UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

THE
RESEARCH
PROCESS
TABLE OF UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

Contents

• Outline the steps of the Research Process

• The Structure of a Research Paper
• The Publication Process
 SEQUENTIAL STEPS OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

• Determine a clear and unambiguous problem to be solved.

• Research problems reflect both the unmet health care needs of patients
and the opportunities created by new theoretical and technological
advances for improving health care.
• The problem must be realistic, one that can be solved with the resources
at the researcher's disposal.
 SEQUENTIAL STEPS OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

• Having identified a problem, the next step is to ask the "right"

answerable research questions.
• A well-formulated research question will guide the researcher to
produce the evidence required to answer the questions and to
contribute to the solution of the research problem.
 SEQUENTIAL STEPS OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

RESEARCH PLANNING

• Research planning involves selecting appropriate strategies and data

collection techniques to answer research questions and test the research
hypotheses.
• Research planning relies on detailed knowledge of previous research
summarized in a literature review. Research planning should take into
consideration ethical and economic factors before the appropriate data
collection strategies are implemented and the precise research aims are
stated.
 SEQUENTIAL STEPS OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

RESEARCH DESIGN

• Research design are clear statements of how data are to be collected in the
study.
• Appropriate research designs will lead to obtaining the data suitable for
answering research questions.
 SEQUENTIAL STEPS OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

DATA COLLECTION

• The next step in the research process is collection of data.

• We will examine data collection methods employed in health research,
including measurement, interviews and focus groups,
 SEQUENTIAL STEPS OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

ORGANIZATION AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

• We will examine basic concepts in this area, outlining graphs and various
descriptive statistics are used to condense and communicate research and
clinical findings in qualitative research design.
 SEQUENTIAL STEPS OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

DATA ANALYSIS

The analysis of quantitative data involves applying the principles of probability for
calculating confidence intervals and testing the research hypotheses.

The presentation of analysis of qualitative data involves identifying key terms

 SEQUENTIAL STEPS OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

INTERPRETATION OF THE EVIDENCE

The next step in a research project is the interpretation of results.

The evidence is used to answer the research question and may either support or falsify
existing theories or practices.
 SEQUENTIAL STEPS OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

EVALUATION AND DISSEMENATION OF THE RESEARCH

For research to be meaningful, investigators must publish their results in professional

journals, present them at conferences or both.

Research findings become part of scientific knowledge only if the studies stand up to
methodological critique and replication.
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SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

• Problems may exist in any settings where health care is given.

• They can be commonly found in places where there is/are:
⚬ a feeling of discomfort in the healthcare provider or the clients
⚬ perceived difficulty in the management and leadership systems
⚬ gap between the theory and practice
⚬ daily experience of human beings that require further inquiry into, especially if
improvements are desired; and
⚬ a procedure requiring technologically advanced equipment which need to function
properly.
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SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

• Likewise, a discerned problem is said to be researchable when it meets the

ff. criteria:
⚬ Solutions are available, but not yet tested and unknown to the
practitioner
⚬ No solutions are available to fill the gap or the problem assessed.
⚬ When answers, solutions as well as possible results that have been
given are seemingly not tested or are factually contradictory.
⚬ A phenomenon exists and requires explanation.
⚬ There are several possible and plausible explanations for the existence
of an undesirable condition.
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SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

• Literature reviews and previous researches can also be rich sources of

problems for research.
• The repetition of a prior research study in a different setting and time is
called replication.
• Implementing a change in variables, changing the respondents, and
revising and improving its scope and delimitations can make a study
invaluable even if the research problem is not original
• While a replication study is allowed, conducting research on a novel case
or problem is of greater merit.
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SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

• A research problem can also be sourced form the interests of a

researcher.
• A researcher may become zealous and determined in finishing a study if
it involves a topic which is of interest to him/her.
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CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

• Barrientos-Tan (1997) cited the following criteria for choosing a problem for research:

• EXTERNAL CRITERIA:
⚬ Novelty - the practical value of the problem due to its newness to the field of inquiry.
⚬ Availability of subjects - the existence of people with the capability and willingness to
participate in the study; the sample of the study participants must be representative
enough to ensure reliability and validity of the results,
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CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

• EXTERNAL CRITERIA:
⚬ Administrative support - sponsorship by a professional organization or academic
institution, to cover the cost of the study; permission of those concerned for the
participation in the study.
⚬ Facilities and equipment - the availability and adequacy of special equipment and
facilities for use in undertaking the research.
⚬ Ethical considerations - avoidance of research problems that pose unethical demands
on the part of the study participants.
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CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

• INTERNAL CRITERIA
⚬ Experience, training and professional qualifications - knowledge and expertise as a
result of experience constitutes to the researcher's tools for coping with the demands
of research.
⚬ Motivation, Interest, Intellectual Curiosity and Perceptiveness of the Researcher - The
personal motive behind doing research, as cited by scientists, is pure curiosity, along
with the genuine interests and the anticipated satisfaction or enjoyment in completing
the research.
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CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

• INTERNAL CRITERIA
⚬ Time Factors - studies must be pursued in the given time frame.
⚬ Costs and Returns - Research is an expensive undertaking. The amount of funding
needed, of course, depends on the size of the sample, the place as where the research
is to be conducted and the treatment of data, as well as the research design.
⚬ Hazards, Penalties and Handicaps - depends upon his/her physical and intellectual
capacity and moral judgement.
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CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

• The identified problems must be significant to radiologic technology.

