CRD 324 Rural Development Strategies - 0

CRD 324 MODULE
COURSE
GUIDE
CRD 324
RURAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
Course Team: Dr. (Mrs.) Salamatu I. Attahiru –(Course

Developer/Writer) –
CEM, Kaduna Polytechnic
Dr Joseph E. Ogbu CEM, Kaduna Polytechnic.
Usman Usman
CEM, Kaduna Polytechnic
Professor Bello Abubakar Zaki (Editor) –

Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural
Development Usman Dan Fodio University, Sokoto
Lawal Kamaldeen, A. A. Ph.D – (HoD)

Faculty of Management Science, Department of
Entrepreneurship – NOUN
Dr. Ishola, Timothy O. (Dean) –

Faculty of Management Science – NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
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CRD 324 RURAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
University Village
Plot 91 Cadastral Zone
Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway
Jabi, Abuja.
Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.noun.edu.ng
Published by:
National Open University of Nigeria
ISBN:
Printed: 2017
All Rights Reserved
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CRD 324 MODULE
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction……………………………………………... iv
Course Objectives ………………………………………. iv
Course Aims ……………………………………………. iv
Course Materials………………………………………... v
Study Units……………………………………………… v
Textbooks and References……………………………... vi
Assignment and Marking Schemes…………………….. vii
Course Overview……………………………………….. vii
How to get the best from this course………………….... viii
Facilitators/Tutor and Tutorial…………………………. ix
Conclusion……………………………………………… ix
Summary………………………………………………... ix
iii
INTRODUCTION
This course guide is designed to help you have an adequate

understanding of the facts presented in CRD 324 entitled Rural
Development Strategies. This course guide should always be handy with
you at all times. Your success in the course depends largely on your
constant references and understanding of the guide.
The time table scheduling your activities in CRD 324 such as studying
the course, writing and submission of assignments, allocation of
continuous assessment scores, final examinations and other relevant
information are contained in this course guide. All have been carefully
packaged to enable you achieve the aims and objectives of the course.
You are warmly welcome to the study of CRD 324 (Rural Development
Strategies). The course guide is the first material you have to thoroughly
go through. This will help you to be familiar with the content of the
course. Efforts are made for you to understand the meaning and
intricacies of rural development and how such development occurs in
any given rural area. The course is presented in simple English
Language for your easy understanding so that you can apply the
knowledge to contributing to rural development in Nigerian rural
communities.
There are three modules for this course and each module consists of 5
units. Consequently, there are altogether 15 units that the course is
comprised of. There is a logical connection among the units whereby
each unit is built on the preceding one in knowledge and depth like a
chain. All the units are equally relevant and none will be skipped so that
there will be a logical graduation from one unit to another. This will
help you in encoding and recall of the lessons in each unit.
COURSE AIMS
The course primarily aims at equipping you with an in-depth knowledge

of rural development strategies in relation to the meaning and intricacies
of rural development goals, principles, planning and implementation of
projects, motivational processes as well as the financing of projects in
the rural areas.
This course aims at:
i) Explain the meaning of development.

ii) Analyze the meaning of rural development.
iii) Describe the goals of rural development.
iv) Justify the necessity for rural development in Nigeria.
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CRD 324 MODULE
v) Explain the principles of rural development.

vi) Discuss the approaches to rural development.
vii) Discuss planning, implementation and appraisal of rural
development projects.
viii) Identify the stages of rural development plan.
ix) Discuss financing of rural development projects.
x) Explain the meaning of motivation.
xi) Analyze the theories of motivation.
xii) Discuss the methods of motivating society for social actions
through community development.
xiii) Discuss the approaches to community modernization.
xiv) Identify the problems of rural development in Nigeria.
xv) Discuss various community modernization programmes of past
and present governments.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course, you should be able to:
 have an in-depth knowledge of the structure and content of rural

development strategies.
 explain the meaning of rural development and its strategies.
 explain the processes involved in rural development plan,
implementation and evaluation.
 discuss the methods involved in motivating society for social
actions through community development.
 explain community modernization programmes of successive
governments of Nigeria and the problems affecting such efforts.
COURSE MATERIALS
The course materials that will guide you to successfully complete this
course are:
i. Course Guide
ii. Study Units
iii. Assignment File
iv. Relevant Textbooks
STUDY UNITS
The study units are fifteen in number contained in modules as follows:
Module 1
Unit 1 The Meaning of Development
v
Unit 2 The Meaning of Rural Development

Unit 3 The Goals of Rural Development
Unit 4 Objectives for Rural Development in Nigeria
Unit 5 The Necessity for Rural Development in Nigeria
Unit 6 The Principles of Rural Development
Module 2
Unit 1 Approaches to Rural Development

Unit 2 Planning, Implementation and Appraisal of Rural
Development Projects
Unit 3 The Stages of Rural Development Plan
Unit 4 Financing of Rural Development Projects
Unit 5 The Problems of Rural Development In Nigeria
Module 3
Unit 1 The Meaning of Motivation

Unit 2 Theories of Motivation
Unit 3 Methods of Motivating Society for Social Actions through
Community Development
Unit 4 Approaches to Community Modernization
Unit 5 Various Community Modernization Programmes of Past
and Present Governments
You should note that each of the units under each module has Self-
Assessment Exercises and Tutor-Marked Assignment(s) (TMAs) which
will be scored by the course tutor. The sources of information are
provided in the references for further readings. Practice the exercises
seriously and assess yourself to see if you adequately understand the
content and objectives of each unit. This will prepare you for an
excellent performance in the Teacher Marked Assignment(s) (TMAs)
and final examinations.
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

Mukherjee, A. (2002). Educational psychology. Zaria, Nigeria:
Asekome & Co. Publishers.
Okonkwo, P.C. (2010). Community and rural development strategies.

Principles and practice. Enugu: Impressium Publications.
Olanrewaju, B. (2010). Fundamentals of management and

administration. Abuja: Sanjane Management Books.
Sian, G. & Uguagbu, D. (1980). Educational psychology in a changing
world. London: George Allen and Unwin.
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CRD 324 MODULE
ASSIGNMENT AND MARKING SCHEME

Assignment Marks
Assignment 1-5 Five assignments. Select the best four and
around 12.52 each, 12.5x4 = 50%
Final examination 50% of the overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks
COURSE OVERVIEW
Unit Title of work Weeks activity Assessment
Course guide 1
Module 1
1 The meaning of development. 2
2 The meaning of rural development. 2
3 The goals of rural development. 2 Assignment 1
4 Objectives for Rural Development in Nigeria
5 The necessity for rural development in 2

Nigeria.
6 The principles of rural development. 2 Assignment 2
Module 2
1. Approaches to rural development. 2
2. Planning, implementation and appraisal of 2
rural development projects.
3. The stages of rural development plan. 2 Assignment 3
4. Financing of rural development projects. 2
5. The problems of rural development in 2
Nigeria
Module 3
1. The meaning of motivation 2
2. The theories of motivation. 2 Assignment 4
3. Methods of motivating society for social 2
4. Approaches to community modernization 2
5. Various community modernization 2 Assignment 5
programmes of past and present
governments.
Revision 1
Total 32
The above table gives an overview of CRD 324 – the units, the numbers
of weeks devoted to each unit and the assignments to be written by you.
vii
HOW TO GET THE BEST FROM THIS COURSE
In the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), there are no visible

lecturers unlike the Conventional University. It counts on your maturity
and initiatives to study the course materials. Your intrinsic motivation
and serious cognitive engagement and determination are what you need
to be successful. Your effort and adherence to the course requirements
will determine when to complete the B.Sc Programme successfully.
Even though there are no visible lecturers, you should read the study
materials as if you are listening to the lecturers, and of course you are
listening to the lecturers indirectly.
All the units have the same structure namely; the introduction, the
aims/objectives of the course, the course content, conclusion, Self-
Assessment exercises which you should carefully practice to know your
extent of acquisition of the lessons in the unit. Other items in the
structure of the units include Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs). You
should answer them as your final examination questions come from
these ones. You should also curiously peer into the references and
textbooks provided as this will expand the scope of your knowledge in
the course.
As a strategy to go through and understand the course, the followings

are suggested:
i) Read the Course Guide carefully.

ii) Work out your private time table based on the most convenient
time to study the materials.
iii) Stick to your time-table. However, allow flexibility when and
where necessary.
iv) Start unit one and go through it before Unit 2 and finally unit 15.
You have been told never to leap frog jump any unit.
v) As you work through the units, you will be instructed on what to
do. You may be asked to go to a previous course you have done
before for more information and/or reminder of some basic facts.
vi) Compare the objectives of each unit with the content of your total
assimilation of it. If there is a deviation, go back to the study
material and reread it.
vii) When a submitted assignment is returned to you, go through it
and observe comments made. If there is doubt, contact the course
tutor.
viii) Your completion of the last unit is an indication that you are
ready for the final examination.
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CRD 324 MODULE
FACILITATORS/TUTOR AND TUTORIALS
During tutorials, your tutor will grade you, comment on your assignment
and monitor your progress. Try your best to attend the tutorials .This is
the only way to have face to face contact with your tutor. Questions and
answers are handled during this session. Do not hesitate to contact your
tutor through phone or e-mail if you need help.
The course tutor will be willing to:
i) Provide answers to your questions;

ii) Co-ordinate discussions based on the unit;
iii) Provide feedback on tutor marked assignments;
iv) Get feedback from students on their understanding of the unit(s);
Tutorials will take place in the study centre nearest to you. You
have to arrange the time and other details with your facilitator.
SUMMARY
This is another service from the NOUN to make you an all-round

student. There are trained counselors at the Study Centre nearest to you
to provide relevant services on issues concerning you and your studies.
You are advised to also be in constant touch with your counsellor. You
can even contact them through their phone and e-mail addresses.
In this Course Guide, you have been provided with ample information
designed to make your study of Course CRD 324 successful. You need
to assimilate and have these pieces of information at the back of your
mind.
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CRD 324 MODULE
MAIN
CONTENT
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1………………………………………………………….…… 1
Unit 1 The Meaning of Development………………………..…… 1
Unit 2 The Meaning of Rural Development……………………… 5
Unit 3 The Goals of Rural Development……………………..… 9
Unit 4 Objectives for Rural Development in Nigeria………… 12
Unit 5 The Necessity for Rural Development in Nigeria……… 16
Unit 6 The Principles of Rural Development……………….. 20
Module 2…………………………………………………………. 23
Unit 1 Some Typical Problem of Rural Areas……………… 23

Unit 2 Approaches to Rural Development……………….. 26
Unit 3 Planning, Implementation and Appraisal of Rural
Development Projects…………………… 29
Unit 4 Financing of Rural Development Projects…………… 34
Unit 5 The Problems of Rural Development in Nigeria 44
Module 3 47
Unit 1 Motivation…… 47
Unit 2 Theories of Motivation 51
Unit 3 Methods of Motivating Society for Social Actions through
Community Development 54
Unit 4 Approaches to Community Modernization 58
Unit 5 Community Modernization Programmes of Past
and Present Governments 62
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CRD 324 MODULE
MODULE 1
Unit 1 The Meaning of Development

