Energies 15 03348
Energies 15 03348
Energies 15 03348
Article
Study of a Gas Turbine Cycle to Boost the Autonomy of
Electric Cars
Joelle Najib *, Maroun Nemer and Chakib Bouallou
Centre for Energy Efficiency (CES), Mines ParisTech, PSL Research University, 60 Bd St Michel, F‐75006 Paris,
France; maroun.nemer@mines‐paristech.fr (M.N.); chakib.bouallou@mines‐paristech.fr (C.B.)
* Correspondence: joelle.najib@mines‐paristech.fr
Abstract: The greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector are the primary cause of
climate change. As a result, many studies have developed new powertrains with reduced CO2 emis‐
sions for the automotive industry. The gas turbine cycle coupled to an alternator is an autonomy
booster for series hybrid electric vehicles. Many gas turbine configurations are proposed in the lit‐
erature to obtain the highest cycle efficiency. This paper suggests a new architecture offering higher
efficiency than all the previous cycles. The two‐step methodology consists at first of a sensibility
analysis using VBA and Refprop to determine the optimal operating conditions in terms of higher
efficiency. The selected cycle consists of two compression stages with an intercooler, a combustion
chamber, a cooled hot pressure turbine, an uncooled low‐pressure turbine, and a recuperator. The
efficiency of this design reaches 51.39%, which approximately matches the designs compared in the
literature, but is more compact because it does not require a second combustion chamber.
Keywords: turbine cooling; convection cooling; gas turbine; range extender; series hybrid electric
vehicles
Citation: Najib, J.; Nemer, M.;
Bouallou, C. Study of a Gas Turbine 1. Introduction
Cycle to Boost the Autonomy of The road transportation sector emitted around 70% of the greenhouse gas emissions
Electric Cars. Energies 2022, 15, 3348. from the transport sector in 2014 [1]. Therefore, moving towards zero‐emission vehicles
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093348
is a top priority. Among different powertrains, gas turbines (GTs) have attracted the in‐
Academic Editors: Petar Varbanov, terest of automotive manufacturers due to their numerous advantages in vehicular appli‐
Xuexiu Jia and Xue‐Chao Wang cations. The major benefit of gas turbines is their ability to operate on a variety of fuels.
Gas turbines are compact and reliable engines with a reduced number of moving parts,
Received: 24 February 2022
Accepted: 2 May 2022
reduced vibration, and low exhaust emissions in comparison with internal combustion
Published: 4 May 2022
engines [2]. The study conducted by Christodoulou et al. [3] shows that the micro‐gas
hybrid vehicle offers a fuel consumption reduction of 23% for heavy vehicles. In addition,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu‐
the noise emissions of the GTs are about 5 dB less than those of diesel engines.
tral with regard to jurisdictional
In discussing this topic, it is important to investigate the history of GTs in vehicles as
claims in published maps and institu‐
prime movers and then, as range extenders. In addition, an overview of the simplest con‐
tional affiliations.
figuration of the GT cycle and its main components is presented.
In 1954, Chrysler Corporation presented several gas turbine (GT) cars introducing a
revolutionary feature: the heat exchanger [4]. Then, they revealed seven generations of
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Li‐
GT cars with different improvements on various components. As Chrysler produced 50
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
turbine cars, Volkswagen signed a contract with Williams Research Corporation and de‐
This article is an open access article veloped the microbus station wagon [5]. Additional prototypes for heavy vehicles were
distributed under the terms and con‐ also produced such as the 1965 Chevrolet Turbo Titan III propelled by a GT‐309 engine
ditions of the Creative Commons At‐ operating at 35,000 rev/min and the 1972 GMC Astro Gas Turbine [6]. There have been
tribution (CC BY) license (https://cre‐ prototypes of other GT cars in racing vehicles such as the Rover‐BRM that participated in
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Le Mans in 1963, Formula 1 in 1971, and the Lotus 56 [7]. However, their high fuel con‐
Energies 2022, 15, 3348. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093348 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 2 of 20
sumption and slow acceleration restrict their application in the marketplace. These prob‐
lems result from operating the GT systems at high speed even at idle conditions, and me‐
chanically coupling the turbine to the vehicle‐driving load.
