures of the atom to explain different properties. In some respects, the
electrons in an atom behave like particles orbiting the nucleus. In others, the electrons behave
like waves frozen in position around the nucleus. Such wave patterns, called orbitals, describe
the distribution of individual electrons. The behavior of an atom is strongly influenced by
these orbital properties, and its chemical properties are determined by orbital groupings known
as shells.
Atomic Model
Most matter consists of an agglomeration of molecules, which can be separated

relatively easily. Molecules, in turn, are composed of atoms joined by chemical bonds that are
more difficult to break. Each individual atom consists of smaller particles—namely, electrons
and nuclei. These particles are electrically charged, and the electric forces on the charge are
37
responsible for holding the atom together. Attempts to separate these smaller constituent
particles require ever-increasing amounts of energy and result in the creation of new subatomic
particles, many of which are charged.
As noted in the introduction to this article, an atom consists largely of empty space. The
nucleus is the positively charged centre of an atom and contains most of its mass. It is
composed of protons, which have a positive charge, and neutrons, which have no charge.
Protons, neutrons, and the electrons surrounding them are long-lived particles present in all
ordinary, naturally occurring atoms. Other subatomic particles may be found in association with
these three types of particles. They can be created only with the addition of enormous amounts
of energy, however, and are very short-lived.
All atoms are roughly the same size, whether they have 3 or 90 electrons.
Approximately 50 million atoms of solid matter lined up in a row would measure 1 cm (0.4
inch). A convenient unit of length for measuring atomic sizes is the angstrom (Å), defined as
10−10 metre. The radius of an atom measures 1–2 Å. Compared with the overall size of the
atom, the nucleus is even more minute. It is in the same proportion to the atom as a marble is
to a football field. In volume the nucleus takes up only 10−14 metres of the space in the atom—
i.e., 1 part in 100,000. A convenient unit of length for measuring nuclear sizes is
the femtometre (fm), which equals 10−15 metre. The diameter of a nucleus depends on the
number of particles it contains and ranges from about 4 fm for a light nucleus such as carbon to
15 fm for a heavy nucleus such as lead. In spite of the small size of the nucleus, virtually all the
mass of the atom is concentrated there. The protons are massive, positively charged particles,
whereas the neutrons have no charge and are slightly more massive than the protons. The fact
that nuclei can have anywhere from 1 to nearly 300 protons and neutrons accounts for their
wide variation in mass. The lightest nucleus, that of hydrogen, is 1,836 times more massive
than an electron, while heavy nuclei are nearly 500,000 times more massive.
Atomic number
The single most important characteristic of an atom is its atomic number (usually
denoted by the letter Z), which is defined as the number of units of positive charge (protons) in
the nucleus. For example, if an atom has a Z of 6, it is carbon, while a Z of 92 corresponds
to uranium. A neutral atom has an equal number of protons and electrons so that the positive
and negative charges exactly balance. Since it is the electrons that determine how one atom
interacts with another, in the end it is the number of protons in the nucleus that determines the
chemical properties of an atom.
The number of neutrons in a nucleus affects the mass of the atom but not its chemical
properties. Thus, a nucleus with six protons and six neutrons will have the same chemical
properties as a nucleus with six protons and eight neutrons, although the two masses will be
different. Nuclei with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are said to
be isotopes of each other. All chemical elements have many isotopes.
38
Isotopes of hydrogen the image shows the three isotopes of the element hydrogen. All
three forms have one proton (pink) and one electron (dark green) but differ in the
number of neutrons (gray) in the nucleus. Protium, or ordinary hydrogen (top), has
no neutrons. Deuterium, or hydrogen-2 (bottom left), has one neutron. Tritium, or
hydrogen-3 (bottom right), has two neutrons
It is usual to characterize different isotopes by giving the sum of the number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus—a quantity called the atomic mass number. In the above example,
the first atom would be called carbon-12 or 12C (because it has six protons and six neutrons),
while the second would be carbon-14 or 14C.
The mass of atoms is measured in terms of the atomic mass unit, which is defined to
be /12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12, or 1.660538921 × 10−24 gram. The mass of an
1
atom consists of the mass of the nucleus plus that of the electrons, so the atomic mass unit is
not exactly the same as the mass of the proton or neutron.
The electron
Scientists have known since the late 19th century that the electron has a
negative electric charge. The value of this charge was first measured by the American
physicist Robert Millikan between 1909 and 1910. In Millikan’s oil-drop experiment, he
suspended tiny oil drops in a chamber containing an oil mist. By measuring the rate of fall of
the oil drops, he was able to determine their weight. Oil drops that had an electric charge
(acquired, for example, by friction when moving through the air) could then be slowed down or
stopped by applying an electric force. By comparing applied electric force with changes
in motion, Millikan was able to determine the electric charge on each drop. After he had
measured many drops, he found that the charges on all of them were simple multiples of a
single number. This basic unit of charge was the charge on the electron, and the different
charges on the oil drops corresponded to those having 2, 3, 4, extra electrons on them. The
charge on the electron is now accepted to be 1.602176565 × 10−19 coulomb. For
this work Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1923.
39
Millikan oil-drop experiment. Between 1909 and 1910 the American physicist Robert
Millikan conducted a series of oil-drop experiments. By comparing applied electric
force with changes in the motion of the oil drops, he was able to determine the
electric charge on each drop. He found that all of the drops had charges that were
simple multiples of a single number, the fundamental charge of the electron.
The charge on the proton is equal in magnitude to that on the electron but opposite in
sign—that is, the proton has a positive charge. Because opposite electric charges attract each
other, there is an attractive force between electrons and protons. This force is what keeps
electrons in orbit around the nucleus, something like the way that gravity keeps Earth in orbit
around the Sun.
The electron has a mass of about 9.109382911 × 10−28 gram. The mass of a proton or
neutron is about 1,836 times larger. This explains why the mass of an atom is primarily
determined by the mass of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
The electron has other intrinsic properties. One of these is called spin. The electron can
be pictured as being something like Earth, spinning around an axis of rotation. In fact, most
elementary particles have this property. Unlike Earth, however, they exist in the subatomic
world and are governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. Therefore, these particles cannot
spin in any arbitrary way, but only at certain specific rates. These rates can be 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2,
times a basic unit of rotation. Like protons and neutrons, electrons have spin 1/2.
Particles with half-integer spin are called fermions, for the Italian American
physicist Enrico Fermi, who investigated their properties in the first half of the 20th century.
Fermions have one important property that will help explain both the way that electrons are
arranged in their orbits and the way that protons and neutrons are arranged inside the nucleus.
They are subject to the Pauli exclusion principle (named for the Austrian physicist Wolfgang
Pauli), which states that no two fermions can occupy the same state—for example, the two
electrons in a helium atom must have different spin directions if they occupy the same orbit.
40
Because a spinning electron can be thought of as a moving electric charge, electrons
can be thought of as tiny electromagnets. This means that, like any other magnet, an electron
will respond to the presence of a magnetic field by twisting. (Think of a compass needle
pointing north under the influence of Earth’s magnetic field.) This fact is usually expressed by
saying that electrons have a magnetic moment. In physics, magnetic moment relates the
strength of a magnetic field to the torque experienced by a magnetic object. Because of their
intrinsic spin, electrons have a magnetic moment given by −9.28 × 10−24 joule per tesla.
Orbits and energy levels
Unlike planets orbiting the Sun, electrons cannot be at any arbitrary distance from the
nucleus; they can exist only in certain specific locations called allowed orbits. This property, first
explained by Danish physicist Niels Bohr in 1913, is another result of quantum mechanics—
specifically, the requirement that the angular momentum of an electron in orbit, like everything
else in the quantum world, come in discrete bundles called quanta.
The Bohr atomThe electron travels in circular orbits around the nucleus. The orbits
have quantized sizes and energies. Energy is emitted from the atom when the
electron jumps from one orbit to another closer to the nucleus. Shown here is the
first Balmer transition, in which an electron jumps from orbit n = 3 to orbit n = 2,
producing a photon of red light with an energy of 1.89 eV and a wavelength of 656
nanometres.
In the Bohr atom electrons can be found only in allowed orbits, and these allowed orbits
are at different energies. The orbits are analogous to a set of stairs in which the
gravitational potential energy is different for each step and in which a ball can be found on any
step but never in between.
The laws of quantum mechanics describe the process by which electrons can move from
one allowed orbit, or energy level, to another. As with many processes in the quantum world,
this process is impossible to visualize. An electron disappears from the orbit in which it is
located and reappears in its new location without ever appearing any place in between. This
process is called a quantum leap or quantum jump, and it has no analog in the macroscopic
world.
Because different orbits have different energies, whenever a quantum leap occurs, the
energy possessed by the electron will be different after the jump. For example, if an electron
jumps from a higher to a lower energy level, the lost energy will have to go somewhere and in
41
fact will be emitted by the atom in a bundle of electromagnetic radiation. This bundle is known
as a photon, and this emission of photons with a change of energy levels is the process by
which atoms emit light. See also laser.
In the same way, if energy is added to an atom, an electron can use that energy to
make a quantum leap from a lower to a higher orbit. This energy can be supplied in many
ways. One common way is for the atom to absorb a photon of just the right frequency. For
example, when white light is shone on an atom, it selectively absorbs those frequencies
corresponding to the energy differences between allowed orbits.
Each element has a unique set of energy levels, and so the frequencies at which it
absorbs and emits light act as a kind of fingerprint, identifying the particular element. This
property of atoms has given rise to spectroscopy, a science devoted to identifying atoms and
molecules by the kind of radiation they emit or absorb.
This picture of the atom, with electrons moving up and down between allowed orbits,
accompanied by the absorption or emission of energy, contains the essential features of
the Bohr atomic model, for which Bohr received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. His basic
model does not work well in explaining the details of the structure of atoms more complicated
than hydrogen, however. This requires the introduction of quantum mechanics. In quantum
mechanics each orbiting electron is represented by a mathematical expression known as a wave
function—something like a vibrating guitar string laid out along the path of the electron’s orbit.
These waveforms are called orbitals. See also quantum mechanics: Bohr’s theory of the atom.
Electron shells
In the quantum mechanical version of the Bohr atomic model, each of the allowed
electron orbits is assigned a quantum number n that runs from 1 (for the orbit closest to the
nucleus) to infinity (for orbits very far from the nucleus). All of the orbitals that have the same
value of n make up a shell. Inside each shell there may be subshells corresponding to different
rates of rotation and orientation of orbitals and the spin directions of the electrons. In general,
the farther away from the nucleus a shell is, the more subshells it will have. See the table.
Atomic orbitals .Electrons fill in shell and subshell levels in a semi regular process, as
indicated by the arrows above. After filling the first shell level (with just
an s subshell), electrons move into the second-level s subshell and then into
the p subshell before starting on another shell level. Because of its lower energy
state, the 4s orbital fills before the 3d, and later s orbitals fill similarly (for example,
6s fills before 4f).
42
This arrangement of possible orbitals explains a great deal about the chemical properties
of different atoms. The easiest way to see this is to imagine building up complex atoms by
starting with hydrogen and adding one proton and one electron (along with the appropriate
number of neutrons) at a time. In hydrogen the lowest-energy orbit—called the ground state—
corresponds to the electron located in the shell closest to the nucleus. There are two possible
states for an electron in this shell, corresponding to a clockwise spin and a counterclockwise
spin (or, in the jargon of physicists, spin up and spin down).
The next most-complex atom is helium, which has two protons in its nucleus and two
orbiting electrons. These electrons fill the two available states in the lowest shell, producing
what is called a filled shell. The next atom is lithium, with three electrons. Because the closest
shell is filled, the third electron goes into the next higher shell. This shell has spaces for eight
electrons, so that it takes an atom with 10 electrons (neon) to fill the first two levels. The next
atom after neon, sodium, has 11 electrons, so that one electron goes into the next highest
shell.
In the progression thus far, three atoms—hydrogen, lithium, and sodium—have one
electron in the outermost shell. As stated above, it is these outermost electrons that determine
the chemical properties of an atom. Therefore, these three elements should have similar
properties, as indeed they do. For this reason, they appear in the same column of the periodic
table of the elements (see periodic law), and the same principle determines the position of
every element in that table. The outermost shell of electrons—called the valence shell—
determines the chemical behaviour of an atom, and the number of electrons in this shell
depends on how many are left over after all the interior shells are filled.
Periodic table of the elements showing the valence shells.
43
Instructions:
about the basic concepts about atom,
Experiment:
 https://omsi.edu/sites/all/FTP/files/chemistry/takehome/TakeHomeBioChem.pdf
Further notes:
 https://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookCHEM1.html
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/quantum-
mechanical-description-of-the-atomic-orbital/
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-3I1JGW-Ck
Worksheet:
 http://www.overtonhs.net/ourpages/auto/2017/7/31/41503156/ATOMS-FAMILY-
WORKSHEETS.pdf
1. What is the difference between an atom and a molecule?
2. Why does a knowledge of atomic number enable us deduce the number of electrons present in an
atom?
3. Describe the four quantum numbers used to characterize an electron in an atom.
following:
 Contact No: 09101627698
44
General Chemistry
EXERCISE No. 4
Atom
NAME: _________________________________________________SCORE: ___________
I.A. Complete The Following Table:

Symbol Number Of Protons Number Of Electrons Number Of Neutrons
F
Au
Xe
Mn
S
B. I. Determine the mass number of an atom with the following number of subatomic particles.
ii. Name and give the symbols for each element.
B (a.) 22 protons, 22 electrons, and 26 neutrons
(b.) 76 protons, 76 electrons, and 114 neutrons
(c.) 34 protons, 34 electrons, and 150 neutrons
(d.) 94 protons, 94 electrons, and 150 neutrons
45
Weekly Output:
 Exercise 4
 Worksheet No. 3
End of Week 3
46
General Chemistry
To my students:
You are now on the 4th week of this course. Before you start working on the lessons for this
No. 5.
Lesson V – Chemical Bonding
Chemical bonds
Chemical bonds are the connections between atoms in a molecule. These bonds include
both strong intermolecular interactions, such as covalent and ionic bonds. They are related to
weaker intermolecular forces, such as dipole-dipole interactions, the London dispersion forces,
and hydrogen bonding. The weaker forces will be discussed in a later concept.
Covalent Bonds
Chemical bonds are the forces of attraction that tie atoms together. Bonds are formed
when valence electrons, the electrons in the outermost electronic “shell” of an atom, interact.
The nature of the interaction between the atoms depends on their relative electronegativity.
Atoms with equal or similar electronegativity form covalent bonds, in which the valence electron
density is shared between the two atoms. The electron density resides between the atoms and
is attracted to both nuclei. This type of bond forms most frequently between two nonmetals.
When there is a greater electronegativity difference than between covalently bonded

atoms, the pair of atoms usually forms a polar covalent bond. The electrons are still shared
between the atoms, but the electrons are not equally attracted to both elements. As a result,
the electrons tend to be found near one particular atom most of the time. Again, polar covalent
bonds tend to occur between non-metals.
Ionic Bonds
Finally, for atoms with the largest electronegativity differences (such as metals bonding
with nonmetals), the bonding interaction is called ionic, and the valence electrons are typically
represented as being transferred from the metal atom to the nonmetal. Once the electrons
have been transferred to the non-metal, both the metal and the non-metal are considered to be
ions. The two oppositely charged ions attract each other to form an ionic compound.
Bonds, Stability, and Compounds
Covalent interactions are directional and depend on orbital overlap, while ionic
interactions have no particular directionality. Each of these interactions allows the atoms
involved to gain eight electrons in their valence shell, satisfying the octet rule and making the
atoms more stable.
These atomic properties help describe the macroscopic properties of compounds. For
example, smaller covalent compounds that are held together by weaker bonds are frequently
47
soft and malleable. On the other hand, longer-range covalent interactions can be quite strong,
making their compounds very durable. Ionic compounds, though composed of strong bonding
interactions, tend to form brittle crystalline lattices.
Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds are a subset of chemical bonds that result from the transfer of valence electrons,
typically between a metal and a nonmetal.
Forming an Ion
Ionic bonds are a class of chemical bonds that result from the exchange of one or more
valence electrons from one atom, typically a metal, to another, typically a nonmetal. This
electron exchange results in an electrostatic attraction between the two atoms called an ionic
bond. An atom that loses one or more valence electrons to become a positively charged ion is
known as a cation, while an atom that gains electrons and becomes negatively charged is
known as an anion.
This exchange of valence electrons allows ions to achieve electron configurations that
mimic those of the noble gases, satisfying the octet rule. The octet rule states that an atom is
most stable when there are eight electrons in its valence shell. Atoms with less than eight
electrons tend to satisfy the duet rule, having two electrons in their valence shell. By satisfying
the duet rule or the octet rule, ions are more stable.
A cation is indicated by a positive superscript charge (+ something) to the right of the

atom. An anion is indicated by a negative superscript charge (- something) to the right of the
atom. For example, if a sodium atom loses one electron, it will have one more proton than
electron, giving it an overall +1 charge. The chemical symbol for the sodium ion is Na+1 or just
Na+. Similarly, if a chlorine atom gains an extra electron, it becomes the chloride ion, Cl–. Both
ions form because the ion is more stable than the atom due to the octet rule.
Forming an Ionic Bond
Once the oppositely charged ions form, they are attracted by their positive and negative
charges and form an ionic compound. Ionic bonds are also formed when there is a large
electronegativity difference between two atoms. This difference causes an unequal sharing of
electrons such that one atom completely loses one or more electrons and the other atom gains
one or more electrons, such as in the creation of an ionic bond between a metal atom (sodium)
and a nonmetal (fluorine).
Formation of sodium fluoride: The transfer of electrons and subsequent attraction of