Unit 2 The Meaning of Rural Development
Unit 3 The Goals of Rural Development
Unit 4 Objectives for Rural Development in Nigeria
Unit 5 The Necessity for Rural Development in Nigeria
Unit 6 The Principles of Rural Development
UNIT 1 THE MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The meaning of development
3.2 Dimensions of development
3.3 Theories of development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is the first unit in module 1 of course CRD 324. The unit will take a
broader look at the meaning of development, dimensions of
development and theories of development.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the meaning of development

 describe the dimensions of development
 identify the steps in bringing about development.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Development
Development can be defined as the general improvement in economic,

social and political conditions of the whole society in terms of reduction
1
or elimination of poverty, inequality, injustice, insecurity, ecological

imbalance and unemployment within the context of a growing economy
(Filani, 2000). Generally, development entails a shift (an upward shift)
from one end to another and over a period of time. This is a positive
development. Sometimes, the development can be negative depending
on the situation, but this is not the kind of development that this course
is focusing. The concern of this course is improvement or advancement
or progression which could be of relevance to any community.
Development goes beyond increases in per capita and financial aspects

of people‟s lives. It includes change in institutional, social and
administrative structures as well as social behaviour and attitude of
people including their customs and beliefs. It should be noted that
development is a continuous process. It is unending. It goes on and on.
3.2 Dimensions of Development
According to Filani, (2000), development could focus on any of the

following:
a) Social development,
b) Economic development
c) Political development
d) Cultural development
e) Religious development
All the above aspects of development are tied together even though in
theory, distinctions can be made. All the aspects focus at raising the
people‟s standard of living.
From the definition and concept of development, the following

conclusions can be reached.
a. Development contributes to the well-being and comfort of the

people.
b. Development is a process and is continuous.
c. It is quantitative i.e. it increases per capital income.
d. It is qualitative i.e. it involves a total increase in the quality of
people‟s lives in the area of education, health, equality, security,
social comfort e.tc.
e. It is not just the availability of roads, storey buildings, cars,
planes electricity etc. If all these are available and the people do
not have equal access to them, then we cannot say there is
development.
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CRD 324 MODULE
3.3 Steps in Bringing about Development
According to Okonkwo, (2006), the steps in bringing about development

are as follows:
a. An informal survey, i.e. fact finding and identification of

community concerns.
b. Identification of a small group of leaders and /or interest groups
who can serve as the initiating sets.
c. Identification of immediate community problem.
d. Sharing of problems identified with community leaders for
legitimation.
e. Diffusion of problems and definition of needs.
f. Securing citizen‟s commitment to act and identification of needed
resources.
g. Appraisal of available internal resources and invitation of
external aid (where necessary).
h. Formulation of a detailed plan of action including a timetable.
i. Carrying out the action and evaluating the entire process and the
results.
j. Identification of derived problem or needs and planning for „the
continuation of the process. By derived problems or needs here
the author meant those unanticipated effects of the change after
implementation.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. In your own understanding, what is development?

ii. Enumerate the steps in bringing about development.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In any society, development is necessary and conscious efforts are made

to bring about desired development for the benefit of society. It involves
some elements and steps which should be carefully followed by the
stakeholders. Many areas have remained underdeveloped as a result of
the inability of the people to understand and effect development in all it
dimensions.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of development, the

dimensions of development and the steps involved in bringing about
development. In the next unit, the meaning of rural development will be
discussed.
3
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Define the term development and justify the fact that

development goes beyond increases in per capita and financial
aspects of people‟s lives.
2. Identify and explain the steps you would follow in bringing about
socio-economic development in your locality.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Filani, M.O. (2000). “Nigeria: The need to modify center-down

development planning.” In W. A. Stehr and D.R.P. Tailor (Ed.)
Development from above or below. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
Idachaba, F. A. (1985). “Integrated rural development: Lessons from

experience.” I.F.A.D.”- FIATPANAS
Korafor, A. H. & L.C. Iwuyi, (1975). Urban Employment Problems in

Nigeria. University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria.
Nwobi, T.U. (2006). Cooperatives and rural financing. In E. E. Umebali

(Eds.) Readings in cooperative economics and management.
Lagos: Computer Egde Publishers.

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CRD 324 MODULE
UNIT 2 THE MEANING OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The definition of rural development
3.2 The goals of rural development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rural development is a concept that has been viewed from different

perspectives. Perhaps this is because of the peculiarities of the problems
and needs of different rural communities. This unit will give a broader
understanding of the concept in terms of its various definitions as well
as the goals of rural development generally.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define rural development;

 explain the goals of rural development;
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Definition of Rural Development
According to Nwobi, (2007), rural development can be viewed as the

development of the moral, social, political and economic potentialities
of rural communities to enhance their self-reliance through the provision
of appropriate infrastructure such as pipe-borne water, electricity, good
roads and small scale industries, increase their political consciousness
and participation, promote their moral and social well-being which will
result in tolerance, good discipline, justice, fairness, kindness, love and
peace.
Similarly Okoye (1997) cited in Filani (2000) defined rural development

as „the process of making life more satisfying and fulfilling for millions
of people who live in rural areas. Rural development provides rural
dwellers with the opportunities for gainful employment as well as the
5
expansion of social services which could enhance the welfare and

security of rural people”.
A further definition by Lele (1992) cited in filani (2000) is that rural

development is the “improvement of the population living in the rural
areas on a self- sustaining basis, through transforming the socio-spatial
structures of their productive activities”.
The aforementioned definitions have three important features of rural

development. These are:
a. Improving the living standard of the subsistence population

which involves the mobilization and allocation of resources so as
to reach a desirable balance overtime between the welfare and
productive services available to rural subsistence population.
b. Mass participation which requires that resources be allocated to
low income regions and classes and that the productive services
actually reach them, and
c. Making the process self-sustaining requires the development of
appropriate skills and implementing capacity and the presence of
institutions at the local, regional and national levels to ensure
effective additional financial and human resources for continued
development of the subsistence sector.
Rural development therefore should be a sustained increase in total

transformation and modernization of the socio-economic environment of
the rural areas. It should be a widely participatory process of directed
change in a society, intended to bring about the social and material
advancement for the majority of the people through gaining greater
control over their environment.
The following deductions can be made from all the definitions and
concept of rural development:
i) It is a process whereby concerted efforts are made in order to

facilitate significant increases in rural resource productivity with
the central objective of enhancing rural income and increasing
employment opportunities in rural communities for ruralites to
remain in the area.
ii) It is an integrated approach to food production, provision of
physical, social and institutional infrastructures with an ultimate
goal of bringing about qualitative changes which culminate in
improved standard of living of rural populations.
iii) It is as a systematic and integrated process, designed to improve
the socio-economic and cultural life of rural dwellers that are
characterized by peasant and subsistence agriculture increased
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CRD 324 MODULE
production and processing of export crops especially trees with a

view to broadening the revenue base of state, and
iv) It is an effort to improve the living standards of farmers and the
rural populace in general.
i. Define rural development.

ii. In your own simple understanding, why is rural development a
process?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Rural areas are found everywhere, especially in developing countries of

the world. Efforts are made by the government, non-governmental
organizations, community based organizations, donor agencies,
individuals and groups to bring about rural development. In order to do
so, the understanding of the concept rural development is important.
Consequently, different definitions abound by different rural
development experts using different parameters.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed various definitions of rural development

and explained lessons derivable from the definitions. In the next unit, the
goals of rural development will be discussed.
1. Define rural development and succinctly make some deductions

from the definition.
2. Compare and contrast any two definitions of rural development
known to you.

Sons.
Korafor, A. H. & L. C. Iwuyi, (1975). Urban Employment Problems in

7
Nwobi, T. U. (2006). Cooperatives and rural financing. In E. E. Umebali

(Eds.) Readings in Cooperative Economics and Management.
Okonkwo, P. C. (2010). Community and Rural Development Strategies.

Principles and Practice. Enugu: Impressium Publications.
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CRD 324 MODULE
UNIT 3 GOALS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Goals of rural development
3.2 Rural Development Process in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is the third unit in module 1 of course CRD 324. Rural

development efforts are geared towards achieving some definite goals.
This unit thus discusses these goals so that it will remain as a yardstick
to stakeholders of rural development programmes in Nigeria. The unit
also discusses the processes adopted by the Nigerian government to
bring about rural development.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 enumerate and discuss the goals of rural development

 discuss rural development process in Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Goals of Rural Development
The goals of rural development as summarized by Alkali, (1997) are as

follows:
i) Generation of new employment;

ii) More equitable access to arable land;
iii) Widespread improvement in health;
iv) Nutrition and housing;
v) Broadened opportunities for all individuals to realize their full
potentials through education;
vi) A strong voice for all rural people in shaping their decisions and
actions that affect their lives.
9
The aforementioned goals are long-range goals but they provide the
guidelines for short-range actions and the framework for rural
development strategies.
3.2 Rural Development Process in Nigeria
African countries including Nigeria have been attempting to develop

their rural areas (through different approaches and or practices which are
usually determined by the interpretation given to rural development by
the different actors or interventionists. In Nigeria, the various traditional
approaches in use are classified according to Alkali (1997) as:
a. Rural Urban Interaction
This process focuses on planning of rural development along with and

within the framework of overall national development plan. Provision
for rural development is integrated in the overall agricultural
development agenda of local, state and federal governments. This has
failed to achieve much because the little recognition accorded rural
development is further eroded by the fact that agriculture itself takes no
significant place in the overall national planning.
b. Intersectoral/Zonal Coordination
This process involves the coordination of hitherto isolated sectoral and

zonal development programmes. It assumes that all sectoral/zonal rural
development programmes are well conceived and that effective
coordination would make them attain rural development goals.
However, programmes under this arrangement have been so narrow and
fail to consider restructuring of socio economic and political systems as
essential steps towards attaining meaningful integration and narrowing
rural-urban gap. These activities hardly make impact on the lives of
rural people in the final analysis
c. The package approach
This process is founded on diffusionist theory of development in which

innovations developed from outside are brought to the rural dwellers by
a presumed altruistic change agency. Virtually, all rural development
programmes in the country adopted this model. Examples are found in
the Farm Settlement Scheme of the defunct Western Region, Operation
Feed the Nation (OFN), National Accelerated Food Production
Programme (NAFPP), Agricultural Development Programme (ADP)
among others. However, it is disappointing to observe that all those
programmes have not resulted in any meaningful rural development.
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CRD 324 MODULE
i. List and discuss any five goals of rural development.

ii. Describe any two process of rural development in Nigeria and
assess their effectiveness.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Any rural development effort is targeted at achieving some goals.

Generally, there are set goals in rural development. These goals are set
taking cognizance of the numerous rural impoverishments. It is expected
that achievement of the goals will bring about rural development.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have identified the goals of rural development as well as

rural development process in Nigeria. In the next unit, objectives of rural
development will be discussed.
1. List and explain in your own words, the goals of rural

development.
2. Discuss how effective the processes involved in bringing about
rural development in Nigeria have worked.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Alkali, R.A. (1997). The World Bank and Nigeria: Cornucopia or

Pandora Box?
Kaduna:


Okonkwo, P. C. (2010). Community and rural development strategies.

11
UNIT 4 OBJECTIVES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Objectives of rural development.
3.2 Facilitating factors in achieving the objectives of rural
development.
3.3 Indices of rural development.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Any human effort is directed at achieving some objectives. In rural

development, objectives are put in place based on the needs of the
people and the nature of the rural development project. This unit
discusses the general objectives of rural development.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 itemize the objectives of rural development;

 identify the facilitating factors in achieving the objectives of rural
development;
 discuss the indices of rural development.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Objectives of Rural Development
The National Policy on Rural Development outlined the following

objectives of rural development in Nigeria:
i) Promotion of the social, cultural and economic wellbeing of the

rural population;
ii) Promotion of sustained and orderly development of the vast
resources in the rural areas for the benefit of the rural people
principally and the nation as a whole;
iii) Increase in and diversification of job opportunities and
improvement of income in the rural areas;
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CRD 324 MODULE
iv) Mobilization of the rural population for self-help and self-

sustaining programme of development; and
v) Upliftment of the technological based industries in the rural
areas.
3.2 Facilitating Factors in achieving Rural Development

Objectives
For rural development objectives to be effectively achieved, Okonkwo

(2006) emphasized that the following facilitating factors should be
considered.
i) The farmers and small rural entrepreneurs should be regarded as

the center piece of rural development strategy;
ii) The government should play a minimal, catalytic and facilitating
and not direct production role in rural development;
iii) To ensure continuity and acceptance, and that externally induced
projects are short lived, rural residents should be involved in the
identification, formation, implementation and evaluation of rural
development projects;
iv) Rural development strategy should emphasize institutional
coordination, interministerial and interdepartmental linkage.
Consensuses are also important to ensure institutional integration
at all levels;
v) Development service and amenities should be functionally
integrated across different levels of human settlements in the
rural areas.
3.3 Rural Development Indices
As itemized by Alkali (1997), the following are the indices of rural

development:
 Increase in per capita income

 More even distribution of income
 Reduction in the level of unemployment
 Diversification of the economy
 Increase in the supply of high level manpower (education)
 Balanced development
 Indigenization of economic activity
 Good health and standard nutrition
 Acquisition of technology.
13
i. List and explain any five objectives of rural development.

ii. Identify with concrete evidence, any three objectives of rural
development you think have been achieved in your locality.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Any rural development programme or project is targeted at achieving set

objectives. In Nigeria, the objectives of rural development are clear and
definite as outlined by the National Policy on rural development. It has
been seen that measures have been put in place to ensure the
achievement of the objectives which will culminate in the development
of the rural sector.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the objectives of rural development and

the facilitating factors in achieving the objectives. We have also
discussed the indices of rural development which is a yardstick to
measure how well the objectives of rural development have been
achieved. In the next unit, the necessity for rural development in Nigeria
will be discussed.
1. Enumerate the objectives of rural development as outlined by the

National Policy on Rural Development.
2. Using the indices of rural development as a guide, discuss the
extent to which the objectives of rural development have been
achieved in your state.

