Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy

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Promoting inclusion and equity in education:

lessons from international experiences

Mel Ainscow

To cite this article: Mel Ainscow (2020) Promoting inclusion and equity in education: lessons
from international experiences, Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy, 6:1, 7-16, DOI:
10.1080/20020317.2020.1729587

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NORDIC JOURNAL OF STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL POLICY
2020, VOL. 6, NO. 1, 7–16
https://doi.org/10.1080/20020317.2020.1729587

Promoting inclusion and equity in education: lessons from international

experiences
Mel Ainscow
School of Education, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK; Manchester Institute of Education, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This paper focuses on a major challenge facing education systems around the world, that of Received 27 December 2019
Accepted 10 February 2020
finding ways of including all children in schools. In economically poorer countries this is
mainly about the millions of children who are not able to attend formal education (UNESCO,
2015). Meanwhile, in wealthier countries many young people leave school with no worth- KEYWORDS
while qualifications, whilst others are placed in special provision away from mainstream Inclusive education; equity;
education and some choose to drop out since the lessons seem irrelevant (OECD, 2012). system reform; leadership
Faced with these challenges, there is evidence of an increased interest in the idea of making practice
education more inclusive and equitable. However, the field remains confused as to the
actions needed in order to move policy and practice forward.

Introduction Agreed in 1990, the EFA Declaration sets out an

overall vision, which is about being proactive in
This paper focuses on a major challenge facing edu-
identifying the barriers some learners encounter in
cation systems around the world, that of finding ways
attempting to access educational opportunities. It also
of including all children in schools. In economically
involves the identification of resources available at
poorer countries this is mainly about the millions of
national and community level, and bringing them to
children who are not able to attend formal education
bear on overcoming those barriers. This vision was
(UNESCO, 2015). Meanwhile, in wealthier countries
reaffirmed by the World Education Forum meeting
many young people leave school with no worthwhile
in Dakar, 2000, held to review the progress made in
qualifications, whilst others are placed in special pro-
the previous decade. The Forum declared that EFA
vision away from mainstream education and some
must take particular account of the needs of the poor
choose to drop out since the lessons seem irrelevant
and the disadvantaged, including working children,
(OECD, 2012). Faced with these challenges, there is
remote rural dwellers and nomads, and ethnic and
evidence of an increased interest in the idea of mak-
linguistic minorities, children, young people affected
ing education more inclusive and equitable. However,
by conflict, HIV/AIDS, hunger and poor health, and
the field remains confused as to the actions needed in
those with special learning needs.
order to move policy and practice forward.
A major impetus for inclusive education was given
In the paper I draw on research carried out with
by the World Conference on Special Needs Education
colleagues in various parts of the world that points to
in 1994. More than 300 participants representing 92
some promising possibilities (for more detailed
governments and 25 international organizations met
accounts see Ainscow, 2016a). In so doing,
in Salamanca, Spain to further the objective of
I provide frameworks that may be helpful to readers
Education for All by considering the fundamental
as they consider the other contributions to this jour-
policy shifts required to promote the approach of
nal. I begin, however, by summarizing relevant inter-
inclusive education, namely enabling schools to
national developments.
serve all children, particularly those defined as having
special educational needs (UNESCO, 1994). Although
The international policy context the immediate focus of the Salamanca conference was
on what was termed special needs education, its con-
Over the last 30 years there have been major inter-
clusion was that:
national efforts to encourage inclusive educational
developments. In particular, the United Nation’s Special needs education – an issue of equal concern to
Education for All (EFA) movement has worked to countries of the North and of the South – cannot
make quality basic education available to all learners. advance in isolation. It has to form part of an overall

CONTACT Mel Ainscow [email protected] University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK

© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/),
which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
8 M. AINSCOW

educational strategy and, indeed, of new social and forms of exclusion and marginalization, disparities
economic policies. It calls for major reform of the and inequalities in access, participation, and learning
ordinary school. processes and outcomes. In this way, it is made clear
(p. iii–iv)
that the international EFA agenda really has to be
The aim, then, is to reform education systems. about ‘all’.
This can only happen, it is argued, if mainstream The importance of including disabled children is
schools become capable of educating all children in an essential strand within this new international pol-
their local communities. The Salamanca Statement icy agenda. This was stressed in the United Nations’
concluded that: Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(United Nations, 2008), which states: ‘The right to
Regular schools with [an] inclusive orientation are the
inclusive education encompasses a transformation in
most effective means of combating discriminatory atti-
tudes, creating welcoming communities, building an culture, policy and practice in all educational environ-
inclusive society and achieving education for all; ments to accommodate the differing requirements and
moreover, they provide an effective education to the identities of individual students, together with
majority of children and improve the efficiency and a commitment to remove the barriers that impede
ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire education that possibility.’(General Comment No 4) The
system.
(p.ix)
Convention defines non-inclusion, or segregation, as
the education of students with disabilities in separate
As this key passage indicates, the move towards environments (i.e. in separate special schools, or in
inclusive schools can be justified on a number of special education units located with regular schools).
grounds. There is an educational justification: the It commits to ending segregation within educational
requirement for inclusive schools to educate all chil- settings by ensuring inclusive classroom teaching in
dren together means that they have to develop ways accessible learning environments with appropriate
of teaching that respond to individual differences and support. This means that education systems must
that therefore benefit all children; a social justifica- provide a personalized educational response, rather
tion: inclusive schools are able to change attitudes to than expecting the student to fit the system.
difference by educating all children together, and A new commitment reinforcing inclusion and equity
form the basis for a just and non-discriminatory in education was expressed at an International Forum,
society; and an economic justification: it is likely to co-organized by UNESCO and the Ministry of
be less costly to establish and maintain schools which Education of Colombia in September 2019 to celebrate
educate all children together than to set up a complex the 25th anniversary of the Salamanca Declaration. As
system of different types of school specializing in underlined by the theme ‘Every learner matters’, the
particular groups of children. Forum was an opportunity to revive the broadened
Further impetus to this movement was provided by notion of inclusion as a general guiding principle to
the 48th session of the IBE-UNESCO International strengthen equal access to quality learning opportu-
Conference on Education, with its theme ‘Inclusive nities for all learners.
Education: The Way of the Future’. The long-term Like all major policy changes, progress in relation
objective of this event was to support UNESCO mem- to inclusion and equity requires an effective strategy
ber states in providing the social and political condi- for implementation. In particular, it requires new
tions which every person needs in order to exercise their thinking which focuses attention on the barriers
human right to access, take an active part in, and learn experienced by some children that lead them to
from educational opportunities (Opertti, Walker, & become marginalized as a result of contextual factors.
Zhang, 2014). During the conference, ministers, gov- The implication is that overcoming such barriers is
ernment officials and representatives of voluntary orga- the most important means of development forms of
nizations discussed the importance of broadening the education that are effective for all children. In this
concept of inclusion to reach all children, under the way, inclusion becomes a way of achieving the overall
assumption that every learner matters equally and has improvement of education systems.
the right to receive effective educational opportunities.
Moving forward, the year 2016 was particularly
A whole-system approach
important in relation to the future of the EFA move-
ment and, indeed, the legacy of Salamanca. Building International experience has led me to formulate
on the Incheon Declaration agreed at the World a framework for thinking about how to promote inclu-
Forum on Education in May 2015 (UNESCO, 2015), sion and equity within education systems (see Figure 1).
it saw the publication by UNESCO of the Education Amended from an earlier version (Ainscow, 2005), it
2030 Framework for Action. This emphasizes inclu- focuses attention on five interrelated factors, summar-
sion and equity as laying the foundations for quality ized in the diagram below. Together, they can help in
education. It also stresses the need to address all determining ‘levers for change’ (Senge, 1989).
 NORDIC JOURNAL OF STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL POLICY 9

Administration

Figure 1. Review framework.

