Principles of

Engineering Acoustics
 Module 1.1
Introduction to Acoustical
Engineering
Intended Learning Outcomes
1. Introduce the concepts of acoustical engineering.
Acoustics
• the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all
mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including
topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and
infrasound.
• A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an
acoustician while someone working in the field of
acoustics technology may be called an acoustical
engineer.
Acoustics
• The application of acoustics is present in almost all
aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the
audio and noise control industries.
Acoustical Engineering
• is the branch of engineering dealing with sound and
vibration
• is the application of acoustics, the science of sound and
vibration, in technology
• Acoustical engineers are typically concerned with the
design, analysis and control of sound.
• One goal of acoustical engineering can be the reduction of
unwanted noise, which is referred to as noise control.
Other Applications of Acoustical
Engineering
• redesigning sound sources, the design of noise barriers,
sound absorbers, silencers, and buffer zones, and the use
of hearing protection (Earmuffs or Earplugs)
• use of ultrasound in medicine
• programming of digital sound synthesizers
• design of concert hall's acoustics
Other Applications of Acoustical
Engineering
• enhancing the sound of an orchestra
• specifying a railway station's sound system so
announcements are intelligible.
The Nature of Sound
• Sound is a longitudinal, mechanical wave.
• Sound can travel through any medium, but it cannot travel
through a vacuum. There is no sound in outer space.
• Sound is a variation in pressure. A region of increased
pressure on a sound wave is called a compression (or
condensation). A region of decreased pressure on a sound
wave is called a rarefaction (or dilation).
The Nature of Sound

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Sources of Sound
• vibrating solids
• rapid expansion or compression (explosions and
implosions)
• Smooth (laminar) air flow around blunt obstacles may
result in the formation of vortices (the plural of vortex) that
snap off or shed with a characteristic frequency. This
process is called vortex shedding and is another means
by which sound waves are formed. This is how a whistle or
flute produces sound.
Wave Parameters
What parameters can be measured in waves?

• Amplitude
• Frequency (and period)
• Wavelength
• Speed/Velocity
• Phase
Amplitude
• Amplitude goes with intensity, loudness, or volume. That's
the basic idea.
• The amplitude of a sound wave can be quantified in at
least three ways:
• by measuring the maximum change in position of the particles that
make up the medium,
• by measuring the maximum change in density of the medium, or
• by measuring the maximum change in pressure (the maximum
gauge pressure).
Sound Measurement Through Pressure

• Pressure fluctuations caused by sound waves are much

easier to measure
• When done by an electronic circuit —like the circuits in a
level meter —the resulting value is called the intensity.
• When done by a neural circuit —like the circuits in your
brain —the resulting sensation is called the loudness.
Intensity vs. Loudness
• Briefly, the intensity of a sound wave is a combination of
its rate and density of energy transfer. It is an objective
quantity associated with a wave.
• Loudness is a perceptual response to the physical
property of intensity. It is a subjective quality associated
with a wave and is a bit complex.
Sound Intensity
Sound intensity or acoustic intensity is defined as the
sound power per unit area. The SI unit of sound intensity is
the watt per square metre(W/m2). The usual context is the
noise measurement of sound intensity in the air at a listener's
location as a sound energy quantity.
Mathematically,

I = Sound Intensity
P = Sound Power
A = Area
Sound Intensity
Sound intensity is not the same physical quantity as sound
pressure. Hearing is directly sensitive to sound pressure
which is related to sound intensity.
Sound Intensity Level
Theory of Sound Waves
General Subdivision:
• Infrasonic – below 20 Hz
• Sonic – 20 – 20000 Hz
• Ultrasonic – above 20000 Hz
Speed of Sound
Speed of Sound
For solids:
𝐸
𝑣=
𝜌
E = Young’s Modulus
ρ = Density
Speed of Sound
• The speed of sound in air at 0oC is 331.45 m/s.
In normal dry air:
𝑣 = 331.45 + 0.607𝑇𝐶 - for TC ≤ 20 oC
𝑇𝐾
𝑣 = 331.45 273
- for TC > 20 oC
Speed of Sound
Example:
Determine the speed of sound in air at STP.
(Used γ = 1.4 for air, ρ = 1.29 kg/m3, Ρ = 1 atm = 1.013 x 105
Pa)
Speed of Sound
Example:
Determine the speed of sound in air at STP.
(Used γ = 1.4 for air, ρ = 1.29 kg/m3, Ρ = 1 atm = 1.013 x 105
Pa)

ANS: 332 m/s

Speed of Sound
Example:
At room temperature, what is the velocity of sound in m/s?
Speed of Sound
Example:
At room temperature, what is the velocity of sound in m/s?