Recent studies have focused on using GTs as auxiliary power units as a solution to
the limited range and high cost of electric cars. The GTs are combined with a generator,
so the mechanical work of the turbine is converted to electric power [8]. Figure 1 illustrates
the proposed configuration. This configuration is a solution for both the environmental
emissions and the limited autonomy range of electric cars. Its main advantage compared
with the previous configurations is that the GT cycle operates independently from the
vehicle speed. Hence, the optimal operating point of the GT is easily controllable to obtain
the GT’s highest efficiency.
Figure 1. Gas turbine as an auxiliary power system for series hybrid electric vehicles.
Table 1. State‐of‐the‐art of SHEV configurations of different automotive manufacturers.
Automotive Manufacturers SHEV Properties
General Motors 40 kW turbine in EV‐1 series
Volvo Environmental Concept Car (ECC) using recycled materials
ETV Motors Toyota Prius equipped with a microturbine
Capstone CTM‐380 at the LA Auto show
Jaguar Jaguar C‐X75 driven by a twin‐shaft turbine from Bladon Jets
Pininfarina Range extender equipped with a diesel GT
Delta Motorsport Microturbine incorporated into the E4 coupé
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 3 of 20
Techrules 30 kW turbine rotating at 96,000 rpm as a booster to the EV
Wrightspeed Fulcrum GT, an intercooled recuperated GT cycle rotating at 100,000 rpm
Walmart WAVE range extending series hybrid
In its simplest form, the GT operates according to the Brayton cycle. It is composed
of a centrifugal compressor, a combustion chamber, and a radial turbine. The mechanical
drive is divided into three main categories. The first category is illustrated in Figure 2. It
consists of the compressor and the turbine mounted on the same shaft and the alternator
either on the compressor side or on the turbine side. In this case, the output shaft has the
same speed as the turbine/compressor shaft and is used to drive electric generators cou‐
pled or not with the gearbox. This configuration is convenient when the gas turbine is
required to operate at a constant speed [10].
Figure 2. Single shaft GT cycle.
In the case of a twin‐shaft turbine, a gas turbine drives only the compressor and an‐
other turbine named “the free turbine” is connected to the driven system. Figure 3 repre‐
sents the twin‐shaft turbine architecture. The two turbines are not coupled mechanically
but aerodynamically. Thus, the compressor is driven at a steady speed and is not affected
by the load [11]. The main benefit of this configuration towards the single shaft gas turbine
is its flexibility and the ability to run at variable speeds.
Figure 3. Twin‐shaft GT cycle.
Another configuration is the multi‐spool arrangement illustrated in Figure 4, a me‐
chanical separation of the compressor stages. Each compressor is driven by its turbine at
different rotating speeds [12]. In other words, the HP compressor is driven by the HP tur‐
bine, and the LP compressor is driven by the LP turbine. This arrangement is generally
used in high power systems.
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 4 of 20
Figure 4. Multi‐spool arrangement GT cycle.
The efficiency of the GT cycle depends on different parameters such as its architec‐
ture, its maximum pressure, and the turbine inlet temperature (TIT). The latter is related
to the turbine material melting temperatures. Therefore, the turbine cooling technique is
applied to increase the TIT. There are two main types of cooling: external and internal
cooling. Table 2 shows a list of the various internal cooling techniques, their applications,
and specifications.
Table 2. Internal cooling techniques, applications, and specifications.
After explaining the main architecture of a GT cycle, in the coming section, an over‐
view of the most relevant studies in the literature investigating different configurations of
the GT cycle as a booster for electric vehicles is presented. This study aims to propose a
new GT cycle with improved efficiency and determine its optimal operating conditions.
Based on the surveyed studies, a large sample of the most relevant designs was chosen to
identify the selected architecture, the operating conditions as well as the efficiency, as
shown in Table 3 and illustrated in Figures 5 and 6; Figure 6 is a continuation for Figure 5.