oppositely charged ions.
48
Determining the Formula of an Ionic Compound
To determine the chemical formulas of ionic compounds, the following two conditions must be
satisfied:
1. Each ion must obey the octet rule for maximum stability.
2. Ions will combine in a way that the overall ionic compound will be neutral. In other
words, the charges of the ions must balance out.
Magnesium and fluorine combine to form an ionic compound. What is the formula for
the compound?
Mg most commonly forms a 2+ ion. This is because Mg has two valence electrons and it
would like to get rid of those two ions to obey the octet rule. Fluorine has seven valence
electrons and usually forms the F – ion because it gains one electron to satisfy the octet rule.
When Mg2+ and F – combine to form an ionic compound, their charges must cancel out.
Therefore, one Mg2+ needs two F – ions to neutralize the charge. The 2+ of the Mg is balanced
by having two -1 charged ions. Therefore, the formula of the compound is MgF2. The subscript
two indicates that there are two fluorines that are ionically bonded to magnesium.
On the macroscopic scale, ionic compounds form crystalline lattice structures that are
characterized by high melting and boiling points and good electrical conductivity when melted
or solubilized.
Example 1:
Magnesium and fluorine combine to form an ionic compound. What is the formula for
the compound?
Mg most commonly forms a 2+ ion. This is because Mg has two valence electrons and it
would like to get rid of those two ions to obey the octet rule. Fluorine has seven valence
electrons and as such, usually forms the F– ion because it gains one electron to satisfy the octet
rule. When Mg2+ and F– combine to form an ionic compound, their charges must cancel out.
Therefore, one Mg2+ needs two F– ions to balance. The 2+ of the Mg is balanced by having two
-1 charged ions. Therefore, the formula of the compound is MgF2. The subscript two indicates
that there are two fluorines that are ionically bonded to magnesium.
Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonding involves two atoms, typically nonmetals, sharing valence electrons.
Forming Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds are a class of chemical bonds where valence electrons are shared
between two atoms, typically two nonmetals. The formation of a covalent bond allows the
nonmetals to obey the octet rule and thus become more stable. For example:
 A fluorine atom has seven valence electrons. If it shares one electron with a carbon atom
(which has four valence electrons), the fluorine will have a full octet (its seven electrons
plus the one it is sharing with carbon).
 Carbon will then have five valence electrons (its four and the one its sharing with
fluorine). Covalently sharing two electrons is also known as a “single bond.” Carbon will
have to form four single bonds with four different fluorine atoms to fill its octet. The
result is CF4 or carbon tetrafluoride.
Covalent bonding requires a specific orientation between atoms in order to achieve the
overlap between bonding orbitals. Covalent bonding interactions include sigma-bonding (σ) and
49
pi-bonding (π). Sigma bonds are the strongest type of covalent interaction and are formed via
the overlap of atomic orbitals along the orbital axis. The overlapped orbitals allow the shared
electrons to move freely between atoms. Pi bonds are a weaker type of covalent interactions
and result from the overlap of two lobes of the interacting atomic orbitals above and below the
orbital axis.
Covalent bonds can be single, double, and triple bonds.
 Single bonds occur when two electrons are shared and are composed of one sigma bond
between the two atoms.
 Double bonds occur when four electrons are shared between the two atoms and consist
of one sigma bond and one pi bond.
 Triple bonds occur when six electrons are shared between the two atoms and consist of
one sigma bond and two pi bonds (see later concept for more info about pi and sigma
bonds).
Ionic Compounds v. Molecular Compounds
Unlike an ionic bond, a covalent bond is stronger between two atoms with similar
electronegativity. For atoms with equal electronegativity, the bond between them will be a non-
polar covalent interaction. In non-polar covalent bonds, the electrons are equally shared
between the two atoms. For atoms with differing electronegativity, the bond will be a polar
covalent interaction, where the electrons will not be shared equally.
Ionic solids are generally characterized by high melting and boiling points along with
brittle, crystalline structures. Covalent compounds, on the other hand, have lower melting and
boiling points. Unlike ionic compounds, they are often not soluble in water and do not conduct
electricity when solubilized.
Lewis Dot Symbols and Lewis Structures
Lewis symbols (also known as Lewis dot diagrams or electron dot diagrams)
are diagrams that represent the valence electrons of an atom. Lewis structures (also known as
Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures) are diagrams that represent the valence
electrons of atoms within a molecule. These Lewis symbols and Lewis structures help visualize
the valence electrons of atoms and molecules, whether they exist as lone pairs or within bonds.
Principal Energy Levels
An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons. The
electrostatic attraction between them keeps electrons ‘bound’ to the nucleus so they stay within
a certain distance of it. Careful investigations have shown that not all electrons within an atom
have the same average position or energy. We say the electrons ‘reside’ in different principal
energy levels, and these levels exist at different radii from the nucleus and have rules regarding
how many electrons they can accommodate.
50
Principal energy levels of gold (Au): The figure shows the organization of the
electrons around the nucleus of a gold (Au) atom. Notice that the first energy level
(closest to the nucleus) can have only two electrons, while more electrons can ‘fit’
within a given level further out. The number of electrons in each level is listed on
the upper right corner of the figure. Notice that the outermost level has only one
electron.
As an example, a neutral atom of gold (Au) contains 79 protons in its nucleus and 79
electrons. The first principal energy level, which is the one closest to the nucleus, can hold a
maximum of two electrons. The second principal energy level can have 8, the third can have
18, and so on, until all 79 electrons have been distributed.
The outermost principal energy level is of great interest in chemistry because the
electrons it holds are the furthest away from the nucleus, and therefore are the ones most
loosely held by its attractive force; the larger the distance between two charged objects, the
smaller the force they exert on each other. Chemical reactivity of all of the different elements in
the periodic table depends on the number of electrons in that last, outermost level, called the
valence level or valence shell. In the case of gold, there is only one valence electron in its
valence level.
Octet of Valence Electrons
Atoms gain, lose, or share electrons in their valence level in order to achieve greater
stability, or a lower energy state. From this perspective, bonds between atoms form so that the
bonded atoms are in a lower energy state compared to when they were by themselves. Atoms
can achieve this more stable state by having a valence level which contains as many electrons
as it can hold. For the first principal energy level, having two electrons in it is the most stable
arrangement, while for all other levels outside of the first, eight electrons are necessary to
achieve the most stable state.
Lewis Symbols
In the Lewis symbol for an atom, the chemical symbol of the element (as found on the
periodic table) is written, and the valence electrons are represented as dots surrounding it. Only
the electrons in the valence level are shown using this notation. For example, the Lewis symbol
of carbon depicts a “C’ surrounded by 4 valence electrons because carbon has an electron
configuration of 1s22s22p2.
51
The Lewis symbol for carbon: Each of the four valence electrons is represented as a
dot.
Electrons that are not in the valence level are not shown in the Lewis symbol. The
reason for this is that the chemical reactivity of an atom of the element is solely determined by
the number of its valence electrons, and not its inner electrons. Lewis symbols for atoms are
combined to write Lewis structures for compounds or molecules with bonds between atoms.
Writing Lewis Symbols for Atoms
The Lewis symbol for an atom depicts its valence electrons as dots around the symbol
for the element.
Determining the Number of Valence Electrons In order to write the Lewis symbol
for an atom, you must first determine the number of valence electrons for that element. The
arrangement of the periodic table can help you figure out this information. Since we have
established that the number of valence electrons determines the chemical reactivity of an
element, the table orders the elements by number of valence electrons.
Each column (or group) of the periodic table contains elements that have the same
number of valence electrons. Furthermore, the number of columns (or groups) from the left
edge of the table tells us the exact number of valence electrons for that element. Recall that
any valence level can have up to eight electrons, except for the first principal energy level,
which can only have two.
Periodic table of the elements: Group numbers shown by Roman numerals (above
the table) tell us how many valence electrons there are for each element.
Some periodic tables list the group numbers in Arabic numbers instead of Roman
numerals. In that case, the transition metal groups are included in the counting and the groups
52
indicated at the top of the periodic table have numbers 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18. The
corresponding roman numerals used are I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII.
Survey of the Groups in the Periodic Table
Take the first column or group of the periodic table (labeled ‘I’): hydrogen (H), lithium
(Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), etc. Each of these elements has one valence electron. The
second column or group (labeled ‘II’) means that beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium
(Ca), etc., all have two valence electrons.
The middle part of the periodic table that contains the transition metals is skipped in this
process for reasons having to do with the electronic configuration of these elements.
Proceeding to the column labeled ‘III’, we find that those elements (B, Al, Ga, In,…)
have three valence electrons in their outermost or valence level.
We can continue this inspection of the groups until we reach the eighth and final
column, in which the most stable elements are listed. These are all gaseous under normal
conditions of temperature and pressure, and are called ‘noble gases.’ Neon (Ne), argon (Ar),
krypton (Kr), etc., each contain eight electrons in their valence level. Therefore, these elements
have a full valence level that has the maximum number of electrons possible. Helium (He), at
the very top of this column is an exception because it has two valence electrons; its valence
level is the first principal energy level which can only have two electrons, so it has the
maximum number of electrons in its valence level as well.
The noble gases represent elements of such stability that they are not chemically
reactive, so they can be called inert. In other words, they don’t need to bond with any other
elements in order to attain a lower energy configuration. We explain this phenomenon by
attributing their stability to having a ‘full’ valence level.
The significance in understanding the nature of the stability of noble gases is that it guides us in
predicting how other elements will react in order to achieve the same electronic configuration
as the noble gases by having a full valence level.
Writing Lewis Symbols for Atoms
Lewis symbols for the elements depict the number of valence electrons as dots. In
accordance with what we discussed above, here are the Lewis symbols for the first twenty
elements in the periodic table. The heavier elements will follow the same trends depending on
their group.
53
Once you can draw a Lewis symbol for an atom, you can use the knowledge of Lewis
symbols to create Lewis structures for molecules.
The Octet Rule
Noble gases like He, Ne, Ar, Kr, etc., are stable because their valence level is filled with
as many electrons as possible. Eight electrons fill the valence level for all noble gases, except
helium, which has two electrons in its full valence level. Other elements in the periodic table
react to form bonds in which valence electrons are exchanged or shared in order to achieve a
valence level which is filled, just like in the noble gases. We refer to this chemical tendency of
atoms as ‘the octet rule,’ and it guides us in predicting how atoms combine to form molecules
and compounds.
Covalent Bonds and Lewis Diagrams of Simple Molecules
The simplest example to consider is hydrogen (H), which is the smallest element in the
periodic table with one proton and one electron. Hydrogen can become stable if it achieves a
full valence level like the noble gas that is closest to it in the periodic table, helium (He). These
are exceptions to the octet rule because they only require 2 electrons to have a full valence
level.
Two H atoms can come together and share each of their electrons to create a covalent
bond.’ The shared pair of electrons can be thought of as belonging to either atom, and thus
each atom now has two electrons in its valence level, like He. The molecule that results is H2,
and it is the most abundant molecule in the universe.
Lewis structure of diatomic hydrogen: This is the process through which the
H2 molecule is formed. Two H atoms, each contributing an electron, share a pair of
electrons. This is known as a ‘single covalent bond.’ Notice how the two electrons
can be found in a region of space between the two atomic nuclei.
The Lewis formalism used for the H2 molecule is H:H or H—H. The former, known as a
‘Lewis dot diagram,’ indicates a pair of shared electrons between the atomic symbols, while the
latter, known as a ‘Lewis structure,’ uses a dash to indicate the pair of shared electrons that
form a covalent bond. More complicated molecules are depicted this way as well.
54
Lewis dot diagram for methane: Methane, with molecular formula CH4, is shown.
The electrons are color-coded to indicate which atoms they belonged to before the
covalent bonds formed, with red representing hydrogen and blue representing
carbon. Four covalent bonds are formed so that C has an octet of valence electrons,
and each H has two valence electrons—one from the carbon atom and one from one
of the hydrogen atoms.
Now consider the case of fluorine (F), which is found in group VII (or 17) of the periodic
table. It therefore has 7 valence electrons and only needs 1 more in order to have an octet.
One way that this can happen is if two F atoms make a bond, in which each atom provides one
electron that can be shared between the two atoms. The resulting molecule that is formed is F2,
and its Lewis structure is F—F.
Achieving an octet of valence electrons: Two fluorine atoms are able to share an
electron pair, which becomes a covalent bond. Notice that only the outer (valence
level) electrons are involved, and that in each F atom, 6 valence electrons do not
participate in bonding. These are ‘lone pairs’ of electrons.
After a bond has formed, each F atom has 6 electrons in its valence level which are not
used to form a bond. These non-bonding valence electrons are called ‘lone pairs’ of electrons
and should always be indicated in Lewis diagrams.
55
Lewis structure of acetic acid: Acetic acid, CH3COOH, can be written out with dots
indicating the shared electrons, or, preferably, with dashes representing covalent
bonds. Notice the lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atoms are still shown. The
methyl group carbon atom has six valence electrons from its bonds to the hydrogen
atoms because carbon is more electronegative than hydrogen. Also, one electron is
gained from its bond with the other carbon atom because the electron pair in the
C−C bond is split equally.
Procedure for Drawing Simple Lewis Structures
We have looked at how to determine Lewis structures for simple molecules. The procedure is as
follows:
1. Write a structural diagram of the molecule to clearly show which atom is connected to
which (although many possibilities exist, we usually pick the element with the most
number of possible bonds to be the central atom).
2. Draw Lewis symbols of the individual atoms in the molecule.
3. Bring the atoms together in a way that places eight electrons around each atom (or two
electrons for H, hydrogen) wherever possible.
4. Each pair of shared electrons is a covalent bond which can be represented by a dash.
Alternate view of Lewis dot structure of water: This arrangement of shared

electrons between O and H results in the oxygen atom having an octet of electrons,
and each H atom having two valence electrons.
Multiple bonds can also form between elements when two or three pairs of electrons are
shared to produce double or triple bonds, respectively. The Lewis structure for carbon dioxide,
CO2, is a good example of this.
56
Lewis structure of carbon dioxide: This figure explains the bonding in a
CO2 molecule. Each O atom starts out with six (red) electrons and C with four
(black) electrons, and each bond behind an O atom and the C atom consists of two
electrons from the O and two of the four electrons from the C.
In order to achieve an octet for all three atoms in CO2, two pairs of electrons must be
shared between the carbon and each oxygen. Since four electrons are involved in each bond, a
double covalent bond is formed. You can see that this is how the octet rule is satisfied for all
atoms in this case. When a double bond is formed, you still need to show all electrons, so
double dashes between the atoms show that four electrons are shared.
Final Lewis structure for carbon dioxide: Covalent bonds are indicated as dashes and
lone pairs of electrons are shown as pairs of dots. in carbon dioxide, each oxygen
atom has two lone pairs of electrons remaining; the covalent bonds between the
oxygen and carbon atoms each use two electrons from the oxygen atom and two
from the carbon.
Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions
The Lewis structure of an ion is placed in brackets and its charge is written as a
superscript outside of the brackets, on the upper right.
The total number of electrons represented in a Lewis structure is equal to the sum of
the numbers of valence electrons in each individual atom. Non-valence electrons are not
represented in Lewis structures. After the total number of available electrons has been
determined, electrons must be placed into the structure.
Lewis structures for polyatomic ions are drawn by the same methods that we have
already learned. When counting electrons, negative ions should have extra electrons placed in
their Lewis structures; positive ions should have fewer electrons than an uncharged molecule.
When the Lewis structure of an ion is written, the entire structure is placed in brackets, and the
charge is written as a superscript on the upper right, outside of the brackets. For example,
consider the ammonium ion, NH4+, which contains 9 (5 from N and 1 from each of the four H
atoms) –1 = 8 electrons. One electron is subtracted because the entire molecule has a +1
charge.
57
Coordinate covalent bonding: The ammonium ion, NH4+, contains 9–1 = 8 electrons.
Negative ions follow the same procedure. The chlorite ion, ClO2–, contains 19 (7 from
the Cl and 6 from each of the two O atoms) +1 = 20 electrons. One electron is added because
the entire molecule has a -1 charge.
Hypochlorite ion Lewis structure: The hypochlorite ion, ClO−, contains 13 + 1 = 14

electrons.
58
Instructions:
about the basic concepts about
chemical bonding do the succeeding
worksheets.
Experiment:
 https://omsi.edu/sites/all/FTP/files/chemistry/takehome/TakeHomeBioChem.pdf
Further notes:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S_k0kr2eZSQ
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sk7W2VgbhOg
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond#:~:text=A%20chemical%20bond%20is%20a,
electrons%20as%20in%20covalent%20bonds.
Worksheet:
 https://homeschoolinginchrist.files.wordpress.com/2020/06/bonding-practice-both-
types.pdf
1. What is Lewis dot symbol? To what elements does the symbol mainly apply?
2. Explain what an ionic bond is.
3. What is Lewis’s contribution to our understanding of the covalent bond?
following:
 Contact No: 09101627698
59
General Chemistry
EXERCISE No. 5
Chemical Bonding
NAME: _________________________________________________SCORE: ___________
1. Name five metals and nonmetals that are very likely to form ionic compounds. Write formulas
for compounds that might result from the combination of these metals and nonmetals. Name
these compounds.
2. Write the Lewis dot symbols for the following ions:

a. Li b. Cl c. S d. Sr e. N
3. What is difference between a Lewis dot symbol and a Lewis structure?
4. Beryllium forms a compound with chlorine that has the empirical formulas BeCl2. How would
you determine whether it is an ionic compound? (The compound is not soluble in water).
60
Weekly Output:
 Exercise 5
 Worksheet No. 4
End of Week 4 
61
General Chemistry
To my students:
No. 6.
Lesson VI– Chemical Formulas
Chemical Symbols and Formulas
To illustrate chemical reactions and the elements and compounds involved in them,
chemists use symbols and formulas. A chemical symbol is a one- or two-letter designation of
an element. Some examples of chemical symbols are OO for oxygen, Zn for zinc, and Fe for iron.
The first letter of a symbol is always capitalized. If the symbol contains two letters, the second
letter is lower case. The majority of elements have symbols that are based on their English names.
However, some of the elements that have been known since ancient times have maintained
symbols that are based on their Latin names, as shown below.
Table 1: Symbols and Latin Names for Elements

Chemical Symbol Name Latin Name
NaNa Sodium Natrium
KK Potassium Kalium
FeFe Iron Ferrum
CuCu Copper Cuprum
AgAg Silver Argentum
SnSn Tin Stannum
SbSb Antimony Stibium
AuAu Gold Aurum
PbPb Lead Plumbum
Compounds are combinations of two or more elements. A chemical formula is an

expression that shows the elements in a compound and the relative proportions of those
elements. Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a two to one ratio. The chemical formula
for water is H2OH2O. Sulfuric acid is one of the most widely produced chemicals in the United
States and is composed of the elements hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The chemical formula for
sulfuric acid is H2SO4H2SO4.
Naming Chemical Compounds