The framework places schools at the centre of the direction, progress will be difficult. There is, there-
analysis. This reinforces the point that moves towards fore, a need for agreed definitions of these concepts.
inclusion must be focussed on increasing the capacity Recent international policy documents argue that
of local neighbourhood mainstream schools to sup- they should be seen as principles that inform all
port the participation and learning of an increasingly aspects of educational policy (e.g. UNESCO, 2017).
diverse range of learners. This is the paradigm shift In some countries, inclusive education is still
implied by the Salamanca Statement, which I have thought of as an approach to serving children with
described as an ‘inclusive turn’ (Ainscow, 2007). It disabilities within general education settings.
argues that moves towards inclusion are about the Internationally, however, it is increasingly seen
development of schools, rather simply involving more broadly as a principle that supports and wel-
attempts to integrate vulnerable groups of students comes diversity amongst all learners. It presumes that
into existing arrangements. the aim of is to eliminate social exclusion that is
At the same time, the framework draws attention a consequence of attitudes and responses to diversity
to a range of contextual influences that bear on the in race, social class, ethnicity, religion, gender and
way schools carry out their work. As explained below, ability. As such, it starts from the belief that educa-
these influences may provide support and encourage- tion is a basic human right and the foundation for
ment to those in schools who are wishing to move in a more just society. Hence, the emphasis on equity,
an inclusive direction. However, the same factors can which implies a concern with fairness.
act as obstacles to progress. These influences relate to: Our research suggests that it is helpful to use
the principles that guide policy priorities within an a definition of inclusive education that involves
education system; the views and actions of others a process that is concerned with the identification
within the local context, including members of the and removal of barriers to the presence, participation
wider community that the schools serve and the staff and achievement of all students (Ainscow et al., 2006).
of the departments that have responsibility for the At the same time, it involves a particular emphasis on
administration of the school system; and the criteria those groups of learners who may be at risk of margin-
that are used to evaluate the performance of schools. alization, exclusion or underachievement.
In what follows each of the five factors are explained, We have found that a well-orchestrated debate
leading to a series of key ideas that need to be con- about these elements can lead to a wider understand-
sidered in developing future policies. ing of the principle of inclusion. Furthermore, such
a debate, though by its nature slow and, possibly,
never ending, can have leverage in respect to foster-
Inclusion and equity as principles
ing the conditions within which schools can feel
Terms such as ‘equity’ and ‘inclusion’ can be confus- encouraged to move in a more inclusive direction.
ing since they may mean different things to different These debates must involve all stakeholders within
people. This is a particular problem when trying to communities, including families, political and reli-
move forward with other people – not least in gious leaders, and the media. They should also
schools, where everybody is so busy. Put simply, if involve those within national and local district educa-
there is not a shared understanding of the intended tion offices. Recently, in countries such as Colombia,
10 M. AINSCOW

