ST.

JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

SIMPLIFIED COURSE PACK (SCP) FOR SELF-DIRECTED

LEARNING

GE 102 – Cartography

This Simplified Course Pack (SCP) is a draft version only and may not
be used, published or redistributed without the prior written consent of
the Academic Council of SJPIICD. Contents of this SCP are only
intended for the consumption of the students who are officially enrolled
in the course/subject. Revision and modification process of this SCP
are expected.

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By 2023, a recognized professional institution providing quality,

Vision
economically accessible, and transformative education grounded on
the teachings of St. John Paul II.

Serve the nation by providing competent JPCean graduates through

quality teaching and learning, transparent governance, holistic
Mission
student services, and meaningful community-oriented researches,
guided by the ideals of St. John Paul II.

Respect
Hard Work
Perseverance
Core Values
Self-Sacrifice
Compassion
Family Attachment

Inquisitive
Ingenious
Graduate Attributes
Innovative
Inspiring
Course Code/Title GE 102/Cartography
This course deals with the overview of cartography; maps; mapping
standards in the Philippines; terrain modeling; computer-aided
Course Description
design (CAD) for survey applications; basic Geographic Information
Systems (GIS).
Course Requirement
Time Frame
“Based 40” Cumulative Averaging Grading System
Grading System Periodical Grading = Attendance (5%) + Participation (10%) + Quiz (25%) + Exam
(60%)
Final-Final Grade = Prelim Grade (30%) + Midterm Grade (30%) + Final Grade (40%)
Contact Detail
Dean/Program Head Engr. Kevin G. Cañada (09460385411)

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Course Map

General Surveying 1 - Simplified Course Pack (SCP)

SCP-Topics: Prelim Period SCP- Topics: Midterm Period SCP- Topics: Final Period

Week 1 Introduction to Cartography Week

Week 7 Map Design and Layout Map Projection Implementation
13

Week 2 Computer-assisted Cartography Map Design and Layout Week Map Projection Implementation
Week 8
(continuation) 14 (continuation)

Scale, Coordinate System, and Week Map Projection Implementation

Week 3 Week 9 Geo-referencing
Projection 15 (continuation)

Week 4 Contour Interpretation Generalization of Geographic Week Map Projection Implementation

Week 10
Data 16 (continuation)

Week 5 Surface Interpretation Week Map Projection Implementation

Week 11 Survey Plan
17 (presentation of the proposal)

Week 6 Preliminary Examination Week

Week 12 Midterm Examination Final Examination
18

Course Outcomes
1. Explain and illustrate the concepts, principles and applications of cartography
2. Apply the different mapping theories and standards in digital map design and layout
3. Create and analyze spatial datasets, and prepare maps with the use digital cartographic
software, including CAD and GIS
4. Implement topographic symbols and plotting of areas from topographic survey
5. Generate map visualizations of terrain and other geographic data
6. Perform basic surface interpretation for road design and volume computation.
7. Prepare documentations of work flows and procedures in performing software-based
exercises and provide solutions to possible errors or problems
8. Propose, design and create maps of a chosen subject/topic
9. Present and interpret the map project in class and/or in the Geomatics Student Project
Colloquium at the end of the course

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Welcome Aboard! This course covers an understanding of the concepts,

principles, and applications of cartography. It covers also a review of the
previous courses you had to refresh the knowledge you’ve had about maps and
other topics relevant to this. As you go along, you will learn the mapping
theories and standards in digital map design and layout and how to apply
them, as well as creating, analyzing, and preparing maps using digital software
such as CAD and GIS. And in the last part of this course, you will have an
application of all the concepts, theories, standards, and process you’ve learned
by making and presenting a map project proposal as it may also be relevant
and useful to the next courses you will take and even to other students who
are studying courses related to your proposal.

SCP-TOPICS: PRELIM PERIOD TOPICS

Week 1 Introduction to Cartography

Lesson Title Cartography and Maps
Explain the concept of cartography, identify the
characteristics and classification of maps, determine the
Learning Outcome(s) advantages and limitations, identify the templates that can be
used in a specific map and recognize the map base on its
form.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Terms to Ponder
This section will provide you a better understanding of the definition of
terminologies used in this topic and throughout the simplified course pack of
Cartography. You may refer to this section in case you will encounter
difficulties in understanding the content of this course pack.

A cartographer is a person who draws or produces maps.

CAD, or computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), is a technology for design

and technical documentation, which replaces manual drafting with an
automated process.

Cartography is the creation and the study of maps and charts.

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General maps show the location of the geographic areas for which census data
are tabulated and disseminated.

Geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store,

manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data.
Thematic maps are a type of map specifically designed to show a particular
theme connected with a specific geographic area, such as temperature
variation, rainfall distribution, or population density.

Essential Content
CARTOGRAPHY AND ITS HISTORY

Cartography is the science and art of map-making. This field of study deals
with the formation, creation, and study of
maps and charts. Mapmaking includes the
application of both scientific and artistic
elements, with a combination of graphic
skills and specialized knowledge of
compilation and design principles with
existing ideas and methods for product
generation.

In the early times, maps have been

recorded as cave paintings, and some of Figure 1: World Map 17th Century (Retrieved from
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/118289927693662231/)
the artifacts were preserved in
remembrance of the location of lost cities, towns, and treasure deposits of the
ancient world. Today, a flood of information is what maps can show. Creation
and production become easier and faster with the aid of computer technology
such as CAD and GIS.

MAP AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

The word “map” is derived from the Latin word “mappe” which means “napkin”
or “cloth cover”. National Geographic defines map as a symbolic representation
of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn on a flat surface. Maps
present information about the world in a simple, visual way. Various attributes
of the world such as sizes and shapes of countries and continents, locations of
features, distances of places, and the exact locations of houses and streets in a
city are some of the contents of a map that can guide us in navigating through
places wherever our foot may set.

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Maps have some common

characteristics that we may already be
familiar with. One of them is scale. A
map’s scale indicates the relationship
between the distances on the map and
the actual distances on Earth. This may
be expressed by a graphic scale, a verbal
scale, or a representative fraction. But in
today’s time, maps are already
Figure 2: Credits to Google Maps Platform computerized. Users can zoom in and out and
change the scale to fit their choice of view. A great example and the most
common is Google Maps.

Another characteristic of maps is symbols. People who use maps daily find
symbols very helpful. Some depend on symbols in making the map as a guide
for their short or long travel to unfamiliar places. In a deeper context, symbols
are used to represent geographic features. We usually see a “legend” on maps
describing the various symbols represented on it. Through these guides, we
can easily identify the type of map being presented.

If you look closely at a map, there are a series of lines that form squares or
rectangles, and these are called grids, another characteristic that helps people
to locate places on a map. For small-scale maps, these grids often represent
the latitude and longitude lines. In comparison to a globe, latitude lines are
those lines parallel to the equator or the horizontal curve lines; whereas
longitude lines are those vertical curve lines running from north to south and
parallel to the prime meridian. When these lines intersect, coordinates are
determined, and these coordinates identify the exact location of a place.
DOGSTAILS
Along with scale, symbols, and grids, other features appear regularly on maps. A good way to remember these features is
DOGSTAILS: date, orientation, grid, scale, title, author, index, legend, and sources.
Title, date, author, and sources usually appear on the map though not always together. The map’s title tells what the map
is about, revealing the map’s purpose and content. For example, a map might be titled “Political Map of the World” or
“Battle of Gettysburg, 1863.”
“Date” refers to either the time the map was made or the date relevant to the information on the map. A map of areas
threatened by a wildfire, for instance, would have a date, and perhaps even a time, to track the progress of the wildfire.
A historical map of the ancient Sumerian Empire would have a date range of between 5,000 B.C. and 1,000 B.C.
Noting a map’s author is important because the cartographer’s perspective will be reflected in the content.
Assessing accuracy and objectivity also requires checking sources. A map’s sources are where the author of the map got
his or her information. A map of a school district may list the U.S. Census Bureau, global positioning system
(GPS) technology, and the school district’s own records as its sources.
Orientation refers to the presence of a compass rose or simply an arrow indicating directions on the map. If only an arrow
is used, the arrow usually points north.
A map’s index helps viewers find a specific spot on the map using the grid. A map’s legend explains what the symbols on a
map mean.

Figure 3: Other Map Features: DOGSTAILS (Retrieved from National Geographic Society)

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CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS

There are millions of unique maps used throughout the world and it’s somehow
difficult to classify them but most of these maps can be divided into two
categories namely general and thematic.

General maps show the location of geographic boundaries, physical features of

Earth, or cultural features such as places, cities, and roads. These also show
relationships of different geographic features and phenomena to highlight their
location relative to each other.

A variety of general maps has been made for almost every country in the world.
Several maps fall under this classification and the commonly used are the
following:

▪ Political Maps
o most widely used as they are mounted on the walls of classrooms
throughout the world
o show the geographical boundaries between governmental units
such as countries, states, and counties
o show roads, cities, and major water features such as oceans,
rivers, and lakes
▪ Physical Maps
o designed to show natural landscape features of the Earth
▪ Road Maps
o primarily displays roads and transport links rather than natural
geographical information
o show how they can travel from one place to another
▪ Topographic Maps
o show the shape of the surface of the Earth
o usually done with lines of equal elevation known as “contour lines”
o commonly used by hunters, hiker, skiers, and other seeking
outdoor activities
▪ Geological Maps
o show the types of rocks and sediments present immediately below
the surface of a geographic area
o made by geologists in the field who identify, sample, and measure
the rocks

On the other hand, thematic maps illustrate the variation of a topic (the theme)
across a geographic area emphasizing the pattern of the distribution. Some of
these are:

▪ Weather Maps
o used to show predicted temperatures, precipitation, storm
warnings of different kinds, wind speed and direction, the chance

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of rain, type of rain, snow accumulation, frost prediction and other

aspects of weather
o continuously updated to provide the most current information
▪ income Maps
o Show variations of income across an area
▪ resource Maps
o Help governments understand their natural resource assets and of
their allies and potential enemies

In general, maps can either be general or thematic, depending on the purpose

of the cartographer. There are general maps that can be a thematic map if the
focus is on a specific theme. An example of this is a vegetation map showing
the distribution of several plant communities. If the cartographer illustrates the
location relative to other geographic features, this map is considered a general
map. It becomes a thematic map if the cartographer gives a specific focus on
how plant communities are related to each other, or a particular feature or
phenomenon.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION OF MAPS

We’ve already define map and learned about its characteristics and
classifications. But what are the uses of maps, by the way? What is its
purpose?

A map portrays a very large space, commonly the entire world. It’s also our
guide to places we have never visited before. Various features are shown and
provide information about general or specific attributes. With a map, there is
not a need to depend on other people in asking directions. It acts as a guide in
your journey to different places comfortably and conveniently. Also, through
the use of technology, locating unfamiliar places becomes easier and faster. In
just a click on our mobile phones, the exact location is directly presented right
there and then.

Maps can also be applied for map projections, surveying, remote sensing, and
other applications for different use and purpose. But those previously
mentioned are the common applications for the study of Geodetic Engineering.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MAPS

The diagram below shows the overall advantages and limitations of maps.

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Advantages
• Maps are easier to
use and carry
around
• Maps can show the
Earth's entire
surface or a small
part and even a great
detail in a small
locality

Limitations
• Maps have
distortions
• Other maps have no
scale and give a poor
idea of distances and
other measurements
Figure 4: Advantages and Limitations of Maps

Maps also have two kinds; the physical or paper map and the digital map. The
next picture shows the summary of their pros and cons.

Physical/Paper Map Digital Map

Pros Pros
•necessary for certain •versatile
uses •faster update and
•tangible maintenance
•cheap •requires limited
•ideal for use when physical storage space
traveling and can be easily
electronically backed
up
Cons
•time-consuming
•map printing errors Cons
•can easily be damaged •costs highly in terms of
•limited, biased and not maintenance, updates,
complete and other technology
related expenses
Figure 5: Pros and Cons of Physical and Digital Map

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In the next lesson, we will focus on how computer-assisted cartography works.

An introduction to related software will also be introduced, and practice
acquiring and interpreting data for digital mapping. We will start to learn
preparing and creating a survey plan and determining its standards and
specifications. To be equipped with these topics in Lesson 2, start to research
and read about the above-mentioned topics and have some applications
according to your available resources.

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Briney, A. (2019). The History of Cartography. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/the-history-of-cartography-
1435696#:~:text=Ancient%20Greeks%20created%20the%20earliest,one%
20of%20the%20first%20cartographers.

Dempsey, C. (2011). Mapping Through the Ages: The History of Cartography.

Retrieved from https://www.gislounge.com/mapping-through-the-ages/

Fuchs, E., Riethmuller, R., Sala, J., Seelmann, J. (2009). Digital Tax Parcel Mapping
- Advantages and Limitations. Retrieved from
http://www.methodfinder.net/prosncons87.html

Grind GIS. (2018). Pros and Cons of Paper Maps. Retrieved from
https://grindgis.com/maps/pros-and-cons-of-paper-maps

Hattangadi, V. (2014). What’s the Importance of Maps. Retrieved from

http://drvidyahattangadi.com/importance-of-maps/

King, H., and Junkie, M. (2005). Types of Maps. Retrieved from

https://geology.com/maps/types-of-maps/

National Geographic. (2011). Map. Retrieved from

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/map/#:~:text=Some%2
0common%20features%20of%20maps%20include%20scale%2C%20symb
ols%2C%20and%20grids.&text=All%20maps%20are%20scale%20models,s
cale%2C%20or%20a%20representative%20fraction.

Parul, G. Maps: Characteristics and Types. Retrieved from

https://www.geographynotes.com/geology-2/cartography/maps-
characteristics-and-types-cartography/1577

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Web Solutions LLC. And Its Licensors. (2020). Cartography. Types Of Maps.
Retrieved from https://science.jrank.org/pages/1249/Cartography-
Types-maps.html

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LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s try to check your knowledge of this course. Write your answers to
the space provided after the question.

1. How will you define cartography?

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2. How relevant is cartography in your life as a student?
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3. What do you think is the importance of maps to humans?
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4. What is the relevance of a map to a Geodetic Engineer?
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5. How will you relate cartography in the Geodetic Engineering profession?
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LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below and write it on the space
provided.

1. Outline the characteristics of maps.

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2. In your own words, differentiate general and thematic maps.
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3. Aside from the advantages and limitations discussed, what other factors can
be of advantage and disadvantage of maps?
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4. What is the purpose of cartography?

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5. Give and discuss at least three (3) applications of a map.
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LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. Choose any type of map and create your map according to the features
around you that may be relevant to your chosen classification.

▪ Type of Map:
▪ Use/Purpose:

Drawing:

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Week 2 Computer-Assisted Cartography

Lesson Title Computer-Assisted Cartography
Determine the use of computer together with the relevant
Learning Outcome(s) software in cartography, familiarize, and apply the standards
and specifications of preparing a survey plan.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Terms to Ponder
Crude is something rudimentary, undefined or undeveloped, or behavior that is
impolite and improper.

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system for capturing,

storing, checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earth's surface.

The map projection is the geometric or mathematical methods for representing

portions of the curved surface of a sphere as a flat surface so that anyone point
on the sphere corresponds to only one point on the flat surface.

Essential Content
2.1 COMPUTER-ASSISTED CARTOGRAPHY

Computer-assisted cartography or better known as digital cartography is the

technology concerned with the construction and use of computer-based
systems for the practice of cartography and its applications. One of the major
applications of digital cartography is the fast-growing and commercially
important field of geographical information systems (GIS) which will be
introduced in the next lesson.

The use of digital computers, mapping software, and computer-driven display

units to design or produce maps as well as to develop databases employed in
map production. But digital cartography is a bit older than GIS. Going back to
the early days, map projections, which require repeated evaluation of complex
mathematical formulas, were among the cartographic applications of the
computer (Snyder, 1985). During the 1950s to 1970s, there were different
applications of cartography with a combination of manual and digital mapping.

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Further advances in display technology in the 1980s encouraged university

cartographic laboratories and other small map producers to abandon manual,
non-electronic drafting. Improved cathode ray tubes and highly interactive
illustration software allowed the rapid placement of symbols and labels as well
as efficient map editing. Toner replaced the ink with the advent of high-
resolution laser printers able to integrate precise, visually pleasing type with
crisp linework and carefully controlled gray tones. A further change is
inevitable as a consequence of color monitors, inexpensive color printers, and
the World Wide Web, which supports broad distribution without the expense
and delay of printing.

Although computerized strategies allow mapmakers to smooth and simplify line

symbols, eliminate inconsequential point and area features, purge extraneous
points from the list of coordinates, consolidate nearby polygons and exaggerate
details for clarity, manual intervention is almost always necessary when a
substantial reduction in the scale demands lateral displacement of close,
similarly aligned features (McMaster and Shea, 1992).

Other remarkable developments include:

▪ specialized data structures for the efficient storage and ready retrieval of
spatial data (Laurini and Thompson, 1992)
▪ geocoding schemes for representing the topological structure of the
urban street grid and census enumeration units (Trainor, 1990)
▪ more efficient methods for displaying and analyzing terrain (Raper, 1989)
▪ tools for automated line-following, edge-matching and other aspects of
developing and maintaining a geographical database

2.2 DIGITAL MAPPING

Technology is revolutionizing the way we make maps. As we move into the

digital environment, computer cartography and GIS are transforming the way
we think of and interact with geographic information.

Beginning in the early 1960s and concurrent with research in cartographic

communication, cartography was greatly influenced by computer technology.
The adaptation to this new technology happened rapidly, even though early
methods of graphic output produced crude depictions. But until recently, the
computer has been used primarily to automate the production of maps on
paper. Therefore it was mainly viewed as a tool to make the creation of maps
easier for the cartographer. This view of the computer changed around 1980.
Computer mapping software begins to incorporate an interactive, in some case
animated, form of cartography – a type of map use that is not possible with the
printed map. The computer is being used not only as a tool to help make maps
on paper but as a medium of communication. So, what is digital mapping?