• A student must choose a research problem that he/she can manage.
• Undergraduate students must avoid problems that are too complicated for them to
handle, in the same way that graduate students must choose topics that suit their level.
• The feasibility of a research study is a very important consideration.
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CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

• External support is also an essential element to look at in determining whether a research

is feasible or not.

• The newness and freshness of the topic must also be assessed.

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RESEARCH TITLE

Characteristics of a good research title: (Dr. Amadeo Pangilinan Cristobal, Practical Research
2, 2017)
• summarize the main idea of the research paper
• use concise statements of the topic
• include major variables
• show the relationship of the main variables of the study
• include the main task of the researcher about major variables under study
• mention the participants and setting in a general manner
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RESEARCH TITLE

Examples:

• The effect of Online classes to the academic performance of BSRT level I students in the
University of Eastern Philippines.

• Analysis on the Impact and Role of Social Media platforms during Covid 19 Pandemic.
 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER
CHAPTER I UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

• The first chapter is the Introduction. Its purpose is to introduce the problem, clarify important
variable, identify scope and limitations, and present the significance of the study.
• Chapter I has the following essential elements:
⚬ Background of the study
⚬ Objectives of the study
⚬ Significance of the study
⚬ Scope and Limitations of the study
⚬ Theoretical Framework
⚬ Conceptual Framework
⚬ Paradigm
⚬ Hypothesis
⚬ Definition of Terms
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

This chapter examines the study's background, the statement of the problem, the
hypothesis, the theoretical framework, the conceptual framework, the study's
paradigm, the importance of the study, and the scope and limitations, as well as the
definition of terms.
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• Is Research Introduction Important?

• It sets the stage for the entire study through establishing the issue/concern leading
to the research.
• It is the initial passage in your research paper/study.
• According to Alvin Nookie, the introduction is a careful presentation of the
importance and validity of the research problem. This is the part of the research
paper where you state the reason for you to conduct your study and solve the
problem.
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• What is the goal in writing the Research Introduction?

• Based on Dr. Ed Padama, the objective of writing the research introduction is for
the researcher to convince the readers on the validity and necessity of the
research study.
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• How to write the Introduction?

• Deficiencies model - a popular approach that has a general template for writing a
solid introduction to a proposal or research study (John W, Creswell, 2012). It is
the most common way of writing a research introduction.
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According to John W. Creswell, the five components of a good introduction are the
following:
• establishing the problem leading to the study
• reviewing the literature about the problem
• identifying deficiencies in the literature about the problem
• targeting an audience and noting the significance of the problem for this
audience
• identifying the purpose of the proposed study
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• How to write the Introduction?

2. T.I.O.C Approach
⚬ T - trends
⚬ I - issues
⚬ O - objectives
⚬ C - contributions
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• How to write the Introduction?

3. Inverted Pyramid Approach

General Topic/Background information

Define major variables

Previous studies and present facts

Statistics and Legal basis

Reason for conducting the study

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• How to write the Introduction?

FAQ:
• How many pages should be contained in the introduction?
• How many citations should be included in the research introduction?
• How to start writing the research introduction?
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CHAPTER I
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

• The research objective reflect he questions or problems which needed to be

answered.
• General Objectives and Specific Objectives
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General Objectives

• It reflects the overall purpose of the project

• It states what is expected to be achieved by the study in general terms.

Specific Objectives
• They are statements regarding the specific questions expected to be answered in the
study.
• They break up the general objectives into smaller, logically connected parts
• They systematically address the various aspects of the problem
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Example:
GENERAL OBJECTIVE:
• To determine the extent and nature to which the staff of the Regional Health Office are exposed
to occupational stress.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
• To determine the prevalence of occupational stress among the staff of the Regional Health Office;
• To determine whether the following factors are associated with occupational stress among the
staff of the Regional Health Office:
• Sex of the employee
• Length of employment
• Type of position (Management; Technical; Administrative)
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Reasons for specifying research objectives

• To help define the focus of the study

• To identify the specific variables to be measured, and avoid the collection of data which are not
essential to the problem identified
• To organize the study into clearly defined parts and phases
• To guide the researcher in the development of research methodology, and orient in the
collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
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Characteristics of Research Objectives

• They are phrased in such a way that they focus on what the study is attempting to solve,
and cover the different parts of the problem in a logical way.
• They are clearly phrased in measurable, operational and observable terms, specifying
exactly what the researcher is aiming to do.
• They are realistic and feasible.
• They use action verbs which are specific enough to be measured
⚬ Determine
⚬ Compare
⚬ Compute
⚬ Describe
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CHAPTER I

SIGNIFICACE OF THE STUDY

• Identifies the beneficiaries and the benefits they will give when the problem is
solved.
• How your research will contribute to the target group of people by specifically
stating to them importance of conducting your research study.
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CONSIDERATION IN WRITING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

• Refer to the statement of the problem.

⚬ What are the benefits or advantages of the study based in the statement of the problem?
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STEPS IN WRITING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

• Decide on the format
⚬ Paragraph Form
⚬ Enumerated Form
• Decide on the style
⚬ Hierarchical style
⚬ According to Importrance style
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Paragraph format

The results of this study will be of great benefit to the Bachelor of Science in Radiologic
Technology students. The study's outcome will help the BSRT students of UEP evaluate how
they learn using distance learning. The study will also help them voice out their problems with
whatever method of distance learning they choose.
Also, the results of the study will will provide them information regarding their practice in
implementing distance learning. The results will help the BSRT faculty members to understand
the challenges that their students encounter when using distance learning and learn the best way
to help them with their predicament. Also, this study may help faculty members in improving how
they use distance learning methods.
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Paragraph format (cont.)