ANS: 341.7 m/s or 342 m/s

References
J. Ampoloquio (2005). Self-Sufficient Guide to Electronic Communications Engineering

Blokdyk, Gerard. (2017) Broadcast Engineering: A Clear And Comprehensive Guide

Beutler, Roland. (2017) Evolution of Broadcast Content Distribution. Springer

Hoeg, Wolfgang. (2009) Digital Audio Broadcasting. Wiley

Paul, Sanjoy. (2010) Digital Video Distribution in Broadband, Television, Mobile, and Converged Networks. Wiley

Beasley, Jeffrey S. (2014) Electronic Communications. Pearson

Gupta. (2016) An Integrated Course in Electronics and Communication Engineering. S. K. Kataria & Sons

Meadows, Jennifer H. (2018) Communication Technology Update and Fundamentals. Routledge

 Principles of
Engineering Acoustics
 Module 1.2
Sound Level Measurements
Intended Learning Outcomes
1. Apply the concepts of sound through sound level
measurements.
2. Solve problems involving sound level measurements.
Attributes of Sound
1. Pitch – highness or lowness of a musical tone as
determined by the rapidity of the vibrations producing it.
2. Timbre – more elusive qualitative attribute of sound
3. Loudness – human impression of the strength of a sound.
Remember: Loudness of a noise does not correlate with
its sound level.
4. Duration – the duration of a sound is the time interval
between its beginning and end points.
Loudness
Loudness level of any sound, in phons, is the decibel level of
an equally loud 1 kHz tone, heard binaurally by an
ontologically normal listener.
𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑛 = 40 + 10 log 2 𝑆𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑛−40 x = loudness in sones
𝑥= 2 10 n = loudness in phons

A 10dB sound level increase is perceived to be about "twice

as loud" in many cases.
Loudness
• No absolute scale has been established for the
measurement of loudness of a sound
• A relative scale, based on the logarithm of the ratio of two
intensities, is used.
Loudness
• The sone is an acoustic unit used to measure loudness of
a sound.
• It is used to rank and compare loudness of sounds on a
common basis as the ear hears them.
• A pure tone of f = 1kHz at a sound intensity level of 40
dB is defined as having a loudness of one sone.
• A loudness of 0.001 sone or 1 millisone corresponds to
the threshold of hearing.
Loudness
• The phon is an acoustic unit used to measure the overall
loudness of a noise.
• A pure tone of f = 1kHz at a sound intensity level of 1
dB is defined as having a loudness level of 1 phon.
• Like the dB, a tone with a loudness level of 30 phons does
not sound half as loud as a tone with a loudness level of
60 phons.
Loudness

Taken from ECE Elective 4 Lecture Slides by

Engr. Winston Dereje
Loudness
Example:
Calculate the loudness of a sound with a sound level of 110
phons.
Loudness
Example:
Calculate the loudness of a sound with a sound level of 110
phons.

ANS: 128 sones

Loudness
Example:
A complex sound has two tonal components at 100 Hz and 5
kHz having loudness levels of 80 and 70 phons, respectively.
What is the total loudness?
Loudness
Example:
A complex sound has two tonal components at 100 Hz and 5
kHz having loudness levels of 80 and 70 phons, respectively.
What is the total loudness?

ANS: 24 sones
Frequency Parameters
1. Harmonics - Harmonics is defined as the integral
multiples of the fundamental. 𝑛𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛 × 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑛
2. Overtone - Musical term for harmonics. 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 =
(𝑛 + 1) × 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑛
3. Octave - Frequency interval of 2. 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 2𝑛 × 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑛
4. Decade - Frequency interval of 10. 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 = 10𝑛 ×
𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑛
Sound Fields
1. Near Field - The area where the direct sound dominates,
and the sound pressure may vary significantly with just
small changes in position.
2. Far Field - The area beyond the near field. This is made
up of two sections;
a. Free Field - Free field where the direct sound still dominates and the
sound pressure level decreases 6 dB for each doubling of distance.
b. Reverberant Field - Reverberant field where the reflected sound
adds to the direct sound and the decrease per doubling of distance
will be less than 6 dB.
Sound Levels
Sound Power (W) and Sound Power Level (PWL)
Sound power is the amount of energy emitted by a sound source per unit
time.
𝑊 W = acoustic power in Watts
𝑑𝐵𝑃𝑊𝐿 = 10 log
𝑊𝑜 W = 10 Watts
-12
o
Sound Levels
Example:
Determine the total PWL of 3 motors with a radiated acoustic
power of 25 mW, 40 mW, and 85 mW.
Sound Levels
Example:
Determine the total PWL of 3 motors with a radiated acoustic
power of 25 mW, 40 mW, and 85 mW.