As with ionic compounds, the system for naming covalent compounds enables chemists
to write the molecular formula from the name and vice versa. This and the following section
describe the rules for naming simple covalent compounds, beginning with inorganic compounds
and then turning to simple organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen.
62
When chemists synthesize a new compound, they may not yet know its molecular or
structural formula. In such cases, they usually begin by determining its empirical formula, the
relative numbers of atoms of the elements in a compound, reduced to the smallest whole
numbers. Because the empirical formula is based on experimental measurements of the numbers
of atoms in a sample of the compound, it shows only the ratios of the numbers of the elements
present. The difference between empirical and molecular formulas can be illustrated with butane,
a covalent compound used as the fuel in disposable lighters. The molecular formula for butane
is C4H10C4H10. The ratio of carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms in butane is 4:10, which can be
reduced to 2:5. The empirical formula for butane is therefore C2H5C2H5. The formula unit is the
absolute grouping of atoms or ions represented by the empirical formula of a compound, either
ionic or covalent. Butane has the empirical formula C2H5C2H5, but it contains
two C2H5C2H5 formula units, giving a molecular formula of C4H10C4H10.
Because ionic compounds do not contain discrete molecules, empirical formulas are used
to indicate their compositions. All compounds, whether ionic or covalent, must be electrically
neutral. Consequently, the positive and negative charges in a formula unit must exactly cancel
each other. If the cation and the anion have charges of equal magnitude, such
as Na+Na+ and Cl−Cl−, then the compound must have a 1:1 ratio of cations to anions, and the
empirical formula must be NaClNaCl. If the charges are not the same magnitude, then a
cation:anion ratio other than 1:1 is needed to produce a neutral compound. In the case
of Mg2+Mg2+ and Cl−Cl−, for example, two Cl− ions are needed to balance the two positive
charges on each Mg2+ ion, giving an empirical formula of MgCl2MgCl2. Similarly, the formula for
the ionic compound that contains Na+ and O2− ions is Na2O.
Ionic compounds do not contain discrete molecules, so empirical formulas are used to
indicate their compositions.
Binary Ionic Compounds

An ionic compound that contains only two elements, one present as a cation and one as
an anion, is called a binary ionic compound. One example is MgCl2MgCl2, a coagulant used in
the preparation of tofu from soybeans. For binary ionic compounds, the subscripts in the
empirical formula can also be obtained by crossing charges: use the absolute value of the
charge on one ion as the subscript for the other ion. This method is shown schematically as
follows:
Crossing charges. One method for obtaining subscripts in the empirical formula is by
crossing charges.
When crossing charges, it is sometimes necessary to reduce the subscripts to their

simplest ratio to write the empirical formula. Consider, for example, the compound formed by
Mg2+ and O2−. Using the absolute values of the charges on the ions as subscripts gives the
formula Mg2O2Mg2O2:
This simplifies to its correct empirical formula MgO. The empirical formula has one
Mg 2+
ion and one O2− ion.
63
Example 1:
Write the empirical formula for the simplest binary ionic compound formed from each ion or
element pair.
a. Ga3+ and As3−
b. Eu3+ and O2−
c. calcium and chlorine
Given: ions or elements
Asked for: empirical formula for binary ionic compound
Strategy:
If not given, determine the ionic charges based on the location of the elements in the periodic
table.
Use the absolute value of the charge on each ion as the subscript for the other ion. Reduce the
subscripts to the lowest numbers
to write the empirical formula. Check to make sure the empirical formula is electrically neutral.
Solution
a. Using the absolute values of the charges on the ions as the subscripts gives Ga3As3Ga3As3:
Reducing the subscripts to the smallest whole numbers gives the empirical formula Gas,
which is electrically neutral [+3 + (−3) = 0]. Alternatively, we could recognize that Ga3+ and
As3− have charges of equal magnitude but opposite signs. One Ga3+ ion balances the charge on
one As3− ion, and a 1:1 compound will have no net charge. Because we write subscripts only if
the number is greater than 1, the empirical formula is Gas. Gas is gallium arsenide, which is
widely used in the electronics industry in transistors and other devices.
b. Because Eu3+ has a charge of +3 and O2− has a charge of −2, a 1:1 compound would have a
net charge of +1. We must therefore find multiples of the charges that cancel. We cross
charges, using the absolute value of the charge on one ion as the subscript for the other ion:
64
The subscript for Eu3+ is 2 (from O2−), and the subscript for O2− is 3 (from Eu3+), giving
Eu2O3; the subscripts cannot be reduced further. The empirical formula contains a positive
charge of 2(+3) = +6 and a negative charge of 3(−2) = −6, for a net charge of 0. The
compound Eu2O3 is neutral. Europium oxide is responsible for the red color in television and
computer screens.
c. Because the charges on the ions are not given, we must first determine the charges expected
for the most common ions derived from calcium and chlorine. Calcium lies in group 2, so it
should lose two electrons to form Ca2+. Chlorine lies in group 17, so it should gain one electron
to form Cl−.
Two Cl− ions are needed to balance the charge on one Ca2+ ion, which leads to the
empirical formula CaCl2. We could also cross charges, using the absolute value of the charge on
Ca2+ as the subscript for Cl and the absolute value of the charge on Cl− as the subscript for Ca:
The subscripts in CaCl2 cannot be reduced further. The empirical formula is electrically
neutral [+2 + 2(−1) = 0]. This compound is calcium chloride, one of the substances used as
“salt” to melt ice on roads and sidewalks in winter.
Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that bear net electrical charges, although the atoms
in a polyatomic ion are held together by the same covalent bonds that hold atoms together in
molecules. Just as there are many more kinds of molecules than simple elements, there are many
more kinds of polyatomic ions than monatomic ions. Two examples of polyatomic cations are the
ammonium (NH4+) and the methylammonium (CH3NH3+) ions. Polyatomic anions are much more
numerous than polyatomic cations.
65
The method used to predict the empirical formulas for ionic compounds that contain
monatomic ions can also be used for compounds that contain polyatomic ions. The overall charge
on the cations must balance the overall charge on the anions in the formula unit. Thus, K+ and
NO3− ions combine in a 1:1 ratio to form KNO3 (potassium nitrate or saltpeter), a major ingredient
in black gunpowder. Similarly, Ca2+ and SO42− form CaSO4 (calcium sulfate), which combines with
varying amounts of water to form gypsum and plaster of Paris. The polyatomic ions NH4+ and
NO3− form NH4NO3 (ammonium nitrate), a widely used fertilizer and, in the wrong hands, an
explosive. One example of a compound in which the ions have charges of different magnitudes
is calcium phosphate, which is composed of Ca2+ and PO43− ions; it is a major component of
bones. The compound is electrically neutral because the ions combine in a ratio of three Ca2+ ions
[3(+2) = +6] for every two ions [2(−3) = −6], giving an empirical formula of Ca3(PO4)2; the
parentheses around PO4 in the empirical formula indicate that it is a polyatomic ion. Writing the
formula for calcium phosphate as Ca3P2O8 gives the correct number of each atom in the formula
unit, but it obscures the fact that the compound contains readily identifiable PO43− ions.
Hydrates
Many ionic compounds occur as hydrates, compounds that contain specific ratios of loosely
bound water molecules, called waters of hydration. Waters of hydration can often be removed
simply by heating. For example, calcium dihydrogen phosphate can form a solid that contains one
molecule of water per Ca(H2PO4)2Ca(H2PO4)2 unit and is used as a leavening agent in the food
industry to cause baked goods to rise. The empirical formula for the solid
is Ca(H2PO4)2⋅H2OCa(H2PO4)2·H2O. In contrast, copper sulfate usually forms a blue solid that
contains five waters of hydration per formula unit, with the empirical
formula CuSO4⋅5H2OCuSO4·5H2O. When heated, all five water molecules are lost, giving a white
solid with the empirical formula CuSO4CuSO4.
Figure 2.12.12.12.1: Loss of Water from a Hydrate with Heating. (left) When
blue CuSO4⋅5H2OCuSO4·5H2O is heated, two molecules of water are lost at 30°C,
two more at 110°C, and the last at 250°C to give white
"anhydrous" CuSO4CuSO4 (right).
Compounds that differ only in the numbers of waters of hydration can have very different
properties. For example, CaSO4⋅½H2OCaSO4·½H2O is plaster of Paris, which was often used to
make sturdy casts for broken arms or legs, whereas CaSO4⋅2H2OCaSO4·2H2O is the less dense,
flakier gypsum, a mineral used in drywall panels for home construction. When a cast would set,
a mixture of plaster of Paris and water crystallized to give solid CaSO4⋅2H2OCaSO4·2H2O. Similar
processes are used in the setting of cement and concrete.
Binary Acids
Some compounds containing hydrogen are members of an important class of substances

known as acids. The chemistry of these compounds is explored in more detail in later chapters of
this text, but for now, it will suffice to note that many acids release hydrogen ions, H+, when
dissolved in water. To denote this distinct chemical property, a mixture of water with an acid is
given a name derived from the compound’s name. If the compound is a binary acid (comprised
of hydrogen and one other nonmetallic element):
66
1. The word “hydrogen” is changed to the prefix hydro-
2. The other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding the suffix -ic
3. The word “acid” is added as a second word
For example, when the gas HClHCl (hydrogen chloride) is dissolved in water, the solution
is called hydrochloric acid.
Oxyacids
Many compounds containing three or more elements (such as organic compounds or

coordination compounds) are subject to specialized nomenclature rules that you will learn later.
However, we will briefly discuss the important compounds known as oxyacids, compounds that
contain hydrogen, oxygen, and at least one other element, and are bonded in such a way as to
impart acidic properties to the compound (you will learn the details of this in a later chapter).
Typical oxyacids consist of hydrogen combined with a polyatomic, oxygen-containing ion. To
name oxyacids:
1. Omit “hydrogen”
2. Start with the root name of the anion
3. Replace –ate with –ic, or –ite with –ous
4. Add “acid”
For example, consider H2CO3 (which you might be tempted to call “hydrogen carbonate”).
To name this correctly, “hydrogen” is omitted; the –ate of carbonate is replace with –ic; and acid
is added—so its name is carbonic acid. Other examples are given in Table 2.12.32.12.3. There
are some exceptions to the general naming method (e.g., H2SO4 is called sulfuric acid, not sulfic
acid, and H2SO3 is sulfurous, not sulfous, acid).
67
Bases
We will present more comprehensive definitions of bases in later chapters, but virtually
every base you encounter in the meantime will be an ionic compound, such as sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) and barium hydroxide [Ba(OH)2], that contain the hydroxide ion and a metal cation.
These have the general formula M(OH)n. It is important to recognize that alcohols, with the
general formula ROH, are covalent compounds, not ionic compounds; consequently, they
do not dissociate in water to form a basic solution (containing OH− ions). When a base reacts
with any of the acids we have discussed, it accepts a proton (H+). For example, the hydroxide
ion (OH−) accepts a proton to form H2O. Thus bases are also referred to as proton acceptors.
Concentrated aqueous solutions of ammonia (NH3) contain significant amounts of the

hydroxide ion, even though the dissolved substance is not primarily ammonium hydroxide
(NH4OH) as is often stated on the label. Thus aqueous ammonia solution is also a common base.
Replacing a hydrogen atom of NH3 with an alkyl group results in an amine (RNH2), which is also
a base. Amines have pungent odors—for example, methylamine (CH3NH2) is one of the
compounds responsible for the foul odor associated with spoiled fish. The physiological
importance of amines is suggested in the word vitamin, which is derived from the phrase vital
amines. The word was coined to describe dietary substances that were effective at preventing
scurvy, rickets, and other diseases because these substances were assumed to be amines.
Subsequently, some vitamins have indeed been confirmed to be amines.
Binary Inorganic Compounds
Binary covalent compounds—covalent compounds that contain only two elements—are