Ecuador, Mexico, Oman and Uruguay, I have used The use of evidence to study teaching within
the indicators provided by The Guide for Ensuring a school can help in generating a language of practice
Inclusion and Equity in Education (UNESCO, 2017) (Ainscow et al., 2006). This, in turn, can foster the
to facilitate such discussions. development of practices that are more effective in
reaching hard to reach learners. Specifically, it can
create space for rethinking by interrupting existing
Use of evidence
discourses. Particularly powerful techniques for gen-
Previously I have argued that evidence is the life- erating evidence involve the use of mutual lesson
blood of inclusive development (Ainscow et al., observation, sometimes through video recordings,
2006, 2012). Therefore, deciding what kinds of evi- and comments collected from students about teach-
dence to collect and how to use it requires care, since, ing and learning arrangements within a school
within education systems, ‘what gets measured gets (Ainscow & Messiou, 2017). Under certain condi-
done’. This is widely recognized as a double-edged tions, such approaches provide interruptions that sti-
sword precisely because it is such a potent lever for mulate self-questioning, creativity and action. In so
change. On the one hand, data are required in order doing they can lead to a reframing of perceived
to monitor the progress of children, evaluate the problems that, in turn, draws the teacher’s attention
impact of interventions, review the effectiveness of to overlooked possibilities for addressing barriers to
policies and processes, plan new initiatives, and so participation and learning. In this way, differences
on. On the other hand, if effectiveness is evaluated on amongst students, staff and schools become
the basis of narrow, even inappropriate, performance a catalyst for improvement.
indicators, then the impact can be deeply damaging. Our current research is exploring teacher/student
Whilst appearing to promote the causes of account- dialogue as a means of making this happen. This was
ability and transparency, the use of data can, in stimulated by a study carried out between 2011 and
practice: conceal more than they reveal; invite mis- 2014 that had a major impact on our thinking (see
interpretation; and, worse of all, have a perverse effect Messiou et al., 2016, for more details). It involved
on the behaviour of professionals. The challenge is, collaborative action research carried out by teams of
therefore, to harness the potential of evidence as teachers in eight secondary schools in three countries
a lever for change, whilst avoiding these potential (i.e. England, Portugal and Spain), with support from
problems. locally based university researchers. The schools were
The starting point for making decisions about the chosen because of the diversity of their student popu-
evidence to collect at the system level should be with lations. Each team experimented with ways of collect-
an agreed definition of inclusion. In other words, we ing and engaging with the views of students in order
must ‘measure what we value’, rather than is often the to foster the development of more inclusive class-
case, ‘valuing what we can measure’. In line with the room practices. Typically, teachers worked in trios
suggestions made earlier, then, evidence collected following an approach based on lesson study,
within an education system needs to relate to the a systematic procedure for the development of teach-
presence, participation and achievement of all stu- ing that is well established in Japan and some other
dents, with an emphasis placed on those groups of Asian countries (Lewis, Perry, & Murata, 2006).
learners regarded to be ‘at risk of marginalisation, Meanwhile, members of the university teams moni-
exclusion or underachievement’. tored the process and outcomes of these activities.
An engagement with evidence is also crucial at the So, for example, in planning a joint lesson they
level of the school, where it can provide the stimulus would each teach, one trio of teachers identified
for professional learning. The starting point for devel- students within each of their classes who they saw
oping inclusive practices is with the sharing of exist- as being particularly vulnerable. They felt that by
ing approaches through collaboration amongst staff, thinking about the lesson with these individuals in
leading to experimentation with new practices that mind they might create new and different ways of
will reach out to all students (Ainscow, 2016b). This facilitating the learning of all of their students. One
requires the development of a common language with teacher talked about a student who would not speak,
which colleagues can talk to one another and, indeed, even when invited. Another teacher focused on one
to themselves, about detailed aspects of their practice. of his students who had severe dyslexia. This led the
Without such a language, teachers find it very diffi- teachers to discuss how they might plan their lessons
cult to experiment with new possibilities (Huberman, differently; they talked, for example, about getting the
1993). A framework that can help in the promotion students to write on the whiteboard, and getting
of an inclusive dialogue within a school is provided students to rehearse verbally what they wanted to
by the Index for Inclusion, a review instrument devel- say, rather than writing arguments down.
oped originally for use in England but now available The trio decided that they needed to involve some
in many countries (Booth & Ainscow, 2002) of their students before teaching the lesson to get an
 NORDIC JOURNAL OF STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL POLICY 11

idea of how they preferred to learn. They also wanted and students in order to explore possibilities for
to consider how best to plan the lesson to support the making lessons more inclusive. Central to the model
many differences amongst the students. They there- is the idea of engaging with the views of students,
fore selected seven students, each from a different a process that permeates all the processes involved.
ethnic background, six of who were born outside The Inclusive Inquiry approach is currently being
the country. The teachers got these students together trialled in 30 primary schools in five countries (i.e.
at lunchtime and asked them to rank their prefer- Austria, Denmark, England, Spain and Portugal).1 It
ences regarding different classroom activities that involves a series of interconnected processes, as
might be used when studying poetry. One of the shown in Figure 2. Central to these are discussions
teachers explained: amongst teachers and their students about how to
make lessons more inclusive. This involves students
Initially, they were quite reluctant to perhaps voice
an opinion that they thought we wouldn’t like … .
learning how to use research techniques to gather the
We stepped back for a bit and just left the recording views of their classmates.
device on the table and let them talk about what they The dialogues that this encourages are focused on
liked and what they didn’t like, because if we’re not learning and teaching. More specifically, differences
imposing our views on them, they were more likely amongst students and teachers are used to challenge
to be honest.
existing thinking and practices in ways that are
The overall aim of the lesson was to develop aware- intended to encourage experimentation in order to
ness of and confidence in a variety of dramatic tech- foster more inclusive ways of working. This, in turn,
niques. Each teacher taught the lesson with their two sets out to break down barriers that are limiting the
colleagues observing, making changes in the light of engagement of some learners.
the regular discussions that took place as they pro- The evidence from this study supports our earlier
ceeded. It was noticeable that these conversations research which suggested that classroom-based
became increasingly focused on matters of detail research of this kind can be a powerful way of mov-
and, as a result, led to a greater emphasis on mutual ing practice forward within a school. What is distinc-
challenge and personal reflection. By the end of the tive, however, is the added value that comes from
process the three teachers all commented that they engaging students themselves in the process. It is
had been challenged to rethink their lesson planning also clear that the use of the approach can present
and facilitation. Through this, they realized that new various organizational challenges. In particular, it has
approaches gave members of the class the opportu- sometimes proved to be challenging of the status quo
nities to learn out of their ‘comfort zones’ and, in so within schools. Consequently, greater collaboration is
doing, this moved the teachers’ expectations about needed amongst teachers in order to support the
the capabilities of their students. introduction of new practices. This requires organi-
Drawing on the lessons from this research in sec- zational flexibility and the active support of senior
ondary schools, a current study is using a new model staff, prepared to encourage and support processes of
for developing learning and teaching that we call experimentation. Indeed, it implies the need for cul-
‘Inclusive Inquiry’ (Messiou, 2019; Messiou & tural change within a school, a theme I return to
Ainscow, 2020). This uses dialogue involving teachers below.