ANS: 111.76 dBPWL

Sound Levels
Sound Intensity (I) and Sound Intensity Level (SIL)
Sound intensity in a specified direction at a point in a sound field is
defined as the average rate of flow of sound energy through a unit area
normal to this direction at the point considered.
𝐼
𝑑𝐵𝑆𝐼𝐿 = 10 log I = intensity in W/m2

𝐼𝑜 I o = 10-12 W/m2
Sound Levels
Example:
You are at a party and talking with a group of people. They all
produce sound levels of the same magnitude at your position.
The combined level when all four talks at once is 70 dBSIL.
Determine the sound level from one person.
Sound Levels
Example:
You are at a party and talking with a group of people. They all
produce sound levels of the same magnitude at your position.
The combined level when all four talks at once is 70 dBSIL.
Determine the sound level from one person.

ANS: 64 dBSIL
Sound Levels
Sound Pressure (P) and Sound Pressure Level (SPL)
Sound Pressure is the root mean square of the instantaneous sound
pressures in a stated frequency band during a specified time intervals,
unless another time-averaging process is indicated.
𝑃
𝑑𝐵𝑆𝑃𝐿 = 20 log 2
P = 20 uPa = 0.0002 ubar = 2.089 lb/ft
𝑃𝑜
o

For different SPL:

𝑃𝑇
𝑑𝐵𝑆𝑃𝐿 = 20 log ; 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃22 + 𝑃32 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑁2
𝑃𝑜
Sound Levels
Example:
If the RMS sound pressure is 5 lb/ft2, what is the sound
pressure level? Note: Po = 2.089 lb/ft2
Sound Levels
Example:
If the RMS sound pressure is 5 lb/ft2, what is the sound
pressure level? Note: Po = 2.089 lb/ft2

ANS: 7.58 dBSPL

Sound Levels

Reference: J. Ampoloquio (2005). Self-Sufficient

Guide to Electronic Communications Engineering
Sound Levels
Relationship Between Sound Intensity and Sound
Pressure
𝑃2 I = Intensity in W/m 2

𝐼=
P = sound pressure in Pa
ρ = density of medium in kg/m 3

𝜌𝑐 c = speed of sound in m/s

For dry air at 17OC (ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, c = 341.7 m/s)

𝑃2
𝐼=
410 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑠
Sound Levels
The dB scale for SPL and SIL are equal thus the dB value of
the two can be used interchangeably but always keep in mind
that the actual intensity and actual pressure corresponding to
a particular dB level are completely different in magnitude
and units
Sound Levels
Relationship Between Sound Intensity (I) and Sound
Power (W)
𝑊𝑄 Q = directivity factor (1 for airborne sound,

𝐼= 2
2 for ground-originating sound)

4𝜋𝑟
r = direct distance from the source in m

𝑑𝐵𝑃𝑊𝐿 = 𝑑𝐵𝑆𝐼𝐿 + 20 log 𝑟𝑚 − 𝑄𝑑𝐵 + 11

Sound Levels
For enclosed space with reverberant field
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐷 + 𝐼𝑅
For sound source with directional characteristics
(Small enclosure)
𝑄 4
𝑑𝐵𝑆𝑃𝐿 = 𝑑𝐵𝑃𝑊𝐿 + 10 log 2
+ +𝐾
4𝜋𝑟 𝑅
Sound Levels
For sound source with no directivity
(Large space)
𝑑𝐵𝑆𝑃𝐿 = 𝑑𝐵𝑃𝑊𝐿 − 20 log 𝑟 − 10 log 𝑅 − 5 + 𝐾
References
J. Ampoloquio (2005). Self-Sufficient Guide to Electronic Communications Engineering

Blokdyk, Gerard. (2017) Broadcast Engineering: A Clear And Comprehensive Guide

Beutler, Roland. (2017) Evolution of Broadcast Content Distribution. Springer

Hoeg, Wolfgang. (2009) Digital Audio Broadcasting. Wiley

Paul, Sanjoy. (2010) Digital Video Distribution in Broadband, Television, Mobile, and Converged Networks. Wiley