This study will also help the future radiologic technologist educators in the different learning
institutions by making them receptive to the different challenges students may encounter when
using different distance learning methods. The study will also allow the learning institution to
implement distance learning to allow all students to maximize its benefits in their studies. The
outcome of the study will serve as a reference to the administrators for decision-making and
planning, formulating policies on implementing distance learning, and developing programs
relative to distance learning and how to deliver lessons better using distance learning to
students.
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UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

Paragraph format (cont.)

This study's findings will serve as a base for future studies on improving distance learning
implementation in different learning institutions. The result of the study can be used as a guide or
background literature for future researchers.
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UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

Enumerated format
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• Hierarchical style
⚬ enumeration of the beneficiaries depends of the position/authority.
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UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

• According to importance style

⚬ enumeration of the beneficiaries based form the most benefited to the least benefited.
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UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

How to write the significance of the study?

• Choose a format and style
• Be specific
• Make it short and simple
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CHAPTER I

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS/DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

• Limitations vs Delimitations
⚬ Delimitations - aim to narrow the scope of the study; these are choices made
and boundaries set by the researcher which should be mention.

⚬ Limitations - aim to identify the potential weakness of the study; these are
influences, shortcomings conditions that the researcher cannot control.
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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS/DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

• Scope of the study - the extent to which the research topic/problem will be
explored. It explains the parameters within which the study will be operating.
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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS/DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

• To start writing the scope of your research paper, remember these prompts:
⚬ This study will focus on...
⚬ The scope of this study will be...
⚬ This study will cover...
⚬ The study will consist of...
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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS/DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

• To start writing the limitations/delimitations of your research paper, remember

these prompts:
⚬ This study will be limited to...
⚬ This study is confined to...
⚬ The study willnot cover...
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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS/DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

• What to include?
⚬ general purpose of the study
⚬ important details of the study
⚬ population/target respondents/sample size
⚬ geographical location/setting
⚬ duration/research timeline
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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS/DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

• What to include? (optional)
⚬ instrument/s to be used
⚬ sampling method
⚬ research design
⚬ financial limitation of the study
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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS/DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

CHALLENGES OF
IMPLEMENTING DISTANCE
LEARNING TO THE
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY
STUDENTS OF UNIVERSITY
OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES: A
BASIS FOR ENHANCED
GUIDELINES IN
IMPLEMENTING DISTANCE
LEARNING.
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UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

CHAPTER I

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
• Theory -a concept formulated to explain, predict and understand a phenomena.
• Framework - a basic structure or a frame of reference designed to support a
phenomena
• In research, the theoretical framework serves as the building blocks or skeleton for
foundation or bases of a study.
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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

• Strengthens your research study.

⚬ permits the readers to evaluate your topic or the research problem critically
⚬ connects the researcher to existing knowledge
⚬ helps the researcher identify the limitations of the study
⚬ makes the research to ficus on questions of why and how
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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

• The researcher cites and discusses related theories that serve as the foundation
of the variables and their relationship, to make the study more scientific and
understandable to readers.
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HOW TO WRITE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

• Examine the research problem and consider the key variables in your research
• Review the related literature and choose the theory applicable to the study
• Discuss the theory and its relation to your present study
⚬ title of theory
⚬ author/proponent
⚬ theoretical principle
⚬ relationship/relevance to the present study
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HOW TO WRITE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

• The study is anchored on the theory of...

• This study is supported by the theory of...
• This study is founded on the theory of...
• The theoretical underpinning of this study is...
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EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH THEORIES

• Learning Theories
⚬ Cognitive Learning Theory
￭ Plato
￭ Descarte
￭ John Seely Brown
⚬ Behaviorism Learning Theory
￭ Pavlov
⚬ Constructivism Learning Theory
￭ Jerome Bruner
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EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH THEORIES

• Learning Theories
⚬ Thinking
￭ Jean Piaget
⚬ Motivation/Reinforcements
￭ Maslow
￭ Lockes
￭ Alderfer
￭ Vroom
￭ McClelland
⚬ Performance
￭ Ericsson
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Where to find a research theory?

• Google Scholars
• Previous Research studies
• ResearchGate
• PubMed Central
• Scientific Journals
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CHALLENGES OF
IMPLEMENTING DISTANCE
LEARNING TO THE
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY
STUDENTS OF UNIVERSITY
OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES: A
BASIS FOR ENHANCED
GUIDELINES IN
IMPLEMENTING DISTANCE
LEARNING.
 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

CHAPTER I
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK & PARADIGM OF THE STUDY

In research, the concepts and theories serve as building blocks or skeleton for the foundation
or bases of the study.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK covers the explanation of the scope and range of a concept or
construct that can be done even without a theory or sometimes with a combination of two or
more theories. It is largely based on theories or syntheses of various readings of researcher. It
serves as a guide for the researcher to give clear directions to the research study.
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CHAPTER I
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK & PARADIGM OF THE STUDY

On the other hand, PARADIGM OF THE STUDY refers to the diagrammatic presentation of the
study. It is the researcher's scientific imagination expressed graphically by drawings or
sketches. The paradigm is like a visual presentation of the entire research paper or thesis.
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CHAPTER I
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK & PARADIGM OF THE STUDY

1. IPO Model
2. IV-DV Model
3. PC Model
4. -P Model
5. POM Model
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CONSIDERATIONS WHEN WRITING CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK & PARADIGM

OF THE STUDY

1. RESEARCH TITLE

2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

3. RRL AND STUDIES

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SYMBOLS USED IN THE PARADIGM

BOX

SINGLE-HEADED ARROW

DOUBLE-HEADED
ARROW
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COMMON TYPES OF RESEARCH PARADIGM

1. IPO (Input Process Output) Model – largely used to isolate the factors/major variables that causes the
problem/phenomenon under investigation.