Inclusive inquiry

Talking about
learning and
teaching

Teacher/student
dialogue

Developing
Learning from
inclusive
differences
practices

Figure 2. Inclusive Inquiry.

12 M. AINSCOW

School development effectiveness of school actions in promoting inclusion

(Dyson et al., 2004). In summary, this suggests that
There is not one single model of what an inclusive
some schools are characterized by an ‘inclusive cul-
school looks like. What is common to highly inclu-
ture’. Within such schools, there is a degree of con-
sive schools, however, is that they are welcoming and
sensus among adults around values of respect for
supportive places for all of their students, not least for
difference and a commitment to offering all students
those with disabilities and others who experience
access to learning opportunities.
difficulties (Dyson, Howes, & Roberts, 2004). This
The extent to which such inclusive cultures lead
does not prevent these schools from also being com-
directly and unproblematically to enhanced student
mitted to improving the achievements of all of their
participation is not clear. Some aspects of these cul-
students. Indeed, they tend to have a range of strate-
tures, however, can be seen as participatory by defini-
gies for strengthening achievement that are typical of
tion. For instance, respect for diversity from teachers
those employed by all effective schools, and the
may itself be understood as a form of participation by
emphasis on supporting vulnerable students does
children within a school community. Moreover,
not appear to inhibit these strategies. A key factor is
schools with such cultures are also likely to be char-
the emphasis placed on tracking and supporting the
acterized by forms of organization (such as specialist
progress of all of the students.
support being made within the ordinary classroom,
A problem reported from a number of countries, is
rather than by withdrawal for separate attention) and
that despite national policies emphasizing the equal
practices (such as cooperative group work) which
rights of children with disabilities to attend main-
could be regarded as participatory by definition.
stream settings, there has been evidence over many
All of this means that attempts to develop inclusive
years of significant increases in the proportions of
schools should pay attention to the building of con-
students being categorized in order that their schools
sensus around inclusive values within school commu-
can earn additional resources (Fulcher, 1989; Meijer
nities. This implies that school leaders should be
& Watkins, 2019). This has led to dissatisfaction with
selected in the light of their commitment to inclusive
progress towards integration and brought demands
values and their capacity to lead in a participatory
for more radical changes. One of the concerns of
manner (Riehl, 2000). Finally, the external policy
those who adopt this view is with the way in which
environment should be compatible with inclusive
students come to be designated as having special
developments in order to support rather than under-
needs (e.g. Slee, 2010). They see this as a social pro-
mine the efforts of schools.
cess that needs to be continually challenged. More
specifically, they argue that the continued use of what
is sometimes referred to as a ‘medical model’ of Involving the wider community
assessment – within which educational difficulties In order to foster inclusion and equity in education,
are explained solely in terms of a child’s deficits – governments need to mobilize human and financial
prevents progress in the field, not least because it resources, some of which may not be under their
distracts attention from questions about why schools direct control. Forming partnerships among key sta-
fail to teach so many children successfully. keholders who can support and own the process of
The implication is that schools need to be change is therefore essential. These stakeholders
reformed and practices need to be improved in include: parents/caregivers; teachers and other educa-
ways that will lead them to respond positively to tion professionals; teacher trainers and researchers;
student diversity – seeing individual differences not national, local and school-level administrators and
as problems to be fixed, but as opportunities for managers; policy-makers and service providers in
enriching learning. Within such a conceptualization, other sectors (e.g. health, child protection and social
a consideration of difficulties experienced by students services); civic groups in the community; and mem-
can provide an agenda for change and insights as to bers of minority groups that are at risk of exclusion.
how such changes might be brought about. Family involvement is particularly crucial. In some
Moreover, this kind of approach is more likely to be countries, parents and education authorities already
successful in contexts where there is a culture of cooperate closely in developing community-based
collaboration that encourages and supports problem- programmes for certain groups of learners, such as
solving (Ainscow, 2016a; Skrtic, 1991). those who are excluded because of their gender, social
According to this view, the development of inclu- status or impairments (Miles, 2002). A logical next
sive practices is seen as involving those within step is for these parents to become involved in sup-
a particular context in working together to address porting change for developing inclusion in schools.
barriers to education experienced by some learners. Where parents lack the confidence and skills to
These themes are further supported by a review of participate in such developments, it might be neces-
international research literature that examines the sary to engage and build capacity and networks. This
 NORDIC JOURNAL OF STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL POLICY 13