Pandora Box?
Kaduna:
Korafor, A.H. & L.C. Iwuyi, (1975). Urban Employment Problems in

14
CRD 324 MODULE


15
UNIT 5 THE NECESSITY FOR RURAL

DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The problems of rural areas in Nigeria
3.2 The necessity for rural development in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The quest to develop the rural areas is of a great significance. In other

words, efforts to ensure that rural areas are transformed by various
stakeholders have some underlying purposes. Consequently, this unit
explains the need to develop the rural areas. The unit however started
with discussing the problems of the rural areas in Nigeria in order to
establish the basis for the main discussion.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 identify the problems of rural areas in Nigeria;

 discuss the necessity for rural development in Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Problems of Rural areas in Nigeria
The rural areas, as compared to urban centers, have peculiar problems

that affect the lives of the inhabitants. Some of the prominent problems
as explained by Idachaba (1985) include:
1. Vicious cycle of poverty

2. Poor rural infrastructure
3. High population density
4. High level of illiteracy
5. Low social interaction and local politics
6. Harmful traditional practices
7. Lack of employment opportunities.
16
CRD 324 MODULE
Vicious cycle of poverty: The rural dwellers experience vicious cycle of

poverty. They have low savings resulting to low investments and of
course, low capital formation. This in turns brings low income. Rural
development Programmes and policies need to address this.
Poor Rural Infrastructures: The rural areas grossly lack basic

infrastructures that give life a meaning and make it worthwhile. Such
infrastructures include electricity, pipe borne water, good road network,
health facilities, and recreational centres e.t.c.
High Population Density: A large number of the Nigerian Populace

lives in rural areas. Their population continues to multiply
uncontrollably. This makes it difficult for rural dwellers to adequately
cater for their children and adequately take care of their socio-economic
needs.
High Level of Illiteracy: Illiteracy is high in the rural areas. This could
be because they lack good schools or facilitating learning environment.
Even with the available few schools, parents are poor to send their
children to such schools. Some are illiterates and find it difficult to give
appropriate educational support to their children‟s education. This is a
big problem as no uneducated society or community can progress
meaningfully.
Low Social Interaction and Local Politics: In some areas, the rural
dwellers live in isolation. Thus, there is no social interaction,
understanding and spirit of oneness. Without social interaction, there is
usually no group action. Without group action, leaders and powerful
individuals will continue to dominate the rural dwellers without any
united effort on their part to fight back.
Harmful Traditional Practices: Rural dwellers engage in primitive and

ancient traditional practices that are anti-developmental. Such practices
affect the development of their socio-economic and socio-cultural
lifestyle. Rural development programmes need to refine and reshape
such practices that are hindrances to development.
Lack of Employment Opportunities: There is low rate of employment

opportunities in the rural areas. Able-bodied men and women who
possess natural skills are not gainfully employed. Perhaps, this accounts
for why there is high rate of rural-urban migration and poverty among
the able-bodied men and women in the recent times to seek for greener
pasture in the cities.
Rural-Urban Migration: Rural dwellers migrate from rural areas to

urban centres in search of jobs and also to enjoy the facilities available,
17
thereby creating rural labour scarcity. Both farm and farm output are
adversely affected.
3.2 The Necessity for Rural Development in Nigeria
According to Idachaba (1985), there is a number of reasons why rural

development in usually considered to be of overall national importance.
These include:
1. Rural people constitute the vast majority of Nigerian population.

This is so despite the migration of people from rural to urban
centres.
2. Most of the food which Nigerians eat is produced by rural
dwellers.
3. Much of the country‟s agricultural needs for raw materials and
subsequent industrial and economic growth are produced in the
rural areas.
4. Two of the five national objectives as stated in the national policy
on education are the building of:
a. A just and egalitarian society;
b. A united strong and self-reliant nation
5. Inequalities exist in social and educational amenities between
urban and rural areas.
6. Inequalities exist in the living standards among rural dwellers.
7. Most rural dwellers live below poverty level which calls for
urgent attention.
Consequent upon the above, if we must achieve a self-reliant economy

e.g. egalitarianism and full employment for all, it is important to
examine what prevails in the rural areas where a majority of our country
men reside. It is important to find out what sort of activities the rural
dwellers engage in and identifying what factors impede the development
of their areas.
i. List and explain the problems of rural areas in Nigeria.

ii. Why is it important that rural areas are developed?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Many problems are plaguing rural areas in Nigeria which are

incapacitating the socio-economic activities of the rural populace. Given
the contributions of the rural sector in the overall national development,
it is important that the rural areas in Nigeria are developed.
18
CRD 324 MODULE
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the problems affecting the rural areas in
Nigeria. We have also discussed the necessity for the development of
such rural areas. In unit 5, attention will be given to the principles of
rural development so that as efforts are made to develop the rural areas
in Nigeria, such principles will remain as a guide.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1. With reference to the problems of rural areas, discuss the

difference between rural areas and urban centers in Nigeria.
2. With adequate illustrations, justify the necessity for massive
development of the rural areas in Nigeria.
Alkali, R. A. (1997). The World Bank and Nigeria: Cornucopia or

Pandora Box?
Kaduna:




19
UNIT 6 PRINCIPLES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The meaning of principle.
3.2 Principles of rural development.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is the fifth unit in module 1 of course CRD 324. The unit explains
what a principle is and extensively discusses the principles of rural
development. It is important that guiding principles of rural
development are clearly understood because principles guide the
activities of rural developers so that they can get it right.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the meaning of principle;

 identify and discuss the principles of rural development.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Principle
According to Onuoha (1998), a principle is a basic truth or a general law

determining the existence and regulating the conduct of an organization
and distinguishing it from other systems. Principles of rural
development are therefore fundamental and general rules laid down by
rural development experts to guide the conduct of rural development
programmes in such a way that stated objectives can be effectively
achieved.
3.2 Principles of Rural Development
The principles of rural development as explained by alkali, (1997) are as

follows:
20
CRD 324 MODULE
 Accessibility
 Independence
 Sustainability
 Effectiveness
 Participation
Accessibility
A meaningful rural development programme must ensure that the

programme is accessible to all the rural dwellers especially the poor
peasant farmers. All the people within the target population should
benefit from the programme without any one benefiting more at the
expense of another. Inaccessibility by the major section of the rural
communities will further aggravate the existing inequalities in rural
communities.
Independence
This means that any rural development programme should be such that
helps and supports the rural dwellers but does not make their livelihood
100% dependent on the programme. The rural developer should always
try to ask the question; if the programme is discontinued, what will
happen to the beneficiaries?
Sustainability
This means that the programme plan and solution are relevant to the
local social, economic and administrative conditions of the target rural
population. The programme should not be terminated before the stated
objectives are achieved. The programme should be sustained until the
problem of the area has been addressed.
Effectiveness
A good rural development programme should be based on the effective

use of local resources. For example, it may be unrealistic to encourage
maximizing the use of chemical fertilizer which may be beyond their
reach rather, farmers could be trained and encouraged to use local
manure on their farms. In this case, the rural development initiative will
be effective.
Participation
The participation of the beneficiaries (the rural populace) in the

programme is very important. The rural dwellers should be involved at
the various stages of the programme; from the conception stage to the
21
implementation stage, although there seems to be a disagreement among

rural development experts as to what level of participation of rural
populace is possible.
i. Identify a particular rural development project you intend to

execute in your rural community and explain how you could
practically apply any four rural development principles known to
you.
ii. Compare and contrast the principles of Accessibility,
Participation, Sustainability and Independence as related to rural
development.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In any human endeavour, there are underlying principles and the

application of such principles will contribute in achieving the right
organizational objectives. Principles help to avoid trial and error in
performing a task. They help the individual to be meticulous and
focused. The principles of rural development are important in this
direction.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, the meaning of principle has been explained. The principles
of rural development have also been discussed. In unit 1 of module 2,
typical problems of rural areas will be discussed.
i. In your own words, differentiate between a principle and a law.

ii. With particular reference to any rural development project you
intend to carry out in your local community, explain how you
could practically apply any four rural development principles
known to you.

Pandora Box? Kaduna:
Onuoha, E. (1998). The cooperative identity. Enugu: Amazing Grace

Publishers.

22
CRD 324 MODULE
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Some typical problems of rural areas

Unit 2 Approaches to rural development
Unit 3 Planning, implementation and appraisal of rural
development projects
Unit 4 Financing of rural development projects
Unit 5 The problems of rural development in Nigeria
UNIT 1 SOME TYPICAL PROBLEMS OF RURAL

AREAS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The typical problems of rural areas.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Even though different rural areas have their unique problems, generally
they are typical problems that are common in all rural areas that affect
the socio-economic lives of the inhabitants. Such problems culminate in
rural-urban drift and other social vices. This unit thus discusses the
typical problems of the rural areas so that rural developers will take
cognizance of them in their developmental efforts.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 identify and explain the typical problems of rural areas.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Some Typical Problems of Rural Areas
Low income and employment are among the main problems inherent in
the rural areas (Okonkwo, 2006). They emerge in several aspects:
23
problems with the Labour force, low labor productivity, lower prices of
agricultural products. Typical feature of the rural areas is the surplus of
labour force due to fewer jobs that are opened. Most new jobs are for
unskilled workers, so the wages and nature of the work are unattractive.
Workers with higher qualification migrate to the cities.
These problems can be solved by creating more employment

opportunities and extra income for the people of these regions. Problems
of the labour force are the most serious and difficult to solve because
they affect people with their skills, initiatives and opportunities. Besides
unemployment, another problem is the depopulation of the rural areas
and drastic aging process.
In rural areas there is also low labor productivity, which may be

increased by introducing more modern technology, upgrading skills of
workers, providing better working conditions. One of the reasons for
lower income of the people in rural areas are the low prices of
agricultural products. The market forces demand for basic goods grows
more slowly than that of luxury goods and services. Sometimes
purchase prices are maintained intentionally low, when there is only one
buyer (or group of purchasers) in agricultural production. To solve this
problem at least partially, many farmers are trying to increase their
income by processing the raw material and production of finished
products, i.e. closing the production cycle. In many regions is not
developed cooperation of farmers (Okonkwo, 2006).
The second group of problems is associated with poor working and

living conditions in the rural areas due to underdeveloped infrastructure
and public services. The current state of infrastructural facilities in the
rural areas such as roads, water supply and sewage, electrical and
communications networks are very poor. This situation, together with
the low quality of health and education, is the main reason for migration
and depopulation of rural areas. Solving these problems is possible
through close cooperation with local government authorities which
make efficient the use of opportunities provided by EU for regional
development (Alkali, 1997).
Another problem is economic insecurity generated by the realization of

agricultural production. The market economy mechanisms increase the
role of supply and demand as factors that dictate the prices of
agricultural production. The adverse natural conditions are also a factor
for inconsistency in people's incomes. State of the environment further
reduces the quality of life in rural areas. Much of the agricultural land
are polluted with pesticides or by industrial plants, making it difficult to
produce quality and healthy products (Alkali, 1997).
24
CRD 324 MODULE
i. List and explain any five typical problems of rural areas.

ii. Based on the typical problems of rural areas, suggest possible
solutions.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Different rural areas have their peculiar problems. However, there are
typical problems that characterize the rural areas. The understanding of
this array of problems will equip the rural developer with the knowledge
of how best to go about developing a given rural area taking cognizance
of the aforementioned typical problems that characterize rural areas.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the typical problems of the rural areas
which is an eye opener to all stake-holders in rural development. In the
next unit, attention will be given to approaches to rural development in
order to understand the different directions from which rural
development could be addressed.
i. Using practical examples, discuss the typical problems of rural

areas.
ii. Identify the typical problems of rural areas that are prevalent in
your Local Government Area and suggest how they could
urgently be tackled.