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Digital mapping concerns the art and science of using digital technologies to
deal with geospatial data including digitally mediated processes of collecting,
transforming, arranging, and combining data with other geospatial data. And
also sharing and passing forward maps or mappable digital spatial data. The
digital mapping may include the production of maps, whether on a computer
screen or displayed on mobile devices.
Now, let’s have a quick read of the digital mapping process. This includes:
▪ capture or access data
▪ convert and transform projections, scales, coordinates, data structures
▪ compose and design
▪ select the representation method
▪ select symbols and text
▪ apply the design loop
▪ publish or distribute
And, data for digital mapping can be acquired through satellite images, aerial
photographs, GNSS and EDM instruments, analog media, and many more.
2.3 SOFTWARE FOR CARTOGRAPHY
There are tons of software related, relevant, useful, and significant in the
acquisition, processing, interpretation, and application of cartography. Some of
those are given here.
We can acquire data from these groups or agencies:
▪ United States Geological Survey (USGS)
▪ United States Census Bureau
▪ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
▪ National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)
▪ National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
▪ Private data like Navteq, TeleAtlas, etc.
Some commercial software used in digital cartography are:
▪ MapGuide Autodesk
▪ Cadcorp – developers of GIS software and OpenGIS standard
▪ Intergraph GeoMedia
▪ ERDAS IMAGINE – Leica Geosystems
▪ ESRI – includes GIS
▪ IDRISI – Clark Labs
▪ MapInfo – products include MapInfo Professional and MapXtreme
▪ MapPoint – Microsoft
There are also open-source software like:

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▪ GRASS
▪ MapServer
▪ ILWIS
▪ MapWindow GIS
▪ PostGIS
▪ PostgreSQL
▪ Quantum GIS
▪ TerraView
The above-mentioned software have different features and commands but will
surely result in processed data according to what the creator is using it for.
2.4 SURVEY PLAN PREPARATION, STANDARDS, AND SPECIFICATION
The survey plan is a two-dimensional map showing the metes and bounds of a
surveyed parcel or parcels of land and other pertinent information. The image
below is an example of a survey plan.

Various software is used by land surveyors in creating a survey plan. This

survey plan may be for relocation, subdivision, topography, and types of
surveys. But the most common and familiar software used by almost all
engineers is the AutoCAD. It has a variety of features depending on the
plotter’s choice. For Geodetic Engineers, efficient and convenient software is
used for land surveys like NMax and GeoMax. There is also the software used
for aerial photographs acquired from drones and flying instruments.

We all know that surveying is done with accuracy and precision, there are
standards needed to be met to have acceptable, reliable, and informative plans

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and maps. To define, a survey standard is the minimum accuracies deemed

necessary to meet specific objectives. Survey standards provide quality
assurance as well as consistency in a survey and also help re-establish missing
survey monuments. These would also establish specifications for instruments,
field procedures, and misclosure checks to ensure that the intended level of
accuracy is achieved.

In connection, surveys have specifications that can be described as the field

operations required to meet a particular survey standard. Included also are the
specified precision and allowable tolerances for the data collected, the
limitations of the geometric form of acceptable figures, monumentation, and
description of points.

For surveys in the Philippines, the position of points of reference, the

geographic position of points to be specific, shall be referred to the standard
datum of the Philippines and is classified namely the First, Second, Third, and
Fourth Order. These points shall be derived from the adopted coordinates of
previously established stations as referred to as the standard datum by a
network of triangulation, trilateration, traverse, leveling, GPS, or by any other
method of a recognized standard.

The standard datum for the Philippines shall be defined by the geographic
coordinates (latitude, longitude, and elevation) of the triangulation station of
the Coast and Geodetic Surveys, known as Balanacan
which is located at the province of Marinduque, having
a latitude of 13°33’41” N, the longitude of 121°52’03”
E, and geoid/spheroid separation of 0.34 meters. The
azimuth from station Balanacan to station Baltazar is
9°12’37” with a distance of 37,680.90 meters, and its
back azimuth is 189°11’50.60”.

Under Executive Order No. 45 dated

January 5, 1992, the Philippine
Reference System of 1992 (PRS-92)
became the new reference system
for all surveys and maps in the
Philippines. It is also known as the Philippine Plane
Coordinate System – Transverse Mercator/Philippine
Reference System of 1992 (PPCS-TM/PRS-92) to distinguish
it from the PPCS of 1965. This reference system is based on
the Luzon Datum with the origin at station Balanacan.

To integrate all surveys to the PRS-92, all subsequent

interconnections must be surveyed following these geometric
relative positioning accuracy standards:

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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Order Positional Accuracy Vertical Accuracy

1st Order 10 ppm 1/100000 1 cm/km
2nd Order 20 ppm 1/50000 2cm/km 8.4 mm √d
3rd Order 50 ppm 1/20000 5cm/km 12.0 mm √d
4th Order 100 ppm 1/10000 10 cm/km

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Crampton, J. (2017). Digital mapping. In Kitchin, R., Lauriault, T., & Wilson, M.
Understanding spatial media (pp. 35-43). 55 City Road, London: SAGE Publications Ltd
doi: 10.4135/9781526425850

DENR. (2010). Adoption of the Manual on Land Survey Procedures. Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxiYmFi
YXRheW98Z3g6MWI4MGE0ZDAxMmQ5MzFiNg

GITTA. (2006). What Digital Mapping Is. Retrieved from

http://www.gitta.info/GISDataPres/en/html/SolDigiPrint_learningObject1.html

MSc GEoinformatics. (2011). Computer-assisted Cartography. Retrieved from

http://annamalaimscgeoinfo.blogspot.com/2011/05/computer-assisted-
cartography.html

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s try to check your understanding of this lesson. Write your answers
to the space provided after the question.

1. What is computer-assisted cartography?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between cartography and GIS?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Why is computer important to cartography?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What is digital mapping?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. What is a survey plan?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below and write it on the space
provided.

1. What are the uses of computer in cartography?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the purpose of a survey plan?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What standards are needed in making a plan?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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4. Why is there a need to use the PRS-92 reference system?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

5. What is the difference between WGS-84 and PRS-92?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. Look for a sample survey plan in the Philippines and write its details. Do
not forget to indicate what kind of survey plan it is and for what purpose/s does it
serve.

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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Week 3 Scale, Coordinate System and Projection

Lesson Title Scale, Coordinate System, and Projection
Identify the different types of a scale and calculate the
necessary scale to be used on a map, define and differentiate
Learning Outcome(s)
coordinate systems and projections, and understand the
basic concept and purpose of geographic information system.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Terms to Ponder
Latitude is the measurement of distance north or south of the Equator.

Longitude is the measurement east or west of the prime meridian.

Rhumbline or loxodrome is an arc crossing all meridians of longitude at the

same angle, that is, a path with a constant bearing as measured relative to true
or magnetic north.

The azimuth is the number of degrees along the horizon to the vertical circle of
the star from some reference point on the horizon.

The graticule is a network of lines representing meridians and parallels, on

which a map or plan can be represented.

Essential Content
3.1 SCALE

Different definitions, use, and purpose come with the word scale. It’s different
in the statistics, maps, geography, and many more. In Lesson 1, we had a short
introduction of scale as one of the characteristics of maps. But in this lesson,
we will dig deeper and focus on the map scales which are of great importance
in the study of cartography.

Map scales, by definition, is a ratio of the distance on a map to the actual

distance of the ground. The scale on the map presents a distance measurement
between each landmark. To represent this into an equation, we can say that

Scale = (Map distance)/(Ground distance) = MD/GD

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A map can inform us of the scale it uses in three different ways. First is
through a verbal scale. This type of scale uses simple words to describe a
surface feature. A verbal map scale expands abbreviations to describe a
landmark or an object. For example the verbal scale, 1″ = 100′ means that one
inch measured the map represented 100 feet on the ground.

Next is the graphical scale or the bar scale. The actual length of the bar scale
shows what that length represents in real-world units. These scales are great if
you don't have a ruler or tape measure handy to measure the map. In the
example below, the bar scale shows the distance on the map that represents
ten kilometers or a little less than six miles.

Lastly, the fraction or ration scale. A fraction or ratio can compare the
distances with the relationship of the map's distance to the actual distance on
the ground. For example, a scale that has a fraction of 1:100 means that every
one unit on the map equals one hundred of the same units on the ground.

Example 3.1: What height in a model built to a scale of 1:40000 will represent a
mountain 9200 ft in elevation?

Solution:

By formula, Scale = MD/GD. To equate to solve for MD, it becomes MD = GD *

Scale. So,
MD = 9200 * (1/40000) = 0.23 ft.
Knowing that 1 ft = 12 in, we can multiply 0.23 ft by 12 in to convert it to
inches. So,
MD = 0.23 ft. = 2.76 in.

Example 3.2: A map is drawn to a scale of 1:31680. What distance on the

ground would be represented by 6.84 in on the map?

Solution:

GD = MD/Scale = 6.84/(1/31680) = 216691.2 in. = 18057.6 ft.

Notice in the two example problems, map distance used inches and ground
distance used feet. This is to justify the size of it. It would be insignificant to
use feet in a map distance because it’s a unit for large areas. The same goes for
inches as ground distance. Inches are so small in measurement which would

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make the dimensions on the ground have lots of significant figures and would
take time to interpret it more easily.

So, after discussing the definition and types of scales, let’s learn the upside
and downside of it. The figure below shows a list of some of the importance and
disadvantages of scales.

- Scale updates recent changes - Creating scales in a map

in the map distance. consumes time and effort.
- When a new map is created, This process takes at least
the scale shows the differences one month to install scales in
between the new and old a map.
maps. The comparison - A scale needs a reliable
identifies changes or information source about the
improvements between the two actual name of the landmark.
maps.
The purpose is to verify the
- The scale in a map educates
name of the object and the
the readers about the
landmarks and structures. The
distance between landmarks.
map users learn the distance - Scales requires constant
updates. Every landmark
IMPORTANCE

and the name of noticeable

features in a specific land area. naturally changes over a
- A map scale guides anyone time. The environment’s
when visiting an unfamiliar weather and geology
place. The scale provides gradually changes the

DISADVANTAGES
details about the place with physical appearance of a
their distance on the map. landmark.
- Scale prevents confusion - Creating a map scale costs
between two or more a significant amount of
landmarks. Each scale money. The equipment and
provides factual information to the professional services of
avoid misidentification of a scale creators require fees to
landmark. install a scale on maps.
- Measurements on each - Making a scale map risks
landmark scale help travelers the creator’s lives and the
cut travel time. There are
health. Creators’ site visit
numeric ratios indicated in the
might be an unsafe. As an
scale to calculate an estimated
travel time.
example, scale map creators
- A map scale informs the encounter road accidents or
public if landmarks are injuries while conducting a
disappeared. These are survey.
demolished buildings and
roads affected by either nature
or human beings.

3.2 COORDINATE SYSTEM

Data usually comprises an array of numbers. Spatial data is similar, but it also
includes numerical information that allows you to position it on Earth. These
numbers are part of a coordinate system that provides a frame of reference for

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your data, to locate features on the surface of the Earth, to align your data
relative to other data, to perform spatially accurate analysis, and to create
maps.

Each coordinate system is defined by the following:

▪ Its measurement framework, which is either geographic or planimetric

▪ Units of measurement such as decimal degrees, feet, meters, or
kilometers
▪ The definition of the map projection for projected coordinate systems
▪ Other measurement system properties such as a spheroid of reference, a
datum, one or more standard parallels, a central meridian, and possible
shifts in the x and y directions

There are two common types of coordinate systems namely geographic and
projected. Both systems provide a framework for defining real-world locations.
But let’s learn how they differ to understand and know what kind of coordinate
system we use.

Geographic coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical

surface to define locations on the Earth. GCS includes an angular unit of
measure, a prime meridian, and a datum which is about a spheroid. The
spheroid defines the size and shape of the Earth model, while the datum
connects the spheroid to the Earth's surface. Geographic coordinate systems
usually have angular units in decimal degrees, measuring degrees of longitude
and latitude measured from the Earth’s center to a point on the surface. The
location of the point is expressed as positive or negative. Horizontal lines are
the lines of latitude or parallels and vertical lines are lines of longitude or
meridians. These lines are imaginary and form a grid network called a
graticule.

Latitudes are measured relative to the equator and range from -90° at the
south pole to +90° at the north pole. Longitudes are measured to the prime
meridian and range from -180° (prime meridian to the west) to +180° (prime
meridian to the west).

As for the projected coordinate system, it is defined on a flat, two-dimensional

surface. Unlike a GCS, a PCS has constant lengths, angles, and areas across
the two dimensions. A PCS is always based on a GCS that is based on a sphere
or spheroid. In addition to the GCS, a PCS includes a map projection, a set of
projection parameters that customize the map projection for a particular
location, and a linear unit of measure.

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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3.3 MAP PROJECTION

A projection is displaying the coordinate

system and your data on a flat surface,
such as a piece of paper or a digital
screen. But projections have problems
and downside if not fully understood and
well-applied. So, every map user and
maker should have a basic
understanding of projections, no matter
how much computers seem to have
automated the operations. There are also
mathematical calculations are used to convert the coordinate system used on
the curved surface of Earth to one for a flat surface.

A map projection is a systematic representation of all or part of the surface of a

round body, especially the Earth, on a plane. (Snyder, 1987) Since there is no
perfect way to transform a curved surface to a flat surface without some
distortion, many map projections exist that provide different properties where
cartographers or mapmakers may use. There is no such thing as “best
projection” for mapping. All of them have ups and downs. The choice of the
“best-fit projection” depends on the purpose and what features you’d like to
preserve.

There are characteristics usually considered in choosing a map projection.

They are as follows:

1. Area

Many map projections are designed to be equal-area. Shapes, angles, and

scale must be distorted on most parts of such a map, but there are usually
some parts of an equal-area map which are designed to retain these
characteristics correctly, or almost.

2. Shape

Many of the most common and most important projections are conformal or
orthomorphic. On a conformal map of the entire Earth, there are usually
one or more "singular" points at which local angles are still distorted.
Although a large area must still be shown distorted in shape, its small

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features are shaped essentially correctly. Conformality applies on a point or

infinitesimal basis, whereas an equal-area map projection shows areas
correctly on a finite, in fact, map-wide basis. An important result of
conformality is that the local scale in every direction around any one point
is constant. Because local angles are correct, meridians intersect parallels
at right angles on a conformal projection, just as they do on the Earth.
Areas are generally enlarged or reduced throughout the map, but they are
correct along certain lines, depending on the projection. No map can be both
equal-area and conformal.

3. Scale

No map projection shows scale correctly throughout the map, but there are
usually one or more lines on the map along which the scale remains true.
By choosing the locations of these lines properly, the scale errors elsewhere
may be minimized, although some errors may still be large, depending on
the size of the area being mapped and the projection. Some projections show
a true scale between one or two points and every other point on the map, or
along every meridian. They are called equidistant projections.

4. Direction

While conformal maps give the relative local directions correctly at any given
point, there is one frequently used group of map projections, called
azimuthal (or zenithal), on which the directions or azimuths of all points on
the map are shown correctly to the center. One of these projections is also
equal-area, another is conformal, and another is equidistant. There are also
projections, on which directions from two points are correct, or on which
directions from all points to one or two selected points are correct, but these
are rarely used.

5. Special characteristics

Several map projections provide special characteristics that no other

projection provides. On the Mercator projection, all rhumb lines, or lines of
constant direction, are shown as straight lines. On the Gnomonic
projection, all great circle paths-the the shortest routes between points on a
sphere are shown as straight lines. On the Stereographic, all small circles,
as well as great circles, are shown as circles on the map. Some newer
projections are specially designed for satellite mapping. Less useful but
mathematically intriguing projections have been designed to fit the sphere
conformally into a square, an ellipse, a triangle, or some other geometric
figure.

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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There are three classes of projections types of developable surfaces onto which
most of the map projections used – the cylinder, the cone, and the plane. Each
of these will be discussed below.

3.4 CYLINDRICAL
PROJECTION

Cylindrical projection uses a

cylinder as a tangent surface
that wraps around a globe
where it touches the equator,
or to intersect the globe at certain points. If the cylinder is unrolled into a flat
sheet, the parallels and meridians will be straight lines creating right angles
where they intersect each other. The projection displays directions and shapes
correctly. The area close to tangent points will be more accurate. The more
distant it is from tangent points, the more distortion will be shown. This type of
projection is typically used to map the world in particular areas between 80
degrees north and 80 degrees south latitudes.

The problems of cylindrical map projections are that they are severely distorted
at the poles. While the areas near the Equator are the most likely to be
accurate compared to the actual Earth, the parallels and meridians being
straight lines don’t allow for the curvature of the Earth to be taken into
consideration. These are good for comparing latitudes to each other and are
useful for teaching and showing the world as a whole but aren’t the most
accurate way of showing how the world looks.

Types of cylindrical map projections you may know include the popular
Mercator projection, Cassini, Gauss-Kruger, Miller, Behrmann, Hobo-Dyer, and
Gall-Peters.

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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3.5 CONIC PROJECTION

This type of projection uses a conic surface to touch the globe when light is
cast. When the cone is unrolled, the meridians will be in a semicircle like the
ribs of a fan.

Conic map projections are defined by the cone constant, which dictates the
angular distance between meridians. These meridians are equidistant and
straight lines that converge in locations along with the projection regardless of
if there’s a pole or not. Like the cylindrical projection, conic map projections
have parallels that cross the meridians at right angles with a constant measure
of distortion throughout. Conic map projections are designed to be able to be
wrapped around a cone on top of a sphere (globe) but aren’t supposed to be
geometrically accurate.