named using a procedure similar to that used for simple ionic compounds, but prefixes are added
as needed to indicate the number of atoms of each kind. The procedure, diagrammed
in Figure 2.12.22.12.2 consists of the following steps:
Figure 2.12.22.12.2: Naming a Covalent Inorganic Compound
68
1. Place the elements in their proper order.
o The element farthest to the left in the periodic table is usually named first. If both
elements are in the same group, the element closer to the bottom of the column is
named first.
o The second element is named as if it were a monatomic anion in an ionic compound
(even though it is not), with the suffix -ide attached to the root of the element name.
2. Identify the number of each type of atom present.
1. Prefixes derived from Greek stems are used to indicate the number of each type of atom
in the formula unit. The prefix mono- (“one”) is used only when absolutely necessary to
avoid confusion, just as the subscript 1 is omitted when writing molecular formulas.
To demonstrate steps 1 and 2a, HCl is named hydrogen chloride (because

hydrogen is to the left of chlorine in the periodic table), and PCl5 is phosphorus
pentachloride. The order of the elements in the name of BrF3, bromine trifluoride, is
determined by the fact that bromine lies below fluorine in Group 17.
If a molecule contains more than one atom of both elements, then prefixes are used for both.
Thus N2O3 is dinitrogen trioxide, as shown in Figure 2.13.
2. In some names, the final a or o of the prefix is dropped to avoid awkward
pronunciation. Thus OsO4 is osmium tetroxide rather than osmium tetraoxide.
3. Write the name of the compound.
0. Binary compounds of the elements with oxygen are generally named as “element oxide,”
with prefixes that indicate the number of atoms of each element per formula unit. For
example, CO is carbon monoxide. The only exception is binary compounds of oxygen
with fluorine, which are named as oxygen fluorides.
1. Certain compounds are always called by the common names that were assigned before
formulas were used. For example, H2O is water (not dihydrogen oxide); NH3 is
ammonia; PH3 is phosphine; SiH4 is silane; and B2H6, a dimer of BH3, is diborane. For
many compounds, the systematic name and the common name are both used
frequently, requiring familiarity with both. For example, the systematic name for NO is
nitrogen monoxide, but it is much more commonly called nitric oxide. Similarly, N2O is
usually called nitrous oxide rather than dinitrogen monoxide. Notice that the suffixes -
ic and -ous are the same ones used for ionic compounds.
Start with the element at the far left in the periodic table and work to the right. If two or more
elements are in the same group, start with the bottom element and work up.
The structures of some of the compounds along with the location of the “central atom” of
each compound in the periodic table. It may seem that the compositions and structures of such
compounds are entirely random, but this is not true. After mastering the material discussed later
on this course, one is able to predict the compositions and structures of compounds of this type
with a high degree of accuracy.
69
Figure 2.12.22.12.2: The Structures of Some Covalent Inorganic Compounds and the
Locations of the “Central Atoms” in the Periodic Table. The compositions and
structures of covalent inorganic compounds are not random and can be predicted
from the locations of the component atoms in the periodic table.
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
The preceding chapter introduced the use of element symbols to represent individual
atoms. When atoms gain or lose electrons to yield ions, or combine with other atoms to form
molecules, their symbols are modified or combined to generate chemical formulas that
appropriately represent these species. Extending this symbolism to represent both the identities
and the relative quantities of substances undergoing a chemical (or physical) change involves
writing and balancing a chemical equation. Consider as an example the reaction between one
methane molecule (CH4) and two diatomic oxygen molecules (O2) to produce one carbon
dioxide molecule (CO2) and two water molecules (H2O). The chemical equation representing this
process is provided in the upper half of Figure 1, with space-filling molecular models shown in
the lower half of the figure.
Figure 1. The reaction between methane and oxygen to yield carbon dioxide in
water (shown at bottom) may be represented by a chemical equation using
formulas (top).
70
This example illustrates the fundamental aspects of any chemical equation:
1. The substances undergoing reaction are called reactants, and their formulas are placed
on the left side of the equation.
2. The substances generated by the reaction are called products, and their formulas are
placed on the right sight of the equation.
3. Plus, signs (+) separate individual reactant and product formulas, and an arrow (→→)
separates the reactant and product (left and right) sides of the equation.
4. The relative numbers of reactant and product species are represented
by coefficients (numbers placed immediately to the left of each formula). A coefficient
of 1 is typically omitted.
It is common practice to use the smallest possible whole-number coefficients in a chemical

equation, as is done in this example. Realize, however, that these coefficients represent
the relative numbers of reactants and products, and, therefore, they may be correctly
interpreted as ratios. Methane and oxygen react to yield carbon dioxide and water in a 1:2:1:2
ratio. This ratio is satisfied if the numbers of these molecules are, respectively, 1-2-1-2, or 2-4-
2-4, or 3-6-3-6, and so on (Figure 2). Likewise, these coefficients may be interpreted with
regard to any amount (number) unit, and so this equation may be correctly read in many ways,
including:
 One methane molecule and two oxygen molecules react to yield one carbon dioxide
molecule and two water molecules.
 One dozen methane molecules and two dozen oxygen molecules react to yield one
dozen carbon dioxide molecules and two dozen water molecules.
 One mole of methane molecules and 2 moles of oxygen molecules react to yield 1
mole of carbon dioxide molecules and 2 moles of water molecules.
Figure 2. Regardless of the absolute number of molecules involved, the ratios

between numbers of molecules are the same as that given in the chemical equation.
Balancing Equations
A balanced chemical is equation has equal numbers of atoms for each element
involved in the reaction are represented on the reactant and product sides. This is a
requirement the equation must satisfy to be consistent with the law of conservation of matter.
It may be confirmed by simply summing the numbers of atoms on either side of the arrow and
comparing these sums to ensure they are equal. Note that the number of atoms for a given
element is calculated by multiplying the coefficient of any formula containing that element by
the element’s subscript in the formula. If an element appears in more than one formula on a
given side of the equation, the number of atoms represented in each must be computed and
then added together. For example, both product species in the example reaction, CO2 and H2O,
contain the element oxygen, and so the number of oxygen atoms on the product side of the
equation is
71
(1CO2 molecule ×2 O atomsCO2 molecule) +(2H2O molecule ×1 O atomH2O molecule) =4 O
atoms (1CO2 molecule ×2 O atomsCO2 molecule) +(2H2O molecule ×1 O atomH2O molecule)
=4 O atoms
The equation for the reaction between methane and oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water
is confirmed to be balanced per this approach, as shown here:
CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2OCH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O
Element Reactants Products Balanced?

C 1×1=1 1×1=1 1 = 1, yes
H 4×1=4 2×2=4 4 = 4, yes
O 2×2=4 (1 × 2) + (2 × 1) = 4 4 = 4, yes
A balanced chemical equation often may be derived from a qualitative description of some
chemical reaction by a fairly simple approach known as balancing by inspection. Consider as an
example the decomposition of water to yield molecular hydrogen and oxygen. This process is
represented qualitatively by an unbalanced chemical equation:
H2O→H2+O2(unbalanced)H2O→H2+O2(unbalanced)
Comparing the number of H and O atoms on either side of this equation confirms its imbalance:

H 1×2=2 1×2=2 2 = 2, yes
O 1×1=1 1×2=2 1 ≠ 2, no
The numbers of H atoms on the reactant and product sides of the equation are equal, but the
numbers of O atoms are not. To achieve balance, the coefficients of the equation may be
changed as needed. Keep in mind, of course, that the formula subscripts define, in part, the
identity of the substance, and so these cannot be changed without altering the qualitative
meaning of the equation. For example, changing the reactant formula from H2O to H2O2 would
yield balance in the number of atoms, but doing so also changes the reactant’s identity (it’s now
hydrogen peroxide and not water). The O atom balance may be achieved by changing the
coefficient for H2O to 2.
2H2O→H2+O2(unbalanced)2H2O→H2+O2(unbalanced)

H 2×2=4 1×2=2 4 ≠ 2, no
O 2×1=2 1×2=2 2 = 2, yes
The H atom balance was upset by this change, but it is easily reestablished by changing the
coefficient for the H2 product to 2.
2H2O→2H2+O2(balanced)2H2O→2H2+O2(balanced)

H 2×2=4 2×2=2 4 = 4, yes
O 2×1=2 1×2=2 2 = 2, yes
These coefficients yield equal numbers of both H and O atoms on the reactant and product
sides, and the balanced equation is, therefore:
2H2O→2H2+O22H2O→2H2+O2
72
Example No. 1
Write a balanced equation for the reaction of molecular nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) to form
dinitrogen pentoxide.
First, write the unbalanced equation:

N2+O2→N2O5(unbalanced)N2+O2→N2O5(unbalanced)
Next, count the number of each type of atom present in the unbalanced equation.
N 1×2=2 1×2=2 2 = 2, yes
O 1×2=2 1×5=5 2 ≠ 5, no
Though nitrogen is balanced, changes in coefficients are needed to balance the number of
oxygen atoms. To balance the number of oxygen atoms, a reasonable first attempt would be to
change the coefficients for the O2 and N2O5 to integers that will yield 10 O atoms (the least
common multiple for the O atom subscripts in these two formulas).
N2+5O2→2N2O5(unbalanced)N2+5O2→2N2O5(unbalanced)

N 1×2=2 2×2=4 2 ≠ 4, no
O 5 × 2 = 10 2 × 5 = 10 10 = 10, yes
The N atom balance has been upset by this change; it is restored by changing the coefficient
for the reactant N2 to 2.
2N2+5O2→2N2O52N2+5O2→2N2O5
N 2×2=4 2×2=4 4 = 4, yes
O 5 × 2 = 10 2 × 5 = 10 10 = 10, yes
The numbers of N and O atoms on either side of the equation are now equal, and so the
equation is balanced.
It is sometimes convenient to use fractions instead of integers as intermediate

coefficients in the process of balancing a chemical equation. When balance is achieved, all the
equation’s coefficients may then be multiplied by a whole number to convert the fractional
coefficients to integers without upsetting the atom balance. For example, consider the reaction
of ethane (C2H6) with oxygen to yield H2O and CO2, represented by the unbalanced equation:
C2H6+O2→H2O+CO2(unbalanced)C2H6+O2→H2O+CO2(unbalanced)
Following the usual inspection approach, one might first balance C and H atoms by
changing the coefficients for the two product species, as shown:
C2H6+O2→3H2O+2CO2(unbalanced)C2H6+O2→3H2O+2CO2(unbalanced)
This results in seven O atoms on the product side of the equation, an odd number—no
integer coefficient can be used with the O2 reactant to yield an odd number, so a fractional
coefficient, 7272, is used instead to yield a provisional balanced equation:
C2H6+72O2→3H2O+2CO2C2H6+72O2→3H2O+2CO2
A conventional balanced equation with integer-only coefficients is derived by multiplying