Table 3. Summary overview of the literature for GT configurations as range extenders for electric
vehicles.
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 5 of 20
Reheat GT coupled to Compression ratio 3.5,
Barakat et
a turbine Reheat 47.2 Expansion ratio 4, Figure 5c
al. [19]
Steam Rankine cycle TIT = 1250 °C
Compression ratio 4,
Bou Nader Figure
IRReGT cycle 47 Expansion ratio 3.5,
[9] 6d
TIT =1250 °C
Intercooled Recuper‐
Pressure ratio 3,
ated Reheated GT cy‐ Najib et al.
51.6 TIT1 = 1450 °C, Figure 6e
cle with a cooled HP [20]
TIT2 = 1100 °C
turbine
Figure 5. GT configurations from the literature: (a) Recuperated GT cycle, (b) Downstream‐inter‐
cooled reheat external combustion GT cycle, (c) Reheat GT coupled to a turbine Reheat Steam Ran‐
kine cycle.
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 6 of 20
Figure 6. GT configurations from literature: (d) IRReGT cycle, (e) Intercooled Recuperated Re‐
heated GT cycle with a cooled HP turbine.
Some studies have investigated the recuperated GT cycle as extenders in electric cars.
It consists of a Brayton cycle with a recuperator to recover the heat at the outlet of the
turbine. Mackay [17] developed a GT cycle to drive hybrid vehicles suitable for passenger
cars and small buses. The operating pressure ratio was 3 and the TIT was 816 °C. The
efficiency of the current GT cycle is 30%. Ji et al. [2] conducted a numerical and an exper‐
imental study of the recuperated GT cycle. The results show that the cycle efficiency was
35% with a recuperator effectiveness of 0.7, a pressure ratio of 3.2, and a turbine inlet tem‐
perature (TIT) of 1152 K.
Other researchers tackled different GT configurations. Bou Nader et al. [18] con‐
ducted an exergo‐technological analysis to determine the most convenient cycle for elec‐
tric cars. The identified GT cycles were prioritized based on their efficiency and net spe‐
cific work. The study shows that a downstream‐intercooled reheat external combustion
GT cycle is the optimal realistic cycle with the highest efficiency (40.7%) for regenerator
effectiveness of 0.85, a maximum pressure ratio of 4, and a TIT of 1250 °C. In contrast,
Barakat et al. [19] investigated the feasibility of combined GT cycle configurations as sub‐
stitutes for ICE. The cycle configuration consisted of a Brayton cycle coupled to a Steam
Rankine cycle. The study was based on thermodynamic exergy, energy, and integration
assessment. The reheat GT coupled to a turbine reheat Steam Rankine cycle was selected
and had a system efficiency of 47.2% at a TIT of 1250 °C. In addition, Bou Nader [9] se‐
lected the Intercooled Recuperated Reheated (IRReGT) cycle as the most suitable in terms
of efficiency and power density. The cycle consisted of two compression stages with an
intercooler, a recuperator, and two expansion stages with reheating using two combustion
chambers. The cycle efficiency was 39% for TIT = 950 °C, 43.7% for TIT = 1100 °C, and 47%
for TIT = 1250 °C. The maximum compression ratio was 4 and the maximum expansion
ratio was 3.5.
Inspired by [9], Najib et al. [20] suggest a new configuration of the GT cycle. By in‐
creasing the TIT, an increase in the cycle efficiency was acheived. However, it is limited
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 7 of 20
by the turbine materials melting temperatures. Hence, the proposed configuration con‐
sists of an IRReGT cycle with blade cooling for the hot pressure (HP) turbine. The ther‐
modynamic analysis showed that temperatures of 1450 °C can be reached with an increase
in the cycle efficiency of 4.78 points (51.6%) compared with the basic IRReGT cycle (46.9%)
for melting material temperatures of 1100 °C.