Conic map projections are best used as regional or hemispheric maps, but
rarely for a complete world map. The distortion in a conic map makes it
inappropriate for use as a visual of the entire Earth but does make it great for
use visualizing temperate regions, weather maps, climate projections, and
more.

3.6 AZIMUTHAL MAP PROJECTION

This is also known as planar or zenithal projection. This type of map projection
allows a flat sheet to touch with the globe, with the light being cast from
certain positions, including the center of the Earth, opposite to the tangent
area, and infinite distance.

In the polar aspect, this is projected to a plane tangent to the Earth at one of
the poles, with meridians projected as straight lines radiating from the pole,
and parallels shown as complete circles centered at the pole. Azimuthal
projections can have equatorial or oblique aspects. The projection is centered
on a point, which is either on the surface, at the center of the Earth, at the
antipode, some distance beyond the Earth, or at infinity. Most azimuthal

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projections are not suitable for displaying the entire Earth in one view, but give
a sense of the globe.

3.7 INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

A geographic information system (GIS) is a framework for gathering, managing,

and analyzing data. Rooted in the science of geography, GIS integrates many
types of data. It analyzes spatial location and organizes layers of information
into visualizations using maps and 3D scenes. With this unique capability, GIS
reveals deeper insights into data, such as patterns, relationships, and
situations—helping users make smarter decisions. GIS can use any
information that includes location. The location can be expressed in many
different ways, such as latitude and longitude, address, or ZIP code.

Many different types of information can be compared and contrasted using

GIS. The system can include data about people, such as population, income, or
education level. It can include information about the landscape, such as the
location of streams, different kinds of vegetation, and different kinds of soil. It
can include information about the sites of factories, farms, and schools, or
storm drains, roads, and electric power lines.

With the development of internet and global navigation satellite systems, GIS is
“everywhere”. Although the concept itself is unknown to many, most of us have
taken advantage of the technology and its applications in daily life. Thanks to
GIS you can plan the fastest route from A to B or travel virtually on Google
Earth.

The 4 main ideas of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are:

▪ Create geographic data
▪ Manage it in a database
▪ Analyze and find patterns
▪ Visualize it on a map

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Because viewing and analyzing data on maps impacts our understanding of

data, we can make better decisions using GIS. It helps us understand what is
where. The analysis becomes simple. Answers become clear.
Further understanding and application of GIS will be discussed in the next
courses.
Next week, we’ll focus on discussing contours. You may have a background
about contours and topographic maps, so please review to have a smooth flow
of reading the next lesson.

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Borneman, E. (2015). Types of Map Projections. Retrieved from
https://www.geographyrealm.com/types-map-projections/

ESRI. (2008). About map projections. Retrieved from

http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.3/index.cfm?TopicName=About%20map%20
projections

GIS Geography. (2020). What is Geographic Information Systems (GIS)? Retrieved from
https://gisgeography.com/what-gis-geographic-information-systems/

GISTDA. (2005). Types of Map Projections. Retrieved from

https://www.gistda.or.th/main/en/node/950

National Geographic Society. (2017). GIS (Geographic Information System). Retrieved

from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/geographic-information-
system-gis/

Porteous, S. (2016). Types of Map Projections. Retrieved from

https://www.lovelljohns.com/types-map-projections/

Smith, H. (2020). Geographic vs Projected Coordinate System. Retrieved from

https://www.esri.com/arcgis-blog/products/arcgis-pro/mapping/gcs_vs_pcs/

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s try to check your understanding of this lesson. Write your answers
to the space provided after the question.

1. What is the definition of scale?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between GPS and GIS?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Why is map projection important?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. How does map projection gives a contribution to the study of cartography?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the purpose of coordinate systems in cartography?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Solve the following problems. Write your solutions and answers as
neatly as possible. Do not forget to box your final answer.

1. Determine the absolute numerical scale suitable to replace an equivalent

scale of 25 mm = 15 km.

2. A model is to be built at a scale of 1:24000 and a mountain peak 6200 ft

high is to be presented. To present this peak, what should be the model
height?

3. A ground distance of 1 m is represented on a scale of 1:4000. If a scale of

1:40000 is used to scale the distance of the same map, what is its
equivalent ground distance?

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4. What is the error on the ground if a plotted point has an error of 2.0 mm in
a map at scale 1:4000?

5. The topographic map scale 1:5000 is found to be in error of plotting of 0.2

mm. What will be the error on the ground is the map is to be enlarged 5
times?

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. Draw how GIS impacts your everyday life. Give explanations of your
drawing.

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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Week 4 Contour Interpretation

Lesson Title Contour Interpretation
Identify and understand the characteristics and types of a
Learning Outcome(s) contour, familiarize its terminologies, know how to interpret
contours.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Terms to Ponder
A topographic map is a detailed and accurate two-dimensional representation of
natural and human-made features on the Earth's surface.

Hachure is a short line used for shading and denoting surfaces in relief (as in
map drawing) and drawn in the direction of the slope.

The topography is the study of the shape and features of land surfaces.

Essential Content
4.1 CONTOUR LINES

What comes into your mind when you hear the word “contour”? You might
think of it as one of the procedures in putting makeup just like those makeup
tutorials you can see on YouTube. Well, yes, you can do contour that way but
this word also exists in the world of surveying and cartography.

In topography, we have this term contour line defined as a line on a map

representing an imaginary line on the land surface, all points of which are at
the same elevation above a datum plane, usually mean sea level. Contour lines
show elevation and the shape of the terrain. They're useful because they
illustrate the shape of the land surface – its topography on the map.

4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOUR LINES

The principal characteristics of contour lines are as follows:

▪ Contour lines connect the point of equal elevation.

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▪ The horizontal distance between contour lines is inversely proportional to

the slope.
▪ Uniform slopes have uniformly spaced lines.
▪ Along plane surfaces, contour lines are straight and parallel.
▪ Contour lines are perpendicular to lines of steepest slopes.
▪ For summits or depressions, contour lines most close upon themselves.
▪ Contour lines never cross, split, or intersect, except at a cliff where they
might merge.
▪ A single contour line cannot lie between two lines of higher or lower
elevation.

Aside from the characteristics, there are some basic rules you must know
about contour lines. A contour line must never split or divide and must never
simply end, except at the edge of the map. A contour line must also represent
one and only one elevation. And of course, contour lines must never intersect
the other lines except for special cases.

4.3 CONTOUR INTERVAL

To keep things simple, topographic maps show lines for certain elevations only.
These lines are spaced evenly. We call this spacing the contour interval. For
example, if your map uses a 5-meter contour interval, you will see contour
lines for every 5 meters of elevation; lines at 0, 5, 10, 15, and so on. Different
maps use different intervals, depending on the topography. If, for example, the
general terrain is quite elevated, the map might run at 20 to 30 meters
intervals. This makes it easier to read the map. Too many contour lines would
be difficult to work with.

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4.4 TYPES OF CONTOURS

If each line represents an equal

point of elevation, then any change
in elevation would lead to
inconsistent line spacing, right?
For example, several contour lines
spaced close together would
indicate steep terrain, while lines
spaced far apart would indicate a
gentler slope.

Let's learn more. There are three

types of contour lines you’ll see on
a map. They are as follows:

1. Index lines

These are the thickest contour lines and are usually labeled with a number
at one point along the line. This tells you the elevation above sea level.

2. Intermediate lines

Those are thinner, more common, lines between the index lines. They
usually don't have a number label. Typically one index line occurs for every
five intermediate lines.

3. Supplementary lines

These appear as dotted lines, indicating flatter terrain.

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4.5 CONTOUR INTERPRETATION

Now that we know the definition, characteristics, rules, and types of contour
lines, let’s dig deeper and know how to interpret and determine the common
formations from contour lines.

1. Peak Ring

The innermost ring at the center of several contour loops almost always
represents a peak (highest elevation).

2. Depression Ring

Occasionally, however, an inner ring indicates a depression (lowest

elevation), which the map will show hachures. Closed loops without
hachures are always uphill on the inside and downhill on the outside. This
is known as the “Rule of O’s”. This means that hills and mountains will
appear on the map as a cluster of concentric O shapes.

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3. Cliff

If you see two or more lines converge until they appear as a single line, this
represents a cliff. Use caution, however, some cliffs may not appear on the
map. If your contour interval was 50 feet, a cliff of 40 feet might not appear
on the map, since the elevation doesn’t change enough to warrant a new
contour line.

4. Valley

When contour lines cross a valley or a stream, they make a sharp-pointed V

or U-shape. Rivers, of course, are represented by blue lines that will run
through the center of the V-shape. Sometimes called draws, the V-shape of
this feature always points towards their peak. You can also use a
topographic map to determine the direction the river is flowing. Because
water flows downhill, the V-shape always points in the opposite direction
that the water is flowing. This is called the “Rule of V’s”.

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5. Ridgeline

Think of a ridgeline like an elongated peak, not coming to a fine point.

Instead of a closed inner circle, a ridgeline can look like a big oval.

6. Saddle

A saddle is a low lying area between two higher points of elevation.

Identifying saddles can show you the quickest route through hilly areas.
They appear as hourglass shapes between two concentric circles.

7. Spur

A spur is a short ridge. The ground will slope downward in three directions
and upward in one direction. On a map, the contour lines depicting a spur
are U-shaped pointing away from higher ground. In most cases, a spur will
have draws to the left or right, or a spur is situated between two draws.

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After learning what contour lines are and how it is interpreted, next week, we’ll
learn about surface interpretation. You may want to read in advance by
researching and reading about the next topic.

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Cage, C. (2014). Contour Lines and Topo Maps. Retrieved from
https://www.greenbelly.co/pages/contour-lines

GIS Geography. (2020). What Are Contour Lines on Topographic Maps? Retrieved
from https://gisgeography.com/contour-lines-topographic-map/

Rajput, K. (2020). What Is Contour Interval? Retrieved from

https://civiljungle.com/contour-interval/

Ronca, D. (2009). How to Read a Topographic Map. Retrieved from

https://adventure.howstuffworks.com/outdoor-activities/hiking/how-to-
read-a-topographic-
map2.htm#:~:text=Contour%20lines%20are%20the%20greatest,the%20sh
ape%20of%20the%20terrain.

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LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s try to check your understanding of this lesson. Match the contours
with the correct formation. Identify what type of formation is it. Write your answer on
the space after the number.

1. ___________ ; _____________
2. ___________ ; _____________
3. ___________ ; _____________
4. ___________ ; _____________
5. ___________ ; _____________
6. ___________ ; _____________

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LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below and write it on the space
provided.

1. Describe the various types of contour lines.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Discuss the difference between planimetric and topographic maps.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the purpose of the contour interval?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Discuss the principal characteristics of contour lines.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. Discuss the rules of contour lines.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. Create a topographic map using the given elevations below. Use 10
meters contour interval.

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Week 5 Surface Interpretation

Lesson Title Surface Interpretation
Define surface and surface analysis, discuss the concept, of
road alignment, determine the factors controlling it, and its
Learning Outcome(s)
steps and types, and differentiate horizontal and vertical
alignments.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Terms to Ponder
This section is where you can have a better understanding of the definition of
terminologies used in this topic and throughout the simplified course pack of
Cartography. You may refer to this section in case of difficulties in
understanding the content of the course pack. I suggest you also take these
terms by heart to store the definitions in your long-term memory and use them
in the next courses that you will take.

A road is a long piece of hard ground that is built between two places so that
people can drive or ride easily from one place to the other.

Alignment is an arrangement in a straight line, or in a correct or appropriate

relative positions.

Centerline is a line along the center of a road or highway dividing it into

separate sections for traffic moving in opposite directions.

Essential Content
5.1 SURFACE

Surfaces represent phenomena that have values at every point across their
extent. The values at the infinite number of points across the surface are
derived from a limited set of sample values. These may be based on direct
measurements, such as height values for an elevation surface, or temperature
values for a temperature surface. Between these measured locations, values
are assigned to the surface by interpolation. Surfaces can also be
mathematically derived from other data, such as slope and aspect surfaces
derived from an elevation surface, a surface of distance from bus stops in a

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city, or surfaces showing a concentration of criminal activity or probability of

lightning strikes.

The analysis of surface will depict surface conditions plotted from reported data
or generated by computer models. Surface analysts in GIS generated the
contour, slope, aspect, and hill shade maps. These topographic surfaces give
us effectively relate our data to real-world elevation and analyze how these
varied surfaces will affect the data in question. By combining the terrain maps
with data in question, a more realistic depiction of the area is presented which
leads the accurate analysis for issues such as the location of the school or
road. We can then see where elevation and other terrain fluctuations may play
a role in spatial at hand.

5.2 ROAD ALIGNMENT

The position of the centerline on the highway in the ground is called road
alignment or highway alignment. Alignment must be selected in such a way
that the overall cost during construction, operation, and maintenance is
minimized.

To achieve the ideal alignment of a road, there are certain requirements and
principles needed to be met which are enumerated as follows:

a. The alignment of the road should be as short as possible to provide an

economy in the cost of construction.

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b. The alignment should be as straight as possible which ensures higher

speed to the traffic and lower cost of construction.
c. The alignment should be easy for construction, maintenance, and traffic
operations.
d. The alignment should cross the railway lines and other roads and
bridges at the right angles.
e. It should cross the rivers, canals or streams, etc. a place where its width
is minimum.
f. The alignment serves the maximum population connecting intermediate
important towns and groups of villages.
g. The alignment should pass through regions of natural beauty and
scenery.
h. The alignment should be such that crosses the minimum number of
bridges, crossings, culverts, and embankment.
i. It should provide smooth curves and easy gradients.
j. It should be such that minimum earthwork in embankment or cutting is
done.
k. The alignment should provide good sight distance.
l. It should be free from obstruction like ponds, lakes, wells, monumental
buildings, and historical buildings, etc.
m. The alignment should run through such places where materials of road
construction and labor are easily available.
n. As far as possible, it should run on good soil having the good bearing
capacity to bear loads of traffic safely without any damage to the road.
o. The alignment should not pass through more costly and cultivated land
and it must avoid forests.

5.3 FACTORS CONTROLLING ROAD ALIGNMENT

1. Class & Purpose

The alignment of the road is affected by class and purpose. National and
state highways between two stations must be aligned straight as much
as possible whereas, in the case of other types of roads, a deviation may
be allowed where it is found necessary.

2. Obligatory Points

Obligatory points define the way through which road should pass and
through which road should not be passed. Road alignment should not be
passed through historical places, cultural places, etc. The roads are
usually built for the development of the areas. Therefore, road
alignments must necessarily pass through important towns, groups of
villages, and places of religious, social, political, and commercial
importance.

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3. Type of Vehicular Traffic

The alignment should be selected according to the type of vehicular

traffic. In the case of fast-moving traffic, the road alignment must be
straight as much as possible. In the case of low traffic, the alignment
may even have sharp turns.

4. Gradient

The alignment of roads should be selected such that longitudinal slopes

are not steeper than the ruling gradient. To achieve this, the alignment
might need a deviation from the straight line.

5. Horizontal Curves

In the case of national and state highways, the radius of the horizontal
curve must not be less than 230 m otherwise the alignment must be
improved.

6. Sight Distance

The alignment of roads must be decided such that more and clear sight
distance is available for drivers of the vehicles.

7. Obstructions

Obstruction also affects alignment selection. For example, the alignment

should be improved to avoid marshy land, ponds, wells, graveyards,
historical monumental and religious sites, etc.

8. Economical Factor

The road construction becomes economical when the road alignment is

straight. So, straight alignments should be given priority.

9. Availability of Construction Materials

Construction material should be easily available. Abundant material

leads to a higher cost of the material. This directly affects the economical
condition.

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5.4 STEPS IN ROAD ALIGNMENT

There are four major steps in road alignment. Please refer to the chart below.

•The first step of road alignment is map study. Generally, geographical and
contour maps are studied. This helps to know the position of natural
features like ponds, rivers, lakes, hills etc. This also helps to learn about
different alternative alignments.
Map Study

•Reconnaissance is a rough survey done by visiting the field. Positions of

natural features in the field are cross-checked as indicated in the map. If
some features are not indicated in the map then such features are
included. It also includes the collection of data like several cross drainage
Reconnaisance structures, high flood level, soil characteristics, etc. Report of selected
alignment is also prepared that includes the merits, demerits and profile
Survey map of scale 1:50,000.

•The main objectives of the survey are to analyze the different alternatives
to road alignment, to estimate the cutting and filling required in the
construction, to survey the alignments proposed by reconnaissance
Preliminary survey, and to finalize the alignment among different alternatives.
Survey

•It is the final step before starting the construction work. Here, study of the
soil, hydrological survey, construction cost and time, return on
Detailed investment, and present and future traffic is done.
Survey

5.5 TYPES OF ROAD ALIGNMENTS

Road alignments have two types: horizontal and vertical. Each of these will be
discussed below.

Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features of highway design.

Its proper design can result in high performance regarding speed, safety,
efficiency, and comfort. Also, it may result in the saving of the economy and

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increase highway capacity. The design of horizontal alignments requires an

understanding of design speed and horizontal curves. Horizontal alignment
includes a road comprises of a series of straight lines known as tangents with
the provision of curves to change direction. It also includes the design of
superelevation, extra widening, set back a distance, transition curve design,
etc.

On the other hand, the vertical alignment of the highway is defined as the
presence of heights and depths in the vertical axis with respect to the
horizontal axis of alignment. Vertical alignment of highways consists of
gradients, grade compensation, and vertical curves (valley curve, summit
curve).

A further and deeper discussion of these alignments will be discussed in the

next courses that you will take.

This will be the end of our discussion for the preliminary period. Next week, we
will have our exam, so review the lessons and study well.