each coefficient by 2:
2C2H6+7O2→6H2O+4CO22C2H6+7O2→6H2O+4CO2
73
Finally with regard to balanced equations, recall that convention dictates use of
the smallest whole-number coefficients. Although the equation for the reaction between
molecular nitrogen and molecular hydrogen to produce ammonia is, indeed, balanced,
3N2+9H2→6NH33N2+9H2→6NH3
the coefficients are not the smallest possible integers representing the relative numbers of
reactant and product molecules. Dividing each coefficient by the greatest common factor, 3,
gives the preferred equation:
N2+3H2→2NH3N2+3H2→2NH3
Additional Information in Chemical Equations
The physical states of reactants and products in chemical equations very often are
indicated with a parenthetical abbreviation following the formulas. Common abbreviations
includes for solids, l for liquids, g for gases, and aq for substances dissolved in water (aqueous
solutions, as introduced in the preceding chapter). These notations are illustrated in the
example equation here:
2Na(s)+2H2O(l)→2NaOH(aq)+H2(g)2Na(s)+2H2O(l)→2NaOH(aq)+H2(g)
This equation represents the reaction that takes place when sodium metal is placed in
water. The solid sodium reacts with liquid water to produce molecular hydrogen gas and the
ionic compound sodium hydroxide (a solid in pure form, but readily dissolved in water).
Special conditions necessary for a reaction are sometimes designated by writing a word
or symbol above or below the equation’s arrow. For example, a reaction carried out by heating
may be indicated by the uppercase Greek letter delta (Δ) over the arrow.
CaCO3(s)Δ→CaO(s)+CO2(g)CaCO3(s)→ΔCaO(s)+CO2(g)
Other examples of these special conditions will be encountered in more depth in later chapters.
Equations for Ionic Reactions
Given the abundance of water on earth, it stands to reason that a great many chemical
reactions take place in aqueous media. When ions are involved in these reactions, the chemical
equations may be written with various levels of detail appropriate to their intended use. To
illustrate this, consider a reaction between ionic compounds taking place in an aqueous
solution. When aqueous solutions of CaCl2 and AgNO3 are mixed, a reaction takes place
producing aqueous Ca(NO3)2 and solid AgCl:
CaCl2(aq)+2AgNO3(aq)→Ca(NO3)2(aq)+2AgCl(s)CaCl2(aq)+2AgNO3(aq)→Ca(NO3)2(aq)+2Ag
Cl(s)
This balanced equation, derived in the usual fashion, is called a molecular equation,
because it doesn’t explicitly represent the ionic species that are present in solution. When ionic
compounds dissolve in water, they may dissociate into their constituent ions, which are
subsequently dispersed homogenously throughout the resulting solution (a thorough discussion
of this important process is provided in the chapter on solutions). Ionic compounds dissolved in
water are, therefore, more realistically represented as dissociated ions, in this case:
CaCl2(aq)→Ca2+(aq)+2Cl−(aq)2AgNO3(aq)→2Ag+(aq)+2NO3−(aq)Ca(NO3)2(aq)→Ca2+(aq)
+2NO3−(aq)CaCl2(aq)→Ca2+(aq)+2Cl−(aq)2AgNO3(aq)→2Ag+(aq)+2NO3−(aq)Ca(NO3)2(aq
)→Ca2+(aq)+2NO3−(aq)
74
Unlike these three ionic compounds, AgCl does not dissolve in water to a significant
extent, as signified by its physical state notation, s.
Explicitly representing all dissolved ions results in a complete ionic equation. In this
particular case, the formulas for the dissolved ionic compounds are replaced by formulas for
their dissociated ions:
Ca2+(aq)+2Cl−(aq)+2Ag+(aq)+2NO3−(aq)→Ca2+(aq)+2NO3−(aq)+2AgCl(s)Ca2+(aq)+2Cl−
(aq)+2Ag+(aq)+2NO3−(aq)→Ca2+(aq)+2NO3−(aq)+2AgCl(s)
Examining this equation shows that two chemical species are present in identical form
on both sides of the arrow, Ca2+(aq) and NO3−(aq) NO3−(aq). These spectator ions—ions
whose presence is required to maintain charge neutrality—are neither chemically nor physically
changed by the process, and so they may be eliminated from the equation to yield a more
succinct representation called a net ionic equation:
Ca2+(aq) +2Cl−(aq)+2Ag+(aq)+2NO3-
(aq)→Ca2+(aq)+2NO3−(aq)+2AgCl(s)2Cl−(aq)+2Ag+(aq)→2AgCl(s)Ca2+(aq)+2Cl−(aq)+2Ag
+(aq)+2NO3-(aq)→Ca2+(aq)+2NO3−(aq)+2AgCl(s)2Cl−(aq)+2Ag+(aq)→2AgCl(s)
Following the convention of using the smallest possible integers as coefficients, this
equation is then written:
Cl-(aq)+Ag+(aq)→AgCl(s)Cl-(aq)+Ag+(aq)→AgCl(s)
This net ionic equation indicates that solid silver chloride may be produced from
dissolved chloride and silver(I) ions, regardless of the source of these ions. These molecular
and complete ionic equations provide additional information, namely, the ionic compounds used
as sources of Cl– and Ag+.
Example No. 2
When carbon dioxide is dissolved in an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, the
mixture reacts to yield aqueous sodium carbonate and liquid water. Write balanced molecular,
complete ionic, and net ionic equations for this process.
Begin by identifying formulas for the reactants and products and arranging them properly in
chemical equation form:
CO2(aq)+NaOH(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l)(unbalanced)CO2(aq)+NaOH(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+H2
O(l)(unbalanced)
Balance is achieved easily in this case by changing the coefficient for NaOH to 2, resulting in the
molecular equation for this reaction:
CO2(aq)+2NaOH(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l)CO2(aq)+2NaOH(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l)
The two dissolved ionic compounds, NaOH and Na2CO3, can be represented as dissociated ions
to yield the complete ionic equation:
CO2(aq)+2Na+(aq)+2OH-(aq)→2Na+(aq)+CO32-(aq)+H2O(l)CO2(aq)+2Na+(aq)+2OH-
(aq)→2Na+(aq)+CO32-(aq)+H2O(l)
Finally, identify the spectator ion(s), in this case Na+(aq), and remove it from each side of the
equation to generate the net ionic equation:
CO2(aq)+2Na+(aq)+2OH-(aq)→2Na+(aq)+CO32-(aq)+H2O(l)CO2(aq)+2OH-(aq)→CO32-
(aq)+H2O(l)
75
Instructions:
chemical formulas, do the succeeding
worksheets.
Experiment:
• https://www.buchi.com/sites/default/files/BUCHI_Science_kids_en.pdf
Further notes:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuNr4Rn17kk
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Juem0lcifE
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula
Worksheet:
 http://mrnewmanswebsite.weebly.com/uploads/7/6/4/8/7648796/6.1balancingchemiequati
ons.pdf
1. What does a chemical formula represent?
2. Give an example of a case in which two molecules have different molecular formulas but the same
empirical formula.
3. Explain why the chemical formulas of ionic compounds are usually the same as their empirical
formulas.
following:
 Contact No: 09101627698
76
General Chemistry
EXERCISE No. 6
Chemical Formula
NAME: _________________________________________________SCORE: ___________
I. A. Complete the following table to show the formulas of some compounds. 1pts each.
ION 𝐶𝐼𝑂2− 𝐵𝑟 − 𝐶𝑟𝑂42− 𝑂2−

𝐵𝑎2+
𝐶𝑜 3+
𝐶𝑢+
𝑁𝐻4+
. B. Write the name of each formulas written in A.
III. Write formulas for the following ionic compounds:

a. Barium permanganate _________________________
b. Magnesium acetate _________________________
c. Mercury (II) oxide _________________________
d. Silver carbonate _________________________
e. Strontium chloride _________________________
IV. Name these binary covalent compounds.

a. 𝐶𝐶𝐼4 _____________________________
b. 𝑆𝑂3 _____________________________
c. 𝑃𝐶𝐼3 _____________________________
d.𝐶𝑆2 _____________________________
e. 𝑆𝐹6 _____________________________
V. Name and classify the following compounds as an acid, base, oxide, or salt. 1 pt each.
1. 𝑳𝒊𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟑 ______________________ 6. Al(𝑶𝑯)𝟑 ____________________________
2. 𝑯𝑰𝑶𝟐 _______________________ 7. (𝑵𝑯𝟒 )𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 ____________________________
3.HCN _______________________ 8. BA(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 ____________________________
4. 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 _______________________ 9. 𝑪𝒖𝑺𝑶𝟒 ____________________________
5. 𝑲𝑯𝟐 𝑷𝑶𝟒 _______________________ 10. 𝑷𝒃𝑶𝟐 ____________________________
77
Weekly Output:
 Exercise 6
 Worksheet No. 5
End of Week 5 
78
General Chemistry
To my students:
No. 7.
Lesson VII- Stoichiometry
The quantitative relationship among reactants and products is called stoichiometry. The
term stoichiometry is derived from two Greek words: stoicheion (meaning "element") and metron
(meaning "measure"). On this subject, you often are required to calculate quantities of reactants
or products. Stoichiometry calculations are based on the fact that atoms are conserved. They
cannot be destroyed or created. Numbers and kinds of atoms before and after the reactions are
always the same. This is the basic law of nature.
From the atomic and molecular point of view, the stoichiometry in a chemical reaction is
very simple. However, atoms of different elements and molecules of different substances have
different weights. Thus, simple stoichiometry at the atomic level appears to be complicated when
amounts (quantities) are measured in units of g, kg, L or mL. When quantities in moles are used,
the relationships (or ratios) are really simple. For example, one mole of oxygen reacts with two
moles of hydrogen,
2H2+O2→2H2O(1)(1)2H2+O2→2H2O
or one mole of hydrogen reacts with half a mole of oxygen,
H2+12O2→H2O(2)(2)H2+12O2→H2O
or one mole of carbon reacts with one mole of oxygen.
C+O2→CO2(3)(3)C+O2→CO2
This is a major and important topic that you have to master. In order to accomplish this,
you have to be able to do several things. First, you have to be able to convert amounts of
substances between mass units of g (or kg) to moles and vice versa. Then, you have to
understand chemical reactions (changes). In this case, you not only know what are the reactants
and products, you can write a balanced equation to explain the reaction. Sometimes you may be
told what the reactions are.
There are many chemical reactions, but they can be divided into a few types as a
summary.
In a chemical reaction, not all reactants are necessarily consumed. One of the reactants
may be in excess and the other may be limited. The reactant that is completely consumed is
called the limiting reactant, whereas unreacted reactants are called excess reactants.
79
Amounts of substances produced are called yields. The amounts calculated according to
stoichiometry are called theoretical yields whereas the actual amounts are called actual
yields. The actual yields are often expressed in percentage, and they are often called percent
yields.
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions are changes when one or more substances convert to other
substances. The best method to represent these changes is a reaction equation. Reaction
equations show the molar relationship of reactants and products. For example, when we exhale
via a straw into a solution containing Ca(OH)2Ca(OH)2, the following reaction takes place.
Ca2++H2O+CO2→CaCO3+2H+(4)(4)Ca2++H2O+CO2→CaCO3+2H+
This equation shows that a mole of Ca2+Ca2+ requires a mole of CO2CO2 to react and
the products are a mole of solid CaCO3CaCO3 and 2 moles of H+H+ ions.
Since Ca(OH)2Ca(OH)2 is basic, the hydrogen ions produced react with the OH−OH− ions to
form water. In solving stoichiometric problems, we often write the molar mass below the formula
of the equation. If a sample contains 0.10 gram of Ca2+Ca2+ ions, then the amount
of CO2CO2 required to react with CaCa can be evaluated in the following way:
Ca2++40.10.10H2O+18.0CO2→44.0xCaCO3+2H+100.1(5)(6)(7)(5)Ca2++H2O+CO2→CaCO3
+2H+(6)40.118.044.0100.1(7)0.10x
0.10gCa2+⎛⎝44.0gCO240.1gCa2+⎞⎠=0.11gCO2(8)(8)0.10gCa2+(44.0gCO240.1gCa2+)=0.11
gCO2
The above illustrates how you may approach a stoichiometric problem. It also shows
the mass relationship of chemical reactions.
Types of Chemical Reactions
 Two reactants undergo a combination reaction to form a new compound, for example:
H2+Cl2→2HCl(9)(9)H2+Cl2→2HCl
 The formation of AgClAgCl when NaClNaCl and AgNO3AgNO3 solutions are mixed gives
rise to an exchange reaction:
NaCl+AgNO3→AgCl+NaNO3(10)(10)NaCl+AgNO3→AgCl+NaNO3
 Reaction with oxygen or air is often called combustion,
C2H5OH+O2→2CO2+3H2O(11)(11)C2H5OH+O2→2CO2+3H2O
A combustion reaction is often an oxidation and reduction reaction. Since the oxidation of
one substance involves the reduction of another, this type of reaction is often called redox
reaction. In the following reaction,
2Al+Fe2O3→2Fe+Al2O3(12)(12)2Al+Fe2O3→2Fe+Al2O3
 The element AlAl is oxidized, but FeFe is reduced. This reaction is also called
a displacement reaction because AlAl displaces FeFe in the oxide.
80
Limiting and Excess Reactants
When one or more reactants (or reagents) react, the one that is exhausted first is called
the limiting reactant or limiting reagent. When one reactant is exhausted, no more reaction can
take place. The reactants left are called excess reactants or excess reagents. For example, when
equal masses of COCO and O2O2 react, COCO will be used up first, because the equation is
2CO+O2→2CO2(13)(13)2CO+O2→2CO2
Since equal masses are used, we assume 28 g each of COCO and O2O2 are used. The amount
of O2O2 required can be calculated to be:
(28gCO)(1moleCO28gCO)(1molO22molCO)(32gO21moleO2)=16gO2required(14)(14)(28gCO)(1
moleCO28gCO)(1molO22molCO)(32gO21moleO2)=16gO2required
The amount of O2O2 left will be (28−16)g=8gO2(28−16)g=8gO2. Thus, COCO is the limiting
reactant and O2O2 is the excess reactant.
Theoretical and Actual Yields
For known amounts of reactants, theoretical amounts of products can be calculated in a

chemical reaction or process. Calculated amounts of products are called theoretical yield. In
these calculations, the limiting reactant is the limiting factor for the theoretical yields of all
products. However, in a reaction to prepare a compound, you may get less than the theoretical
yield, because of incomplete reactions or loss. The amount recovered divided by the theoretical
yield gives a percent yield (% yield) or actual yield.
Confidence Building Questions