Beasley, Jeffrey S. (2014) Electronic Communications. Pearson

Gupta. (2016) An Integrated Course in Electronics and Communication Engineering. S. K. Kataria & Sons

Meadows, Jennifer H. (2018) Communication Technology Update and Fundamentals. Routledge

Room Acoustics and
Transducers
 Module 2.1

Introductory Concepts of Room

Acoustics and Design
Intended Learning Outcomes
1. Apply engineering concepts in room acoustic design.
2. Solve problems involving room acoustics and design.
Fundamentals of Room Acoustics
Room acoustics is concerned with the behavior of sound
within an enclosed space with a view to obtaining the
optimum effects on the occupants.
Fundamentals of Room Acoustics
Room acoustics is concerned with the behavior of sound
within an enclosed space with a view to obtaining the
optimum effects on the occupants.
Acoustical Characteristics
• Liveness
• Intimacy
• Fullness
• Clarity
• Warmth
• Brilliance
• Texture
• Blend
• Ensemble
Reverberation
Persistence of sound in an enclosed space after the source
of the sound has been removed or the sound itself has
ceased. This add brilliance to the sound itself and make it
‘sound’ natural.
Reverberation Time
Reverberation time is the time required for the mean square
sound pressure of a given frequency in an enclosure, initially
in a steady state, to decay after the source is stopped, to 60
dB or one-millionth of its initial value.
Reverberation Time
The reverberant sound in an auditorium dies away with time
as the sound energy is absorbed by multiple interactions with
the surfaces of the room.

In a more reflective room, it will take longer for the sound to

die away and the room is said to be 'live'. In a very absorbent
room, the sound will die away quickly and the room will be
described as acoustically 'dead'.
Reverberation Time
But the time for reverberation to completely die away will
depend upon how loud the sound was to begin with, and will
also depend upon the acuity of the hearing of the observer.
Ideal Reverberation Times

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Liveness and Intimacy
Liveness: A room is said to be “live” when the reverberation
time is longer than the average for similar rooms.

Intimacy: Refers to how close the performing group sounds

to the listener. Intimacy is achieved whenever the first
reflected sound reaches the listener less than about 20 ms
after the direct sound.
Fullness and Clarity
Fullness: Refers to the amount of reflected sound intensity
relative to the intensity of the direct sound; the more the
reflected sound, the more “full” the hall will be.

Clarity: The acoustical opposite of fullness, obtained when

the intensity of the reflected sound is low relative to the
intensity of the direct sound.
Warmth
Warmth: Obtained when the reverberation time for low-
frequency sounds is somewhat greater than the reverberation
time for high frequencies.

Taken from ECE Elective 4 Lecture Slides by

Engr. Winston Dereje
Brilliance
Opposite of warmth and exists if the reverberation time for
high frequencies is larger relative to that of the low
frequencies.

Taken from ECE Elective 4 Lecture Slides by

Engr. Winston Dereje
Texture
Texture refers to the temporal pattern of reflections reaching
the listener.
Blend and Ensemble
Blend: Blend refers to the mixing of the sound from all the
instruments of the orchestra or ensemble throughout the
audience.

Ensemble: Ensemble refers to the ability of the members of

the performing group to hear each other during performance,
enhancing the ability of the players to play together
effectively.
Problems in Acoustical Design
1. Focusing of Sound
2. Echoes
3. Shadows
4. Resonances
5. External noise
Studio Design Requisites
• Frequency Balance
• Acoustic Separation
• Acoustic Isolation
• Reverberation
Reverberation Time Calculations
The reverberation time depends on the following parameters:
a. The room volume
b. Total surface area
c. The total absorption in the room
Reverberation Time Calculations
Stephen and Bate Equation
The Stephen and Bate equation is used for computing the
ideal reverberation time in second.
3
RT60 = r 0.012 𝑉 + 0.1070
V = volume of the room in m3
R = 4 for speech, 5 for orchestra, 6 for choir
Reverberation Time Calculations
Sabine Equation
The equation governing the decay of uniformly diffuse sound
in a live room for an average absorption less than or equal to
0.2
𝑉 𝑉
RT60 (metric) = 0.161 RT60 (english) = 0.049
𝐴 𝐴
V = Room Volume
A = Total Room absorption = ΣSα
S = room total surface area
α = average room absorption coefficient
Reverberation Time Calculations
Example:
A church has an interval volume of 90.05 ft3 (2550 m3). When
it contains 2000 customary sabins of absorption (186 metric
sabins), what will be its reverberation time in seconds?
Reverberation Time Calculations
Example:
A church has an interval volume of 90.05 ft3 (2550 m3). When
it contains 2000 customary sabins of absorption (186 metric
sabins), what will be its reverberation time in seconds?