could include the creation of parent support groups, levels, including those in civil society and other sec-
training parents to work with their children, or build- tors, therefore have to be prepared to analyse their
ing the advocacy skills of parents to negotiate with own situations, identify local barriers and facilitators,
schools and authorities. Here, it is worth adding that plan an appropriate development process, and pro-
there is evidence that the views of families, including vide leadership for inclusive practices and effective
children themselves, can be helpful in bringing new strategies for monitoring equity in education.
thinking to the efforts of schools to develop more National and district administrators have impor-
inclusive ways of working. tant roles in promoting inclusive ways of managing
All of this means changing how families and com- schools and education processes. In particular, they
munities work, and enriching what they offer to have to establish the conditions for challenging non-
children. In this respect there are many encouraging inclusive, discriminatory educational practices. They
examples of what can happen when what schools do also need to establish the conditions that build con-
is aligned in a coherent strategy with the efforts of sensus and commitment towards putting the univer-
other local players – employers, community groups, sal values of inclusion and equity into practice.
universities and public services (Kerr, Dyson, & Particular forms of leadership are known to be effec-
Raffo, 2014). This does not necessarily mean schools tive in promoting inclusion in education (Riehl,
doing more, but it does imply partnerships beyond 2000). These approaches focus attention on teaching
the school, where partners multiply the impacts of and learning; they create strong supportive commu-
each other’s efforts. nities of students, teachers and parents; they nurture
This has implications for the various key stake- the understanding of a culture of education among
holders within education systems. In particular, tea- families; and, they foster multi-agency support.
chers, especially those in senior positions, have to see There is also evidence that school-to-school colla-
themselves as having a wider responsibility for all boration can strengthen the capacity of individual
children, not just those that attend their own schools. organizations to respond to learner diversity (Muijs,
They also have to develop patterns of internal orga- Ainscow, Chapman, & West, 2011). Specifically, col-
nization that enable them to have the flexibility to laboration between schools can help to reduce the
cooperate with other schools and with stakeholders polarization of schools, to the particular benefit of
beyond the school gate. It means, too, that those who those students who are marginalized at the edges of
administer school systems have to adjust their prio- the system. In addition, there is evidence that when
rities and ways of working in response to improve- schools seek to develop more collaborative ways of
ment efforts that are led from within schools. working, this can have an impact on how teachers
perceive themselves and their work. Specifically, com-
parisons of practices in different schools can lead
The role of administrative departments
teachers to view underachieving students in a new
Policy is made at all levels of an education system, light. In this way, learners who cannot easily be
not least at the school and classroom levels (Ball, educated within the school’s established routines are
2010). As such, the promotion of equity and inclu- not seen as ‘having problems’, but as challenging
sion is not simply a technical or organizational teachers to re-examine their practices in order to
change – it is a movement in a clear philosophical make them more responsive and flexible.
direction. Moving to more inclusive ways of working Local coordination is needed in order to encourage
therefore requires changes across an education sys- such forms of collaboration (Armstrong & Ainscow,
tem. These span from shifts in policy-makers’ values 2018). Indeed, a recent report noted that four of the
and ways of thinking, which enable them to provide most successful national education systems –
a vision shaping a culture of inclusion, to significant Singapore, Estonia, Finland, and Ontario – each has
changes within schools and classrooms. a coherent ‘middle tier’, regardless of their differing
A culture of inclusion in education requires extents of school autonomy or devolution of deci-
a shared set of assumptions and beliefs amongst pol- sion-making (Bubb, Crossley-Holland, Cordiner,
icy-makers and senior staff at the national, district Cousin, & Earley, 2019). In particular, they all had
and school level that value differences, believe in district level structures that offer a consistent view
collaboration, and are committed to offering educa- that, to maintain equity as well as excellence, there
tional opportunities to all students (Ainscow, needs to be an authoritative co-ordinating influence
Chapman, & Hadfield, 2020). However, changing with local accountability.
the cultural norms that exist within an education Having analysed two relatively successful large-scale
system is difficult to achieve, particularly within improvement initiatives, Andy Hargreaves and I have
a context that is faced with so many competing pres- suggested a way of supporting local authorities in
sures and where practitioners tend to work alone in responding to these new demands (Hargreaves &
addressing the problems they face. Leaders at all Ainscow, 2015). We argue that, in taking on new roles,
14 M. AINSCOW