1. What is oxidized in this REDOX reaction?
Zn+2HCl→ZnCl2+H2(15)(15)Zn+2HCl→ZnCl2+H2
Well, the oxidation state for ZnZn is zero, but for ZnCl2ZnCl2 the oxidation state for ZnZn is
2.nThe oxidation state increased for ZnZn.
2. At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of COCO and O2O2 are
mixed for a reaction. What is the limiting reactant?
At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the same number of
moles. The reaction equation is 2CO+O2→2CO22CO+O2→2CO2. The required volume
for COCO is twice the volume for O2O2.
3. How much FeFe should be produced when the limiting reactant is exhausted, if
10 g each of AlAl and Fe2O3Fe2O3 are used for the thermite reaction?
2Al+Fe2O3→2Fe+Al2O3(16)(16)2Al+Fe2O3→2Fe+Al2O3
Since 10 g Fe2O3Fe2O3 requires 3.4 g AlAl, we assume Fe2O3Fe2O3 completely reduced.
(10gFe2O3)(1mol159.6gFe2O3)(2molAl1molFe2O3)(27.0gAl1molAl)=3.4gAl(17)(17)(10gFe2
O3)(1mol159.6gFe2O3)(2molAl1molFe2O3)(27.0gAl1molAl)=3.4gAl
Amount FeFe produced is calculated this way:
(10gFe2O3)(1mol159.6gFe2O3)(1molFe1molFe2O3)(55.8gFe1molAl)=?gFe(18)
The Mole and Avogadro's Constant

The number of moles in a system can be determined using the atomic mass of an
element, which can be found on the periodic table. This mass is usually an average of the
81
abundant forms of that element found on earth. An element's mass is listed as the average of
all its isotopes on earth.
Avogadro's Constant
One mole of oxygen atoms contains 6.02214179×10236.02214179×1023 oxygen atoms.
Also, one mole of nitrogen atoms contains 6.02214179×10236.02214179×1023 nitrogen atoms.
The number 6.02214179×10236.02214179×1023 is called Avogadro's
number (NANA) or Avogadro's constant, after the 19th century scientist Amedeo Avogadro.
Each carbon-12 atom weighs about 1.99265×10−23g1.99265×10−23g; therefore,
(1.99265×10−23g)×(6.02214179×1023atoms)=12g of carbon
12(1.99265×10−23g)×(6.02214179×1023atoms)=12g of carbon-12
Applications of the Mole

The mass of a mole of substance is called the molar mass of that substance. The molar
mass is used to convert grams of a substance to moles and is used often in chemistry. The
molar mass of an element is found on the periodic table, and it is the element's atomic weight
in grams/mole (g/mol). If the mass of a substance is known, the number of moles in the
substance can be calculated. Converting the mass, in grams, of a substance to moles requires a
conversion factor of (one mole of substance/molar mass of substance).
The mole concept is also applicable to the composition of chemical compounds. For
instance, consider methane, CH4. This molecule and its molecular formula indicate that per mole
of methane there is 1 mole of carbon and 4 moles of hydrogen. In this case, the mole is used
as a common unit that can be applied to a ratio as shown below:
2 mol H +1 mol O =1 mol H2O2 mol H +1 mol O =1 mol H2O
In this this chemical reactions, the moles of H and O describe the number of atoms of
each element that react to form 1 mol of H2OH2O.
To think about what a mole means, one should relate it to quantities such as dozen or
pair. Just as a pair can mean two shoes, two books, two pencils, two people, or two of anything
else, a mole means 6.02214179×1023 of anything. Using the following relation:
1 mole=6.02214179×1023(1)(1)1 mole=6.02214179×1023
is analogous to saying:
1 Dozen=12 eggs(2)(2)1 Dozen=12 eggs
It is quite difficult to visualize a mole of something because Avogadro's constant is

extremely large. For instance, consider the size of one single grain of wheat. If all the people
who have existed in Earth's history did nothing but count individual wheat grains for their entire
lives, the total number of wheat grains counted would still be much less than Avogadro's
constant; the number of wheat grains produced throughout history does not even approach
Avogadro's Number.
82
Percent Composition
The percent composition (by mass) of a compound can be calculated by dividing the
mass of each element by the total mass of the compound.
Percent Composition by Mass
Percent composition is calculated from a molecular formula by dividing the mass of a

single element in one mole of a compound by the mass of one mole of the entire compound.
This value is presented as a percentage.
For example, butane has a molecular formula of C4H10. Butane’s percent composition can be
calculated as follows:
 Mass of H per mol butane: 10 mol H⋅1.00794 g1 mol H=10.079 g H10 mol
H⋅1.00794 g1 mol H=10.079 g H
 Mass of C per mol butane: 4 mol C⋅12.011 g C1mol C=48.044g C4 mol C⋅12.011 g C1mol
C=48.044g C
 Mass percent H in butane: 10.079g H58.123 g butane⋅100=17.3% H10.079g H58.123 g
butane⋅100=17.3% H
 Mass percent C in butane: 48.044g C58.123 g butane⋅100=82.7% C48.044g C58.123 g
butane⋅100=82.7% C
Therefore, the atomic composition of butane can also be described as 17.3% hydrogen and
82.7% carbon, and, as expected, these values sum to 100%.
Butane: The structural formula of butane.
In practice, this calculation is often reversed. Mass percents can be determined

experimentally via elemental analysis, and these values can be used to calculate the empirical
formula of unknown compounds. However, this information is insufficient to determine the
molecular formula without additional information on the compound’s molecular weight.
Stoichiometry: Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions
We were introduced to stoichiometric coefficients and learned how to balance chemical

equations. The balanced chemical equation is in effect a series of equivalence statements that
relate the relative rates of reactant consumption and product formation. Consider the following
equation describing the formation of Aniline (C6H5NH2) from from nitrobenzene (C6H5NO2).
4C6H5NO2 + 9Fe + 4H2O ---> 4C6H5NH2 + 3 Fe3O4
The above equation relates the number of particles. So, for every 4 molecules of
nitrobenzene, 9 atoms of iron, and 4 molecules of water consumed you, you create 4 molecules
of aniline and 3 formula units of Fe3O4. The problem is the balanced equation describes the
83
number of particles and we cannot physically count them, nor do we work on such a small scale
in the laboratory.
So how do we "count" chemical entities involved in a chemical reaction?
We count chemical entities in a reaction by measuring macroscopic observables like mass,

volume, temperature and pressure. What we measure depends on the state of matter, but we
need to relate a measurable property to the number of particles. In this chapter we will learn how
to do this for solid substances and for solutes in a solution. In the gas phase chapter we will use
the ideal gas law (PV=nRT) to do this for gas phase reactants.
The above flow chart describes this process into three steps.
1. Convert measurable quantities to moles (number of particles).

2. Use the balanced equation to relate the moles of what you are given to the moles of
what you want.
3. If requested, convert the answer above back to a measurable unit.
Stoichiometric calculations involving masses of pure solid or liquid phase substances
Mass to Mass or Mass to Mole Conversions
Objective: Given the mass one species be able to predict the mass another species consumed
or produced from a balanced chemical equation.
Technique: This is a three step process which should be done in one equation which uses three
conversion factors.
 Conversion Factor #1: Use molar mass to convert mass of known material to moles.
 Conversion Factor #2: Use coefficients of balanced reaction equation to convert moles
of known material to moles of desired material.
 Conversion Factor # 3: Use molar mass to convert moles of desired material to mass
of desired material.
How many grams of oxygen are consumed when 4.0 g butane (C4H10) combusts?
In the following figure we solve this problem with one equation, where each step is a different
conversion factor (equivalence statement). I
 Conversion Factor #1: Divide by molar mass of butane. Note, this has significant
digits, and the units are included in the numerator and denominator as they are
different, but the identity is the same and so not repeated in the denominator (it is
implicitly understood that it is the same chemical entity, which in this case in butane)
 Conversion Factor #2: Use coefficients of balanced reaction equation to convert
moles of known material to moles of desired material. These are exact numbers that
come from the balanced equation and so do not have significant figures, but since they
84
are relating two different entities, the identity of both the numerator and denominator
are explicitly stated.
 Conversion Factor # 3: Multiply by molar mass to convert moles oxygen to grams
oxygen. Note, this has significant digits, and the units are included in the numerator and
denominator as they are different, but the identity is the same and so not repeated in
the denominator (it is implicitly understood that it is the same chemical entity, which in
this case in butane)
Cancel units in the above equation to be sure your answer has the desired units and only
round off your final answer to the correct number of significant digits, do not round off during
intermediate steps.
How many significant digits should your molar masses be? The measurement with
the least number of significant figures determines the number of significant digits that you round
your final answer to. Since this problem had 4.0 g of butane, which has 2 significant digits, we
used molar masses of 3 significant digits, but rounded the final answer to two. If at all possible,
never use a molar mass with fewer significant digits than the measured values you are working
with, as stated in the problem.
Do you always start with the Mass-to-Mole step? NO! If the question was what
mass of oxygen is consumed if you combust 4 moles of butane, you do not need to do the first
step. Note, both propane and carbon dioxide are gases at ambient conditions and so you cannot
measure their mass directly. Instead, you need to measure the pressure, temperature and volume
of the gas to determine the number of moles. We will learn how to do this when we study gasses,
but for now we will use masses in our calculations.
85
Instructions:
stoichiometry, do the succeeding
worksheets.
Experiment:
Further notes:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gle1bPAZsgg
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bZ9xDZlmXVQ
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometry
Worksheet:
 https://www.hasdk12.org/cms/lib/PA01001366/Centricity/Domain/1149/Stoich%20Layout
%20and%20LR%20Problems.pdf
1. What does the mole have in common with the pair, the dozen and the gross? What does Avogadro’s
number represent?
2. Describe how the knowledge of the percent composition by mass of an unknown compound can help
us identify the compound
following:
 Contact No: 09101627698
86
General Chemistry
EXERCISE No. 7
Stoichiometry
NAME: _________________________________________________SCORE: ___________
I. Tin exists in Earth’s crust as SnO2. Calculate the percent composition by mass of Sn and O in
SnO2.
2. What is the molar mass of an atom? What are the commonly used units for molar mass?
3. How many grams of Au are there in 15.3 moles of Au?
4. The empirical formula of a compound is CH. If the molar mass of this compound is about 78g,
what is its molecular formula?
87
Weekly Output:
 Exercise 7
 Worksheet No. 6
End of Week 6 
88
General Chemistry
To my students:
No. 8.
Lesson VIII- Gases
Pressure and its measurement