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Anupoju, S. (2016). What is vertical alignment of highways? Retrieved from
https://theconstructor.org/transportation/vertical-alignment-of-
highways/11266/#:~:text=The%20vertical%20alignment%20of%20highwa
y,vertical%20plane)%20or%20vertical%20curves.

Dream Civil. (2020). Road Alignment. Retrieved from https://dreamcivil.com/road-

alignment/

Shanmuka. (2016). Highway Alignment and Survey. Retrieved from

https://knowledge4civil.wordpress.com/2016/12/12/highway-alignment-
and-survey/

Shanmukha. (2016). Horizontal Alignment. Retrieved from

https://knowledge4civil.wordpress.com/2016/12/12/horizontal-
alignment/

Shanmukha. (2016). Vertical Alignments. Retrieved from

https://knowledge4civil.wordpress.com/2016/12/12/vertical-
alignments/

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LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s try to check your understanding of this lesson. Answer the following
questions and write your answer on the provided.

1. Explain what is surface analysis.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the relevance of surface in cartography?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the relevance of alignment in cartography?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below and write it on the space
provided.

1. What is the relevance of surface in road alignment?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. How is the surface analysis done to establish a road alignment?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. How do the factors controlling the road alignment relates to cartography?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 58
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LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. Create a story about the steps in road alignment. You can draw or write
your answer, as long as the content is there.

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Week 7 Map Design and Layout

Lesson Title Map Design and Layout (Part 1)
Learning Outcome(s) Identify the elements of a map and elements for map design.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Essential Content
7.1 MAP DESIGN

Before the designing of map, there are two basic questions needed to be
answered. First, what is the purpose of the map? Second, who is the map
intended to serve? We’ve discussed during the prelim period about the different
types of maps, their basic characteristics, their purposes, and their applications.
The purposes of maps dictate the information that the map must convey. Once
the purpose of the map is fixed, emphasis should be placed on achieving the
design that best fits its objectives and imparts the necessary information clearly
to its users.

Map design is a complex affair involving many decisions, each of which affects all
the others. It typically shows many different types and classes of details in
portraying natural and cultural features. Thus, a good design is simply the best
solution among many, given a set of constraints imposed by the problem. The
best design will likely be a simple one that works well with the least amount of
trouble. Besides, if properly designed, they can deliver an enormous amount of
information. However, maps that are carelessly designed can be confusing,
difficult to read, understand, or interpret. Also, the optimum solution may not be
achievable, and what is good design today may be ineffective in the future.

7.2 ELEMENTS OF A MAP

In our discussion during week 1, we’ve already had an introduction and

overview of the characteristics present in a map. Most of the terminologies
found there are also the elements of the map.

This time, we’ll relate those characteristics as elements to better understand

their purpose in maps, especially for design and layout. The table below
displays each element with its description and primary function.

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Name of Element Description and Primary Function

Usually draws attention under its dominant size;
serves to focus attention on the primary content of
Title (and subtitle)
the map; maybe omitted where captions are
provided but are not part of the map itself
The principal symbol-referent description on the
map; subordinate to the title, but a key element in
Map legend
map reading; serves to describe all unknown or
unique symbols used
Usually included on a thematic map; it provides
the reader with important information regarding
Map scale
linear relations on the map; can be graphic, verbal,
or expressed as a representative fraction
Can include the map’s data source, an indication
Credits of its reliability, dates, and other explanatory
material
Objects, land, water, and other geographic
Mapped and unmapped features important to the purpose of the map;
areas make the composition a map rather than simply a
chart or diagram
Often omitted from thematic maps today; should
be included if their locational information is
Graticule crucial to the map’s purpose; usually treated as
background or secondary forms
Both optional; borders can serve to restrain eye
movement; neatlines are finer lines than borders,
Borders and neatlines
drawn inside them and often rendered as part of
the graticule; used mostly for decoration
Wide variety of forms and functions; the most
important elements of the map, along with the
Map symbols geographic areas rendered; the designer has little
control over their location because geography must
be accurate
The chief means of communicating with maps;
Place names and labeling serve to orient the render on the map and provide
important information regarding its purpose

7.3 MAP DESIGN IN CARTOGRAPHY

In cartography, design can be thought of as the set of human decisions behind

the map – not only the look but also choices about data, interaction, and more.
There are some important considerations in map design. For a few overarching
things to think about initially, they are as follows:

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▪ Medium

Many design decisions depend on how the map will be displayed, usually
meaning either on paper or on a digital device. Sometimes a map needs to
work for several different media, which can mean several sets of designs.

▪ Audience and purpose

What you intend to accomplish and for whom are huge drivers of map
design. For example, if you’re mapping for an expert audience, the map can
probably be more complex than if it’s meant for the general public.

▪ Map-worthiness

Just because data can be mapped doesn’t mean it should be mapped! It’s
always important to think about whether geography is important to your
story. If not, consider other ways to visualize it, or simply provide a table.

▪ Interactivity

A static map represents data at a snapshot in time. These are often printed
maps, but could also be digital images on your computer or online.
Interactive maps allow for user interaction, data exploration, and animation.
These maps are usually web-based, on a computer, phone, or tablet. These
also carry some extra design considerations for the flow of user experience
and types of interaction, as well as user interfaces.

7.4 ELEMENTS OF A MAP FOR DESIGN

After the above-mentioned primary guidelines, some elements or factors should

be considered to achieve the maximum effectiveness in map design. Definitions
of these six elements in relation to map design and explanations of their
interdependence are discussed hereinafter.

1. Clarity

This relates to the ability of a map to express its intended information

completely and clearly. It can only be achieved after a deep examination of
the objectives of the map and then emphasizing the features necessary to
carry out those objectives. Maps should not be overloaded with details, as
this can cause congestion and confusion. If considerable detail must be
included on a map, the information could be placed in a table. Other
alternatives consist of preparing larger-scale inset maps of areas that
contain dense detail or creating an overlay to display some of the detail. The
proper use of textual elements is very important in achieving clarity.

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2. Order

This refers to the logic of a map and relates to the path that a user’s eye
would follow when looking at one. The design should be adopted that first
draws the user’s attention to the subject area of the map, then the map title,
and then to any notes. Never let auxiliary elements such as bar scales and
directional arrows dominate the map. A common mistake made by
beginners is to make bar scales and north arrows so large and bold that
they attract attention away from the subject of the map.

3. Balance

All elements on a map have weight, and they should be distributed

uniformly around the “visual center” of the map to create a good overall
balance. The visual center is slightly above the geometrical center of the
map sheet. In general, the weight of an element is affected by factors such
as size, color, font, position, and line width. Map elements that appear at
the center have less weight than those on the edges. Elements in the top or
right half of the map will appear to have more weight than those in the
bottom or left half of the map. Also, map elements identified with thicker
line widths will appear to have heavier weights than their slimmer
counterparts. Colors such as red appear heavier than blue or yellow. Two
examples illustrating balance are shown in the figure below.

In figure (a), the map appears to be too heavily weighted to the left and thus
has poor overall balance. A redistribution of the map features, as shown in
figure (b), produces a more visually balanced product. The use of thumbnail

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sketches can often help to achieve a balanced layout for a map. It is

important to place the highest weights on those elements that enhance the
purpose of the map.

4. Contrast

It relates primarily to the use of different line weights and fonts of varying
sizes. Contrast can be used to enhance balance, order, and clarity. For
example, the title of the map should be displayed in a larger font than the
other textual elements. This will attract the viewer’s attention, thereby
enhancing the order and clarity of the map. Various fonts can also be used
to provide balance with other elements on the map. Another example where
contrast supports the clarity of a map is in contouring. Here index contours
(every fifth contour) should be drawn with a heavier line than the other
contours. This enhances the map’s clarity and facilitates the determination
of elevations.

5. Unity

It refers to the interrelationships between the backgrounds, shading, and

colors on a map. Again these items can enhance clarity, balance, and
contrast. They can also detract from these same items. For example, yellow
lettering on a white background is difficult to see and often overlooked by
the reader. However, this same yellow lettering on a black background will
stand out and appear emphasized. A map with good unity is visualized as a
unit and not as an assemblage of individual elements.

6. Harmony

This relates to the interrelationships between all elements on the map. If a

map has good harmony, the elements work together. Common errors are the
use of too many fonts, a north arrow that is too fancy or large, or a bar scale
that is too large.

Sometimes when designing a map, certain elements of map design will conflict.
When this happens, priorities must be established that provides a reasonable
solution to the conflict. A perfect map rarely, if ever, exists, and there are
generally several equally acceptable designs that could be adopted. Often there
are design conflicts that cannot be resolved and a compromising solution may
have to be accepted. Simplicity, appropriateness in a functional context,
pleasing appearance, and considerations of the economy are some of the
important design principles. The designer’s tools of creativity, visualization,
ideation, and problem-solving are used to examine through the map elements
to bring these principles into a proper balance. Map creation is often subjective
and the production of a well-designed map requires a combination of skill, art,
and patience.

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SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Axis Maps. (2017). Map Design. Retrieved from
https://www.axismaps.com/guide/general/map-design/

Dent, B. Map Design. Retrieved from

http://www.geog.nau.edu/courses/rh83/pl431/workbook/MapDesign.PD
F

Ghilani, C., Wolf, R. (2012). Elementary surveying: an introduction to geomatics

thirteenth edition. Prentice-Hall.

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LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s review your knowledge about the characteristics of a map. Define
the following terms in your understanding. Write your answer to the provided.

1. scale
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. legend
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. grid
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below and write them to the
space provided.

1. Why is map design necessary?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. How does map design affect the view of the user/reader?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. How is map design applied in cartography?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 67
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LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. Create your map applying the concept of map design discussed in this
week’s lesson. You can choose from the types of maps we’ve discussed or research for
other types of maps you want to use. Give a brief explanation of your map and do not
forget to indicate what type of map you used.

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Week 8 Map Design and Layout

Lesson Title Map Design and Layout (Part 2)
Learning Outcome(s) Identify the elements of a map and elements for map design.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Essential Content
8.1 MAP LAYOUT

We’ve already tackled about map design and its elements. Now, we’ll focus on
the layout of the maps.

In general, the subject area of the map should be plotted at the largest scale
that will enable it to fit neatly within its borders without producing
overcrowding. It should also be centered on the map sheet and, if possible,
should be aligned so that the edges of the map sheet coincide with the cardinal
directions. If this is not done, users may experience some confusion when
viewing the map. Accordingly, the size and shape of the map sheet, the size and
shape of the area to be mapped, the orientation of the subject area on the map
sheet, and map scale, must be jointly considered in the map layout.

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To illustrate, consider the example of the figure above, which is a simple

traverse from a planimetric survey. Before any plotting is done, the proper
scale for a sheet of given size must be selected. Assume in this example that an
18- by 24-in. sheet will be used, with a 1-in. border on the left (for possible
binding) and 1/2-in. borders on the other three sides. A borderline somewhat
heavier than all other lines can be drawn to outline this area. If the most
westerly station (A in the example) has been chosen as the origin of
coordinates, then divide the total departure to the most easterly point C by the
number of inches available for plotting in the east-west direction. The
maximum scale possible in Figure 18.2 is 774.25 divided by 22.5, or 1 𝑖𝑛. = 34 𝑓𝑡.
The nearest standard scale the will fit is 1 𝑖𝑛. = 40 𝑓𝑡.

This scale must be checked in the Y direction by dividing the total difference in
Y coordinates, 225.60 + 405.57 = 631.17, by 40 𝑓𝑡., giving 15.8 𝑖𝑛. required in the
north-south direction. Since 17 𝑖𝑛. are usable, a scale of 1 𝑖𝑛. = 40 𝑓𝑡. is
satisfactory, although a smaller scale would yield a larger border margin. If a
scale of 1 𝑖𝑛. = 40 𝑓𝑡. is not suitable for the map’s purpose, a sheet of different
sizes should be selected, or more than one sheet employed to map the required
area.

In the figure, the traverse is centered between the borderlines in the Y direction
1 631.17
by making each distance 𝑚 equal to 2 (17 − 40 ) or 0.61 𝑖𝑛. The same 0.61 𝑖𝑛.
can be used for the left side. Weights of the title, notes, and north arrow
compensates for the traverse being to the left of the sheet center and leaves
ample space for including the necessary auxiliary elements of the map.

If a compromising choice must be made between the map scale and the sizes of
auxiliary elements, it is better to maximize the map’s scale and minimize the
size of the auxiliary elements. Beginners should avoid using oversized auxiliary
elements to use up available or leftover space since doing so detracts from the
map’s order and balance.

To practice laying out a map, we will use GnaCAD or AutoCAD via

smartphones or laptops or desktops, whichever is available to you. The
discussion of this will be done virtually.

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Ghilani, C., Wolf, R. (2012). Elementary surveying: an introduction to geomatics
thirteenth edition. Prentice-Hall.

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LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s review your knowledge about map design. Define the following terms
in your understanding.

1. graticule
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. neatline
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. contrast
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below.

1. Why is map layout necessary?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. How is map layout applied in our profession?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 72
 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. Create your map applying the concept of map design and layout
discussed in last week and this week’s lesson. Use the given data of the traverse for
the content of your map. Give a brief explanation as to how you designed and laid out
your map.

Sta. Occ. Sta. Obs. Distance (ft) Azimuth (from N)

1 2 689.32 350°30’
2 3 509.66 303°05’
3 4 678.68 236°13’
4 5 572.20 177°58’
5 1 1082.71 90°29’

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Week 9 Georeferencing
Lesson Title Georefencing
Understand georeferencing, identify the concepts of
Learning Outcome(s) georeferencing, and understand the difference between
georeferencing and digitization.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Essential Content
9.1 GEOREFENCING

Digital technology has contributed remarkably to the improvement of the

delivered product, the minimizing of production time, and the timeless
maintenance of the initial quality of the delivered archive. The application of
Digital Technology in analog, archive plans is given but is not always available
to users. As a result, a great number of plans are provided in analog form and
are subjects of deterioration over time. At the same time, their process and
update are very difficult.

Georeferencing is the process of taking a digital image, it could be an air photo,

a scanned geologic map, or a picture of a topographic map, and adding
geographic information to the image so that GIS or mapping software can
'place' the image in its appropriate real-world location. This process is
completed by selecting pixels in the digital image and assigning them
geographic coordinates. In rare instances, one may already know the
geographic coordinates of certain pixels in an image; more frequently, a non-
georeferenced image is georeferenced to an existing image that already has
embedded geographic information, such as a DRG, DLG, or DEM.

Specialized software is generally necessary to complete the process of

geocoding. ArcGIS has functionality for this procedure, as do many remote
sensing software packages, such as ENVI. For GeoPads, the most pressing
need for georeferencing is the digital images of geologic maps available from the
National Geologic Map Database.

To georeference an image you need GCPs that are visible in the photographs.
Some examples of good GCPs are road intersections, stone wall boundaries,

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building corners, and solitary trees. These points will be used to “tell” the GIS
software:

▪ where your image is in the world

▪ how to correctly orient the photograph
▪ correct for errors in photo-geometry

These errors are probably caused by the inherent problems of taking aerial
photographs, such as airplane tilt and problems with the lens. The better your
GCPs the better your resulting image will be referenced to the real world.

The number of GCPs you choose will depend on the amount of distortion in
your photograph and your desired level of accuracy. The process of registering
your photograph applies a mathematical formula to each pixel in the photo.
The process of rectification can be thought of as making a regression equation
that says where an image coordinate corresponds to real-world coordinates.
The simplest formula is a linear equation, which does not distort the picture
but cannot correct any photo-geometry distortion except for skew. Higher-order
(more complex) equations can correct more serious cases of photo-geometry
distortion but they can also seriously distort your final image. As you make
the equation more complex you have to add more GCPs.

A linear equation requires a minimum of 3 points, a second-order equation

requires 6 points, and a third-order equation requires a minimum of 10 points.
In general, you should find at least double the number of points so that you
can discard bad points and you can also lower the error in fitting the equation.

9.2 DIGITIZATION

Digitization is the most important technique of data and storage in a GIS but is
expensive and time-consuming.

Digitization is the process of converting analog data into digital data sets. In
the GIS context digitization refers to creating vector datasets viz., point, line, or
polygon from raster datasets. It is a way of tracing/recording geographic
features in vector format from georeferenced images or maps. With the help of
digitization, we can create a different set of layers.

Mapmaking has been one of the most important achievements for humankind
as it was because of this humankind was able to spread throughout the globe.
New lands were discovered and inhabited and in all these activities the role of
maps cannot be underestimated. Thus, for ages maps have been used to
portray the surface of the earth onto a paper. But while viewing the maps, one
generally tends to forget that each line or point depicted on the map represents
a considerable area on the surface of the earth. Thus, if lines present on the
maps are not presented accurately, it means that a large area of land becomes

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disputed. Now we have an age of digital revolution. Right from digital movies
and digital music to digital information, the internet has played a major role in
accelerating this digital revolution. Maps have become a part of this digital
revolution and internet mapping is the ‘in’ thing now. The main issue of
discussion is the ways and means of the depiction of maps in digital form and
the probable reasons for the occurrence of such errors in the process.

Behind the success of this mapping technology is a major role played by the
technology of capturing data in digital form. Data forms the backbone of the
GIS industry. Spatial data is available mostly in analog form i.e. in the form of
maps, imageries, aerial photographs, etc. Perhaps the biggest bottleneck in the
GIS industry is the proper reproduction of the analog data into digital form.
The process of converting an analog map into a digital format is known as
“Digitisation”. Although the most important technique of data input and
storage in a GIS, digitization is also one of the most expensive and time-
consuming aspects of data input in a GIS. The digital capture of data from the
analog sources viz. maps, imageries, aerial photographs, etc. is carried out in
two different methods, manual digitization and heads up digitization (i.e by
raster scanning using optical scanners).