Based on the previous findings, this study develops a comprehensive methodology
to propose a new efficient cycle to boost the autonomy of EVs. The suggested configura‐
tion is based on the cycle proposed by [20] because its efficiency is the highest among the
presented architectures. The purpose of the study is to improve the efficiency of the cur‐
rent cycle by increasing the TIT at the HP cooled turbine and removing the second cham‐
ber. This paper is divided into two main parts. The first part consists of a comprehensive
sensibility analysis of the recuperated gas turbine cycle to determine the optimal operat‐
ing conditions such as the number of compressors and the turbine stages, the optimal
pressure, and temperature. The second part discusses different scenarios of the GT HP
cooling technique. The obtained results are compared with the configuration suggested
by [20].
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Uncooled Cycle
This section presents the methodology applied to identify the most suitable gas tur‐
bine cycle in terms of efficiency and net specific work. The study includes an analysis to
determine the optimal operating conditions at different stages of the cycle.
The thermodynamic analysis is developed using Visual Basic for Applications (VBA)
and NIST REFPROP (National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Colorado,
USA.). The considered cycle is the recuperated gas turbine cycle represented in Figure 7.
The first law of thermodynamics is applied to calculate the compressor and the turbine
work, neglecting the heat transfer with the surroundings and the variation of kinetic and
potential energy at the inlet and outlet of each component. The isentropic efficiency of the
compressor, the turbine, and the recuperator are considered constant and equal to 0.8,
0.85, and 0.8, respectively, based on Chrysler gas turbine vehicles [4] and Bou Nader [9].
TIT is limited by the material melting temperatures. When using low‐cost materials the
TIT is limited to 950 °C [21]. The thermodynamic analysis takes into consideration the
air/fuel ratio in the combustion chamber. The reaction is a lean mixture combustion be‐
tween air and the fuel, the latter is the methane. When compressor stages are increased,
an intercooler is added to cool the compressed air before it enters the next compressor
stage. The intercooler is subjected to ambient conditions, and due to pinch, the tempera‐
ture at its outlet is assumed to be 35 °C.
Figure 7. Recuperated gas turbine cycle.
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 8 of 20
The combustion of the methane is presented in Equation (1):
𝑟𝐶𝐻 2 𝑂 3.76𝑁 → 𝑟𝐶𝑂 2𝑟𝐻 𝑂 2 1 𝑟 𝑂 3.76𝑁 (1)
1
𝜆 (2)
𝑟
r is the ratio between the real fraction of fuel mass flow (𝑚 ) to air mass flow (𝑚 to
the stochiometric fraction calculated as shown in Equation (3):
𝑚
𝑚
𝑟 𝑚 (3)
𝑚
is calculated from the stoichiometric equation of the methane combustion pre‐
sented below:
𝐶𝐻 2 𝑂 3.76𝑁 → 𝐶𝑂 2𝐻 𝑂 2 3.76𝑁 (4)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 16
0.23 0.0575 (5)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 64
After the first combustion chamber, the remaining mass of the different components
at the exit of the combustion chamber are calculated using Equations (6)–(10):
𝑌 0 (6)
2 1 𝑟 32
𝑌 (7)
𝑚
7.52 28
𝑌 (8)
𝑚
44 𝑟
𝑌 (9)
𝑚
2 18 𝑟
𝑌 (10)
𝑚
The total mass (mt) is obtained using Equation (11):
𝑚 16𝑟 2 32 2.76 28 16𝑟 274.56 (11)
In order to check if combustion can occur in a new combustion chamber, the remain‐
ing oxygen mass should be verified and should not be zero. Then, the products of the
previous combustion equation are taken as reactants and Lavoisier’s law of conservation
of mass is applied. The same methodology is used to determine the components at the exit
of each additional combustion chamber.