2. IV-DV Model – used in experiment-based studies.

3. PC (Predictor-Criterion) Model – used when relating/assessing the influence between 2 or more

variables.

4. -P Model – used in research studies that propose a program/amy interventional measure.

5. POM (Proposed Original) Model – used when the researcher presents an original diagram.
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IV-DV MODEL

• This paradigm is used in experimental research design

• Deals with the cause-and-effect relationship in studies that involve manipulation or
control of the IV (causes) and measurement of the DV (effects).

• If the type of research questions are Situation-Relating Questions

• Questions that lead to hypothesis testing or experimental study designs, in which the
researcher manipulates the variables to predict outcomes or look for potential effects.
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IV-DV MODEL
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IPO MODEL

• This model is largely used to isolate the factors/major variables that causes the
problem/phenomenon under investigation.

• It can be used if the research questions are factor isolating questions

• Also called factor naming questions
• They isolate, categorize, describe or name factors and situations
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FACTOR ISOLATING QUESTION

1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of?

1.1. Sex at birth
1.2. Age
1.3. Year level
1.4. Student's source of financial support
1.5. Availability of gadget(s)
1.6. Internet Availability
1.7. Online access
1.8. Internet speed
1.9. Student's Learning Preference
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CHAPTER I
HYPOTHESIS

• A tentative prediction about the relationship between two or more variables pertaining
population under study (Polit, 2007).

• It translates a research question into a prediction of expected outcomes.

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CHAPTER I
KINDS OF HYPOTHESES

1. Simple Hypothesis – a hypothesis formulated when inferring the relationship between an

independent and a dependent variable.
• Central venous catheter-related sepsis is lower in patients who do not have a gauge
dressing after the insertion site has healed than in patients who do have a gauge
dressing.
• There is a relationship between the level of postpartum exercise and weight retention.
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CHAPTER I
KINDS OF HYPOTHESES

2. Complex hypothesis – a hypothesis formulated when predicting relationship between two or

more independent variables.
• Among men who underwent radical prostatectomy treatment, quality of life is directly
affected by their urinary function appraisal, self-esteem, anger suppression, perceived
social support and depression.
• The personal and professional profile of nurses affect the level of performance and the
rate of recovery of patients.
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CHAPTER I
KINDS OF HYPOTHESES

3. Directional hypothesis – a hypothesis that specifies not only the existence but also the
expected direction of the relationship between the dependent and independent variable.
• Lower levels of exercise postpartum are associated with greater weight retention than
higher levels.
• Women who exercise postpartum have lower weight retention than women who do not.
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CHAPTER I
KINDS OF HYPOTHESES

4. Non-directional hypothesis – a hypothesis that does not stipulate the direction of the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
• Women with different levels of exercise postpartum differ with regard to weight
retention.
• Student nurses with different coping mechanism have different stressors.
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CHAPTER I
KINDS OF HYPOTHESES

5. Null hypothesis – a hypothesis formulated for the purpose of statistical analysis. This kind is
always expressed as a negative statement. It is subjected to testing in which the decision is
either to accept or reject it.
• There is no relationship between the reasons for using alternative medicine and level of
comforts of the patients.
• The kind of teaching method used has no effect on the level of performance of radiologic
technology students as shown by their academic performance.
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CHAPTER I
KINDS OF HYPOTHESES

6. Research hypothesis – a hypothesis which states the actual expected relationships between
variables. It is always expressed affirmatively and is also called substantive or scientific
hypothesis.
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CHAPTER I
DEFINITION OF TERMS

• Important terms used in the study must be defined clearly.

• Some of these terms appear in the thesis title, objectives of the study, paradigm, and in the
scope and limitations.
• The respondents, subjects, variables, and sub-variables may be some of these terms.
• Defining different terms may be done conceptually or operationally.
• A combination of the two method is often very helpful.
• Moreover, before defining the term, there must be an opening sentence or paragraph.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• LITERATURE REVIEW is reviewing the major works, the literature regarding your narrow
topic (David Taylor, 2010).
• Literature Review is capturing the major concepts of your topic and showing their
relationships.
• According to Dr. Amadeo Pangilinan Cristobal , Jr (2016), literature review is a process of
collecting, classifying and evaluating what other researchers have written on a certain topic.
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PURPOSE OF REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• It improves your understanding of your topic.

• To update your readers on your topic.
• It makes your research study objective and empirical.
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HOW TO WRITE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• The review of RRL is a systematic process composed of four steps:

1. Collect sources
• Published, academic/scholarly and peer-reviewed sources
• Books, textbooks, manuals, encyclopedias, bulletins, journals, articles and other
printed materials
• Electronic references/sources
• Google scholar, Google books, Microsoft Academic, PubMed Central,
ResearchGate, JSTOR, Mendeley, ERIC (Education Resources Information Center)
• Collect sources that are recent as much as possible.
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HOW TO WRITE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• The review of RRL is a systematic process composed of four steps:

2. Analyze and Evaluate
• Skimming and Scanning
• Read the main title, subheads and the abstract
• Analytical Reading
• Reading thoroughly; word-per-word
• Note Taking
• Highlight the important parts that you can use in your study.
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HOW TO WRITE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• The review of RRL is a systematic process composed of four steps:

3. Arrange/Outline
• 5 Techniques in Organizing Your Sources:
• Traditional - Local Literature, Foreign Literature, Local Studies, and Foreign Studies
• Chronological – from oldest to most recently published sources
• Thematic – according to key themes
• Methodological – compare different research methods being used according to
studies
• Theoretical – discussing opposing theories or models from source
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HOW TO WRITE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• The review of RRL is a systematic process composed of four steps:

4. Summarize and Write

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HOW TO WRITE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• Parts of RRL
1. Introduction
2. Main Body
3. Conclusion
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HOW TO WRITE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

• TIPS IN WRITING RRL

1. Proofread
2. Avoid overuse of passive voce of verbs in sentences
3. Check for repetitive phrase
4. Do not use informal language
5. Use cohesive devices/transition word
• At one hand…
• On the other hand…
• In addition to…
• Contrary/Similarly…
• Hence…
STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Essential Elements of the Research Methodology

• Research design
• Research locale
• Respondents of the study
• Instruments of the study
• Validation of and establishing reliability
• Statistical Treatment
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design

• Nieswiadomy (2004) identifies two major research designs, the quantitative and qualitative.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Aims to characterize trends and patterns. • Concerns processes, feelings, and motives: the why’s
and how’s (data are in depth and holistic.)
• Usually starts with neither a theory nor hypothesis • Usually concerned with generating a hypothesis from
about the relationship between two or more data rather than testing a hypothesis.
variables.
• Uses structured research instruments like • Uses either unstructured or semi-structured
questionnaires and schedules. instruments.
• Uses large sample sizes that are representative of the • Uses sample sizes chosen purposely.
population.
• Research of this kind is replicated. • Validity should be high.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Used for greater understanding of group similarities. • Used to gain a greater understanding of individual
differences in terms of feelings, motives and
experiences.
• Uses/structured processes. • Use more flexible processes.
• Methods include census, survey, experiments and • Methods include field research, case study, secondary
secondary analysis. analysis.
Source: Handout distributed by the SSREI, UP Baguio, May 4-8, 2009
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RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• Quantitative research is the traditional, positivist scientific method which refers to a general set
of orderly, disciplined procedures to acquire information.
• The evidence for a study using positivist paradigm is gathered according to the established plan
through structured instruments.
• The information gathered in such study is quantitative, i.e., numeric information that results from
some type of formal measurement and that is analyzed with statistical procedures.
• It is based on the concepts of manipulation and control of phenomena and the verification of
results validating empirical data.
• This research design frequently uses a deductive or theory-testing approach.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• In quantitative research, the researcher is concerned with the use of numbers and statistical
analyses.
• To study a phenomenon, a quantitative researcher attempt to measure, that is, attach numeric
values that express quantity.
• A critique of quantitative research is that it is limiting method for studying human experience.
• Complexities tend to be controlled or eliminated, rather than studied directly.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• Quantitative research designs are classified as either experimental or non-experimental.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
True Experimental Designs • Action Studies
• Pretest-Posttest Control Design • Comparative Studies
• Posttest Only Control Group • Correlational Studies
• Solomon Four-group • Developmental Studies
Quasi-experimental Designs • Evaluation Studies
• Non-equivalent Groups Design • Meta-analysis
• Time Series • Methodological Studies
• Needs assessment Studies
Pre-experimental Designs
• Second Analysis Studies
• One-shot case study
• Survey Studies
• One group Pretest-Posttest
Source: Neiswiadomy, Rosemarie (2004)
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RESEARCH DESIGN
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

• Concerned primarily with cause-and-effect relationships, wherein all experimental studies

involve manipulation or control of the IV and measurement of the DV.
• It utilizes the principle of research known as method of difference. This means that the effect of
a single variable applied to the situation can be assessed and the difference likewise
determined(Mill, as cited by Sevilla, 2003).
• In experimental research there are variables that are not part of the focus group but are
believed to influence the study outcomes. These are called intervening or extraneous variables
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TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. True experimental design - A design is considered true experiment if the following criteria are
present:
• The researcher manipulates the experimental variables
• There must be at least one experimental and one comparison or control groip
• Subjects are randomly assigned.
a. Pretest-posttest controlled group design
• Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
• Pretest is given to both groups
• The experiment group receives the treatment while the control group does not
• A post test is given to both groups.
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1. True experimental design

b. Posttest-only controlled group design
• Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
• The experiment group receives the treatment while the control group does not
• A post test is given to both groups.
c. Solomon four-group design
• Subjects are randomly assigned to one of four groups
• Two of the groups (experimental group 1 and control group 1) are pretested
• The other two groups (experimental group 2 and control group 2) receive routine or no
treatment
• A posttest is given to all four groups
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2. Quasi-experimental design – a design in which there is either no control group or in which

subjects are not randomly assigned to groups.

a. Non-equivalent controlled group design – similar to the pretetst-posttest control group

design except there is no random assignment of subjects to the experimental and control
groups.

b. Time-series design – the researcher periodically observes or measures the subjects.

3. Pre-experimental design – this design is considered very weak, as the researcher has little
control over the research.
a. One shot case study – a single group is exposed to an experimental treatment and
observed after the treatment.

b. One-group pretest-posttest design – this provides a comparison between a group of

subjects before and after the experimental treatment.
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NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. Survey studies – It has a purpose of describing characteristics, opinions, attitudes, and

behaviors as they currently exist in a population (Wilson, 1990).

• Surveys can be categorized according to:

a. Who the data is collected
b. Methods used to collect data

2. Correlational studies - A type of non-experimental research method in which a researcher

measures two variables and understands and assesses the statistical relationship between
them with no influence from any extraneous variable.
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NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

3. Comparative studies -the researcher examines the differences between two or more
groups on the phenomenon that is being studied.