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Geospatial World. (2009). Digitisation .Retrieved from
https://www.geospatialworld.net/article/digitisation/

MaP, Ltd. (2016). Georeference & Digitizing of Plans. Retrieved from

http://map4u.gr/?p=2047

SERC Carleton College. (2017). Georeferencing. Retrieved from

https://serc.carleton.edu/research_education/geopad/georeferencing.htm
l

UCONN MAGIC. Digital Images and Georeferencing. Retrieved from

http://magic.lib.uconn.edu/help/help_DigitalImagesandGeoreferencing.ht
ml

USGS. What does "georeferenced" mean? Retrieved from

https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-does-georeferenced-mean?qt-
news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products

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LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s review your knowledge about cartography. Define the following
terms in your understanding.

1. Digital cartography
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Physical map
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Digital map
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 77
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LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below.

1. In not less than 25 words and more than 50 words, define georeferencing.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. In not less than 25 words and more than 50 words, define digitization.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. Give an overall summary of the difference between georeferencing and
digitization including their processes, concepts, elements, etc.

SCP – GE 102 | 79
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Week 10 Generalization of Geographic Data

Lesson Title Generalization of geographic data
Appreciate the importance of the generalization of geographic
Learning Outcome(s) data, discuss the definition of generalization of geographic
data, and identify the elements of generalization.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Essential Content
10.1 GENERALIZATION

The International Cartographic Association defines Cartographic Generalization

as "the selection and simplified representation of detail appropriate to the scale
and/or the purpose of a map" (ICA 1967).

More generally, the objective of generalization is to supply information on a

content and detail level corresponding to the necessary information for correct
geographical reasoning.

Generalization inputs are:

▪ The needs
▪ The geographical data: density, distribution, size, diversity, etc.
▪ The readability rules
▪ The means: time, money, technique, etc.

Since detail about a geographic feature is simplified during generalization,

generalized data is less spatially accurate. Those using generalized data to
calculate length, perimeter, or the area will incur errors in the calculations.

Cartographers make a distinction between generalization performed on data

objects for efficient storage or analysis, being a model generalization, and that
performed to prepare objects for symbolization and visual presentation, being
cartographic generalization (Grünreich, 1985; Brassel & Weibel, 1988). Model
generalization is typically data-reducing and motivated by a desire for the
economy in storage space or computational complexity. It can also reflect scale
changes made to bring data to an appropriate resolution for some context-specific
analysis. Cartographic generalization, which often follows model generalization,

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does not always reduce the volume of data, though it frequently does. Instead, the
principle motivation is to derive geographic feature representations that are
suitable (e.g., graphically resolvable) for analysis or display in some target
cartographic context, such as cartometric analysis, or a zoom level in a digital
interactive map display.

Both model and cartographic generalization are frequently driven by a reduction

in map scale (i.e., a zooming-out), causing a commensurate reduction in graphic
resolution (Tobler, 1988). Some procedures and algorithms for generalization
have been developed with direct reference to a quantified change in scale and/or
resolution (Perkal, 1956; Buttenfield, 1989; Li & Openshaw, 1990; Dutton, 1999),
with the most famous of these (Töpfer & Pillewizer, 1966) being known as The
Radical Law for its mathematical root-based definition of how many features
should remain on a map after a measured scale change. Other commonly-used
procedures are guided by heuristic or ad-hoc relationships to scale change or
target scale.

In addition to scale-driven reasons, generalization may also be performed to use a

dataset for some purpose other than that which it was compiled for (e.g., an
expressway with two single-direction lines compiled for GPS navigation
calculations is collapsed to a single line for map representation), or for graphic
simplicity or aesthetic reasons (e.g., simplified and abstracted geometry in
subway maps such as London’s famous Tube map).

An important consideration, perhaps more frequently relevant in model

generalization, is the effect generalization has on analysis. As a simple example,
the figure below demonstrates how area calculations are affected by polygon
simplification. Generalization can reduce both accuracy and precision, and
analysts must decide whether or not the levels of either after generalization are
appropriate to the task at hand. In analytical contexts, generalization often
causes the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (Openshaw, 1984).

10.2 ELEMENTS OF GENERALIZATION

There are several processes included in generalization. A first step, however, is

always the selection of the information to be communicated by the map. Then, it

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is convenient to group the generalization manipulations performed on the

selected data into two main types:

▪ Semantic generalization: Based on the initial choice of the relevant information

to be presented on the map, semantic generalization is closely related to
classification, and aggregation, as well as symbolization or exaggeration.
Semantic generalization has the main objective of simplifying the presented
data, so at a given (small) scale the complexity of the map does not make the
map impossible to read Semantic generalization normally takes place before
geometric generalization.
▪ Geometric generalization: The complexity of the graphic characteristics of map
objects maybe still too great to show them clearly, especially if the scale of the
map becomes smaller. Therefore, the objective of geometric generalization is to
preserve the important parts of the data and eliminate or simplify the less
important ones to create a map that will have good visual communication
characteristics. A geometric generalization is closely related to simplification,
omission, as well as displacement, and orientation.

As each map provides a different set of requirements, the combination of these

fundamental processes will vary from map to map. So a typical workflow of these
processes is only shown in the image on the next page.

A generalization is not without danger for ethics: for each data modification, the
character or the interpretation of a map can be shifted to false representation and
brings the map reader to a flawed conclusion.

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SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Dempsey, C. (2014). Generalization in GIS. Retrieved from
https://www.gislounge.com/generalization-
gis/#:~:text=Sometimes%20GIS%20data%20contains%20an,to%20reduce
%20detail%20in%20data.&text=Since%20detail%20about%20a%20geogra
phic,data%20is%20less%20spatially%20accurate.

Stern, B., et al. (2014). Generalisation of Map Data. Retrieved from

http://www.gitta.info

UCGIS. (2016). Scale and Generalization. Retrieved from

https://gistbok.ucgis.org/bok-topics/scale-and-generalization-1

SCP – GE 102 | 84
 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s review your knowledge about cartography. Define the following
terms in your understanding.

1. Map design
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Map layout
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Scale
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 85
 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
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LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below.

1. Why is generalization necessary?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. When is generalization appropriate or not?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 86
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LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. To sum up the lesson for this week, answer the question below and
discuss further, by giving examples, in not less than 500 words.

How is generalization beneficial for analysis? How is it problematic?

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Week 11 Traverse Adjustment

Lesson Title Traverse Adjustment
Identify and differentiate the different ways of adjusting a
Learning Outcome(s) traverse, and apply the concepts of some of the computations
in traverse adjustment.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Essential Content
11.1 ADJUSTING A TRAVERSE

Adjusting a traverse (also known as balancing a traverse) is used to distribute

the closure error back into the angle and distance measurements.

Summing the latitudes and departures for the raw field traverse:

∑ 𝐿𝑎𝑡 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟

∑ 𝐷𝑒𝑝 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟

On an adjusted (balanced) traverse:

∑ 𝐿𝑎𝑡 = 0.00

∑ 𝐷𝑒𝑝 = 0.00

The condition for an adjusted traverse is that the adjusted latitudes and
departures sum to 0.00. As with other survey adjustments, the method used to
balance a traverse should reflect the expected error behavior and be repeatable.
The table below lists primary adjustment methods with their respective
advantages and disadvantages.

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Method Premise Advantage Disadvantage

Ignore Don't adjust anything. Simple; repeatable Ignores error
Not repeatable;
Place error in one or
Arbitrary Simple ignores error
more measurements
behavior
Assumes angles and
Simple; repeatable;
distances are
Compass compatible with Treats random errors
measured with equal
Rule contemporary systematically
accuracy so the error
measurement methods.
is applied to each.
Assumes angles are Treats random errors
measured more systematically; not
Simple; repeatable;
Transit accurately than compatible with
compatible with older
Rule distances; distances contemporary
transit-tape surveys.
receive the greater measurement
adjustment. methods.
Quasi-statistical
approach. Angles are
Models only distance
Crandall held and errors are Allows some random error
errors, not angle
Method statistically modeling; repeatable.
errors.
distributed into the
distances.
Allows full random error
modeling; repeatable; can
mix different accuracy
Least- Full statistical Most complicated
and precision
squares approach. method
measurements; provides
measurement
uncertainties.

11.2 COMPASS RULE

The compass or bow ditch rule which has named after the distinguished
American navigator Nathaniel Bowditch (1773-1838).

The compass rule is based on the assumption that all lengths were measured
with equal care and all angles taken with approximately the same precision. It
is also assumed that the measurement errors are accidental and that the total
error in any side of the traverse is directly proportional to the total length of the
traverse.

The compass rule may be stated as follows: the correction to be applied to the
latitude or departure of any course is equal to the total closure of latitude or
departure, multiplied by the ratio of the length of the course to the total length
or perimeter of the traverse. These corrections are given by the following
equations.

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𝑑 𝑑
𝑐𝑙 = 𝐶𝐿 ( ) ; 𝑐𝑑 = 𝐶𝐷 ( )
𝐷 𝐷

where:
𝑐𝑙 =correction to be applied to the latitude of any course
𝑐𝑑 =correction to be applied to the departure of any course
𝐶𝐿 =total closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of the north and south latitudes
(∑ 𝑁𝐿 + ∑ 𝑆𝐿)
𝐶𝐷 =total closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of the east and west departures
(∑ 𝐸𝐷 + ∑ 𝑊𝐷)
𝑑=length of any course
𝐷=total length or perimeter of the traverse

All computed corrections should be added to check whether their respective

sums equal the closures in latitude and departure. To determine the adjusted
latitude of any course the latitude correction is either added to or subtracted
from the computed latitude of the course. A simple rule to remember is: if the
sum of the northern latitudes exceeds the sum of the southern latitudes,
latitudes corrections are subtracted from northern latitudes and added to
corresponding south latitudes. However, if the sum of the southern latitudes
exceeds the sum of the northern latitudes, the correction is applied oppositely.
A similar procedure is used when adjusting the departures. After all,
corrections have been applied properly to the latitudes and departures of the
traverse. It will be expected that perfect closure will be obtained.

Example 11.1: Given the accompanying tabulation are the observed data for a
traverse obtained from a transit-tape survey. Determine the latitudes and
departures of each course and balance these quantities by employing the
compass rule. Also determine the linear error of closure, the bearing of the side
of error, and the relative error of closure. Tabulate values accordingly.
Computed Latitude Computed Departure
Course Distance (m) Bearing
+N -S +E -W
AB 495.85 N 05°30’ E 493.57 47.53
BC 850.62 N 46°02’ E 590.53 612.23
CD 855.45 S 67°38’ E 325.53 791.09
DE 1020.87 S 12°25’ E 996.99 219.51
EF 1117.26 S 83°44’ W 121.96 1110.58
FA 660.08 N 55°09’ W 377.19 541.70
Sum 5000.13 +1461.29 -1444.48 +1670.36 -1652.28

Solution:

a. Computing latitudes and departures

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 𝑑 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃

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b. Computing total closure in latitudes and departures

∑ 𝑁𝐿 = +493.57 + 590.53 + 377.19 = +1461.29 𝑚.

∑ 𝑆𝐿 = −325.53 − 996.99 − 121.96 = −1444.48 𝑚.

∑ 𝐸𝐷 = +47.53 + 612.23 + 791.09 + 219.51 = +1670.36 𝑚.

∑ 𝑊𝐷 = −1110.58 − 541.70 = −1652.28 𝑚.

𝐶𝐿 = ∑ 𝑁𝐿 + ∑ 𝑆𝐿 = +16.81 𝑚.

𝐶𝐷 = ∑ 𝐸𝐷 + ∑ 𝑊𝐷 = +18.08 𝑚.

c. Determining corrections for latitude

𝑑 𝐶𝐿
𝑐𝑙 = 𝐶𝐿 ( ) = 𝑑 ( )
𝐷 𝐷
𝐶𝐿 16.81
( )= = 3.36 × 10−3
𝐷 5000.13
𝑐𝐴𝐵 = (3.36 × 10−3 ) × 495.85 = 1.67
𝑐𝐵𝐶 = (3.36 × 10−3 ) × 850.62 = 2.86
𝑐𝐶𝐷 = (3.36 × 10−3 ) × 855.45 = 2.88
𝑐𝐷𝐸 = (3.36 × 10−3 ) × 1020.87 = 3.43
𝑐𝐸𝐹 = (3.36 × 10−3 ) × 1117.26 = 3.75
𝑐𝐹𝐴 = (3.36 × 10−3 ) × 660.08 = 2.22
Solution check: 1.67 + 2.86 + 2.88 + 3.43 + 3.75 + 2.22 = 16.81 = 𝐶𝐿

d. Determining corrections for departure

𝑑 𝐶𝐷
𝑐𝑑 = 𝐶𝐷 ( ) = 𝑑 ( )
𝐷 𝐷
𝐶𝐷 18.08
( )= = 3.62 × 10−3
𝐷 5000.13
𝑐𝐴𝐵 = (3.62 × 10−3 ) × 495.85 = 1.79
𝑐𝐵𝐶 = (3.62 × 10−3 ) × 850.62 = 3.08
𝑐𝐶𝐷 = (3.62 × 10−3 ) × 855.45 = 3.09
𝑐𝐷𝐸 = (3.62 × 10−3 ) × 1020.87 = 3.69
𝑐𝐸𝐹 = (3.62 × 10−3 ) × 1117.26 = 4.04
𝑐𝐹𝐴 = (3.62 × 10−3 ) × 660.08 = 2.39
Solution check: 1.79 + 3.08 + 3.09 + 3.69 + 4.04 + 2.39 = 18.08 = 𝐶𝐷

e. Adjusted latitudes and departures

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 𝑙𝑎𝑡 ± 𝑐𝑙

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Note: Since the sum of north latitudes exceeds the sum of south latitudes. Latitudes corrections
are subtracted from the corresponding north latitudes and added to corresponding south
latitudes to determine the adjusted latitudes.
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑑𝑒𝑝 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝 ± 𝑐𝑑
Note: Since the sum of east departure exceeds the sum of west departures, the departure
corrections are subtracted from the corresponding east departures and added to corresponding
west departures to determine the adjusted departures.
Correction Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure
Course
Lat Dep +N -S +E -W
AB 1.67 1.79 491.90 45.74
BC 2.86 3.08 587.67 609.15
CD 2.88 3.09 328.41 788.00
DE 3.43 3.69 1000.42 215.82
EF 3.75 4.04 125.74 1114.62
FA 2.22 2.39 374.97 544.09
Sum 16.81 18.08 +1454.54 -1454.54 +1658.71 -1658.71
f. Determining the linear error of closure, bearing of the side of error, and
relative error of closure

𝐿𝐸𝐶 = √𝐶𝐿 2 + 𝐶𝐷 2 = 24.69

−𝐶𝐷
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = 47°05′ = 𝑆 47°05′ 𝑊
−𝐶𝐿
𝐿𝐸𝐶 1 1
𝑅𝑃 = = 𝑠𝑎𝑦
𝐷 202.52 200

g. Adjustments of lengths and bearings

𝐿′ 𝑙 = √(𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑙 )2 + (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑙 )2

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑙
𝜃′𝑙 = tan−1 ( )
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑙
Course Adjusted Length (m) Adjusted Bearing
AB 494.02 N 05°19’ E
BC 846.42 N 46°02’ E
CD 853.70 S 67°23’ E
DE 1023.43 S 12°10’ E
EF 1121.69 S 83°34’ W
FA 660.78 N 55°26’ W

11.3 TRANSIT RULE

The method of adjusting a traverse by the transit rule is similar to the method
using the compass rule. The main difference is that with the transit rule the
latitude and departure corrections depend on the length of the latitude and
departure of the course respectively instead of both depending on the length of
the course.

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𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷
𝑐𝑙 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡 ( ) ; 𝑐𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝 ( )
∑ 𝑁𝐿 − ∑ 𝑆𝐿 ∑ 𝐸𝐷 − ∑ 𝑊𝐷

where:
𝑐𝑙 =correction to be applied to the latitude of any course
𝑐𝑑 =correction to be applied to the departure of any course
𝐶𝐿 =total closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of the north and south latitudes
(∑ 𝑁𝐿 + ∑ 𝑆𝐿)
𝐶𝐷 =total closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of the east and west departures
(∑ 𝐸𝐷 + ∑ 𝑊𝐷)

Since the northern latitudes are positive quantities and south latitudes are
negative quantities, the arithmetical sum of all latitudes is obtained if the
summation of south latitudes is subtracted from the summation of northern
latitudes. Similarly, the arithmetical sum of all departure is subtracted from
the summation of east departures since east and west departures are positive
and negative quantities, respectively. Another way to determining these
arithmetical sums is simply to add the absolute values of the required
quantities.

Example 11.2: Given the accompanying tabulation are the observed data for a
traverse obtained from a transit-tape survey. Determine the latitudes and
departures of each course and balance these quantities by employing the
transit rule. Tabulate values accordingly.

Computed Latitude Computed Departure

Course Distance (m) Az from North
+N -S +E -W
AB 495.85 05°30’ 493.57 47.53
BC 850.62 46°02’ 590.53 612.23
CD 855.45 112°22’ 325.53 791.09
DE 1020.87 167°35’ 996.99 219.51
EF 1117.26 263°44’ 121.96 1110.58
FA 660.08 304°51’ 377.19 541.70
Sum 5000.13 +1461.29 -1444.48 +1670.36 -1652.28

Solution:

a. Computing latitudes and departures

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 𝑑 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃

b. Computing total closure in latitudes and departures

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∑ 𝑁𝐿 = +493.57 + 590.53 + 377.19 = +1461.29 𝑚.

∑ 𝑆𝐿 = −325.53 − 996.99 − 121.96 = −1444.48 𝑚.

∑ 𝐸𝐷 = +47.53 + 612.23 + 791.09 + 219.51 = +1670.36 𝑚.

∑ 𝑊𝐷 = −1110.58 − 541.70 = −1652.28 𝑚.