25
UNIT 2 APPROACHES TO RURAL DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Different approaches to rural development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In order to effectively develop the rural areas, different ways of going

about it are adopted. In other words, rural development is being viewed
from different angles. This is what is referred to as approaches to rural
development. This is perhaps because different problems require
different solutions and modalities of providing the solutions. This unit
will take a cursory look at the various approaches to rural development.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Identify and discuss different approaches to rural development.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Approaches to Rural Development
There are basically three approaches to rural development according to

Filani (2000). These are:
 Reformist approach
 Structural approach
 Technological approach
Reformist approach
In this approach to rural development; emphasis is given to behavioral

change of the rural farmers. In addition, efforts are made to find ways
and means by which the farmers can play an important part in rural
development programmes and projects through improvement in their
26
CRD 324 MODULE
attitude towards such programmes. The Reformist approach to rural

development therefore emphasizes the participatory involvement of
farmers in reforming the rural areas. The farmers are thus sensitized,
mobilized and engendered in specific ways to get actively involved in
such a developmental process.
Technological approach
This approach emphasizes the technological transformation of different

aspects of the rural society particularly agricultural production. This
could mean a shift from the use of local, farming implements to the use
of semi-modern technology. The technological approach to rural
development is emphasized by agricultural extension. The technology
required for rural transformation include among others, improved
farming practices, improved seedling, storage systems (facilities),
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizer.
Structural approach
The structural approach to rural development seeks to transform the

existing economic, social and political relationships in such a way that
those who were previously disadvantaged find their positions changed.
The social, political and economic relationships that need to be changed
include the relationship between Landlords and Tenants, between poor
peasant farmers and money lenders, between farmers and traditional
rulers, between poor peasant farmers and middlemen. The structural
transformation of rural communities is attained through what is known
as Agrarian Reforms (agricultural reforms) most of which are concerned
with land distribution.
It should be noted that none of these three approaches is adequate in

rural development when considered on its own. A meaningful rural
development programme must therefore consider all the three
approaches as one package of programme. In other words, a meaningful
rural development programme should recognize and put the three
approaches to use.
i. List and discuss the approaches to rural development.

ii. Which rural development approach will you apply in your area
and why?
27
4.0 CONCLUSION
Different approaches to rural development exist. None of the approaches

is adequate in bringing about rural development when considered on its
own. A meaningful rural development programme must therefore
consider all the three approaches as one package of programme. In other
words, a meaningful rural development programme should recognize
and put the three approaches to use.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the approaches to rural development and

pointed out that no one single approach will suffice so a combination of
all the approaches is more ideal. In the next unit, planning,
implementation and appraisal of rural development projects will be
discussed.
1. Examine the three approaches to rural development and choose

which approach best appeals to you and why?
2. With typical instances, explain why any meaningful rural
development project must seek to recognize and utilize the three
approaches to rural development.

Sons.
Nwobi, T.U. (2006). Cooperatives and rural financing. In E.E. Umebali

Onuoha, E. (1998). The cooperative identity. Enugu: Amazing Grace

Publishers.

28
CRD 324 MODULE
UNIT 3 PLANNING, IMPLEMENTATION AND

APPRAISAL OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
PROJECTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Elements of planning
3.2 Rural development planning, implementation and
appraisal.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Anyone who does not plan is planning to fail. Effective implementation

is the result of good plan. During and after implementation, appraisal in
needed to determine whether the objectives have been achieved or not.
This unit thus discusses planning, implementation and appraisal of rural
development.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the meaning of plan;

 describe the elements of planning;
 discuss rural development planning, implementation and
appraisal.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Plan
Plan, according to Olanrewaju, (2010) is a statement of how a thing is to

be done. It is a process of determining the course of action that is
necessary to be taken in the pursuit of a particular goal or achievement
of an objective. It is a written document setting out the activities, times
and budgets required to meet a set of goals. Plans provide a rational
approach to achieving pre-selected objectives. They direct the efforts of
all concerned towards achieving the objectives.
29
3.2 Elements of Planning
Planning of rural development is very significant. It could make or mar

the success of the rural developer(s). A carefully planned rural
development action has the tendency to achieve stated objectives at the
end. This is the primary stage that needs expert ideas and. extreme care.
It could be a long- term plan or a short-term plan depending on the
nature of the programme, the target group and the set objectives.
In planning rural development projects generally, the following elements
should not escape the mind(s) of the planner(s):
1. Programmes should be based on existing rural conditions of the

target group.
2. Programmes should address the felt needs of the people.
3. Existing cultural practices of the people should be considered.
4. The experience of well-trained agents and professionals should
be utilized.
5. Local leaders in the area should be recognized and consulted.
6. There should be collective efforts of all relevant people in the
area.
7. There should be a well-planned educational or sensitization
programme for the people as a necessity for collaboration.
8. Basic needs of the people should be carefully assessed.
9. Goals and objectives of the programme should be carefully
determined.
10. Local resources of the people should he assessed and utilized as
much as possible.
3.3 Rural Development Project Plan, Implementation and `

Appraisal
Rural development planning, implementation and appraisal, according to

Olanrewaju, (2010) involves the following stages:
 Needs assessment
 Objectives selection
 Prioritizing objectives
 Determining resources
 Programme design
 Programme implementation
 Evaluation (Appraisal)
Stage 1: Needs Assessment
This is the first stage of rural development plan. This involves

identifying the felt needs of the target group. Here, the planner tries to
30
CRD 324 MODULE
sort out the real needs or problems of the rural community. Such needs
or problems could be tangible or intangible. The tangible problems are
the ones that are visible to the eyes of the planner e.g. bad roads, poor
health services, lack of water, poor residential areas, poor drainage
system etc. The intangible problems are those that are not visible to the
eyes of the planner such as exploitative relationship between tenants and
landlords, between one community and another, between money lenders
and the borrowers, between labour owners and the labourers, between
rural farmers and middlemen etc. To effectively identify or assess such
needs, instruments of survey method could be used. In other words, the
planner could know the needs of the rural people with the use of (1)
Questionnaire (2) interview or (3) Observation (4) Focus Group
Discussion (FGD). A research expert could be used to find out and
assess such needs.
Stage 2: Objectives Selection
Once the needs or problems of the rural community have been

identified, the planner carefully draws out the objectives to be achieved
based on the needs. If it is an educational need for instance, given the
fact that there is a high illiteracy rate in the area, the objectives could be
to achieve (a) Basic literacy (b) functional literacy (c) Secondary
education etc. If objectives are not wisely set, the programme may not
be result-oriented.
Stage 3: Prioritizing Objectives
The set objectives in stage (2) have to be carefully arranged. With expert
idea and the nature of the rural needs or problems at hand, the planner
should arrange the objectives in a logical order or according to priority
depending on how pressing a particular problem or need is. Which
objective is to be achieved first and which is to be last? Should
particular objectives be achieved simultaneously? All these should be
determined at this stage.
Stage 4: Determining Resources
Having set and prioritized the objectives, the fourth stage is to determine
the appropriate resources needed to achieve the objectives.
Consideration should be given to quantity and quality of the resources.
Such resources could be human and material. Human resources could be
experts in relevant disciplines whose services are quite indispensable to
the success of the programme. Material resources could be money,
construction materials etc.
31
Stage 5: Programme Design
With the human and materials resource at hand, the rural developer
sketches out the programme of action. He designs how the resources
would be put to use and when. Dates of particular activities are
earmarked. Duties and. functions of professionals are clearly spelt out.
The expected date of completion of the entire programme is indicated
etc. The design is determined by the previous four stages and should be
such that is easily understood by all those to be involved in the
implementation.
Stage 6: Programme Implementation
This is the stage where action takes place. The material and human
resources are put to use. It is the actual take-off stage. What has been
designed in stage five is carried out, that is the actual commencement of
activities to address the problem of the rural community.
Stage 7: Evaluation
Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which stated

objectives have been achieved. At this stage, the planner pauses and
takes stock of how much have been achieved in relation to stated
objectives. Evaluation could be formative and summative. Formative is
an ongoing evaluation. As planned activities are being implemented,
routine checks equally go on. Summative is end-of-programme
evaluation. It is a final evaluation carried out at the end of the project.
If the result of summative evaluation shows that particular objectives

have not been achieved, the planner revisits the stages of the programme
plan. Depending on the nature of the result of the evaluation, the planner
may go back and start from stage one or any other stage as the case may
be. This suggests the fact that the planning process of rural development
is a cyclic process. It goes round and round until set objectives are
effectively achieved.
i. In your own understanding, define the term planning?

ii. List and discuss the factors to consider when planning.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Planning is very crucial in any human endeavour. It sets the machinery

of any project in motion. Rural development planning, implementation
and appraisal involve sequential stages. In each stage, the attention of
32
CRD 324 MODULE
experts relevant for the stage should be sought so that effective result
could be achieved.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of planning with particular

reference to rural development plan and elements of plan. All the stages
involved in rural development planning, implementation and appraisal
have been identified and discussed. In the next unit, attention will be on
how rural development projects are financed.
1. Why is planning of rural development an indispensable activity?

2. Identify and explain the stages involved in rural development
planning, implementation and appraisal.


33
UNIT 4 FINANCING RURAL DEVELOPMENT

PROJECTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The meaning of finance
3.2 The meaning of rural financing
3.3 Objectives of promoting rural finance.
3.4 Indigenous self-help organizations in rural financing.
3.5 Rural savings and capital formation
3.6 The nature of Nigerian rural financing system
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Finance is the livewire of any project, whether it be rural or urban,

whether public or private project. Without finance, it would be difficult
to execute any meaningful project. This unit focuses, among others, on
the meaning of finance and rural financing, objectives of promoting
rural financing, indigenous self-help organizations, rural savings and
capital formation as well as the nature of the Nigerian rural financing
system.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the meaning of finance

 explain the meaning of rural financing
 enumerate the objectives of promoting rural finance
 discuss indigenous self-help organizations in rural financing
 explain rural savings and capital formation
 analyze the nature of Nigerian rural financing system.
34
CRD 324 MODULE
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Finance
Finance, according to Nwobi (2006) is the raising of funds by

individuals, cooperative enterprises, firms, governmental or non-
governmental organizations for the day to day running and management
of their businesses. As a discipline, finance is merely a body of facts,
principles and theories which deals with raising and using of money by
individuals, governmental and non-governmental organizations, firms
and cooperatives to accomplish a task.
3.2 The Meaning of Rural Financing
Rural financing according to Nwobi, (2006) encompasses the financial

side of almost all economic processes of rural areas. This includes all
that involves savings, financing and insurance of financial risks. Rural
financial system includes all savings and financing opportunities and
thus, the financial institutions which provide savings and financing
opportunities as well as valid norms and models of behaviours related to
the financial system.
3.3 Objectives of Promoting Rural Finance
The objectives of promoting rural finance according to Nwobi (2006)

are as follows:
i) The first intermediate objective with direct effect on the target

groups is the development of accessible financial institution.
Accessibility, in this context refers to the type of products or
services, the business policies and the location of the financial
institutions. In those areas where there are no financial
institutions, this secondary objectives consists of building them
up. In areas where rural financial institution already exists, the
secondary objective is to motivate them and make them able to
accept power segmental of the population as customers.
ii) The second intermediate objectives which is directly related to
the target group is to strengthen the efficiency, stability and
autonomy of those pre-existing and newly formed financial
institutions which are oriented towards the target group. This
secondary objective namely, creating and strengthening financial
institution for the target groups requires that such institution
pursue the following specific tasks:
35
a. The target group must be trained on how to handle money

and credit and learn how to contact the financial
institutions.
b. Investment opportunities must be opened up for saving
which already exist, so that the savers may generate
interests.
c. Income generating and possible job creating investments
which the target groups previously could not finance
should be made possible.
d. Financial institutions are also to provide services in the
strict sense. e. g. the form of business consulting services,
which introduces innovation and handle insurance scheme
or arrange contracts with insurance companies.
e. Savings and credit opportunities are to be provided for
self-help projects.
iii) In addition, there are secondary objectives in the promotion of