districts can provide a valuable focus for school improve- In drawing attention to these examples, I stress that
ment, be a means for efficient and effective use of they are not perfect. Rather, they are countries where
research evidence and data analysis across schools, sup- there are interesting developments from which to learn.
port schools in responding coherently to multiple exter- They are also varied in respect to the approach being
nal reform demands, and be champions for families and taken and what they have achieved. Consequently,
students, making sure everybody gets a fair deal. whilst lessons can undoubtedly be learned from these
The problem is, of course, that not all local school countries, they must be replicated with care.
systems are strong. Therefore, a way to reduce varia- There are many sources of inequity in education
tion amongst school districts is to promote collabora- related to political, economic, social, cultural and
tion among them so they share resources, ideas, and institutional factors, and these vary across countries.
expertise, and exercise collective responsibility for This means that what works in one country may not
student success. In adopting this ‘leading from the work elsewhere. This is why an emphasis on system
middle’ approach, districts can become the collective change strategies being contextually sensitive is one
drivers of change and improvement together. of the pervading themes in this paper.
Thinking about the development of policies for
promoting inclusion and equity, it is encouraging to
note the progress made in certain countries. For
Conclusion
example: In summary, then, the ideas that have emerged from
this review of international experiences, research and
● The Italian government passed a law in 1977 that policy documents regarding ways of promoting
closed all special schools, units and other non- equity and inclusion are as follows:
inclusive provision (Lauchalan & Fadda, 2012).
This legislation is still in force and subsequent ● Policies should be based on clear and widely
amendments have further strengthened the inclu- understood definitions of what the terms
sive nature of the education system. Not only did Inclusion and equity mean;
this close segregated educational facilities but it ● Strategies should be informed by evidence
removed the possibility of exclusion from school regarding the impact of current practices on
as a corrective sanction. Whilst practice varies the presence, participation and achievement of
from place to place, there is no doubt that the all students;
principle of inclusion is widely accepted. ● There should be an emphasis on whole-school
● Finland is a country which regularly outper- approaches in which teachers are supported in
forms most other countries in terms of educa- developing inclusive practices;
tional outcomes. Its success is partly explained ● Education departments must provide leadership
by the progress of the lowest performing quin- in the promotion of inclusion and equity as
tile of students who take the PISA tests out- principles that guide the work of teachers in all
performing those in other countries, thus raising schools; and
the mean scores overall (Sabel, Saxenian, ● Policies should draw on the experience and
Miettinen, Kristenson, & Hautamaki, 2011). expertise of everybody who has an involvement
This has increasingly involved an emphasis on in the lives of children, including the children
support for vulnerable students within main- themselves
stream schools, as opposed to in segregated pro-
vision (Takala, Pirttimaa, & Tormane, 2009). These ideas indicate that the promotion of inclusion
● Having enacted legislation making disability dis- and equity in education is less about the introduction
crimination in education unlawful, Portugal has of particular techniques or new organizational
gone much further in enacting an explicit legal arrangements, and much more about processes of
framework for the inclusion in education of social learning within particular contexts. As I have
students with and without disabilities (Alves, argued, the use of evidence as a means of stimulating
2019). Recent legislation requires that the provi- experimentation and collaboration is seen as a central
sion of supports for all students be determined, strategy. Copland (2003) suggests, inquiry can be the
managed and provided at the regular school ‘engine’ to enable the distribution of leadership that is
level, with local multidisciplinary teams respon- needed in order to foster participation in learning,
sible for determining what support is necessary and the ‘glue’ that can bind a community together
to ensure all students (regardless of labels, cate- around a common purpose.
gorization or a determination of disability) have Working with schools over many years to intro-
access to, and the means to participate effec- duce this way of thinking, I have become aware of the
tively in education, with a view to their full complexities involved. One way to think about the
inclusion in society. processes at work is to see them as linked within an
 NORDIC JOURNAL OF STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL POLICY 15