𝐶𝐿 = ∑ 𝑁𝐿 + ∑ 𝑆𝐿 = +16.81 𝑚.

𝐶𝐷 = ∑ 𝐸𝐷 + ∑ 𝑊𝐷 = +18.08 𝑚.

c. Determining corrections for latitude

𝐶𝐿
𝑐𝑙 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡 ( )
∑ 𝑁𝐿 − ∑ 𝑆𝐿
𝐶𝐿 16.81
( )= = 5.79 × 10−3
∑ 𝑁𝐿 − ∑ 𝑆𝐿 +1461.29 − (−1444.48)
𝑐𝐴𝐵 = (5.79 × 10−3 ) × 493.57 = 2.86
𝑐𝐵𝐶 = (5.79 × 10−3 ) × 590.53 = 3.42
𝑐𝐶𝐷 = (5.79 × 10−3 ) × 325.53 = 1.88
𝑐𝐷𝐸 = (5.79 × 10−3 ) × 996.99 = 5.77
𝑐𝐸𝐹 = (5.79 × 10−3 ) × 121.96 = 0.70
𝑐𝐹𝐴 = (5.79 × 10−3 ) × 377.19 = 2.18
Solution check: 2.86 + 3.42 + 1.88 + 5.77 + 0.70 + 2.18 = 16.81 = 𝐶𝐿

d. Determining corrections for departure

𝐶𝐷
𝑐𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝 ( )
∑ 𝐸𝐷 − ∑ 𝑊𝐷
𝐶𝐷 18.08
( )= = 5.44 × 10−3
∑ 𝐸𝐷 − ∑ 𝑊𝐷 +1670.36 − (−1652.28)
𝑐𝐴𝐵 = (5.44 × 10−3 ) × 47.53 = 0.26
𝑐𝐵𝐶 = (5.44 × 10−3 ) × 612.23 = 3.33
𝑐𝐶𝐷 = (5.44 × 10−3 ) × 791.09 = 4.31
𝑐𝐷𝐸 = (5.44 × 10−3 ) × 219.51 = 1.19
𝑐𝐸𝐹 = (5.44 × 10−3 ) × 1110.58 = 6.04
𝑐𝐹𝐴 = (5.44 × 10−3 ) × 541.70 = 2.95
Solution check: 0.26 + 3.33 + 4.31 + 1.19 + 6.04 + 2.95 = 18.08 = 𝐶𝐷

e. Adjusted latitudes and departures

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 𝑙𝑎𝑡 ± 𝑐𝑙

Note: Since the sum of north latitudes exceeds the sum of south latitudes. Latitudes corrections
are subtracted from the corresponding north latitudes and added to corresponding south
latitudes to determine the adjusted latitudes.

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𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑑𝑒𝑝 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝 ± 𝑐𝑑

Note: Since the sum of east departure exceeds the sum of west departures, the departure
corrections are subtracted from the corresponding east departures and added to corresponding
west departures to determine the adjusted departures.
Correction Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure
Course
Lat Dep +N -S +E -W
AB 2.86 0.26 490.71 47.27
BC 3.42 3.33 587.11 608.90
CD 1.88 4.31 327.41 786.78
DE 5.77 1.19 1002.76 218.32
EF 0.70 6.04 122.66 1116.62
FA 2.18 2.95 375.01 544.65
Sum 16.81 18.08 +1452.83 -1452.83 +1661.27 -1661.27
f. Adjustments of lengths and bearings

𝐿′ 𝑙 = √(𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑙 )2 + (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑙 )2

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑙
𝜃′𝑙 = tan−1 ( )
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑙
Course Adjusted Length (m) Adjusted Azimuth from N
AB 492.98 05°30’
BC 845.85 46°03’
CD 852.19 112°36’
DE 1026.25 167°43’
EF 1123.34 253°44’
FA 661.27 304°33’

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Ghilani, C., Wolf, R. (2012). Elementary surveying: an introduction to geomatics
thirteenth edition. Prentice-Hall.

La Putt, J.P. (2014). Elementary surveying 3rd edition. Baguio Research and
Publishing Center.

Mahun, J. (2017). Traverse Adjustment. Retrieved from

http://www.jerrymahun.com/index.php/open-access/topic-trav-
comps/44-travcomps-chap-e?showall=1

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LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s try to check your understanding of this lesson. In your own words,
define the terms below.

1. Compass Rule
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2. Transit Rule
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3. Crandall Method
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LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below.

1. What is the difference between compass rule and transit rule?

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2. What makes the least-squares method better than any other method?
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LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. Given the accompanying tabulation are the observed data for a traverse
obtained from a transit-tape survey. Determine the latitudes and departures of each
course and balance these quantities by employing the transit rule (if the sum of
your 4 digit ID number is an odd number) or compass rule (if the sum of your 4
digit ID number is an even number). Also, determine the linear error of closure, the
bearing of the side of error, and the relative error of closure. Tabulate values
accordingly together with a sketch of the traverse.

Sum of ID Number: ____+____+____+____=____

Line Length (ft) Azimuth from S

AB 189.53 6°15’
BC 175.18 330°22’
CD 197.78 98°42’
DE 142.39 167°36’
EA 234.58 222°59’

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Week 13 Land Surveys

Lesson Title Land Surveys
Identify and differentiate the classification of land surveys in
Learning Outcome(s) the Philippines, and understand the work and role of
Geodetic Engineers in the field of practice

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Terms to Ponder
Cadastral Map (CM) shall refer to a map made as a result of a Cadastral
Survey, drawn to an appropriate scale and showing all land parcels and
important natural and man-made features within a municipality/project, for
purposes of describing and recording ownership.

Cadastre shall refer to a set of records about parcels of land consisting of a

spatial reference and the related information on the area, ownership/claims,
value, and use of land primarily for taxation purposes.

Delimitation Survey shall refer to the establishment of the permanent forestland

and protected area boundaries by conducting an actual ground survey.

Geodetic Engineer (GE) shall refer to a natural person with professional

expertise in the field of surveying and the corresponding survey data
presentation in the form of maps, plans, geospatial digital maps, etc.; either in
the government service or in the private practice, and who has been issued a
Certificate of Registration and Identification Card by the Professional
Regulation Commission (PRC)- Board of Geodetic Engineering pursuant to
Republic Act 8560, the Geodetic Engineering Act, as amended.

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is the standard generic term for
satellite navigation systems that provide autonomous geospatial positioning
with global coverage.

Land Registration shall refer to the official recording of land ownership based
on the legal documents submitted to the Register of Deeds for the Province or
City where the land is located.

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Metes and Bound shall refer to the description of a land parcel with its
boundary directions and distances, together with a note of adjacent property
owners, their lot numbers, and other relevant natural and man-made features.

Monument shall refer to any concrete object that is set permanently in the
ground to mark the position of a point or a boundary corner.

Muniments of Titles are deeds and other documentary evidence of title or

ownership to land.

Parcel Information Sheets (PIS) shall refer to a document recording the

boundary adjudication agreement by all concerned and participating claimants
or owners, in collaboration with the geodetic engineer, a Barangay official, and
adjudicator, indicating and describing the boundaries of a land parcel and any
natural features, marks, and occupations that are or near the boundary in the
manner prescribed in the Manual of Procedures.

Patrimonial Property shall refer to properties owned by the State but are not
intended for public use, public service, or for the development of national
wealth.

Projection map shall refer to a map where all lots subject for verification and
approval are plotted to determine cases of overlaps with previously approved
plans.

PRS92 shall refer to the Philippine Reference System of 1992, a national

common coordinate reference system for all surveys and maps pursuant to
Executive Order No. 45 dated January 5, 1993, as amended.

Reclamation Projects is the filling of submerged land duly approved by the

Philippine Reclamation Authority

Reference Point shall refer to a point appropriately marked on the ground with
an established horizontal and vertical position.

Secretary shall refer to the Secretary of the Department of Environment and

Natural Resources (DENR).

Survey Plan shall refer to a two-dimensional map showing the metes and
bounds of a surveyed parcel or parcels of land and other pertinent information.

Survey Returns shall refer to the collective documents submitted by a Geodetic

Engineer (GE) as a result of the survey conducted and other relevant
documents as may be required.

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Unique Parcel Identifier (UPI) shall refer to the number exclusively assigned to a
land parcel in reference to its physical spatial position on the Land Information
Map (UPI = LIM Number + Parcel Number).

Essential Content
13.1 CLASSIFICATION OF LAND SURVEYS

Lands that are subject for alienation and disposition are categorized into many
use for various purposes. From the Revised Manual of Land Surveying
Regulations in the Philippines (DAO 98-12), under Chapter 1, there was stated
that the survey of lands used for agricultural, residential, industrial,
commercial, resettlement, and other similar purposes shall be divided into
three groups: isolated land surveys, cadastral land surveys, and geodetic
surveys.

Furthermore, another Administrative Order was released namely the DENR

Administrative Order No. 2007-29 or the Revised Regulations on Land Surveys.
There was nothing of big difference from this one to the 1998 version, except
for generalizing more of the control surveys which was classified into project
and geodetic control surveys. Aside from this, almost everything from DAO
1998-12 was mentioned in DAO 2007-29.

Some of the terms being mentioned here are defined already at the beginning
part of this lesson. But, to begin, the further discussions here are the basic
and important concepts of the three groups for land surveys.

13.1.1 Control Surveys

This type of survey shall refer to the survey conducted to determine the
horizontal and vertical positions of points which will form part of a geodetic
network or project controls over an area that will subsequently become the
basis in determining the rectangular coordinates in an area.

As mentioned, the control survey is classified into a project control survey and
geodetic control survey.

Geodetic control survey shall refer to the surveys conducted covering extensive
areas that take into account the curvature and the geoid-spheroidal shape of
the earth at sea level to establish a basic network of reference points, cover the
first and second-order controls. All Geodetic Control Surveys shall be
conducted in the Philippine Reference System of 1992 (PRS 92) using survey-
grade GNSS receivers. The calibration/testing and registration of the
instrument prior to their use shall be in accordance with Section 22, DAO No.
2007-29.

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The conduct of the survey shall start from an established PRS 92 control point
and shall end at another PRS 92 control point (check base) for checking
purposes. In order to ensure their correctness, the following shall be taken into
consideration:

a. The baseline length for the Primary Geodetic Network (First and Second-
Order) shall be in accordance with the nominal space as provided for
Section 28, DA0 2007-29.

1st order - 50 kilometers

2nd order - 25 kilometers

b. Also, for the Secondary Geodetic Network (3rd and 4th Order), the
following shall apply:

3rd order - 5 kilometers

4th order - variable (each Barangay shall have at least a pair of

Control Points not more than 2 kilometers apart)

Project control survey, on the other hand, shall refer to the surveys conducted
to establish the positions of points of reference for projects with a limited
geographic coverage such as a municipality, a large isolated tract of land, a
group settlement, a barangay, or group of municipalities, covering primary
control (third-order), secondary control (fourth-order) and tertiary control.
Project Control Surveys shall be conducted in order to establish set of reference
points for a Cadastral Survey, Public Land Subdivision Survey, Townsite
Reservation, and other similar survey projects which cover a whole or a portion
of municipality or city, with accuracies belonging to Primary Control or Third
Order Geodetic Survey, Secondary Control or Fourth Order Geodetic Survey
and Tertiary Control. The kinds of reference monuments are listed in Section
34, DAO No. 2007-29.

13.1.2 Cadastral Surveys

The cadastral survey shall refer to the survey made to determine the metes and
bounds of all parcels within an entire municipality or city for land registration
and other purposes. This type of survey is further classified into the following:

a. Numerical Cadastre – shall refer to a cadastral survey wherein the

bearings and distances of the individual lots are determined from the
computations based on the actual ground survey.
b. Graphical Cadastre – shall refer to a cadastral survey wherein the
bearings and distances of the individual lots are determined using transit
and stadia, scaling from photo map, and other graphical methods.

SCP – GE 102 | 102

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

c. Public Land Subdivisions shall refer to the subdivision of A&D lands

covering an area of more than 1,500 hectares.

13.1.3 Isolated Surveys

These shall be comprised of all classes of surveys of isolated parcels of land

used for agricultural, residential, commercial, resettlement, or other purposes
covering areas not more than 1,500 hectares. These surveys are classified as
follows:

a. Group Settlement/Townsite Subdivision Surveys – shall refer to the

subdivision of A and D lands of not more than 1,500 hectares into 50
parcels or more.
b. Public Land Surveys – shall refer to all original surveys covering A and D
lands which has not been subjected to private rights nor devoted to
public use pursuant to the provisions of public land laws.
c. Amendment Surveys – shall refer to the surveys covering
untitled/undecreed properties by changing the number of lots thereof
without affecting the original technical description of the boundary.
d. Private Land Surveys – shall refer to the surveys covering lands claimed
or owned by an individual, a partnership, a corporation, or any other
form of organization, undertaken for purposes of original or subsequent
land registration.
e. Government Land Surveys – shall refer to the surveys of parcels of lands
administered by or belonging to the National Government or any of its
branches and instrumentalities which include:
i. Friar Land Estates Surveys – shall refer to the surveys on the lands
purchased by the government from the Religious Orders and
private corporations from 1904 to 1913, for distribution to actual
occupants and bonafide settlers pursuant to Act 1120, otherwise
known as the “Friar Lands Act”
ii. National Government Lands Survey – shall refer to the surveys of
all patrimonial properties owned by the government not intended
for public use
iii. Local Government Units (LGU) Lands Surveys – shall refer to the
surveys on the lands acquired by the provincial, city/municipal, or
barangay government pursuant to the Republic Act 7160,
otherwise known as the “Local Government Code of 1991,” and
other pertinent laws which are not needed for public purposes.
f. Conversion Surveys – shall refer to the surveys conducted to
transform/convert the lots covered by approved graphical cadastral
surveys, cadastral mapping (Cadm), and photocadastral mapping
(PCadm), into numerical or regular cadastral lots, with computation and
plotting in the system of the cadastral project.

SCP – GE 102 | 103

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

g. Other Land Surveys- shall refer to the surveys made for purposes of
determining the metes and bounds of parcels not included in the
enumeration above and intended for a specific purpose.

Other than the major types of land surveys, there are others also conducted by
authorized persons for specific purposes. One of these is the mineral land
surveys which shall refer to surveys of mining claims, quarry applications,
sand and gravel applications, and other mineral lands within private or public
lands, executed for mineral agreements, permits, licenses, or for other
purposes pursuant to the provision of Republic Act No. 7942, otherwise known
as “The Philippine Mining Act of 1995”. Another is the forestlands and national
parks/protected areas delimitation surveys to which shall refer to the surveys
conducted by the Regional Composite Survey Team (RCST) or qualified private
Geodetic Engineers in order to delimit on the ground the boundaries of
forestlands and national parks/protected areas from the agricultural (A and D)
lands as delineated pursuant to Sections 3 and 4, Article XII of the 1987
Constitution, PD 705, the “Revised Forestry Code of the Philippines” and
Republic Act No. 7586, otherwise known as the “National Integrated Protected
Areas System Act of 1992." It shall also include the subclassification and
zonification of said areas.

13.2 PRACTICE OF GEODETIC ENGINEERING WITHIN THE AMBIT OF

THE DENR

All land surveys and mapping activities under the scope and coverage of DAO
2007-29 intended for disposition, registration, and other purposes shall be
made only by a Geodetic Engineer pursuant to RA 8560, as amended. Given
that:

a. He/She shall be a holder of a valid Professional Regulation Commission

(PRC) registration, PRC identification card, a current professional tax
receipt (PTR), and tax identification number (TIN).
b. He/She shall be an active member of a PRC accredited association of
Geodetic Engineers pursuant to R.A. 8560, as amended.
c. Geodetic Engineers in government service may execute surveys on
government projects upon authority/order issued by a court or
authorized official of the concerned agency. Section a and b above shall
also apply to them, except PTR.

There shall be created a national database of registered GE’s. The LMS shall
submit a listing of practicing GE’s in their Region and the corresponding PRC
Registration Number with the Date of Issuance, to the LMB who in turn shall
validate the data thereof with the PRC-Board of Geodetic Engineering. Upon
validation, the LMB shall update the GE’s National Database and furnish all
the LMS Regional Offices with the Official Listing for their reference.

SCP – GE 102 | 104

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

In order to ensure the authenticity of survey returns submitted to the DENR in

accordance with laws and standing regulations, and to protect the public, all
concerned practicing GE’s are hereby required to use GE dry seal with an
engraved PRC Registration Number and the Date of Issuance.

The Regional Surveys Division (RSD) shall maintain an Index Card for every
practicing GE which shall be signed by the said GE in every submission of their
survey returns. The said Index Card shall contain the name of the GE, gender,
date of birth, PRC Registration No., and the date of issuance and space for
three (3) specimen signature and three (3) initials. Moreover, it shall provide
columns for information on the submitted survey plans such as survey symbol
and lot numbers, location, area, name of claimants/owners, date of
submission, acceptance logbook entry, number, and date of approval.

In consonance with RA 8560, as amended, the Director of LMB and the RTD for
Lands shall ensure that no firm, company, partnership, association, or
corporation will participate in the conduct of bidding for survey projects or
submit survey returns unless the proprietors are GE’s or the controlling group
is GE’s. In all cases, the team leader of the survey project shall be a GE.

Firms, companies, partnerships, associations, corporations, or individuals

practicing GE’s who abandon DENR bid survey projects without reasonable
cause shall be barred from participating in the bidding of other survey projects
and the actual conduct of such surveys. The LMB/LMS shall pursue the
necessary and appropriate legal actions through the PRC - Board of Geodetic
Engineering and the proper Court against the said erring practitioners/firms.
The LMB/LMS shall likewise publish/post the list of delinquent surveying
companies or practitioners and may impose sanctions such as non-acceptance
of the survey returns of isolated surveys submitted for verification and
approval. Blacklisted practitioners may be reinstated upon completion of the
project and following the Manual of Procedure.