4. Descriptive studies – This design is utilized for the purpose of accurately portraying a
population that was chosen because of some specific characteristics.
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Deals with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly.

• It place heavy emphasis on understanding experience as it is lived, usually through the

careful collection and analysis of data that are narrative and subjective.

• The researcher does not have to be concerned with numbers and complicated
statistical analyses.

• A major limitation of this research design is that it is reductionist.

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COMMON TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. Phenomenological Study – This examines human experiences through descriptions provided by the
subject or respondents.

2. Ethnographic study – This involves the collection and analysis of data about cultural groups or
minorities. The researcher frequently lives with the people and becomes part of their culture.

3. Historical study – This concerns the identification, location, evaluation and synthesis of data from the
past.

4. Case study – An in-depth examination of people or group of people or an institution.

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PHASES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. Orientation & Overview – Determine what is salient about the phenomenon or culture of interest.

2. Focused exploration – This involves a focused scrutiny and in-depth exploration of the aspects of the
phenomenon judged to be salient.

3. Confirmation & Closure – The researcher undertakes efforts to prove that his/her findings are
trustworthy, often going back and discussing the researcher’s understanding of it with study
participants.
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RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY

• This element of the research methodology aims to discuss how the respondents of the study are
selected and how to choose an appropriate sampling method and introduces the respondents to
the reader by citing the basic profiles of some of them.

• Respondents – These are individuals or groups of people that serves as the source of information
during data collection.

• Population - A complete set of persons or objects that possesses some common characteristics that
are of interest to the researcher.
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RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY

• Two groups of population :

• Target population - composed of the entire group of people or objects to which the researcher
wishes to generalize the findings of the study .

• Accessible population - is the study population.

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RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY

• A parameter is a numeric characteristic of a population.

• It is very impractical for the researcher to get data from the entire population, especially if it is very
large in this case a sample is derived.

• Sample is a subset of the entire population or a group of individuals that represent the population
and will then serve as respondents of this study.

• A single member of the sample is called an element.

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WAYS OF DETERMINING THE STATISTICS OF THE SAMPLE (SIZE)

• An important task of the researcher is to determine the acceptable sample size. The larger the
sample size, the more reliable is the result of the study . Hence, it is advisable to have a large
enough sample, for it will yield reliable results.
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FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE

1. Homogeneity of the population – the higher the degree of homogeneity of the population, the
smaller the sample size that can be utilized.

2. Degree of precision desired by the researcher – the larger the sample size, the higher is the
precision or accuracy of results.

3. types of sampling procedure - probability sampling utilizes smaller sample sizes the non-Music
probability sampling.
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CONSIDERATIONS IN DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

1. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling distribution of the
mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990).
2. When the total population is equal to or less than 100 , this same number may serve as the sample
size . This is called universal sampling.
3. Slovin’s formula is used to compute for sample size.

Where: n = sample size

N = population size
e = desired margin of error
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CONSIDERATIONS IN DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

4. The following are acceptable sample sizes for different types of research (Gay, 1976):
• Descriptive research – 10 to 20% may be required
• Correlational research – 30 subjects or respondents
• Comparative research – 15 subjects per group
• Experimental design – 15 to 30 subjects per group

5. Calmorin’s formula
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KINDS OF SAMPLING (Beck, 2004)

1. Probability sampling - this is a type of sampling in which all the members of the entire population are given a
chance to be selected. This is also termed as scientific sampling.
• Simple random sampling – a method of choosing samples in which all members of the population are given an
equal chance of being selected. there are various ways of getting the samples through the simple random
sampling, this includes the roulette wheel , the fishbowl technique and the use of table of random numbers.

• Stratified random sampling – the population is first divided into different strata than the sampling follows. Age
,gender and educational attainment are just some of the few criteria used in dividing the population into strata.

• Cluster sampling – this is used in large scale studies, where the population is geographically spread out.

• Systematic sampling – a method of selecting every kth element of the population. after the size of the sample
has been determined, this selection of the sample follows.
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KINDS OF SAMPLING (Beck, 2004)

2. Non-probability sampling – a process of selecting respondents in which not all members of the entire population are
given a chance of being selected as samples. this is also termed nonscientific sampling.

• Convenience sampling – it is also called accidental or incidental sampling.

• Quota sampling - this is somewhat like stratified sampling in which the population is divided into homogeneous
strata and selecting sample elements from each of the stratum.

• Purposive sampling – it involves hand picking of subjects. This is also called judgmental sampling.
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INSTRUMENT OF THIS STUDY

• A Research Instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to
your research interests.

• These tools are most commonly used in health sciences, social sciences, and education
to assess patients, clients, students, teachers, staff, etc.
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MOST FREQUENTLY USED DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

1. Documentary analysis – this technique is used to analyze sources come up primary or

secondary, that are available mostly in rural health units, hospitals or in the community
halls. at times information gathered tend to be incomplete or not so definite.