The compressor work is obtained by Equation (12):
𝑊 ℎ ℎ (12)
𝑊 : Compressor specific work (J/kg)
ℎ : Specific enthalpy at compressor outlet (J/kg)
ℎ : Specific enthalpy at compressor inlet (J/kg)
The expression used for the turbine is presented in Equation (13):
𝑊 ℎ ℎ (13)
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 9 of 20
𝑊 : Turbine specific work (J/kg)
ℎ : Specific enthalpy at turbine inlet (J/kg)
ℎ : Specific enthalpy at turbine outlet (J/kg)
The heat generated by the combustion chamber is determined by Equation (14):
𝑚
𝑞 ℎ ℎ 𝐿𝐶𝑉 (14)
𝑚
𝑞 : Specific heat added in the combustion chamber (J/kg)
ℎ : Specific enthalpy at the combustion chamber outlet (J/kg)
ℎ : Specific enthalpy at the combustion chamber inlet (J/kg)
𝐿𝐶𝑉: Lower calorific value (J/kg)
The total net specific work is the difference between the turbine work and the com‐
pressor work as shown in Equation (15):
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 (15)
The efficiency of the cycle is calculated by:
𝑊
𝜂 (16)
𝑞
The methodology conducted in the thermodynamic analysis is illustrated in the chart
in Figure 8. The input parameters are: the ambient pressure (Pamb = 1013 bar), the ambient
temperature (Tamb= 25 °C), the maximum pressure (Pmax), the number of compressor
stages (Nc), the compressor pressure ratio (πc), the number of turbine stages (Nt), the ex‐
pansion ratio (πt) and the excess of air coefficient (λ).
Figure 8. Methodology for the thermodynamic analysis.
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 10 of 20
The analysis is realized by varying the different parameters in the GT cycle and com‐
paring the results to select the optimal configuration related to the maximum pressure.
The different parameters tested are the number of compressor stages, the number of tur‐
bine stages, the maximum pressure, and the turbine inlet temperature.
2.2. Cooled Cycle
In this section, the rotor of the first turbine is cooled. A part of the pressurized air
from the first compressor air is extracted and is introduced through a hollow shaft to cool
the HP turbine blade as seen in Figure 9. The TS diagram of the IRReGT cycle is illustrated
in Figure 10. Our study examines internal cooling, where heat is transferred from the cool‐
ant flow to the turbine blades. Convection cooling is chosen as a technique due to its sim‐
plicity of operation, mostly in the case of micro‐scale turbines.
Figure 9. IRReGT cycle with a cooled HP turbine. (Numbers 1‐10 describe the flow passage at dif‐
ferent stage of the cycle).
Figure 10. TS diagram for uncooled IRReGT. (Numbers 1‐10 describe the flow passage at different
stage of the cycle).
Only the HP turbine is cooled, the LP turbine is not cooled and the temperature at its
inlet is limited to the material properties. In the cooled HP turbine, there is no expansion
for the coolant. The expansion occurs only for the remainder mainstream. Depending on
the chosen TIT at the HP turbine and on the material constraints a second combustion
chamber is added. If the temperature at the outlet of the HP turbine is less than the turbine
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 11 of 20
wall temperature (Tw), the two fluids mix and expand in the LP turbine after being heated
in the second combustion chamber. If there is no need for the second combustion, the two
fluids directly mix and expand in the second turbine.
The detailed thermodynamic analysis and conditions are presented in [20]. The same
methodology is applied to determine the coolant mass fraction needed to cool the turbine
blade. The cooled turbine is considered a co‐current flow heat exchanger, as illustrated in
Figure 11. In the following analysis, we assume that Tw is constant and that hot gas from
the mainstream flows on one side while coolant flows on the other.
Figure 11. Schematic presentation of the HP cooled turbine as a heat exchanger.
This analysis aims to examine the impact of further increase of the TIT of the HP and
the possibility of removing the CC2 in a way to suggest a new configuration of the range
extender for SHEV.
The fraction of compressed air for turbine blade cooling is determined by:
𝑚
𝑋 (17)
𝑚 𝑚
X: Mass fraction ratio
𝑚 : Coolant mass flow (kg/s)
𝑚 : Hot gas mass flow (kg/s)
The isentropic efficiency of an uncooled turbine is determined by the ratio of the ac‐
tual work to the ideal work as depicted in Figure 12a.
Figure 12. (a) Uncooled expansion; (b) cooled turbine.