Consistent with the policy of upgrading survey and mapping practices, and
database management, the LMB/LMS and practitioners shall utilize the most
appropriate modern techniques and technology. The LMB shall develop a
national system to expedite projection, verification, and approval of surveys,
which are consistent with state-of-the-art technologies, processes, and
procedures.

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator

SCP – GE 102 | 105

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

DENR. (1998). Revised Manual of Land Surveying Regulations in the Philippines.

Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvb
WFpbnxiYmFiYXRheW98Z3g6NDc2ODkyMWY5ZGM4OWY4Mw

DENR. (2007). Revised Regulations of Land Surveys. Retrieved from

https://lmb.gov.ph/index.php/109-resources/v-laws-and-
policies/republic-acts/lmb-memorandum-circular/77-department-
administrative-order-dao

DENR. (2013). Adoption of the Manual on Land Survey Procedures. Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvb
WFpbnxiYmFiYXRheW98Z3g6MWI4MGE0ZDAxMmQ5MzFiNg\

SCP – GE 102 | 106

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s check your understanding of this week’s lesson. Define the following
terms in your understanding.

1. Cadastre
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Metes and bounds
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Survey
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 107

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below.

1. What is the difference between geodetic control surveys and project control
surveys?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between cadastral surveys and isolated surveys?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 108

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. To sum up the lesson for this week, answer the question below and
discuss further in not less than 500 words.

1. How do geodetic engineers take part in conducting the different types of

surveys?

SCP – GE 102 | 109

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Week 14 Maps and Plans of Surveys

Lesson Title Maps and Plans of Surveys
Identify and define the different standard base maps, discuss
Learning Outcome(s) the numbering in cadastral maps, and identify and compute
the scale to be used for isolated surveys in creating maps.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Essential Content
14.1 STANDARD BASE MAPS

Maps and plans of all land surveys in the Philippines shall be plotted on
appropriate standard base maps projected upon spheroidal quadrangles of
Clarke's spheroid of 1866.

The standard base maps of the Philippines shall be classified into cadastral
maps, barangay boundary and index maps, municipal boundary and index
maps, municipal, provincial, and regional base maps.

14.1.1 Cadastral Maps

The cadastral maps shall comprise areas within the spheroidal quadrangle of
one minute of arc in latitude and one minute of arc in longitude and shall be
drawn in the Philippine Plane Coordinates System (PPCS)-PRS 92 to the
standard scale of 1:4000 on drafting material of stable base of uniform size of
approximately 54 x 54 centimeters. Sectional cadastral maps shall be drawn on
larger scales on the same material and of the same size as the standard
cadastral maps to show tracts of land which otherwise will appear too small on
the standard scale of 1:4000.

The sectional cadastral maps shall be on the scale of 1:2,000; 1: 1,000; 1:500;
1:250 and shall comprise areas within spheroidal quadrangles of thirty
seconds, fifteen seconds, seven and one-half seconds, or three and three-
fourths seconds of arc, respectively.

There is a system of numbering of cadastral maps. The extreme west and east
meridians and the extreme south and north parallels of the cadastral map in
the scale of 1:4000 shall be full minute meridians and parallels, respectively.

SCP – GE 102 | 110

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

The latitude and longitude of the point of intersection of the extreme west
meridian and extreme south parallel of each spheroidal quadrangle shall be
used to designate the corresponding map number of the quadrangle. if the
latitude and longitude of the point of intersection of the extreme west meridian
and extreme south parallel of the map are 14 deg. 49 min. N and 120 deg. 54
min. E, respectively, the map shall be numbered as follows:

CM 14°49'N - 120°54'E.

Sectional cadastral maps in the scale of 1:2000 may be prepared to indicate

the NW, NE, SE, and SW section of the standard cadastral maps and shall be
numbered, respectively as follows:

NW Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54' E sec. 1

NE Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54' E sec, 2

SE Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54' E sec. 3

SW Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54' E sec. 4

Sectional cadastral maps in the scale of 1:1000 may be prepared to indicate

NW, NE, SE, and SW quadrant sections of the sectional cadastral maps of scale
1:2000 and shall be numbered, respectively, as follows:

NW Quadrant CM 14°49' N 120°54'E sec. 1-A

NE Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54'E sec. 1-B

SE Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54'E sec. 1-C

SW Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54'E sec. 1-D

Sectional cadastral maps in the scale 1:500 may be prepared to indicate NW,
NE, SE, and SW quadrant sections of the sectional cadastral map of scale
1:1000 and shall be numbered, respectively, as follows:

NW Quadrant CM 14°49' N 12054' E sec. 1-A-NW

NE Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 12054' E sec. 1-A-NE

SE Quadrant CM 14°49' N 120°54' E sec. 1-A-SE

SW Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54' E sec. 1-A-SW

SCP – GE 102 | 111

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Sectional cadastral maps in the scale of 1:250 may be prepared to indicate the
NW, NE, SE, and SW sections of the sectional cadastral map of scale 1:500 and
shall be numbered, respectively, as follows:

NW Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54' E sec. 1-A-NW-1

NE Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54' E sec. 1-A-NW-2

SE Quadrant CM 14°49' N - 120°54' E sec. 1-A-NW-3

SW Quadrant CM 14°49' N 120°54' E sec. 1-A-NW-4

Other sectional cadastral maps on a larger scale may be likewise prepared. The
general rule in numbering sectional cadastral map is as follows:

The first sectional cadastral map number shall be assigned to the top-left (NW)
quadrant; the second, to the top-right (NE) quadrant; the third, to the bottom-
right (SE) quadrant, and the last, to the bottom-left (SW) quadrant.

Contiguous cadastral maps (CCM), consisting of four or sixteen sheets, shall be

drawn on a single sheet of the same material and size as the standard
cadastral map in the scale of 1: 8,000 or 1: 16,000, respectively, to show
parcels which would be too big on the standard scale of 1: 4,000. The cadastral
map number of the extreme southwestern cadastral map shall be used to
designate the contiguous cadastral map number. If the extreme southwestern
cadastral map number is CM14°24' N-120°36'E, the contiguous cadastral map
number is CCM14°24'N - 120°36’E, scale 1: 8,000 or CCM14°24'N - 120°36'E,
scale 1: 16,000.

The map numbers of adjacent cadastral maps, whether standard, sectional or

contiguous, shall be indicated on the left side of the quadrangle below the
lower marginal line of each cadastral map.

14.1.2 Barangay Boundary and Index Maps and Municipal Boundary

and Index Maps

Barangay Boundary and Index Maps (BBIM) and Municipal Boundary and
Index Maps (MBIM) shall be prepared and drawn in the grid system on drafting
material of stable base and uniform size of 54 x 54 centimeters, using a scale
based on the maximum differences in northings or eastings, whichever is
bigger, tabulated as follows:

14.1.3 Municipal Base Maps

Municipal base maps shall be prepared and kept up-to-date for each city,
municipality, or municipal district. They shall comprise areas within a

SCP – GE 102 | 112

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

spheroidal quadrangle of 15 minutes of arc in latitude and 10 minutes of arc in

longitude. This shall be drawn in the Philippine Plane Coordinate System/PRS
92 to a standard scale of 1:60,000 on drafting materials of a stable base and
uniform size of approximately 54 x 54 centimeters.

All information derived from approved surveys shall be plotted on the

municipal base map/s of each municipality. Boundaries of Barangays and
other municipalities/municipal districts and cities as well as other relevant
information that may be available from other sources shall be plotted thereon.

14.1.4 Provincial Base Maps

Provincial Base Map/s shall be prepared and kept up-to-date for each province.
They shall comprise areas within spheroidal quadrangles of one degree and
thirty minutes of arc in latitude and one degree of arc in longitude. This shall
be drawn in the Philippine Plane Coordinate System/PRS 92 to a standard
scale of 1:400,000 on drafting materials of a stable base and uniform size of
approximately 54 x 54 centimeters.

All information derived from approved survey projects shall be plotted in the
provincial base map/s of each province. Boundaries of municipalities and of
the province as well as other relevant information that may be available from
other sources shall also be plotted thereon.

14.1.5 Regional Base Maps

Regional Base Map/s shall be prepared and kept up-to-date for each region.
They shall comprise areas within spheroidal quadrangles of six degrees in
latitude and four degrees in longitude. This shall be drawn in the Traverse
Mercator projection to a standard scale of 1:800, 000 on drafting material of
stable base and uniform size approximately 104 x 104 centimeters.

All relevant information derived from approved survey projects shall be plotted
in the Regional base map/s of each region. Boundaries of provinces and of the
region as well as other relevant information that may be available from other
sources shall also be plotted thereon.

14.2 MAPS AND PLANS FOR REGISTRATION PROCEEDINGS

The cadastral maps on which the results of cadastral surveys are drawn shall
be reproduced for cadastral registration purposes.

All plans of isolated surveys which shall be used for administrative or judicial
registration purposes shall be drawn on DENR-LMB prescribed format. If,
however, the plans were prepared using a computerized method, the Geodetic
Engineer must secure authority from LMB.

SCP – GE 102 | 113

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

14.3 COORDINATE LINES AND SCALES FOR ISOLATED SURVEYS

Vertical and horizontal center lines of plane coordinates divisible by five shall
be accurately drawn on the original plan and inked in red.

The latitude and longitude lines of corner 1 of a lot or any corner 1 of a group
of adjoining lots shall be drawn in fine black ink on the original survey plan in
the following manner:

a. The latitude line shall be drawn horizontally from left to the right marginal
lines through corner one. The corresponding northings based on BLLM No.
1 shall be written above and along the latitude line from the left-hand
borderline of the plan towards the right; while the geographic latitude shall
be indicated below the northing.
b. The longitude line shall be drawn vertically from the top to the bottom
marginal lines through corner 1. The easting based on BLLM No. 1. shall be
written on the left side of and along the longitude line from the bottom
border line towards the top; while the geographic longitude shall be
indicated opposite the easting on the other side of the longitude line.

The scale to be used in plotting surveys shall depend on the difference in the
northings of the extreme north and south corners or in the eastings of the
extreme east and west corners of the lots, whichever is bigger, as follows:

SCP – GE 102 | 114

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

The lot shall be centered and plotted on the plan so that its extreme corners
shall not be less than four centimeters from each marginal line when using any
of the scale provided above.

When the maximum coordinate difference exceeds three thousand meters, the
plan shall be drawn on scales which are exact multiples of 1: 4,000, such as 1:
12,000, 1: 16,000, etc. If any of these scales would make the length of the
property lines generally less than a one-half centimeter, the survey shall be
plotted on more than one sheet using an appropriate scale.

In plotting one whole big parcel on more than one sheet, the parcel shall be
divided into convenient portions, each to be centered and plotted on the sheet
per Section 373 noting thereon the numbers of the adjoining sheets.

When a parcel is divided into many small lots, which, if plotted using any one
of the largest possible scales mentioned in Section 373 would result in
diminutive geometrical figures, the subdivision plan shall be prepared on two
or more sheets on a uniform scale with each of its portions centered on the
sheet under Section 374. The numbers of the sheets on which the other
portions of the subdivisions are plotted shall be properly indicated on the plan.

One plan for each parcel, tract, or lot in isolated land surveys shall be prepared
to a scale following Section 373.

Long narrow tracts such as highways, railways, canals, etc. may be plotted by
dividing the tract into sections and plotting the sections on two or more plans.

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
DENR. (1998). Revised Manual of Land Surveying Regulations in the Philippines.
Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvb
WFpbnxiYmFiYXRheW98Z3g6NDc2ODkyMWY5ZGM4OWY4Mw

DENR. (2007). Revised Regulations of Land Surveys. Retrieved from

https://lmb.gov.ph/index.php/109-resources/v-laws-and-
policies/republic-acts/lmb-memorandum-circular/77-department-
administrative-order-dao

DENR. (2013). Adoption of the Manual on Land Survey Procedures. Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvb
WFpbnxiYmFiYXRheW98Z3g6MWI4MGE0ZDAxMmQ5MzFiNg\

SCP – GE 102 | 115

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s check your understanding of this week’s lesson. Define the following
terms in your understanding.

1. Cadastral Map
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Isolated Survey
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Standard Base Map
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 116

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below.

1. What is the difference between barangay boundary and index maps and
municipal boundary and index maps?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between cadastral maps and standard base maps?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 117

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. Using the table for the scale to be used in plotting isolated surveys,
given an example of survey data wherein the computation of adjusted coordinates and
its corresponding appropriate scale is provided. Give a brief explanation as to how and
why was that the scale was chosen to be used.

SCP – GE 102 | 118

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Week 15 Plans of Isolated Land Surveys

Lesson Title Plans of Isolated Land Surveys
Identify the details to be shown on plans of isolated surveys
Learning Outcome(s)
and apply those details in creating the plan.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Essential Content
15.1 DETAILS TO BE SHOWN ON PLANS OF ISOLATED LAND SURVEYS

The plans shall be clearly and neatly drawn in drawing ink and shall show the
following:

a. The boundaries of the property in full black ink lines heavier than those of
adjoining properties. Permanent walls along boundaries shall be drawn by
conventional symbols.
b. The line from the lot corner to the control stations from which side shots were
taken, by dotted red ink lines.
c. The relative position of adjoining surveyed properties, indicating by dotted
lines the boundaries between them and the names of all adjoining owners and
all-important improvements, roads, and streams, etc., including the width, in
black ink.
d. The corners indicated by small circles two millimeters in diameter drawn in
black ink and their respective descriptions noted.
e. The boundary lines with corresponding bearings and distances in black ink.
f. Tie line of the corner I from reference control point in thin black line with
bearing and distance.
g. Horizontal (latitude) and vertical (longitude) lines passing through the corner I
in thin black line and the geographic and Cartesian (grid) coordinates in PPCS-
TM/PRS 92 indicated in black ink.

Bearings and distances of the survey shall be tabulated on the plan when these
are too numerous to be drawn or shown clearly along or near the boundary lines.
When there are more than fifty lots on the plans, lot descriptions thereof shall be
prepared on LMB authorized forms.

In the case of subdivision or consolidation subdivision surveys, the boundary

data of the lot being subdivided, or of the lots being consolidated - subdivided
shall be tabulated in black ink in a boxed portion at the upper-left corner.

SCP – GE 102 | 119

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

For uniformity in the preparation of isolated survey plans, the only information
that cannot be inscribed on the plan shall be indicated on the space provided for
"Notes" at the bottom left corner. These are:

1. Description of corners as:

a. All corners marked "P.S." are cylindrical concrete monuments 15 x 50
centimeters.
b. All corners not otherwise described are stakes (or pegs, or "X" on boulders,
or concrete nails on wall or tree).
2. Adverse claims as:
Lot 2 is claimed by Edgar Barraca
Lot 3 is a portion of Psu-10001 as surveyed for Ivy Reyes.
3. Relation with any cadastral or public land subdivision survey project or
reservation (if the survey is near a known reservation), as:
a. This survey is outside Cad 69, Pagsanjan Cadastre.
b. This is outside the non-Christian reservation.
c. This is outside the Fort Bonifacio reservation.
4. If the lot is a portion of an undecreed cadastral lot, the cadastral lot number
pertaining to said portion, as: Lot 7 = Lot 5000, Cad-69 5. Classification of the
lot as:
a. For survey inside classified/unclassified forest:

This survey is within classified/unclassified forest and therefore shall not be the
basis for registration or titling purposes.

b. For the original survey:

This survey is inside the alienable and disposable area, Block 1, Project No. 25,
Land Classification Map No. 329 for the Province of Laguna.

The Survey was approved based on the investigation report submitted by Deputy
Public Land Investigator (name) dated .

c. For complex subdivision

This subdivision survey is in conformity with the approved subdivision scheme.

In all lots of isolated land surveys with areas of one hectare or more, the
approximate boundary of the area under cultivation and the nature of its
vegetation such as rice, pastures, woods, etc. with a brief description of the
topographic features such as plain, rolling, hilly or mountainous shall be
indicated in light black dotted lines.

For lots less than one hectare in area, a general classification, such as, "a
residential lot", "home lot", "rice land", "sugar cane land", "a commercial lot" shall
be indicated on said plans. For a group of lots shown on one plan in diminutive

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

geometrical figures, a notation on the plan regarding the topographic features

and/or general classification for each lot is sufficient in both cases.

Irrespective of the area, permanent structures such as buildings with a concrete

foundation, stone walls, etc., shall be indicated by dotted black lines on the plans
and maps.

Plans of isolated land surveys shall be titled thus:

SCP – GE 102 | 121

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

SCP – GE 102 | 122

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

The lettering to be used on all plans shall be simple, uniform. mechanical and not
ornamental lettering.

When the meridian of the survey coincides with the vertical axis of the plan, all
bearings and distances shall be drawn along the boundary lines and parallel
thereto. If the line runs S. W. or N. E., the data shall be written to the north-east;
if N. W. or S. E., the data shall be written to the south-east; and if due north and
due south or due east and due west, the data shall be written to the north. south
and cast. respectively.

In general, the lot numbers, corner numbers, comer descriptions, notes. titles.
etc. shall be drawn parallel to the horizontal axis of the plan.

Geodetic Engineers and Junior Geodetic Engineers shall submit their original
plans properly prepared, the masthead filled up, signed, and sealed.

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
DENR. (1998). Revised Manual of Land Surveying Regulations in the Philippines.
Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvb
WFpbnxiYmFiYXRheW98Z3g6NDc2ODkyMWY5ZGM4OWY4Mw

DENR. (2007). Revised Regulations of Land Surveys. Retrieved from

https://lmb.gov.ph/index.php/109-resources/v-laws-and-
policies/republic-acts/lmb-memorandum-circular/77-department-
administrative-order-dao

DENR. (2013). Adoption of the Manual on Land Survey Procedures. Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvb
WFpbnxiYmFiYXRheW98Z3g6MWI4MGE0ZDAxMmQ5MzFiNg\

SCP – GE 102 | 123

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s check your understanding of this week’s lesson. Define the following
terms in your understanding.