2. Interview – this instrument used in this method is the interview schedule. the skills of
the interview were is necessary to let the interview we express his thoughts. usually,
an interview is conducted with an individual person, but there are also times when it is
conducted with a group of people whose opinions and experiences are solicited
simultaneously , this type is called focus group discussions or interview.
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW

1. Unstructured – the researcher must be skilled in conducting the interview so that he or

she would be able to steer it scores. The interviewer must be knowledgeable on the
subject or topic concern . This can be in the form of normal conversation or topic
discussion .
2. Structured - the conduct of questioning follows a particular progression and has a
well-defined content.
3. Semi-structured – there is a specific set of questions, but there are also additional
probes that may be in an open or closed ended manner .
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MOST FREQUENTLY USED DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES:

3. Observation – this method provides active participation of the researcher in the conduct of the

research. the instrument is called observation guide or observation checklist. observation must be done

in a quiet and inconspicuous manner to get realistic data. the following dimensions should be taken into

consideration :

• the focus of observation

• Concealment

• the condition wherein the subject of observation has no knowledge that he or she is being observed

• Duration

• method of recording the observations

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TYPES OF OBSERVATION

1. Unstructured – this is performed by the researcher as it tries to explain the events without any
preconceived ideas about what will be observed. the researcher observes things as they happen.

2. Structured – the researcher device is a checklist as a data collection tool wherein expected

behaviors of interest have been specified. The researcher just records the frequency of the
occurrence of the behavior.

3. Physiological measures – this involves the collection of physical data from the subjects. It is

considered more accurate and objective than other data collection methods . However, there is a

need expertise on the part of the researcher to use and manipulate devices used in the

measurement.
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TYPES OF OBSERVATION

4. Psychological tests – these include personality inventories and projective techniques. Personality
inventories are self report measures to assess the difference in personality traits, needs or values of the
people. In projective techniques, the subject is presented with stimuli that are designed to be ambiguous
or to have no definite meaning. The person is then asked to describe the stimulus or tell what the
stimulus appears to represent.

5. Questionnaire - this is considered the most commonly used instrument in research. It is a list of planned,
written questions about a particular topic, with space provided for the response of each question,
intended for answering by a number of persons. A questionnaire can be structured or unstructured.
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TYPES OF QUESTIONS

1. Dichotomous type – offers only 2 possible answers.

2. Recognition type – choices are already provided ; the respondents will just choose from the given

choices.

3. Completion type – the respondents are asked to fill out the blanks provided.
4. Coding type - numbers are assigned to names, choices and other pertinent data. this entails

knowledge of statistics on the part of the researcher, as statistical formula application is necessary

to arrive with some findings.

5. subjective type – the respondents are free to give their opinions about an issue of concern.

6. Combination type
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Wordings of questions

1. State the questions in an affirmative rather than a negative manner.

2. Avoid ambiguous questions.

3. Avoid double-negative questions.

4. Avoid double-barreled questions.

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Characteristics of a Good Data Collection Instrument

1. It must be concise yet able to elicit the needed data.

2. It seeks information which cannot be obtained from other sources.

3. Questions must be arranged according to the research questions.

4. It must pass validity and reliability.

5. It must be easily tabulated and interpreted.
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SCALES COMMONLY USED IN AN INSTRUENT

1. Likert scale – It is a common technique which consists of several declarative statements that

express a viewpoint on a topic. The respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree or

disagree with the statements.

2. Semantic differential scale – The respondents are asked to rate concepts on a series of adjectives.
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SCALES COMMONLY USED IN AN INSTRUENT

1. Likert scale – It is a common technique which consists of several declarative statements that

express a viewpoint on a topic. The respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree or

disagree with the statements.

2. Semantic differential scale – The respondents are asked to rate concepts on a series of adjectives.
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RESEARCH LOCALE

• This is where the study will take place.

• 2 types:

• Laboratory setting – designed to control the possibility of extraneous variables influencing the

effect of the independent variable on the dependent variables.

• Field setting – occurs in natural settings
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RESEARCH LOCALE

• What is the importance of the locale of the study?

• It lends additional credibility to laboratory-based experimental studies.

• It shows where the samples/respondents are.

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RESEARCH LOCALE

• How do we write the locale of the study?

• State where your study will be conducted and why you chose that local/site.

• Specify where each data collection/experiment will take place.

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RESEARCH LOCALE

• FAQ

• Do I need to put a map?

• How long should be the locale of the study?

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VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

• Validity – Is the ability of an instrument to measure what it purports to measure.

• Reliability - Refers to consistency of results. A reliable instrument produces the same rank for each

person who takes the test more than once.

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• Types of validity :
• Face validity – also known as logical validity , face validity involves an analysis of whether the

instrument is using a valid scale. The procedure calls only for intuitive judgment . Just by looking

at the instrument, the researcher decides it has face validity.

• Content validity – the kind of validity it's determined by studying the questions to see whether

they can elicit the necessary information. An instrument with high content validity must meet

the objectives of the research . This type of validity is not measured by a numerical index , but

instead relies on logical judgment as to whether the test really measures what it is supposed to

measure. This judgment is based solely on systematic comparison of the test to the behavior it is
intended to measure.
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• Types of validity :

• Construct validity – this type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds with its

theoretical construct. It is concerned with the extent to which a particular measure is related to

other measures and to which it is consistent with the theoretically derived hypothesis. Therefore,

the process of construct validation is theory laden. Factor analysis, a refined statistical

procedure, is used to analyze the interrelationship of behavior data and is particularly relevant to

construct validity.
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• Types of validity :
• Criterion related validity or equivalent tests - this type of validity is an expression of how scores from

the test are Correlated with an external criterion.

• Concurrent – it deals with measures that can be administered and validated at the same time
period it is determined by administering both the new test and the established test to a group of

respondents, then finding the correlation between the two sets of the scores . Validity is

established with an accepted and available second test that measures what the researcher is
trying to measure.