rural finance which are only indirectly oriented towards the target
groups. They are not direct to the extent that they do not involve
any direct contact between the target groups as savers and
borrowers and the financial institutions being promoted.
iv) One intermediate objective is the improvement in the supply of
financial services to the instrumental target groups. Many
investments in small scale and medium scale enterprises
belonging to proprietors who are not themselves members of the
target groups are only feasible if there is a sufficient and
inexpensive supply of credit.
v) The last secondary objective of indirect relevance to the target
groups is the creation of linkage between informed financial
institutions directly accessible to the target group and the formal
financial infrastructures. The deposits of the funds of an informal
savings association in a bank for example could provide members
with an indirect interest income which savings association
usually do not provide.
3.4 Indigenous Self-Help Organizations in Rural Financing
Cooperative movements have been accepted as self-help activities, even

before the introduction of cooperative by the colonial masters. Self-help
is a way of helping oneself through the help of the fellow men working
together. Various self-help organizations were formed by people to help
themselves, their economic and social problems such as walling of
compound, building of residential houses, planting and harvesting of
crops. Sometimes these self-help organizations buy some iron or plastic
chairs, canopies and hire them out to render assistance to their members.
This in other words means that they render services to people and help
36
CRD 324 MODULE
members to earn some income indirectly. Self-help organizations that

are found in rural communities include:
 Social clubs
 Age grade
 Youth club
 Religions organizations
 Development unions
 Cooperative societies.
All the above self-help organizations are regarded as social

organizations.
Social club
The formations of social club have no age bracket. The involvement of

the youth is highly noticed in this area. Social club, according to Nwobi,
(2006) embarks on meaningful development projects in their various
communities. Social clubs are noted for bringing into existence some
amenities that will make life meaningful to the rural communities. This,
they do by investing in some valuable projects which yield some good
amount of money. One striking feature of the social club is that the
members are usually resident in the urban areas but labour to uplift the
rural areas.
Age grade
The institution of age grade is common in Igbo land and they play
important role in community development. Young men and women are
required in the areas where age grade operate to join as one group. One
of the objectives of this requirement is to place each person in a group of
progressive minds whose ideas are centered on the development of the
individual and community. Age grade in various communities embark
on different developmental projects like installation, pipe borne water,
electrification, building schools, civic centers etc. It is therefore a potent
tool for development. The instrument of age grade organization has been
used in various communities to maintain peace. The funds for building
some of the above mentioned projects are raised through free-will
donations, levies, sale of farm produces, cash realized from dancing
activities etc.
Youth club
The youth clubs are reservoir where resources could be drawn. The
population usually referred to as youths are physically strong, mentally
alert and progressive in thought. Youth development is the job of
37
improving the energetic segment of the population through programmes

to make them good citizens who will contribute to the development of
the community. Youth in the Nigerian traditional societies are given
social and political recognitions. Men within the age of youth are
usually organized and given special duties by the community. Youths
are required to defend the society in times of war. They also partake in
economic activities like farming, fishing, hunting etc. This means that
the youths provide the main source of labour on which community
development depends.
Religious organizations
Religious organizations are some of the organizations found within the

religious group. They include women organizations, men organizations,
Christian girls and boys. All the above mentioned groups, though are
seen within the church, they play a vital role in rural community
development by rendering financial assistance. The Christian girls for
example buy canopies and chairs which they hire out to make money
and give them free to their members The Christian boys on their own
part buy musical instruments and play the gospel bands in the village
activities and gatherings and raise funds from it.
Development unions
These groups are usually made up of able bodied men and boys. The
tasks of the development union are related to the age grade and the
youth club. Apart from defending the rural community, the development
unions organize themselves and do one kind of launching or the other to
enable them erect town halls for the village activities so as to boost the
condition of the society. The development unions also raise money to
construct feeder roads and build bridges across the rivers that lead to the
village farms. They also award scholarship to some brilliant wards in the
town.
Cooperative as a self-help organization
Self-help implies members in a group helping each other to solve each

other‟s problems. Self-help can be said to be based on group solidarity
or mutual assistance. Cooperatives as self-help organizations therefore
means that they are organizations which are formed by a number of
persons with the aim of helping themselves, solve their economic
problems and thereby achieving a degree of self-reliance through joint
and mutual action or aid. In fact, every form of cooperation implies help
and self-reliance (Nwobi, 2006).
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CRD 324 MODULE
3.5 Rural Savings and Capital Formation
Mobilization of saving is an important source of fund for lending in the

rural sector. The rural communities in most cases have nothing to save,
since they don‟t even have enough to eat. The beginning of any serious
discussion about savings and capital formation should center on working
out a model where by funds from government, private and urban areas
should be channeled to the rural areas. In order to stimulate internal
generation of capital, the major factor limiting the taping of rural saving
is the meager disposable income. Because of low-income and because
many investors run away from doing business in the rural areas, the rural
dwellers have not formed the habit of saving.
Saving institutions in the rural areas, according to Nwobi, (2006), could

be stimulated by:
i. Opening rural banks with saving facilities.

ii. Developing a saving - borrower relationship.
iii. Adopting simple and convenient system of servicing deposits.
iv. Insurance of deposit up to a certain level to promote public
confidence.
v. Educating the rural people to improve their living conditions and
to encourage them to use banking facilities.
vi. Encouraging rural banks to re-invest a greater proportion of their
profit on rural projects.
vii. Crediting an atmosphere of mutual confidence and trust between
the bank and the community in which it operates.
As argued by Nwobi, (2006), the advantages of rural financing are as

follows:
i. Inculcating the habit of contributing, saving in the members and

depositing same with formal financial institutions.
ii. The accumulated savings deposit with banks could become
collaterals loans granted to members.
iii. Enhancing the viability and liquidity position of the rural banks
through deposit accumulation.
iv. Reduction in default rate as saving mobilized could be used to
offer outstanding loans when the need arises.
v. The transformation of informal to formal rural financial system
with all the benefit deniable there from.
3.6 Nature of Nigerian Rural Financing System
Nigeria rural sector can be said to consist of all economic activities

outside the urban community. Akinbide cited in Nwobi, (2006) stated
39
that rural settlement can be regarded as those whose population engage

primarily in economic activities involving the direct and indirect
exploitation of the land by undertaking crop production, animal
husbandry, fishery, food processing and cottage industries including
rural crafts, mining, trading and transportation services. Mbagwu (1978)
cited in Nwobi, (2006) says that many people believe that rural
communities like in Nigeria are characterized by traditional agriculture
such as gathering, hunting and fishing practice. As a result of this,
people give thought to the existence of primary sectors in the
occupational mix of the rural population of the country He recognized
the existence of traditional industries which exist side by side with
agriculture in the rural sector.
Olashore (1979) cited in Nwobi, (2006) explained that economic

indicators showed that about 70 percent of the populations of Nigerians
live in the rural areas and most of them have been denied access to
banking facilities. The significance of this lack of access to banking
facilities is better appreciated when one realizes that the bulk of the rural
population is engaged in agriculture, handicraft and other basic small-
scale industries. Therefore, in recognition of the nature of the rural
sector and the role banks are expected to play, the need for rural
banking.
The objective of rural financing is to encourage banking habit among the

rural population. To provide services such as use of cheques as
instrument for payment, opening of letter for payment, opening of letter
of credit, money transfer advisory services, issues of drafts and
collection of bills also will help directly in fostering of productivity by
offering borrowers a variety of technical services. These might include
financial advice, assistance with formulation of loan proposals, guidance
in the setting up a system of accounts, help in the supply of equipment
and help in the establishment of marketing facilities and increase the
banking density in the country.
According to Nwobi, (2006), the Nigerian rural financing system

includes the following:
Specialized institution
The federal government of Nigeria has at various times decided to

establish some specialized institutions to cater mainly for the banking
needs of some segment of the society such as petty traders, peasant,
farmers and deprived communities. The banks, which have been
established to serve these need include the Community Banks, Urban
Development Banks and Cooperative Banks.
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CRD 324 MODULE
Community banks
Community bank in the Nigeria context is defined as a self- sustaining

financial institution owned and managed by a community or group of
communities to provide financial services to that community. Rural
investors can obtain loan with ease and invest on the rural projects. The
small-scale farmers constitute the greatest percentage of the customers
of the bank and operators are opportuned to seek for loan. The body
charged with the duty of receiving and processing applications for the
establishment of community banks is the National Board for
Community Banks (NBCB). The first community Banks commenced
operation in December 1990.
Urban Development Bank (UDB)
Several Nigerian cities experienced problems in inadequate housing,

transportation, electricity and water supply in order to create a greater
capacity to deal with these problems. The federal government
established the Urban Development Bank through Decree No. 51 of
1992. Urban Development Bank therefore was established to finance
and foster the rapid development of urban and rural infrastructure
throughout the federation. This is done through the provision of medium
and long finances. The bank was expected to operate strictly as an
independent institution and to provide financial assistance to both public
and private sectors of the economy for the development of housing,
mass transportation and public utilities.
Cooperative bank
This is a financial institution specially set up to offer greater access to

savings and borrowing facilities for cooperative societies and their
members at relatively cheap interest rates. A cooperative bank can be
defined as a cooperative society carrying out business as other banks but
in such a manner that they fill the financial gaps created by the
conservative financing practices of other commercial banks.
Cooperative Bank has undergone several transformations both in name
and functions. It was formerly Nigerian Agricultural and Cooperative
Bank (NACB), later changed to Nigerian Agricultural, Cooperative and
Rural development Bank (NACRDB) and now Bank of Agriculture
(BOA).
41
Objectives of cooperative bank
Cooperative bank has among other things the following objectives:
i. To operate as a secondary financing agency for securing finance

from available resources to cater for the needs of the registered
cooperative societies within its operational area.
ii. To promote thrift among its members by offering them an
opportunity to accumulate their savings.
iii. To develop, assist and co-ordinate the financial aspect of
registered societies within the area of operation.
iv. To have power to accept savings and / or deposits from members.
v. To have the power to contract financially with the approval of the
Registrar on behalf of cooperative societies and to pledge assets
of the societies.
vi. To have the power to invest or dispose of the surplus funds of the
societies in the overall interest of the cooperative movement.
vii. To have the power to borrow for the purpose of its business from
other sources with the approval of the Registrar.
viii. To have the power to acquire assets of any nature in the interest
of the bank considered necessary and conducive to the nature of
their business.
ix. To harness all available resources within the cooperative
movements for the overall benefits of all the members and to
undertake other work that will promote the cause of cooperation.
i. What do you understand by rural financing?

ii. Enumerate and explain the objectives of promoting rural finance.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Rural financing aimed at rural development has been age-long

phenomenon. Both traditional and government efforts have been put in
place to finance rural projects over the years. Perhaps this is as a result
of the importance of rural areas in national development. It also shows
the place of finance in executing developmental projects.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have explained the meaning of finance and the meaning
of rural financing. We have also identified the objectives of promoting
rural finance. Indigenous self-help organizations in rural financing have
also been discussed. Rural savings and capital formation as well as the
nature of Nigerian rural financing system over the years have been
42
CRD 324 MODULE
explained. In the next unit, the problems of rural development in

Nigeria will be discussed.
1. Identify any four indigenous self-help organizations found in

Nigerian communities and discuss their roles in rural financing.
2. With particular reference to selected projects, discuss the nature
of Nigerian rural financing system over the years.
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

43
UNIT 5 THE PROBLEMS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

IN NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Meaning of rural development.
3.2 The problems of rural development in Nigeria.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Different efforts aimed at developing the rural areas in Nigeria have not
really yielded desired results. Over the years, different regimes have
emerged, both military and civilian with various rural development
programmes. However, it is unfortunate that the rural development
efforts of such successive governments have been hampered by various
problems. This is unit being the fifth in module 2 of course CRD 324
discusses the problems of rural development in Nigeria.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the meaning of rural development

 identify and discuss the problems of rural development in
Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Rural Development
According to Nwobi, (2007), rural development can be viewed as the

development of the moral, social, political and economic potentialities
of rural communities to enhance their self-reliance through the provision
of appropriate infrastructure such as pipe-borne water, electricity, good
roads and small scale industries, increase their political consciousness
and participation, promote their moral and social well-being which will
result in tolerance, good discipline, justice, fairness, kindness, love and
peace.
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CRD 324 MODULE
In his own conceptualization, Okoye (1997) cited in Filani (2000)

defined rural development as „the process of making life more satisfying
and fulfilling for millions of people who live in rural areas. Rural
development provides rural dwellers with the opportunities for gainful
employment as well as the expansion of social services which could
enhance the welfare and security of rural people”.
3.2 The Problems of Rural Development in Nigeria
The problems of rural development in Nigeria according to Filani (2000)

and Okonkwo (2006) are as follows:
1. Approaches to rural development in Nigeria have been adhoc in

nature.
2. Rural Development Programmes in Nigeria lack the rudiments of
long- term planning.
3. Most designs and implementation strategies of rural development
projects in Nigeria appeal only to the political needs of the ruling
class.
4. Some of the rural development projects are white elephant
projects that do not address the felt-needs of the rural people.
5. Most rural development programmes are geared towards
agriculture matters only.
6. Inadequate extension and research facilities militate against rural
development efforts in Nigeria.
7. Some of the rural development projects are planned and
implemented without adequate data.
8. Wrong policy statements that render developmental
projects/programmes ineffective.
9. Negative attitude of rural dwellers.
10. Embezzlement and Corruption.
i. In your understanding, what is rural development?

ii. Identify and discuss the problems of rural development in
Nigeria.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The problems of rural development in Nigeria are varied in kind. While

some of the problems could be blamed on the government, others could
be blamed on the rural dwellers themselves. It should also be noted that
while some of the problems need long-term plan to tackle, others need
short-term plan. In any case, the combined efforts of the government,
45
donor agencies, NGOs, philanthropists and the rural populace are

needed to effectively solve the problems.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of rural development and the
problems of rural development in Nigeria. This is to say that despite all
the efforts of successive governments and other groups, there are
problems militating against rural development in Nigeria. This will give
insight to rural developers into what measures to put in place in order to
check and curtail the problems.
1. List and discuss the problems of rural development in Nigeria.