ANS: 2.19 s
Reverberation Time Calculations
Norris-Eyring Equation
The equation governing the decay of uniformly diffuse sound
in a live room for an average absorption greater than 0.2
Norris-Eyring Equation is based on the mean free path
between reflections.
𝑉
RT60 (metric) = 0.161
−𝑆 ln(1 − 𝛼)
V = Room Volume
A = Total Room absorption = ΣSα
S = room total surface area
α = average room absorption coefficient
Reverberation Time Calculations
Norris-Eyring Equation
The equation governing the decay of uniformly diffuse sound
in a live room for an average absorption greater than 0.2
Norris-Eyring Equation is based on the mean free path
between reflections.
𝑉
RT60 (english) = 0.049
−𝑆 ln(1 − 𝛼)
V = Room Volume
A = Total Room absorption = ΣSα
S = room total surface area
α = average room absorption coefficient
Reverberation Time Calculations
Relationship between Sabine and Norris-Eyring Eqn
𝑅𝑇60 (𝑆𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒)
𝑅𝑇60 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑠 − 𝐸𝑦𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
− ln(1 − 𝛼)
Reverberation Time Calculations
Example:
Calculate the Norris-Eyring reverberation time of uniformly
diffuse sound in a live room if the average absorption is 0.8
and the Sabine reverberation time is 1.75 s.
Reverberation Time Calculations
Example:
Calculate the Norris-Eyring reverberation time of uniformly
diffuse sound in a live room if the average absorption is 0.8
and the Sabine reverberation time is 1.75 s.

ANS: 1.087 s
Reverberation Time Calculations
Fitzroy Equation
Used in rooms that exhibits nonuniform absorption at all
surfaces
𝑥 0.07𝑉 𝑦 0.07𝑉 𝑧 0.07𝑉
𝑅𝑇60 = + +
𝑆 −𝑆 log 1 − 𝛼𝑥 𝑆 −𝑆 log 1 − 𝛼𝑦 𝑆 −𝑆 log 1 − 𝛼𝑧
Absorption Coefficients

Taken from ECE Elective 4 Lecture Slides by

Engr. Winston Dereje
Absorption Coefficients

Taken from ECE Elective 4 Lecture Slides by

Engr. Winston Dereje
Reverberation Time Calculations
Example:
Determine the reverberation time of a room whose
dimensions are: L = 4.5 m, H = 3.6 m, W = 3 m. The floor is
covered with carpet with an absorption coefficient of 0.14, the
wall is made of marble with absorption coefficient of 0.01,
and the ceiling is covered with acoustic ceiling board with an
absorption coefficient of 0.80. Use the Norris-Eyring
equation.
Reverberation Time Calculations
Reverberation Time Calculations
Example:
Determine the reverberation time of a room whose
dimensions are: L = 4.5 m, H = 3.6 m, W = 3 m. The floor is
covered with carpet with an absorption coefficient of 0.14, the
wall is made of marble with absorption coefficient of 0.01,
and the ceiling is covered with acoustic ceiling board with an
absorption coefficient of 0.80. Use the Norris-Eyring
equation.
ANS: 0.54 s
References
J. Ampoloquio (2005). Self-Sufficient Guide to Electronic Communications Engineering

A.H. Ballado Jr. Communications Engineering Principles and Formulas

Blokdyk, Gerard. (2017) Broadcast Engineering: A Clear And Comprehensive Guide

Beutler, Roland. (2017) Evolution of Broadcast Content Distribution. Springer

Hoeg, Wolfgang. (2009) Digital Audio Broadcasting. Wiley

Paul, Sanjoy. (2010) Digital Video Distribution in Broadband, Television, Mobile, and Converged Networks. Wiley

Beasley, Jeffrey S. (2014) Electronic Communications. Pearson

Gupta. (2016) An Integrated Course in Electronics and Communication Engineering. S. K. Kataria & Sons

Meadows, Jennifer H. (2018) Communication Technology Update and Fundamentals. Routledge