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 12 of 20
ℎ ℎ
𝜂 (18)
ℎ ℎ
ℎ : Specific enthalpy at the inlet of the turbine (kJ/kg)
ℎ : Specific enthalpy at the outlet of the turbine (kJ/kg)
ℎ : Specific isentropic enthalpy at the outlet of the turbine (kJ/kg)
In a cooled turbine, the efficiency definition should take into consideration the heat
extracted from the turbine blade. The decrease of the enthalpy at the outlet of the turbine
is not only due to the expansion through the turbine but also due to the loss of thermal
heat as illustrated in Figure 12b.
The efficiency of the cooled turbine is determined by:
ℎ ℎ 𝑞
𝜂 (19)
ℎ ℎ
q: Heat flow that occurs between the coolant and the turbine blade (kJ/kg)
Comparing the previous two definitions, it can be concluded that the efficiency of the
cooled turbine is lower than the uncooled turbine. It decreases with the increase in heat
loss.
The heat flux between the hot gas and the coolant air is calculated by:
𝑄 𝑚 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 𝑇 𝑚 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 𝑇 (20)
𝑞 𝑋 𝐶𝑝 Ԑ 𝑇 𝑇 (21)
Q: Heat flow that occurs between the coolant and the turbine blade (kJ)
𝐶𝑝 ; 𝐶𝑝 : Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (J/(kg⋅K))
𝑇 : Coolant outlet temperature (K)
𝑇 : Coolant inlet temperature (K)
𝑇 : Gas inlet temperature (K)
𝑇 : Gas outlet temperature (K)
The output net specific work is calculated using Equation 22:
𝑊 1 X 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 1 𝑋 𝑊 (22)
W : HP turbine specific work (J/kg)
𝑊 : LP turbine specific work (J/kg)
𝑊 : HP turbine specific work (J/kg)
𝑊 : LP compressor specific work (J/kg)
Equation 23 represents the efficiency of the current cycle with a cooled HP turbine:
𝑊
𝜂 (23)
1 𝑋 𝑞 𝑞
𝑞 : Specific heat added in the first combustion chamber (J/kg)
𝑞 : Specific heat added in the second combustion chamber (J/kg)
𝑞 0 if no second combustion chamber is added
3. Results
3.1. Uncooled Cycle
The analysis is realized by varying the number of compressor stages (intercooler +
compressor) for the same maximum pressure to determine the optimal configuration. Alt‐
hough increasing the number of compressor stages leads to a more complex system, it
reduces the compressor’s required work by approaching the isothermal transformation.
The results in Figure 13 show that for the same maximum pressure, the work needed
by the compressor decreases with the increase of the number of stages. The addition of
two compressor stages reduces the compressor work by 50 kJ/kg and increases the cycle
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 13 of 20
efficiency by 4 points compared with a single stage. Adding three compressor stages re‐
duces the compressor work by 14 kJ/kg and increases the cycle efficiency by 2 points com‐
pared with a double stage. As a result, the reduction of compressor work enhances the
cycle performance by increasing the net specific work and the thermal efficiency of the
gas turbine cycle.
Figure 13. Variation of the compressor work, the net specific work, and the cycle efficiency with the
number of compressor stages.
As a result of complex issues, the dual system was chosen in this study, especially
since adding further compressor stages failed to significantly improve the gas turbine cy‐
cle.
According to Figure 14, increasing the number of turbine stages improves the turbine
work, as well as the net specific work. The work and the efficiency of a dual‐stage turbine
are higher by 65 kJ/kg and 4 points, respectively, compared with a single‐stage turbine.
Additional turbine stages with reheating result in an increase of less than 30 kJ/kg in tur‐
bine work and 2 points increase in the cycle thermal efficiency. Triple turbine stages did
not lead to further advantages compared to the dual stages. Therefore, two expansion
stages were selected.
Figure 14. Variation of the turbine work, the net specific work, and the cycle efficiency with the
number of turbine stages.
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 14 of 20
Considering a recuperated gas turbine cycle with two compression stages and two
turbine stages, a variation of the maximum pressure of the system was conducted to iden‐
tify the optimal pressure in terms of higher thermal efficiency and higher specific work.