• Predictive - it refers to how well the test predicts some future behavior of the examinees. This is

particularly useful and important for aptitude test, which attempts to predict how well test takers
will do on some future settings.
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• Methods in establishing reliability:

• Test-retest or stability – the same test is given to a group of respondents twice. The scores in the first

test are correlated with the scores in the second test period when there is a high correlation index, it
means that there is a high reliability of the test.

• Internal consistency – if the test in question is designed to measure a single basic concept , it is
reasonable to assume that a respondent who gets one item right is highly likely to get right another

item that is similar .

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UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

STATISTICAL TREATMENT

• Statistical treatment is the culmination of the long process of formulating a hypothesis, constructing the
instrument, as well as collection of data. It is very important to properly test the hypothesis and answer the

questions posed by the researcher and to present the results of the study in a clear and understandable

manner.

• In a qualitative research, data are presented in a purely verbal form, particularly in document analysis,

ethnomethodology and observation studies.

• In quantitative study, in which the researcher is dealing with numerical data, as in most surveys and

experiments, it is logical to use a statistical treatment.

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UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

TWO BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

1. Descriptive statistics – It involves tabulating, depicting, describing collections of data. The data are

summarized to reveal overall turns tend to be managed easily.

2. Inferential statistics – It entails drawing generalizations about the population from a sample of it.

Additionally, hypothesis testing is a part of it, and sampling is a crucial aspect of statistics. Furthermore, it

is concerned with a higher level of critical thinking as well as more complex mathematical techniques,

including applying statistical tools, whether parametric or nonparametric.

 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
COMMON STATISTICAL TOOLS

Descriptive statistics:
1. Frequency distribution – the record of the number of located in each category on the scale of
measurement.
2. Proportions - the total frequency divided by the number of cases in each category. it can be derived from
frequency distributions.
3. Percentages – the proportions expressed in percent (proportion x 100%).
4. Measure of Central Tendency – these indicate where the center of distribution tends to be located it refers
to the typical or average score in a distribution.
i. Mode – the most frequently occurring score in distribution.
ii. Median – the middle most value in a distribution below or above which exactly 50% of cases are found.
iii. Mean – The exact mathematical center of a distribution. it is equal to the sum of all scores divided by
the number of cases.
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UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

COMMON STATISTICAL TOOLS

Descriptive statistics:
5. Variability or dispersion – Refers to the extent and way the score in a distribution differ from each other.

i. Range – the difference between the highest value and the lowest value in each distribution.
ii. Average deviation – a measure of variation that takes into consideration the deviations of the individual
scores from the mean.
iii. Variance – the square of the standard deviation.
iv. standard deviation – the square root of the quotient of the total square deviation of the mean and the
total number of cases.
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UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

COMMON STATISTICAL TOOLS

Inferential statistics:
1. Parametric tests - require a normal distribution. The level of measurement must either be interval or ratio.
i. t test – This test is used to compare 2 means: the means of two independent samples or two
independent groups or the means of two correlated samples before and after the treatment . It can be
used with samples composed of at least 30 elements.
ii. z test - it is used to compare 2 means - the sample mean, and the perceived population mean . It can
be used when the sample has 30 or more elements.
iii. F test – Also known as analysis of variance (ANOVA), this is used when comparing the means of two
or more independent groups.
iv. Pearson product moment coefficient of correlation - it is an index of relationship between two
variables.
 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

COMMON STATISTICAL TOOLS

Inferential statistics:
1. Parametric tests
v. Simple linear regression analysis - It is used when there is a significant relationship between x & y
variables. This is used in predicting the value of y given to the value of x.
vi. Multiple regression analysis – it is used in predictions. The dependent variable can be predicted given
several independent variables.
 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

COMMON STATISTICAL TOOLS

Inferential statistics:
2. Nonparametric tests- this does not require the normal distribution of scores. This can be utilized when the
data are nominal or ordinal.

i. Chi-square test - this is a test of difference between the observed and expected frequencies.
 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

Example of Statement of the Problem with Corresponding Statistical Tool

• What is the demographic profile of the breast-feeding mothers in terms of:

• Age
• Gender
• year level
• Statistical tool: Percentages

• What is the level of effectiveness of information, education and communication in the awareness of
breastfeeding mothers considering the following variables:
• Academic Institution
• Media
• Health Workers
• Statical tool: Weighted mean

• Is there a significant relationship between religious beliefs and the effectiveness of information, education,
and communication on breastfeeding?
• Statistical tools: Frequency, Percentage, Weighted Mean, t test, chi-square test
 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

Example of Statement of the Problem with Corresponding Statistical Tool

• What is the level of performance of BSRT students in their Radiographic Positioning 1?

• Statistical tool: Average weighted mean
• How varied are the scores of BSRT students in their final examinations?
• Statistical tool: Measures of variability
• How significantly different are the performance of BSRT students in level 3a and level 3b in their pre-
internship qualifying examinations?
• Statistical tool: t test for 2 independent samples
• Is there a significant relationship between the pre-test and post-test scores of BSRT students in their pre-
internship qualifying examinations?
• Statistical tool: Pearson product moment coefficient of correlation
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UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

Example of Statement of the Problem with Corresponding Statistical Tool

• How will the BSRT students perform in the licensure examination based on the academic and clinical
internship grades?
• Statistical tool: Multiple regression
• What is the significant difference in the BSRT licensure performance of 4 BSRT students?
• Statistical tool: F test (one-way ANOVA)
• Is there a significant difference between the three methods of teaching related learning experiences to four
groups of students?
• Statistical tool: Two-factor ANOVA
• Is there a significant difference between the evaluation of the clinical instructors and the students
participants?
• Statistical tool: Chi-square test