2. In your own view, explain the measures you would put in place to
eradicate or minimize the problems of rural development in
Nigeria.
Filani, M. O. (2000). “Nigeria: The need to modify center-down

Sons.


46
CRD 324 MODULE
MODULE 3
Unit 1 Motivation
Unit 2 Theories of motivation
Unit 3 Methods of motivating society for social actions through
community development
Unit 4 Approaches to community modernization
Unit 5 Various community modernization programmes of past
and present governments
UNIT 1 MOTIVATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Meaning of motivation
3.2 Characteristics underlying Motivation.
3.3 Psychological Contract of Motivation.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is the first unit in module 3 of course CRD 324. Any activity of an
individual is motivated in one way or the other. What motivates one
person may not motivate the other based on individual differences and
the nature of the task to be performed. The unit will broadly discuss
motivation in relation to its meaning, characteristics underlying it and
the psychological contract of motivation.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the meaning of motivation;

 discuss characteristics underlying motivation;
 explain the Psychological Contract of Motivation.
47
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Motivation
According to Mullins (2000), motivation refers to that which initiates,

increases or reduces the vigour or the enthusiasm of an individual‟s level
of activity. Motivation provides the necessary force or impetus for
learning or for performing any task that is worthwhile. Berelson and
Steiner (2004) defined motivation as all those inner striving conditions
described as wishes, desires or drives. “It is an inner state that activates
or moves an organism to behave in a particular way. Thus, motivation is
an intervening variable which cannot be seen, heard, and felt, but can
only be inferred with behavior.
To motivate is to supply incentives that will influence human behavior

either individually or collectively. Psychologists generally agree that all
behavior is motivated and that people have reasons for doing the things
that they do or for behaving in the manner that they do. In other words,
all human behavior is designed to achieve certain goals and objectives.
Such goal-directed behavior revolves around the desire for need
satisfaction. These needs may be physiological, safety, social, esteem or
self- actualization needs.
3.2 Characteristics underlying Motivation
According to Richard (2006), the following are the common

characteristics which underlie the nature of motivation:
i) Motivation is an individual phenomenon. Every person is unique

and all the major theories of motivation allow for this uniqueness
to be demonstrated in one way or the other.
ii) Motivation is intentional. It is assumed to be under the control of
the individual and behaviours resulting from motivation are seen
as choices of action.
iii) Motivation is multifaceted. Its techniques are hinged on two
questions: what gets people activated for task performance
(arousal)? What is the force of action of an individual to engage
in a desired behaviour (direction of choice of behaviour)?
iv) Motivation is action directed. It is not the behaviour itself and it
is not the performance. Motivation concerns action, and the
internal and external forces which influence a person‟s choice of
action.
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CRD 324 MODULE
3.3 Psychological Contract of Motivation
Motivation to work or behave in a particular way is influenced by the

concept of „psychological contract‟. As explained by Schein (1988), the
psychological contract involves a series of expectations between the
individual member and the organization or group. Although the
individual member and the organization may not be conscious of the
expectations since such expectations are not defined formally, their
relationship is still affected by them. These expectations, according to
Schein include:
i) Provision of safe and hygienic working conditions;

ii) Provision of job security;
iii) Reduction of alienating aspect of work;
iv) Adopting equitable personnel policies;
v) Allowing staff genuine participation in decision making;
vi) Implementing reasonable equal opportunities for personnel
development;
vii) Treat members of staff with respect;
viii) Considerate attitude towards personnel problems.
According to Schein (1988), the expectations of the organization or

group from the workers or members include:
i) Acceptance of the culture and ideology of the organization or

group;
ii) Working diligently in pursuit of the organizational or group
objectives;
iii) Avoidance of abusing the goodwill shown by the organization or
group;
iv) Showing loyalty at all times;
v) Not betraying position of trust;
vi) Observing reasonable and acceptable standards of dress and
appearance.
i. In your own understanding, what is motivation?

ii. Identify and explain the characteristics underlying motivation.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In any organization, especially work organization where functions are

performed, motivation is very significant. It is important that the
management supply incentives that will influence employee behavior
towards the desired direction either individually or collectively. Since all
49
behavior is motivated and people have reasons for doing the things that
they do or for behaving in the manner that they do, both the organization
and the individual employees should be motivated.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of motivation,

characteristics underlying motivation and the psychological contract of
motivation. In the next unit, theories of motivation will be discussed.
1. Discuss the necessity for the knowledge of motivation by the

managers of any work organization.
2. List and explain at least five expectations of an individual worker
from the organization and five expectations of the organization
from an individual worker.
Berlson, B. & Steiner, G.A (2004). Human Behaviour: An Inventory of

Scientific findings. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
Mullins, L. J. (2000). Management and organizational behaviour. 4th

Ed. London: Pitman Publishing.

administration. Abuja; Sanjane Management Books.
Richard, T.S. (2006). Sociology. 6th Ed. New York: McGraw Hill.
Schein, E. H. (1988). Organizational psychology. 3rd Ed. New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall.
50
CRD 324 MODULE
UNIT 2 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Maslow‟s Need Hierarchy Theory
3.2 Psychological Hedonism Theory
3.3 Herzberg‟s Two-Factor Theory
3.4 Vroom‟s Expectancy Theory and
3.5 McGregor‟s Theories X and Y
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A brief discussion of theories of motivation will provide an additional

insight into the factors that influence human motivation. In addition, it
will reveal the methods of motivating society for social actions through
community development.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the stipulations of maslow‟s need hierarchy theory;

 explain the stipulations of psychological hedonism theory;
 explain the stipulations of herzberg‟s two-factor theory;
 explain the stipulations of vroom‟s expectancy theory and
 explain the stipulations of McGregor‟s Theories X and Y.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
Maslow‟s theory is based on two assumptions. First, needs depend on

what one already has. Needs that are not satisfied can influence
behavior, but satisfied needs will not act as motivators. Second, needs
are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. Once one need is satisfied,
another emerges and demands satisfaction. Maslow believes that there
are five categories of levels of needs, namely, physiological, safety,
social, esteem and self-actualizations needs (Berelson & Steiner, 2004).
51
3.2 Psychological Hedonism Theory
According to Mukherjee (2002), this theory implies that man‟s actions

are determined by the seeking of pleasant and the avoidance of
unpleasant feelings and thus it was based on pleasure-seeking principles.
All human behavior was explained or attempted to be explained from
the application of pleasure-seeking and pain-avoidance principles.
However, this theory was later refuted by psychologists
3.3 Herzberg Two-Factor Theory
This theory postulates that some factors in the workplace act primarily
to dissatisfy employee when they are not present but do not provide
strong motivation when they are present. These so-called dissatisfiers or
hygiene factors are: Company policy and administration, technical
supervision, interpersonal relations with superior, interpersonal relations
with peers, interpersonal relation with subordinates, salary, job security,
person life, work conditions and status. On the other hand, the factors
which acts as motivators or satisfiers when they are present but do not
cause much dissatisfaction when they are absent are: achievement,
recognition, advancing the work itself, the possibility of personal growth
and responsibility.
3.4 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
This theory is based on the assumption that the goals of individuals

influence their effort and that the behaviour selected depends upon their
assessment of the probability that the behaviour will successfully lead to
the achievement of the goal (Berelson & Steiner, 2004). Vroom says that
a person‟s motivation towards and action is determined by his
anticipated values of all positive and negative outcome of the action
multiplied by the strength of the person‟s expectancy that the outcome
would yield the desired goal.
3.5 McGregor’s Theories X and Y
According to McGregor (2000) cited in Olanrewaju (2010), there are

two basic managerial attitudes towards employees: Some managers deal
with personnel from the standpoint of Theory X, some from Theory Y
orientation. Inherent in Theory X managerial philosophy is the belief
that people are motivated by money, fringe benefits and the threat of
punishment. Theory Y on the other hand is based on the assumption that
work is a natural phenomenon and if the conditions are favourable,
people will not only accept responsibility, they will seek it.
52
CRD 324 MODULE
i. List and explain the stipulations of any three theories of

motivation.
ii. Select any theory of motivation of your choice and show its
relevance in motivating the rural dwellers to participate in rural
development.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In any organization, it is one thing for individuals to be assigned duties

and tasks, it is yet another thing for those tasks and duties to be
performed. Job performance most times is a direct off-shot of
motivation. In fact, the action or inaction of an individual is a function
of motivation. They must be some prodding or some push to trigger an
action. This is very important in rural development.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed five theories of motivation namely

Maslow‟s Need Hierarchy Theory, Psychological Hedonism Theory,
Herzberg‟s Two-Factor Theory, Vroom‟s Expectancy Theory and
McGregor‟s Theories X and Y. in the next unit, focus will be on
methods of motivating society for social actions through community
development.
1. Identify and explain the premise of any three theories of

motivation and justify their applicability in motivating people to
work.
2. Explain Maslow‟s Needs Hierarchy Theory and indicate how you
could use its basic thrust to motivate the rural populace to take
action towards their developmental problems.