1. Map
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Isolated Survey
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Isolated Plan
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 124

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below.

1. What is the difference between maps and plans?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What makes Geodetic Engineers the only authorized people in creating
plans such as isolated land survey plans?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 125

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. With all your understanding about isolated surveys and plans, give a
detailed explanation of its purpose and relevance in the isolated lands of the
Philippines, the Filipino people, and the Geodetic Engineers?

SCP – GE 102 | 126

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Week 16 Surveying Instruments

Lesson Title Surveying Instruments
Identify the different kinds of surveying instruments and
understand the requirements and standards for the
Learning Outcome(s)
calibration of surveying instruments for conducting land
surveys.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Essential Content
16.1 INSTRUMENT REGISTRATION AND CALIBRATION

The appropriate instrument shall be used in performing a survey. Such

equipment must be capable of achieving the standards of accuracy prescribed
for each kind of survey as stated in Sections 28, DAO 2007-29. As such,
surveying instruments are subject to the following conditions:

a. To ensure accuracy of angular and linear measurements, surveying

instruments used in the survey of lands especially surveys for registration
purposes shall be examined, tested/calibrated, standardized, and approved
by the Lands Management Bureau. Renewal of the registration or
calibration of instruments may be done in the LMS except for the GPS and
ETS/EDM;
b. The instruments should be presented to the LMB/LMS for a full
testing/calibration or check and registration, in any of the following
situations:

1. Upon receipt of the new instrument.

2. After any repair which affects the component such as the light source,
internal centering and/or alignment, replacement of parts, etc.;
3. When a malfunction is suspected or when the linear error as a result of
partial test over the check base established in the project was found to
be beyond the allowable as prescribed in Section 28, DAO 2007-29;
4. When the instrument was used in the conduct of the survey and the
survey returns were submitted for verification and approval as required
in Section 22, DAO 2007-29;
5. The testing/calibration is required in the registration of the instruments
subject to change of ownership;

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

6. When the distances measured may be or are to be challenged in a Court

of Law.

16.2 REQUIRED DOCUMENTS FOR REGISTRATION OF SURVEYING

INSTRUMENT

The following shall be presented when registering surveying instruments

(common to all kinds of surveying instruments):

a. A written request for registration, renewal, or change of ownership and

mentioning therein the kind of instrument, the brand, model, and serial
number;
b. The instrument being registered and the necessary accessories such as a
tripod, range pole, prism, extra battery, etc.;
c. Technical Brochure of the instrument. Brochure of the same kind and
brand but different model shall not be accepted.
d. Invoice Receipt from the vendor. In the absence thereof, an affidavit
mentioning the name and address of the entity or person who sold the
instrument and explaining thereon the reason for the absence of receipt or
deed of sale on the matter. The vendor shall affix his/her signature on the
affidavit as proof of conformity. If this is not possible, mention in the
affidavit the valid reason. The affidavit shall be under oath.
e. Registration Fee which amount shall be based on the applicable DENR
issuances.

16.3 REQUIRED STANDARDS FOR ISSUANCES OF CERTIFICATION OF

INSTRUMENT REGISTRATION

a. Steel Tapes:

1. Only Steel Tapes (graduated in metric system) which are at standard

length at temperatures between twenty-seven (27) degrees Celsius and
thirty-seven (37) degrees Celsius shall be used in the conduct of land
surveys. The temperature of thirty-two (32) degrees Celsius shall be
adopted as the standard temperature at which each tape shall be at
standard length with a tension of ten (10) kilograms when supported
horizontally throughout its entire length;
2. Steel Tapes with a width of more than 5 mm. shall not be accepted for
registration, considering that the wider the tape, the greater the effect of
sag due to the weight.
3. Only Steel Tapes which are 100 meters in length shall be certified as fit
for a land survey of secondary precision (1:10,000).
4. Fifty-meter (50) tape with no break shall be allowed only in lot survey of
Tertiary Precision (1:5,000).
5. Other tapes such as Fiberglass, Phosphor Bronze, or Nylon-Coated Steel
Tapes shall be used only in locating details in topographic surveys, road

SCP – GE 102 | 128

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

surveys, etc. which are not subjected to verification and approval for land
registration purposes. These shall not be registered with LMB;
6. One Hundred (100) meters of Steel Tapes which have at least one (1)
break may be used only in lot survey of Tertiary Precision (1:5,000). A
50-meter tape with one (1) or more breaks, shall not be accepted for
renewal of registration.

b. Engineer’s Transit:

1. Telescope with Center Cross Wires preferably with Solar Squares and a
Magnification of not less than Twenty Diameters (20X);
2. Stadia Constant preferably 100. Stadia Constant shall be indicated in the
field notes;
3. The Horizontal and Vertical Circles shall be full circles with Angular
Units in Sexagesimal. If the inside diameter of the Horizontal Circle is
less than One Hundred Twenty millimeters (120 mm), the Least Reading
of the Vernier shall be Thirty Seconds of Arc (30”) or more;
4. Magnetic Compass shall be full circle and with a Least Reading of One
Degree of arc (1º) or less;
5. Two (2) Plate Levels shall have a Sensitivity of Seventy-Five Seconds of
Arc (75”) or less per 2 mm. graduation.

c. Optical Theodolites:

1. Telescope with Center Cross Wires preferably with Solar Squares and a
Magnification of not less than 30X;
2. Stadia Constant preferably 100. Stadia Constant must be indicated in
the field notes;
3. Horizontal and Vertical Circle readings either in Sexagesimal or
Centisimal must be at most Twenty-Second of arc (20”) or equivalent,
through Optical Micrometer;
4. With Optical Plummet and Sighting Collimator;
5. With one (1) Plate and one (1) Circular Level.

d. Electronic Theodolites:

1. Telescope with Center Cross Wires preferably with Solar Squares and a
Magnification of not less than 30X;
2. Stadia Constant preferably 100. Stadia Constant must be indicated in
the field notes;
3. Horizontal and Vertical Angle readings either in Sexagesimal or
Centesimal must be at most Twenty-Second of arc (20”) or equivalent,
through Digital display either in LCD or LED;
4. With Optical Plummet and Sighting Collimator;
5. With one (1) Plate and one (1) Circular Level.

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

e. Electronic Distance Meters (EDM):

1. A measuring range of at least 1000 meters when using one (1) prism;
2. It should operate with an accuracy of +/- (5mm+5ppm) in a temperature
range of -15 to + 40ºC;
3. Digital display of measured distance either in LCD or LED up to the
nearest millimeter;
4. Can be mounted either on the Theodolite or Transit (with adaptor) or
direct on the tribrach;

f. Electronic Total Stations (ETS):

1. The telescope shall have an erect image and a magnifying power of not
less than 30 diameters. The minimum focus distance shall be at least 1.3
meters.
2. The horizontal and vertical circles shall have a least reading of one
second of arc on the centesimal units displayed on Liquid Crystal
Displays (LCD) or Light Emitting Diodes (LED). Angular units may be in
the sexagesimal or centesimal system.
3. The measuring range of at least 1,000 meters when using one prism. For
purposes of establishing controls, the maximum range shall be at least
5,000 meters when using three (3) prisms.
4. It should operate with an accuracy of at least +/- (5 mm + 5 ppm)
probable error and within a temperature range of -15°C to +40°C.
5. It should have a measuring range read-out up to one millimeter on Fine
Measurement Mode and up to ten millimeters on Coarse or Tracking
Measurement Mode displayed on LCD or LED.
6. It should be provided with automatic or manually inputted correction for
meteorological or atmospheric conditions, earth curvature, refraction,
and reflector constant including cyclic errors.
7. With a circular bubble (sensitivity of 10’ per 2mm) and a plate bubble
(sensitivity of 30” per 2 mm). Provided with an automatic compensator
for tilt correction;
8. With Optical Plummet and Point Guide or Optical Sighting Device.

g. Global Positioning System (GPS) Receiver

1. Field test for Survey Accuracy for the issuance of Certification shall be
done only upon presentation of at least a pair (two units) of GPS
Receivers: one (1) as Base Receiver and the other (1) as Rover, for
differential (simultaneous) observations.
2. The Receivers, either of a single frequency (L1 C/A Code) or dual-
frequency (L1/L2 P-code) shall have the following minimum accuracy:

▪ At Static Survey:

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 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Horizontal: 5 mm+1 ppm, multiply by baseline length

Vertical: 10 mm+ 1 ppm, multiply by baseline length

▪ At Kinematic Survey:

Horizontal: 20 mm+1 ppm, multiply by baseline length

Vertical: 20 mm+ 1 ppm, multiply by baseline length

3. Must be a survey-grade receiver and a dual-frequency (L1/L2) for the

establishment of First and Second-Order Accuracies and single frequency
for the lower accuracies;
4. Preferably capable of receiving signals from several satellite systems
(GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, etc.);
5. Capable of tracking at least four (4) common satellites with good
geometry;
6. Capable of obtaining carrier phase observable (not just C/A code);
7. The position is expressed in Longitude, Latitude, and Altitude;
8. Capable of observing and logging at common times;
9. Capable of achieving a precision of 1 part per million (ppm) to 0.1 ppm.

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
DENR. (1998). Revised Manual of Land Surveying Regulations in the Philippines.
Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvb
WFpbnxiYmFiYXRheW98Z3g6NDc2ODkyMWY5ZGM4OWY4Mw

DENR. (2007). Revised Regulations of Land Surveys. Retrieved from

https://lmb.gov.ph/index.php/109-resources/v-laws-and-
policies/republic-acts/lmb-memorandum-circular/77-department-
administrative-order-dao

DENR. (2013). Adoption of the Manual on Land Survey Procedures. Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvb
WFpbnxiYmFiYXRheW98Z3g6MWI4MGE0ZDAxMmQ5MzFiNg\

SCP – GE 102 | 131

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s check your understanding of this week’s lesson. Define the following
terms in your understanding.

1. Engineer’s Transit
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Optical Theodolite
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Digital Theodolite
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 132

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below.

1. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of Electronic Total
Stations as an instrument in surveying?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of GPS Receivers
as an instrument in surveying?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 133

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. With all your understanding about surveying instruments, give a
detailed explanation of the purpose, advantages, and significance of calibration of
surveying instruments.

SCP – GE 102 | 134

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Week 17 Survey Forms and Symbols

Lesson Title Survey Forms and Symbols
Discuss the process of creating a survey form for registration,
identify the different survey symbols and how to properly
Learning Outcome(s)
name and use them, and familiarize the map symbols and
monument dimensions for different types of surveys.

At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING INTENT!
Essential Content
17.1 SURVEY FORM FOR REGISTRATION AND OTHER PURPOSES

All plans of land surveys which shall be used for administrative or judicial
registration purposes as required to be prepared pursuant to Sections 166 to
185 of DMC 2010-13 shall be drawn on LMB prescribed format. The
corresponding field notes, field notes cover, area computation sheets and other
forms for inclusion in the survey returns shall also be written on authorized
LMB forms. If, however, the plans and forms were prepared using a
computerized method, the Geodetic Engineer must secure authority from LMB.

a. Required documents for issuance of Authorization to Print

1. Written request mentioning the form/s to be secured authorization;

2. Sample Print Out of the Survey Forms and Plans, at least five (5) copies;
3. Authorization Fees;
4. If private practicing geodetic engineer:
a. Copy of PRC ID;
b. Copy of PTR;
c. If registered as a surveying company submit a copy of DTI or SEC
Registration;
5. If commercial printer:
a. DTI or SEC Registration;
b. Mayor’s Permit as an establishment.

SCP – GE 102 | 135

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

b. Forms Evaluation

1. Commercial Print Out

a. Field Notes, Computation Sheets, Lot Description – shall be
evaluated based on the prescribed thickness of the paper used for
durability purposes. The print out linear column and rows, the
font, and overall pattern shall also be in accordance with the
prescribed forms of the LMB.
b. Survey Plans – the drafting film to be used shall be of matt type,
0.03mm thickness and shall be tested as against the effect of
drawing ink on the surface and the thickness of the medium which
is usually a drafting film. The print out linear column and rows,
the font, and overall pattern shall also be in accordance with the
prescribed forms of the LMB.
2. Computerized Print Out
a. Field Notes Field Notes, Computation Sheets, Lot Description –
shall be evaluated in the same manner as in Paragraph b.(1).(a) of
this Section. If the pattern and fonts of the form submitted by the
requesting geodetic engineer do not conform with the LMB design,
the LMB shall furnish the form in a digital file to the said geodetic
engineer at cost.
b. Survey Plans - shall be evaluated in the same manner as in
Paragraph b.(1).(b) of this Section. If the pattern and fonts of the
form submitted by the requesting geodetic engineer do not conform
with the LMB design, the LMB shall furnish the form in a digital
file to the said geodetic engineer at cost.

17.2 STANDARD SURVEY SIGNS AND SYMBOLS

Survey symbols and numbers shall be used in order to classify and identify all
kinds of surveys that facilitate the recording, filing, and record-keeping of
survey plans and maps and their corresponding survey returns. This system of
identifying lots shall be called Standard Parcel Identifier (SPI) and shall be done
as follows:

a. The system of classifying and identifying surveys shall consist of four (4)
parts, as follows:

1. The first part shall be the Survey Symbol consisting of up to four (4)
characters such as H, Psu, Cadm, etc. which shall be in accordance with
the Survey Symbols in Section 17.3;
2. The second part shall consist of two (2) to four (4) characters which
indicate the Region where the lot is located such as 05 (Region 5), CAR
(Cordillera Administrative Region), etc. and shall be in accordance with
the NEDA Regional Code;

SCP – GE 102 | 136

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

3. The third part is the serial number (control number) of the survey based
on their entry with the Survey Registry Book;
4. The fourth part of the numbering system shall be applied only if
applicable, and these are the following letters to be put after the serial
number and to be enclosed by open and close parenthesis:
a. Amd - Approved Survey Plans which were not subjected to
Registration and have to be amended as per the request of the
claimant/owner for the purpose of changing the boundary lines by
increasing or reducing the number of corners without including
any new area, shall adopt the old survey symbol and number but
add the word “Amended” or “Amd”. A clearance from the Register of
Deeds certifying that no title was issued and from the CENRO that
no patent was issued covering the old survey plan must be
submitted by the requesting party. The certified sepia copy or the
old approved survey plan must be surrendered by the
claimant/owner to the LMS, together with the Survey Returns of
the new subdivision plan
b. Arf – for a subdivision survey of a track of land under the coverage
of Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP), which will be
issued Certificate of Land Ownership Allocation (CLOA)

Illustration:

Psd-03-000141(Amd)

where:
Psd - survey symbol
03 - regional code
000141 - serial or control number of survey based on Registry Book
Amd - subdivision survey was amended

5. The assignment of a one-letter suffix letter “D”, shall be confined to the

Cadastral Survey, which indicates that the survey was conducted by a
Geodetic Engineer in private practice. The absence of this suffix “D”
means that the survey was undertaken by the government. The LMB
shall be consulted by the LMS in the assignment of the Cadastral Survey
number to avoid duplication of cadastral number.
6. Untitled Lots to be subdivided but still covered by the original survey
(Psu), shall still retain the old survey symbol (Psu) and number but with
an added comment at the end as “Amd”.

SCP – GE 102 | 137

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

17.3 SURVEY SYMBOL

SCP – GE 102 | 138

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

SCP – GE 102 | 139

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

17.4 CONVENTIONAL MAP SYMBOLS

SCP – GE 102 | 140

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

17.5 MONUMENT DIMENSIONS AND MARKINGS ILLUSTRATION

Control monuments:

1. Geodetic Control Monuments

2. Project Control Monuments

Political boundary monument:

1. Municipal Boundary Monuments

SCP – GE 102 | 141

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

2. Barangay Boundary Monument

Standard lot corner monument:

SCP – GE 102 | 142

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Mineral land survey monuments:

1. Principal Mineral Land Corners

2. Other Corners of Mineral Land

Forest boundary monuments:

1. Permanent Major Boundary Monument

SCP – GE 102 | 143

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

2. Permanent Intermediate Boundary Monument

3. Preliminary Forest Boundary Marking

SCP – GE 102 | 144

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

17.6 PRS92 PROVINCES CODES

SCP – GE 102 | 145

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
DENR. (1998). Revised Manual of Land Surveying Regulations in the Philippines.
Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvb
WFpbnxiYmFiYXRheW98Z3g6NDc2ODkyMWY5ZGM4OWY4Mw

SCP – GE 102 | 146

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

DENR. (2007). Revised Regulations of Land Surveys. Retrieved from

https://lmb.gov.ph/index.php/109-resources/v-laws-and-
policies/republic-acts/lmb-memorandum-circular/77-department-
administrative-order-dao

DENR. (2013). Adoption of the Manual on Land Survey Procedures. Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvb
WFpbnxiYmFiYXRheW98Z3g6MWI4MGE0ZDAxMmQ5MzFiNg\

SCP – GE 102 | 147

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let’s check your understanding of this week’s lesson. Define the following
terms in your understanding.

1. Monument
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Symbol
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Reference System
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 148

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Discuss your answers to the questions below.

1. What is the purpose of survey symbols?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What do you think is the purpose of provincial codes?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

SCP – GE 102 | 149

 ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. To summarize your learnings about Cartography, in not less than 500
words, discuss the purpose, significance, importance, advantages and disadvantages
of maps and symbols in creating plans especially for surveying purposes. (Note: You
can use document apps or software in answering this part. Just follow this format: Arial,
12, 1.5 spacing, 1” margin on all sides.)

SCP – GE 102 | 150