The TIT was limited to 950 °C. Figure 15 illustrates the impact of increasing the pressure
on the different components of the cycle.
Figure 15. Variation of different parameters with the maximum pressure.
The thermal efficiency curve represents a Pareto front. It can be seen that the thermal
efficiency of the gas turbine cycle increases at lower compression ratios, then when the
maximum pressure reaches 9 bar a decrease in the thermal efficiency is obtained. The rea‐
son for this can be seen in the increase in the power needed to operate the compressor,
which reduces the net useful power that the gas turbine can generate.
Increasing the maximum pressure leads to higher turbine work and higher net spe‐
cific work. As a result, for a fixed power, less air is required in the cycle. Figure 16 shows
that by increasing the maximum pressure from 4 bar to 9 bar the mass flow rate is de‐
creased from 336 kg/s to 244 kg/s.
Figure 16. Variation of air mass flow rate with the maximum pressure.
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 15 of 20
The benefits of increasing the turbine inlet temperature are depicted in Figure 17. The
turbine specific work, as well as the cycle efficiency, are higher. However, the material
melting point limits the temperature at the inlet of the turbine. As long as the temperature
does not exceed 950 °C, it is not necessary to use special materials, and the turbine can be
made using familiar, low‐cost alloys. Up to 1100 °C, special materials are essential. Lastly,
for temperatures exceeding 1250 °C, high‐cost materials are required [19].
Figure 17. Variation of different parameters with the TIT.
3.2. Cooled Cycle
To increase the turbine inlet temperature, the turbine blade cooling technique is ap‐
plied. Three scenarios were tested. The first scenario consists of a turbine with Tw = 950
°C, which allows use of a low‐cost material; the second scenario consists of Tw = 1100 °C
as in [20], and the last scenario is for Tw = 1250 °C.
As seen in Figure 18, the cycle efficiency as well as the TIT increases with the increase
of the Tw. Considering the first scenario, for Tw = 950 °C, if the TIT of the HP turbine
reaches 1300 °C, there is no need for a second combustion chamber. The temperature at
the outlet of the HP is 950 °C. The coolant and the mainstream mix and expand in the LP
turbine. The cycle efficiency is 48.54% and the coolant mass fraction is 1.66%. The effi‐
ciency is increased by 2 points compared with the uncooled IRReGT cycle.
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Figure 18. Variation of the GT cycle efficiency with different scenarios.
A higher efficiency of 46.9% is obtained when using more advanced materials capa‐
ble of handling temperatures up to 1100 °C. When applying the cooling technique sug‐
gested by [20], the efficiency is increased by 4 points for a TIT of 1450 °C. If the TIT is
increased by 20 °C, there is no need for a second combustion chamber, and the cycle effi‐
ciency is 51.5%. Hence, no significant change in the cycle efficiency but an increase in the
mass flow ratio from 1.4% to 1.5%.
The last scenario describes the case of high‐cost materials for which the melting tem‐
peratures are up to 1250 °C. The efficiency of the uncooled IRReGT cycle reaches 49.3%. If
the TIT is further increased to 1650 °C, there is no need for another reheating and the cycle
efficiency is 53.7% with a coolant mass fraction ratio of 1.4%.
4. Discussion
This paper intends to determine a suitable GT cycle to extend the autonomy of an
electric car. The configuration consists of a generator that transforms the mechanical
power from the GT cycle into electricity to charge the battery of the vehicle.
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 17 of 20
At first, it is necessary to determine the properties of the cycle and the suitable oper‐
ating conditions that result in an increase the cycle efficiency.
Several conclusions can be drawn from the findings outlined in the previous sections.
Using multistage compressions and multistage expansions leads to an increase in cy‐
cle efficiency. It will, therefore, result in a more complex, more expensive, and heavier GT
cycle. Due to this, a dual stage compression with an intercooler and a dual stage expansion
with reheating are selected. In this way, the GT cycle will operate with high efficiency and
be sufficiently compact to be integrated into the EV.
A Pareto front is obtained when the maximum pressure of the GT cycle is varied.