Baron, R.A. (1989). Psychology (4th Ed). USA: Allyn and Bacon.
Berlson, B. & Steiner, G.A (2004). Human Behaviour: An

Inventory of Scientific findings. New York: Harcourt, Brace and
World.
53
UNIT 3 METHODS OF MOTIVATING SOCIETY FOR

SOCIAL ACTIONS THROUGH COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The meaning of social actions
3.2 The Meaning of community development
3.4 Methods of motivating society for social actions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Motivation is very important in any activity. Different tasks require

different methods of motivation. Similarly, different individuals require
different methods to get them motivated. This has to do with individual
differences and the nature of task on ground. In this unit, the various
methods used in motivating society for social actions through
community development are discussed.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the meaning of social actions;

 explain the meaning of community development;
 list and discuss the methods of motivating society for social
actions.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Social Actions
Sociologists use the term social actions to refer to organized collective

activities to bring about or resist fundamental change in an existing
group or society (Richards 2006). Harambos and Holborn, (2004)
recognize the special importance of social actions when they defined it
as “collective enterprises to establish a new order of life.
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CRD 324 MODULE
In many nations, including Nigeria, social actions have had a dramatic

impact on the course of history and the evolution of the social structure.
Consider the actions of Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC), Trade Unions,
Bring Back Our Girls (BBOGs) group, Movement for the Emancipation
of Niger-Delta (MEND) etc. Members of each social action stepped
outside traditional channels for bringing about social change, yet had a
noticeable influence on public policy. Equally dramatic collective efforts
in Eastern Europe helped to topple Communist regimes in a largely
peaceful manner, in nations that many observers had thought were
“immune” to such social change (Richards, 2006).
Even when they are unsuccessful, social actions contribute to the

formation of public opinion. Moreover, functionalists view social
movements as training grounds for leaders of the political establishment.
Such heads of state as Cuba‟s Fidel Castro and South Africa‟s Nelson
Mandela came to power after serving as leaders of revolutionary
movements. How and why do social movements emerge? Obviously,
people are often discontented with the way things are. But what causes
them to organize at a particular moment in a collective effort to effect
change? Sociologists rely on two explanations for why people mobilize:
the relative-deprivation and resource-mobilization approaches.
3.2 The Meaning of Community Development
The United Nations Organization defined community development as

“the process which the efforts of the people themselves are united with
those of the government authorities to improve the economic, social and
cultural conditions of communities to integrate those communities into
the life of the nation and to enable them contribute fully to national
progress”.
Community Development can also be defined as “a process of social

action in which people of the community organize themselves for the
identification of their needs, planning and taking action to meet those
needs with maximum reliance on their own initiative and resources,
supplemented with assistance in any form from government and non-
governmental organizations” (Okonkwo, 2010).
Community development is seen as the ability of people to use their

traditional institutions and creativity to initiate self-help projects aimed
at responding positively to the problems of their environment. Although
the responsibility of initiating such projects lies with the members of the
community, they do not necessarily have to conclude them alone. The
idea is that in initiating the project, a particular community must have
indicated its most pressing and generally acknowledged needs. This is a
55
democratic people-centered model of community development which

tries to satisfy the basic needs of the people.
As seen from the definitions, Community Development is defined from

different perspectives. Whatever the definitions however, Community
Development involves a balanced social and economic development
with emphasis on the equitable distribution of resources as well as
creation of benefits. Community Development involves a concerted
effort of the people of a given community, government and non-
government organization (NGOs) towards uplifting the standard of
living of the people in a particular area. In other words, any effort made
to ensure advancement of any community is termed community
development. Such advancement could be social, economic, political or
cultural.
Although the concept and definition of community development could

vary according to disciplines and orientations, some common elements
in the definitions include the followings:
i. Community Development is a process involving joint effort and

different approaches.
ii. It can be carried out by governmental and non-governmental
agencies, National Youth Service Corps (N.Y.S.C.),
philanthropists etc.
iii. It involves the use of the people‟s initiatives and „resources.
iv. Assistance can also be obtained from outside the community area
for community development.
v. It aims at improving the living conditions of the people. This
could be socially, economically, politically, culturally and
religiously
3.4 Methods of Motivating Society for Social Actions

through Community Development
There are different methods of motivating society for social actions

through community development. According to Berlson and Steiner
(2004), these methods are:
i) Enlightenment campaigns;
ii) Reward system;
iii) Persuasive talks;
iv) Involvement of community members in decision-making process;
v) Use of bottom-top approaches in determining developmental
projects;
vi) Involvement of local community in spontaneous community
development activities;
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CRD 324 MODULE
vii) Placing emphasis on community felt-needs.
i. Review your understanding of the term” social actions”.

ii. Explain the meaning of community development and show the
place of social action in community development.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Different desired actions require different motivational techniques. It is

important that community members are motivated to take social actions
using the appropriate methods of motivation through community
development. This is especially so in developing countries like Nigeria
where most people do not take social actions without being motivated to
do so.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning social actions, the meaning
of community development and methods of motivating society to take
social actions through community development. In the next unit,
approaches to community modernization will be discussed.
1. With typical examples, explain the connectivity among

motivation, social actions and community development.
2. Identify and explain the methods of motivating society for social
Berlson, B. & Steiner, G.A (2004). Human Behaviour: An Inventory of

Scientific findings. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
Harambos, M. & M. Holborn, (2004). Sociology: Themes and

Perspectives. 5th Edn. London: Collins.

Richard, T.S. (2006). Sociology. 6th Ed. New York: McGraw Hill.
57
UNIT 4 APPROACHES TO COMMUNITY

MODERNIZATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Meaning of community modernization
3.2 Approaches to community modernization.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is the fourth unit in module 3 of course CRD 324. Evidently, there
are different approaches to community modernization depending on the
socio-economic situation in a given community. The unit will takes a
broader look at the concept of community modernization and the various
approaches to community modernization as suggested by different
experts in the field.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the meaning of community modernization

 identify and discuss the approaches to community modernization.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Community Modernization
The meaning of community modernization is synonymous with the

meaning of community development. Consequently, Community
modernization according to Harambos and Holborn, (2004) is the
process of social action in which people of the community organize
themselves for the identification of their needs, planning and taking
action to meet those needs with maximum reliance on their own
initiative and resources, supplemented with assistance in any form from
government and non-governmental organizations. It is the ability of the
people to use their traditional institutions and creativity to initiate self-
help projects aimed at responding positively to the problems of their
environment. Although the onus of for initiating such projects lies with
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CRD 324 MODULE
the members of the community, they do not necessarily have to

conclude them alone. The idea is that in initiating the project, a
particular community must have identified its most pressing and
generally acknowledged needs. This is a democratic people-centered
model of community development which tries to satisfy the basic needs
of the people.
3.2 Approaches to Community Modernization
Approaches to community modernization are the same with approaches

to community development. According to Okonkwo, (2010), the
approaches to community modernization are as follows:
 Social Development Approach: This approach aims at

improving the personal qualities of „the individuals in the
community and not material possessions. It involves the
integration of social and economic development programmes
along with mass literacy.
 Community Work Group Approach: This approach places
emphasis on group social action, which has more impact on the
community than the individual.
 Idealistic Approach: This approach focuses on mobilizing the
youths and the young ones to participate in group social action.
 Agricultural Extension Approach: This approach utilizes
educational and motivational procedure to achieve rural
community transformation from traditional to more productive
economy. The idea is to educate the rural people on their
potentials.
3.3 Rural Community Modernization in Nigeria
According to Filani (2000), rural community modernization in Nigeria

utilizes the following approaches:
i) The Sector Approach which addresses either the whole sector

such as agriculture or a few projects within it.
ii) Co-ordinated Approach which addresses to the economic
development of all sectors within a given area; and
iii) Participatory approach which is designed by the residents, first in
selected local economic and social goals and then in pursuing
them with some government aid. Recent attention is focused on
this approach.
59
In his own contribution, Ekong (1999) cited in Filani (2000) enumerates

approaches to community modernization to include:
i) Rural Urban Interaction;

ii) Intersectoral /Zonal Coordination;
iii) The Package Approach.
Rural urban interaction
This approach focuses on planning of rural development along with and

within the framework of overall national development plan Provision for
rural development is integrated in the overall agricultural development
agenda of local, state and federal governments. This has failed to
achieve much because the little recognition accorded rural development
is further eroded by the fact that agriculture itself takes no significant
place in the overall national planning.
Intersectoral/zonal coordination
This involves the coordination of hitherto isolated sectoral and zonal

development programmes it assumes that all sectoral/zonal rural
development programmes are well conceived and that effective
coordination would make them attain rural development goals.
However, programmes under this arrangement have been so narrow and
fail to consider restructuring of socio economic and political systems as
essential steps towards attaining meaningful integration and narrowing
rural-urban gap. These activities hardly make impact on lives of rural
people in the final analysis.
The package approach
This approach is founded on diffusionist theory of development in

which innovations developed from outside are brought to the rural
dwellers by a presumed beneficent and altruistic change agency.
Virtually all rural development programmes in the country adopted this
model. Examples are found in the Farm Settlement Scheme of the
defunct Western Region, Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), National
Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP), Agricultural
Development Programme (ADP) among others. However, it is
disappointing to observe that all those programmes have not resulted in
meaningful rural development.
i. What do you understand by community modernization?
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CRD 324 MODULE
ii. Identify and explain any three community modernization

approaches you know.
4.0 CONCLUSION
All the approaches to community modernization are relevant but each

focuses on separate modernization needs of any community. This means
that to achieve any meaningful community modernization, all the
approaches should be applied otherwise, the modernization process will
be one-sided. It could be seen that the premise or focus of each approach
is relevant in the real sense of modernization. None of the approaches
should be neglected at the expense of the other.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have explained the meaning of community

modernization, the various approaches to community modernization and
rural community modernization in Nigeria. In unit 5, community
modernization programmes of past and present government of Nigeria
will be discussed.
1. Examine the need for community modernization in Nigeria.

2. Discuss the various approaches to community modernization and
justify the necessity to apply all in any given national
developmental effort.
Filani, M. O. (2000). “Nigeria: The need to modify center-down

Sons.
Okonkwo, P. C. (2010). Community and rural development strategies

(Principles and Practice). Enugu: Impressium Publications.
61
UNIT 5 COMMUNITY MODERNIZATION

PROGRAMMES OF PAST AND
PRESENT GOVERNMENTS OF NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Mass Mobilization for Self Reliance, Social Justice, and
Economic Recovery (MAMSER)
3.2 River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs)
3.3 Nigerian Agricultural Insurance Corporation (NAIC)
3.4 National Directorate of Employment (NDE)
3.5 National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is the fifth and of course the last unit in module 3 of Course CRD
324. The unit analyses the various community modernization
programmes of past and present governments of Nigeria.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 analyze MAMSER in terms of its objectives, achievements and

failures
 analyze RBDAs in terms of its objectives, achievements and
failures
 analyze NAIC in terms of its objectives, achievements and
failures
 analyze NDE in terms of its objectives, achievements and failures
 analyze NHIS in terms of its objectives, achievements and
failures.
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CRD 324 MODULE
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Mass Mobilization for Self Reliance, Social Justice, and

Economic Recovery (MAMSER)
Mobilization for Self Reliance, Social Justice, and Economic Recovery

(MAMSER) was an exercise in political orientation in Nigeria
undertaken by President Babangida as one of the recommendations of
the Political Bureau headed by Dr. Samuel Joseph Cookey. The Bureau's
task was to consult with thousands of Nigerians and recommend to the
Armed Forces Ruling Council, a respectable and methodical transition
program. The ruling council also wanted a national orientation to
enunciate the abstract ideas in its economic policy and promote value
orientation. MAMSER was inaugurated on July 25, 1987.
Mission
The central goal of MAMSER was to cultivate support for the

transitional program of the Government. It was also an avenue to
educate the citizens about the political process, mobilize them to
participate in up-coming elections and political debates, and also
inculcate dependence on locally made goods and Nigerian products.
Some of MAMSER'S official policies were as follows:
1. Re-orient Nigerians to shun waste and vanity.