Pressure is an important property (state function) of a gas (or any substance for that
matter). Pressure is a measure of the force per area that substance exerts on its surroundings.
There are a number of ways to measure pressure. These include instruments that
directly measure the force of the gas, to those that detect the number of gas particles and
convert this to a pressure. Knowing about how pressure is measured can help with some of the
unusual units that are used for pressure. The "best" unit for pressure is a Pascal (Pa). This is a
force of 1 Newton (N) per square meter (m2). However, it turns out that this is a small pressure
compared to the typical values we encounter in chemistry. The most typical pressure is the
prevailing pressure of the atmosphere. This pressure varies day to day, but at some point an
standard unit of 1 atmosphere (atm) selected. 1 atm = 101,325 Pa. As such, atm is a historic
unit that still gets a lot of use, however it is not easily converted to kg, m, and seconds. A
"better" unit is the bar. 1 bar is chosen to be close to 1 atm and is defined as be equal to
100,000 Pa or 100kPa. 1 atm = 1.01325 bar.
Historically pressure was measured in a barometer (or manometer). This instrument
could measure the pressure by measuring a differential in a force applied to a liquid. For a
barometer, the liquid is exposed to the atmosphere and is forced up into a long sealed tube.
The height that the liquid rises in the tube is then a measure of the force applied from the
atmosphere. The height depends on the pressure applied and the density of the liquid such
that:
P=ρghP=ρgh
Where g is the gravitational acceleration constant, P is the pressure, and ρρ is the

density of the liquid. If the gravitational acceleration constant has units of m s-2 (9.8 m s-2) and
the density is in kg m-3 the pressure will be in Pascal. Because most barometers employ
mercury as the liquid (since it is dense and has a low vapor pressure) the height of the liquid is
often used as a measure of pressure. Thus millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or centimeters of
mercury (cmHg) are sometimes used as units for pressure. Torr is another historical name for
mmHg. 1 mmHg is approximately 1 Torr. Torr are strictly defined such that 760 Torr = 1 atm.
Boyle's Law
Boyle's Law states that the pressure (P) of a gas is inversely proportional to the volume
(V). This law is valid as long as the temperature and the amount of gas are constant. Any units
will work here:
89
PV=k(constant)PV=k(constant)
The constant, kk, will depend on the number of moles and the temperature. As long as
those two state functions are constant, kk will be a constant and Boyle's Law will hold. Below is
a plot of pressure vs volume (aka: a PV plot). Note the shape of the plot, this is a classic
inverse relationship.
Most Boyle's Law problems have an initial set of conditions (P1 and V1) and then a final set of
conditions (P2 and V2). BOTH conditions must satisfy Boyle's Law and therefore:
P1V1=P2V2P1V1=P2V2
Any units will work here for pressure and volume - just make sure the units are the
same on each side of the equation.
Below is a Boyle's Law applet like the syringe we played with in class that allows you to
explore the relationship between pressure and volume along with a graph of the data.
Charles's Law
Charles's Law states that the Volume (V) of a gas is directly proportional to the
temperature (T). This law is valid as long as the pressure and the amount of gas are constant.
The temperature must be an absolute temperature:
VT=k(constant)VT=k(constant)
The constant, kk, will depend on the number of moles and the pressure. As long as
those two state functions are constant, kk will be a constant and Charles's Law will hold. Below
is a plot of temperature vs volume for an ideal gas. Note that the line is linear which is
consistent with a direct proportionality.
Most Charles's Law problems have an initial set of conditions (V1 and T1) and then a final set of
conditions (V2 and T2). BOTH conditions must satisfy Charles's Law and therefore:
V1T1=V2T2V1T1=V2T2
Any units will work here for volume but the temperature must be absolute (Kelvin).
Avogadro's Law
The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the amount of gas. The typical amount of
gas is in moles. Avogadro's Law assumes that temperature and pressure are constant.
Vn=k(constant)Vn=k(constant)
Where n is in moles of gas.

As with the other gas laws (Boyle's and Charles'), Avogadro's Law is typically depicted
when considering an initial set of conditions (condition 1) and a final set of conditions (condition
2).
90
V1n1=V2n2V1n1=V2n2
This is exactly like Charles' Law except the temperature (T) has been replaced with number of
moles (n).
Also keep in mind that mass is proportional to moles which means the mass of the gas can also
be used here:
V1m1=V2m2V1m1=V2m2
Where m is the mass of the gas. However, keep in mind that unlike for n, the two conditions
compared with the mass must compare the same gas (as different gases have different molar
masses).
Combined Gas Law

The classic combined gas law is a combination of Boyle's Law and Charles' Law. The
relationship between pressure, volume, and absolute temperature are all present in the
combined gas law. It is written mathematically as:
PVT=k(constant)PVT=k(constant)
The constant, kk, will also depend on the number of moles and could therefore vary. As
long as the number of moles is constant, kk will be a true constant value.
Most combined gas law are worked with a before condition and an after condition. We typically
number these conditions of state as 1 and 2 (sometimes initial and final also). So the working
form of the combined gas law is:
P1V1T1=P2V2T2P1V1T1=P2V2T2
Any units will work here for pressure and volume but the temperature must be absolute
(Kelvin).
Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law is a simple model that allows us to predict the behavior of gases in the
world. It is a combination of the previous laws that we have studied (Boyle's, Charles',
Avogadro's). Rather than simply looking at proportionalities, it relates pressure, volume,
absolute temperature, and the number of moles quantitatively with a universal constant RR that
we call the ideal gas constant.
PV=nRTPV=nRT
The value for R will depend on what units you are using for the properties of the gas. The ideal
gas law has many implications that will be discussed below. However, the most remarkable
aspect is that the same model works quite well for all gases (N2, He, C3H8,).
The Universal Gas Constant

The ideal gas constant is a Universal constant that we use to quantify the relationship between
the properties of a gas. The constant RR that we typically use relates pressure in atmospheres,
volume in liters, and temperature in Kelvin. In this case, it has the value and units of
R=0.08206Latmmol−1K−1R=0.08206Latmmol−1K−1
The gas constant RR will appear in many contexts as this is a Universal constant that relates
energy and temperature. A pressure times a volume is an energy. As such, you will also
encounter the gas constant RR in typical energy units of Joules
R=8.314Jmol−1K−1R=8.314Jmol−1K−1
Finally, ignore the blunder in the video where Dr. Vanden Bout can't remember the correct
value for RR with units of atm. The correct value is 0.08206 atm L mol-1 K-1
Number Density
Number density is a useful concept for thinking about macroscopic samples in a microscopic
way. Chemists often try to "visualize" materials with a molecular perspective. Number density
can be thought of as the number of particles that are present in a particular volume. As these
numbers can be very very large, we typically think of this as the number of moles (a fixed
number of particles) within a given volume. This quantity is
nV=PRTnV=PRT
So, if we have any two gas samples that are behaving ideally, they have the same number of
particles per volume when the temperature and pressure are the same. For example, if I had
two balloons in a room, they would have the same pressure (approximately one atmosphere)
and the same temperature (whatever the temperature was in the room). Therefore, they
would have the same number density. If the balloons had the same volume, then they would
have identical numbers of particles. This is really a different way of stating Avogadro's Law.
Molar Volume
Molar volume is another way to view number density. The molar volume is the volume of 1
mole of substance. It can be simply found by dividing the volume of a sample by the number
of moles of that sample
Vm=VnVm=Vn
This is simply the inverse of the number density. It is a useful quantity to "think about" things
from a molecular perspective. As all gases that are behaving ideally have the same number
density, they will all have the same molar volume. At STP this will be 22.4 L. This is useful if
you want to envision the distance between molecules in different samples. For instance, if you
have a sample of liquid water, it has a mass density of 1 g mL-1. Since water has a molecular
weight of 18 g mol-1, 1 mole will have a mass of 18 g. From the density this should have a
volume of only 18 mL. Clearly this is a lot less than an ideal gas at STP which is more than
1000 times larger in terms of its molar volume.
Mass Density of a Gas

The mass density of a gas is typically just called the "density". This is the mass of the gas
relative to the volume of the gas.
density=massvolumedensity=massvolume
Because gases that are behaving ideally under the same conditions (temperature, pressure) all
have the same number density, they will all have different mass densities since different gases
have different masses per particle.
Because we know the number of particles of gas (number of moles) under a given set of
conditions, if we measure the gas density, then we can determine the mass of the
particles. This is a means by which we can use the density of a gas to determine the molecular
weight of a gaseous compound. The density is the mass divided by the volume. Plugging in
the volume (nRT/PnRT/P) from the ideal gas law we get
density=mV=m(1V)=m(PnRT)=(mn)(PRT)=MWt(PRT)density=mV=m(1V)=m(PnRT)=(mn)(PR
T)=MWt(PRT)
where MWtMWt is the molecular weight of the compound (m/nm/n) in g/mol. Using this idea,
we can either find the density of a gas given its molecular weight (and the conditions) or use
the density (or mass) to find the molecular weight.
MWt=density(RT)PMWt=density(RT)P
Because the ideal gas law relates all the properties of a gas along with the number of moles of
that gas, if we have a measure of the pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas, we actually
have a measure of the number of moles of that substance.
n=PVRTn=PVRT
91
Thus in the same way that we can use the mass of a sample and it molecular weight to
determine the number of moles in a particular sample, we can use the temperature, pressure,
and volume of a gas to determine how many moles we have.
Instructions:
about the basic concepts about gases,
Experiment:
Further notes:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BxUS1K7xu30
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UKUmYU6Q1cA
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas
Worksheet:
 https://www.graftonps.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=8275&datai
d=11544&FileName=Gas%20Laws%20Problems%20Worksheet.pdf
1. Define pressure and give the common units for pressure
2. Explain why a helium weather balloon expands as it rises in the air.
following:
 Contact No: 09101627698
92
General Chemistry
EXERCISE No. 8
Gases
NAME: _________________________________________________SCORE: ___________
1. Suppose you had a 3.15L sample neon gas at 21 degree Celsius and a pressure of 0.951 atm.
What would be the volume of this gas if the pressure were increased to 1.292 atm while the
temperature remained constant?
2. A 2.50-L flask was used to collect a 5.65g sample of propane gas, C3H8. After the sample was
collected, the gas pressure was found to be 741 mmHg. What was the temperature of the propane
in the flask?
3. Calculate the volume in Liters occupied by 7.40g of NH3 at STP?
4. A gas occupying a volume of 725 mL at a pressure of 0.970 atm is allowed to expand at

constant temperature until its pressure reaches 0.541 atm. What is its final volume?
5. Under constant-pressure conditions a sample of hydrogen gas initially at 88 degree Celsius and
9.6L is cooled until its final volume is 3.4L. What is its final temperature?
93
Weekly Output:
 Exercise 8
 Worksheet No. 7
End of Week 7 

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ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT COLLEGE

Garengen G. Saya-ang, LPT

Poblacion, Aurora, Zamboanga del Sur, 7020

Prepared by: Garengen G. Saya-ang, LPT

COURSE CODE: NAT. SCI. 2

UNIT CREDIT: 5 Units (5 hours/week)

1. Matter and Measurement

2. Atoms, Ions and Molecules

3. Electronic Structure of Atom

4. Periodic Relationships among Elements

5. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry

Prepared by: Noted by: Approved by:

GARENGEN G. SAYA-ANG VANESSA P. CANOY JEHUEL NATHAN R. DACULIO

Date Signed: _______________

Lesson I – Chemistry and Matter

 It is a branch of Chemistry that focusses on qualitative and quantitative methods

o It can be applied to all aspects of life (development of pharmaceuticals, leaf color

Properties of Matter (Chemical and Physical, Intensive and Extensive)

Difference among element, compound, homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture

Difference among element, compound, homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture

Here are a number of common separation techniques:

Chromatography is the separation of a mixture by passing it in solution or suspension

Distillation is an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more pure

Evaporation is a technique used to separate out homogenous mixtures where there is

Filtration is a separation method used to separate out pure substances in mixtures

1. Classify each of the following as:

NAME: _________________________________________________SCORE: ___________

Lesson III – Measurements

Accuracy and Precision

The Metric System

Length, Mass, and Volume

Length Mass Volume

meter gram liter

other units you may see

kilometer kilogram dekaliter

centimeter centigram centiliter

millimeter milligram milliliter

The handle of a shovel is A paperclip weighs about 1 A medium-sized container of

Common Measurements in Customary and Metric Systems

Length 1 centimeter is a little less than half an inch.

1.6 kilometers is about 1 mile.

1 meter is about 3 inches longer than 1 yard.

Mass 1 kilogram is a little more than 2 pounds.

28 grams is about the same as 1 ounce.

Volume 1 liter is a little more than 1 quart.

4 liters is a little more than 1 gallon.

Prefixes in the Metric System

Using this table as a reference, you can see the following:

Measuring Mass in the Metric System

kilogram hectogram dekagram gram decigram centigram milligram

Converting Units Up and Down the Metric Scale

Problem How many milligrams are in one decigram?

Decigrams (dg) are larger

×10 ×10 Dg is 10 times larger than a

→ → Since you are going from a

1 dg  10  10 = 100 mg Multiply: 1  10  10, to find

Answer There are 100 milligrams (mg) in 1 decigram (dg).

Problem Convert 1 centimeter to kilometers.

km hm dam m dm cm mm Identify locations of

Kilometers (km) are larger

NAME: _______________________________________SCORE: _