Cycle efficiency increases for pressures under 9 bar, then decreases for pressures above 9
bar. Because of this, 9 bar is chosen as the maximum pressure.
The increase of the GT cycle temperature has numerous benefits on the cycle effi‐
ciency but due to turbine material constraints and cost, only limited temperature increases
are possible.
The advantage of applying the blade cooling technique is the ability to increase the
TIT with no limitations due the material melting temperatures or constraints. This results
in increasing the overall cycle efficiency.
Different scenarios are considered depending on the material chosen for the turbine.
As the turbine material can handle higher temperatures, the cycle efficiency increases, as
well as the cost. As a result, a Tw of 1100 °C is considered optimal.
By comparing the results of different configurations we can conclude that if we fur‐
ther increase the TIT of the HP turbine, there is no need for CC2 with no significant vari‐
ation in the GT cycle efficiency. As a result, the system becomes more compact, less com‐
plex, and less expensive.
Despite the advantages of cooling blades, the technique has some drawbacks as well.
When the cooling technique is applied, the turbine efficiency is reduced. In addition, after
the expansion in the HP turbine, when mixing occurs between the mainstream and the
coolant, a turbine work is lost due to the mixture’s lower temperature. Furthermore, ap‐
plying the blade cooling technique leads to higher costs and more complexity in the sys‐
tem.
5. Conclusions
This study aims to select a new powertrain to replace the internal combustion engine
due to climate change. The optimal cycle configuration in terms of higher efficiency is
selected based on a sensibility analysis and a thermodynamic study using VBA and
Refprop.
The intercooled recuperated gas turbine cycle with a cooled HP turbine and an un‐
cooled LP turbine is the most optimal among the several GT options assessed, given its
high efficiency, and lower complexity.
The HP turbine is cooled by pressurized air extracted from the first compressor and
the LP turbine is uncooled. Using previous configurations, it is possible to eliminate the
second combustion by increasing the TIT of the HP turbine. Therefore, both the weight
and the price of the overall system can be reduced without significantly affecting the effi‐
ciency cycle and the coolant mass fraction. For a maximum pressure of 9 bar and a TIT of
the HP turbine of 1470 °C, the cycle reaches higher efficiency (51.39%) than the standard
IRReGT cycle (46.9%), and approximately the same efficiency as the IRReGT cycle with a
cooled HP turbine.
In future work, the authors will further elaborate on a detailed study of the cost and
weight of the overall system. In addition, the authors will evaluate the impact of increased
temperature on NOx emissions.
Author Contributions: J.N. carried out the modeling and simulation, and the analysis under the
support and supervision of M.N. and C.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 18 of 20
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
amb ambient
CC Combustion Chamber
CH4 Methane
CO2 Carbon dioxide
Cp Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (J/(kg⋅K))
EV Electric Vehicle
GT Gas turbine
GTs Gas turbines
h Specific enthalpy (J/kg)
H2O Water
HEX Heat exchanger
HP Hot Pressure
ICE Internal combustion engine
IRReGT Intercooled recuperated reheated gas turbine cycle
LP Low pressure
ma Mass of air
mf Mass of fuel
mt Total mass
N2 Nitrogen
Nc Number of compressor stages
Nt Number of turbine stages
O2 Oxygen
q Heat transfer (J/kg)
Q Heat transfer (J)
r Excess of air
SHEV Series hybrid electric vehicles
T Temperature (K)
TIT Turbine inlet temperature (K)
Subscripts
1 First
2 Second
4 Turbine inlet value
5 Turbine outlet value without cooling
5s Turbine outlet isentropic value
Energies 2022, 15, 3348 19 of 20
5′ Turbine outlet value with cooling
c coolant
i Inlet
g Mainstream gas
o outlet
w wall
Greek symbols
η Efficiency of the GT cycle
𝜂 Efficiency of the uncooled turbine
𝜂 Efficiency of the cooled turbine
πc Compression ratio
πt Expansion ratio
λ Excess of air ratio
X Extracted mass fraction ratio
Ԑ Effectiveness of the turbine as a heat exchanger
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