Room Acoustics and
Transducers
 Module 2.2

Electro-Acoustic Transducers
Intended Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss acoustic equipment such as the microphone and
loudspeaker with the concepts underlying each
equipment.
Transduction
• Conversion of one form of energy into another
• For microphones: acoustical → electrical
• For loudspeakers: electrical → acoustical
Transduction
Two basic categories of transducers
• Sensors
• Small
• Low power
• Don’t affect the environment they are sensing
• Actuators
• Large
• High power
• Meant to change the environment they are in
Basic Microphone Types
• Dynamic (moving coil)
• Condenser (capacitor)
• Electret
• Ribbon
• Piezo-electric (crystal or ceramic)
Dynamic Microphone
• Sound pressure on the
diaphragm causes the voice coil
to move in a magnetic field
• The induced voltage mimics the
sound pressure
• Comments
• Diaphragm and coil must be light
• Low output impedance – good with long
cables
• Rugged https://www.mediacollege.com/audio/images/mic-dynamic.gif
Condenser Microphone
• Diaphragm and back plate form a
capacitor
• Incident sound waves move the
diaphragm, change the separation
distance, change the capacitance,
create current
• Comments
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Electret Microphone
• Same basic operation principle as
the condenser mic
• Polarizing voltage is built into the
diaphragm
• Comments
• High sensitivity
• Flat frequency response
• Fragile
• High output impedance, nearby pre-amp is
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Ribbon Microphone
• Conductive ribbon diaphragm
moving in a magnetic field
generates an electric signal
• Comments
• Lightweight ribbon responds to particle
velocity rather than pressure
• Both sides are exposed resulting in a
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Piezoelectric/Crystal/Ceramic Mic
• Diaphragm mechanically coupled
to a piezoelectric material
• Piezo(lead zirconatetitanate(PZT),
barium titanate, rochellesalt)
generates electricity when strained
• Comments
• No polarization voltage
• Generally rugged
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-
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Microphone Parameters

1/2-inch diameter B&K measurement microphone Data Sheet

Microphone Parameters

Neumann U87 Ai Large Dual –diaphragm Microphone Data Sheet

Other Types of Microphones
SHOTGUN MICROPHONE

http://aes.harmony-central.com/115AES/Content/Audio-
Technica/PR/AT897.jpg
Other Types of Microphones
PARABOLIC MICROPHONE

http://homepage.ntlworld.com/christopher.owens2/Images
/TelingaMount.jpg
Other Types of Microphones
CONTACT MICROPHONE

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jpg
Directivity Patterns
• Single-diaphragm microphones are typically
constructed to have one of a variety of directivity
patterns
• Omni directional
• Bidirectional
• Cardioid
• Hypercardioid
• Supercardioid
• General mathematical form A + B·cos(θ)
Directivity Patterns Bidirectional Cardioid
Omnidirectional

𝑃=1 𝑃 = cos 𝜃 1 + cos 𝜃

𝑃=
2
Directivity Patterns Supercardioid
Hypercardioid

1 + 3 cos 𝜃 𝑃 = .37 + .63 cos 𝜃

𝑃=
4
Basic Loudspeaker Principles
• Paper (or other light-weight material) cone
attached to a coil suspended in a magnetic field
• Audio signal (voltage) is applied to the wire,
causing it to move
• Mechanism is enclosed to prevent dipole
radiation
• Typical characteristics
• Sensitivity
• Impedance
• Frequency response
• Directivity
Speaker Directivity
Directivity Factor
𝐼 𝜃, 𝜙
𝑄 𝜃, 𝜙 =
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑊
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
Directivity Index
𝐷𝐼 = 10 log 𝑄
Speaker Directivity

Taken from ECE Elective 4 Lecture Slides by

Engr. Winston Dereje
Speaker Parameters

Taken from ECE Elective 4 Lecture Slides by

Engr. Winston Dereje
References
J. Ampoloquio (2005). Self-Sufficient Guide to Electronic Communications Engineering

Blokdyk, Gerard. (2017) Broadcast Engineering: A Clear And Comprehensive Guide

Beutler, Roland. (2017) Evolution of Broadcast Content Distribution. Springer

Hoeg, Wolfgang. (2009) Digital Audio Broadcasting. Wiley

Paul, Sanjoy. (2010) Digital Video Distribution in Broadband, Television, Mobile, and Converged Networks. Wiley

Beasley, Jeffrey S. (2014) Electronic Communications. Pearson

Gupta. (2016) An Integrated Course in Electronics and Communication Engineering. S. K. Kataria & Sons

Meadows, Jennifer H. (2018) Communication Technology Update and Fundamentals. Routledge