‘ecology of equity’ (Ainscow et al., 2012). By this ● Beyond schools. This far-reaching arena includes:
I mean that the extent to which students’ experiences the wider policy context within which schools
and outcomes are equitable is not dependent only on operate; the family processes and resources
the educational practices of their teachers, or even which shape how children learn and develop; the
their schools. Instead, it depends on a whole range of interests and understandings of the professionals
interacting processes that reach into the school from working in schools; and the demographics, eco-
outside. These include the demographics of the areas nomics, cultures and histories of the areas served
served by schools; the histories and cultures of the by schools. Beyond this, it includes the underlying
populations who send (or fail to send) their children social and economic processes at national and – in
to school; and the economic realities faced by those many respects – at global levels out of which local
populations. Beyond this, they involve the underlying conditions arise.
socio-economic processes that make some areas poor
and others affluent, and that draw migrant groups Looked at in this way, it is clear that there is much that
into some places rather than others. They are also individual schools can do to tackle issues within their
influenced by the wider politics of the teaching pro- organizations, and that such actions are likely to have
fession, of decision-making at the district level and of a profound impact on student experiences, and perhaps
national policy-making, and the impacts of schools have some influence on inequities arising elsewhere.
on one another over issues such as exclusion and However, it is equally clear that these strategies do not
parental choice. In addition, they reflect new models lead to schools tackling between- and beyond-school
of school governance, the ways in which local school issues directly. No school strategy can, for example,
hierarchies are established and maintained, and the make a poor area more affluent, or increase the
ways in which school actions are constrained and resources available to students’ families, any more
enabled by their positions in those hierarchies. than it could create a stable student population, or
It is also important to recognize the complexities tackle the global processes underlying migration pat-
of interactions between the different elements in this terns. But perhaps there are issues of access, or of the
ecology, and their implications for achieving more allocation of students to schools, that might be tackled if
equitable education systems. As my colleagues and schools work together on a common agenda.
I work on improvement projects with schools, we As I have emphasized throughout this paper, all of this
therefore find it helpful to think of three interlinked has major implications for leadership practice within
areas within which equity issues arise: schools and education systems. In particular, it calls for
efforts to encourage coordinated and sustained efforts
around the idea that changing outcomes for vulnerable
● Within schools. These are issues that arise from
groups of students is unlikely to be achieved unless there
school and teacher practices. They include: the
are changes in the behaviours of adults. Consequently,
ways in which students are taught and engaged
the starting point must be with policy-makers and prac-
with learning; the ways in which teaching groups
titioners: in effect, enlarging their capacity to imagine
are organized and the different kinds of oppor-
what might be achieved, and increasing their sense of
tunities that result from this organization; the
accountability for bringing this about. This may also
kinds of social relations and personal support
involve tackling taken-for-granted assumptions, most
that are characteristic of the school; the ways in
often relating to expectations about certain groups of
which the school responds to diversity in terms of
students, their capabilities and behaviours.
attainment, gender, ethnicity and social back-
ground; and the kinds of relationships the school
builds with families and local communities. Note
● Between schools. These are issues that arise from
1. The materials developed in both of these studies are
the characteristics of local school systems. They available in various languages at: https://reachingthe
include: the ways in which different types of hardtoreach.eu/.
school emerge locally; the ways in which these
schools acquire different statuses, so that hier-
archies emerge in terms of performance and Disclosure statement
preference; the ways in which schools compete No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
or collaborate; the processes of integration and
segregation which concentrate students with
similar backgrounds in different schools; the References
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