2. Shed all pretenses of affluence in their lifestyle.
3. Propagate the need to eschew all vices in public life, including
corruption, dishonesty, electoral and census malpractices, ethnic
and religious bigotry.
Objectives of MAMSER
The machinery set up for achieving its aims and objectives is both a
learning process and activity programme. As a learning process,
MAMSER has, through workshops, seminars and the establishment of
resource panels, sought to tap the immense intellectual resources of the
academic and various professional, groups. As an activity programme,
the 12-point mandate of the Directorate has been encapsulated into three
closely-related programmes via Mass Mobilisation for Self-Reliance,
Social Justice and Economic Recovery (MAMSER) concerned
with physical act of mobilisation, mass education under which a literate
society by 1992 is the goal, political education on which platform a
politically aware, conscious and enlightened third republic rests and its
special programmes for mobilising the military and the family. The
goals of mass mobilisation for self-reliance, social justice and economic
63
recovery is informed and guided by Nigeria's development objectives of

building:
1. a united, strong and self-reliant nation;

2. a great and dynamic economy;
3. a just and egalitarian society;
4. a land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens; and
5. a free, democratic society.
Achievements of MAMSER
1. Achievement in elite masses on the upcoming election by then, to

improve welfare to the citizens and to investigate and control
corruption in the country.
2. Achievement in the Directorate's economic recovery programmes
such as popularising the National Economic Reconstruction Fund
(NERFUND), a programme in which the government has
invested about 4.1 Billion for small-scale industries to thrive in
the country.
3. Creating a conducive social and technological basis for
sustainable development;
4. Transformation of production structures through agricultural and
industrial development;
5. Facilitating the greatest possible development of agriculture-fed
industries so as to ensure massive production of food and
industrial raw materials;
6. Minimizing the phenomenon of external dependence and reliance
on foreign aid;
7. Ensuring the fullest possible utilization of our human and
material resources;
8. Transformation of the consumption pattern to reflect a self-
reliant productive structure;
9. Elimination of mass poverty;
10. Creating opportunities for useful employment on a scale that will
harness the potential of the unemployed.
3.2 River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs)
The River Basin Development Authorities were established to provide

water for irrigation and domestic water supply, improvement of
navigation, hydro-electric power generation, recreational facilities and
fisheries projects. The basins were also expected to engender big
plantation farming and encourage the establishment of industrial
complexes that could bring the private and public sectors in joint
business partnership.
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CRD 324 MODULE
Objectives of river basin development authorities in Nigeria
The objectives of RBDAs are as follows:
i. To undertake comprehensive development of both surface and

underground water resources for multi-purpose use;
ii. To provide water from reservoirs and lakes under the control of
the Authority for irrigation purposes to farmers and recognized
association as well as for urban water supply Authority
concerned;
iii. The control of pollution in rivers, lakes, lagoons, and creeks in
Authority‟s area in accordance with nationally laid standards;
iv. To resettle persons affected by the works and schemes specified
under special resettlement schemes;
v. To develop fishes and improve navigation on the rivers, lakes,
reservoirs, lagoons and creeks in the authority‟s area;
vi. To undertake the mechanical clearing and cultivation of land for
the production of crops and livestock etc.
vii. To undertake large-scale multiplication of improved seeds, live
stock and tree seedlings for distribution to farmers and for
afforestation schemes;
viii. to process crops, livestock products and fish produced by
farmers in the authority‟s area in partnership with state agencies
and any other person;
ix. To assist the state and local governments in the implementation
of rural development works (construction of small dams,
provision of power for rural electrification schemes,
establishment of grazing reserves, training of staff in the
Authority‟s areas.
Achievements of river basin development authorities in Nigeria
The following are the achievements of RBDAs in Nigeria:
i) The past governments has been able to help in agricultural

development and increase food supply and aquatic activities
ii) Reduction in the high level of drought
iii) Food prevention and management control
iv) There is a great increase in domestic water supply
v) The past government were able to boost hydroelectric power
supply
vi) The river basins authorities have been able to bridge the gap
between the rural and urban centers by taking development to the
grass roots and discourage migration from the rural areas to the
urban centers.
65
vii) The creation of the RBDAs has motivated Nigerian Federal

Government to facilitate and accelerate the production of food
crops and mobilize the rural agricultural population throughout
the country toward increased food production.
viii) The RBDAs have been able to solve the problems of declining
agricultural productivity and; for encouraging the diffusion of
agricultural innovation to the rural areas in ways conducive to
increased agricultural productivity and improved living standard
of the rural dwellers.
3.3 Nigeria Agricultural Insurance Corporation (NAIC)
From the very beginning, the scheme provided covered only two crop
items namely, maize and rice, two livestock items namely cattle and
poultry and some commercial businesses like farm building, machinery
and equipment. The cover has since been extended to include more
items namely; 21 crop items, nine items of livestock and 12 types of
commercial business. And at the present; efforts are being intensified to
increase the number of items under cover to include fisheries, perishable
vegetables and more horticultural products. It equally designs specific
covers to suit peculiar customer needs. For example, it has designed and
implemented a special type of cover for agriculture or produce
marketing loans as follows:
i) Fire and special perils cover for property used as collateral

security for marketing loans;
ii) The burglary insurance cover for produce in storage;
iii) Fire and special perils cover for produce, goods or other materials
in storage, warehouses etc. Again, there are goods in transit
policy and cash in transit.
Therefore, prospective clients can always approach any NAIC office, for
the possibility of arranging special types of covers to meet their needs.
NAIC has operational presence in the 36 states of the federation and
FCT. There are five zonal offices to supervise these state offices. Plans
are in the pipeline to open more field offices in the local government
areas and districts. This was established for all categories of farmers.
The scheme operates a mandatory cover which applies to the following:
i. All agricultural loans from banks taken for all items insurable by
NAIC;
ii. All agricultural and agro-related projects which are assisted,
supported or fully funded from public funds,
iii. All direct and on-lending loans taken by all tiers of government
for disbursement to farmers and agriculture projects for
implementation;
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CRD 324 MODULE
iv. All forms of loans for agricultural marketing purposes, by all

banks and non-bank lending agencies; and
v. All direct on-lending and investment loans disbursed by the
Nigerian Agricultural Co-operative and Rural Development Bank
(NACRDB). The perils under cover for the crop sub-sector are
drought, flood, windstorm, fire, pests and diseases. For livestock,
the perils covered are death and injuries due to accident, disease,
fire, lightening and other forms of natural disasters. However, it
is very important to note that, losses caused by negligence or
willful damages are not covered.
In the case of crops, the duration of cover ranges from germination to

physiological maturity. However, tree crops such as cocoa and rubber
are covered for one year at a time. Livestock, cattle and small ruminants
are covered for one year at a time. In the case of poultry, however, the
duration of cover is from one-day old to 52 weeks for layers and
breeding birds extendable 72 weeks and from day old to 10 weeks for
boilers. The duration of all other cover is one year except where
specified. The approved premium rate for the scheme ranges between
five per cent and eight per cent of the sum insured for crops and 3.5 per
cent to 7.5 per cent for livestock. The applicable rating varies with the
agro-ecological zone of the country.
The Nigerian Agricultural Insurance Scheme is subsidized to the tune of

50 per cent by the federal and state government in the proportion of 37.5
per cent and 12.5 per cent of the premium payable. This subsidy is
applicable only on food crop and livestock items while commercial rates
are charge for non-food items. Claim payment is one of the most
important functions of any insurance outfit. In NAIC, claims are treated
and paid with dispatch. Insured are always encouraged to report claim
incidence promptly to enable verification and commencement of
processing. The indemnity for crops is based on the approved input
costs, less the value of the crops harvested if any. For the livestock
indemnity is the value of the animal, at the commencement of the
policy, plus the approved inputs costs. NAIC offices nationwide are the
main reporting point of claims. The scheme continues to gain acceptance
as evidenced by the increasing number of new participating farmers and
most of them that suffered losses have been indemnified. The value of
risk taken by NAIC since inception as at the end of 2003 was N80
billion, which were adequately covered by local and international Re-
insurance treaties. The vast scope of coverage, the huge volume of risk
taken up by NAIC and the 50 per cent subsidy given by the Nigerian
government makes the Nigerian Agricultural Scheme recognized by
many countries and the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of
the United Nations as a major contribution towards self-sufficiency in
67
food production and as a scheme to be replaced in other parts of the

world.
The Nigerian Agricultural Insurance Corporation is different from others

and is always there for the farmer, NAIC, unlike other conventional
insurance must within reasonable time pay the appropriate compensation
sufficient to keep the farmer in business after suffering a loss. Any delay
could force the farmer out of business in no time.
Objectives of Nigerian Agricultural Insurance Corporation (NAIC)
a) To implement, manage and administer the Agricultural Insurance

Scheme.
b) To subsidize the premiums chargeable on selected crops and
livestock policies from the grants obtained from the Federal and
State Governments and the Federal Capital Territory;
c) To encourage institutional lenders to lend more for agricultural
production having regard to the added security for their loans
provided by the Corporation;
d) To promote increased agricultural production generally in order
to minimize or eliminate the need for ad-hoc assistance
previously provided by Governments during agricultural
disasters;
e) To carry on insurance business on normal commercial basis and
without subsidies on premiums as insurers of buildings,
machineries, equipment and other items which form part of the
total investment on farms and to reinsure this aspect of its
operations through well-established channels with reputable
reinsurance companies;
f) To operate other types of insurance business as may be permitted
by the Commissioner of Insurance at competitive premiums and
g) To do anything or to enter into any transaction which in the
opinion of the Board is calculated to facilitate the
due performance of its functions?
3.4 The National Directorate of Employment (NDE)
The National Directorate of Employment (NDE) was established in

November 1986. It began operations fully in January 1987. The birth of
the Directorate was predicated on the effects of the economic recession
of the 80s which led to a drastic reduction in capacity utilization and
consequent outright closure of industries in Nigeria. Equally, other
macro-economic policies of the government of the day such as structural
adjustment programme (SAP), devaluation of the Naira, privatization
and commercialization of the economy, etc, resulted to massive job
losses in both the public and private sectors of the economy. According
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CRD 324 MODULE
to the Annual Report of the NDE 2013, unemployment rate had risen
from 4.3% in 1985 to 7.0% at the beginning of 1987 because of the
situation earlier stated.
Objectives of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE)
The Directorate was empowered to operate as an employment creation

agency statutorily charged with the responsibility to design and
implement programmes to combat mass unemployment with the
following mandate:
1. To design and implement programmes to combat mass

unemployment;
2. To articulate policies aimed at developing work programmes with
labour intensive potentials;
3. To obtain and maintain a data bank on employment and
vacancies in the country with a view to acting as a clearing house
to link job seekers with vacancies in collaboration with other
government agencies and
4. To implement other policies as may be laid down from time to
time by the board established under section 3 of its enabling law.
The Directorate commenced operations in January 1987 with visible

presence in all the states of the federation. In order to fulfill its statutory
mandate the NDE introduced four major areas of intervention towards
mass job creation for the unemployed in Nigeria as follows:
1. Vocational Skills Development

2. Entrepreneurship Development
3. Agricultural Skills Training and
4. Public Works Programme
Since unemployment is dynamic in its forms and patterns, regular

innovative strategies are required to tackle it effectively. To this end,
any other innovation can be effectively situated within the framework of
any of the four major areas of intervention.
All the various employment creation programmes of the NDE are

designed to provide training in critical skills required to make an
unemployed person either employable or to become self-employed.
Emphasis is placed on self-employment as against paid employment in
order to stimulate entrepreneurship and wealth creation. To support this
concept, the Directorate provides demonstrative soft loans to
outstanding beneficiaries of its various programmes.
69
Structure of the NDE
From inception, the NDE functions under a board of directors fully

supported by a Chief Executive Officer and a management team. It has
functional offices in all the states of the federation as well as the Federal
Capital Territory (Abuja). These offices serve as implementation
channels for all programmes of the agency at the grassroots level.
Recently, a zonal structure was introduced to enhance the efficiency and
effectiveness of programme delivery across the country. Each of the 6
geo-political zones in Nigeria has a zonal office headed by a director
who coordinates programme delivery and effective administration of the
state formations within a zone.
Achievements of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE)

For nearly three decades now, the NDE, through the machinery of skills
acquisition in vocational, agricultural, entrepreneurial and activities in
the public works sector as well as collaborations with both local and
international organizations and private individuals, has impacted a total
of 3,625,930 unemployed Nigerians. This does not include the over 9
million persons counseled over the period.
3.5 National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS)
Life expectancy especially in sub-Sahara Africa has dropped due to

inappropriate diet, lack of exercise and mostly stress. Health care
quality, quantity and costs have equally deteriorated that the World
Health Organization (WHO) and other human organizations have been
ringing the alarm bells of imminent danger to citizenry in developing
countries like Nigeria. To meet this challenge, the Government of
Nigeria constituted various panels whose recommendations culminated
in the enactment of the National Health Insurance Scheme Act, 1999
(NHIS Law).
According to the Government of Nigeria, some of the reasons for

establishing the NHIS include:
1. The poor state of the nation's health care delivery systems.

2. Excessive dependence and pressure on the Federal Government
to finance the entire health care delivery system in Nigeria.
3. Rising costs and under-funding of health care delivery.
4. Poor integration of health facilities in the health care delivery
system.
NHIS, as the name implies, is a kind of insurance scheme where many

individuals or "Insured" pool their resources – i.e. contributions -
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CRD 324 MODULE
together for the protection of anyone in the group who might fall ill
within the period of the insurance.
The drivers of the scheme are called Health Management Organisations

(HMO). The providers of the actual medical services are professionals
called Health Care Providers.
The objectives of national health insurance scheme
The objectives of NHIS include:
i) Ensuring that every Nigerian has access to good health care and
health care delivery services.
ii) Protecting Nigerians from the financial hardship of huge medical
bills whenever they visit our hospitals.
iii) Managing the rising cost of health care services in Nigeria.
iv) Ensuring equitable distribution of health care costs among
different income groups.
v) Ensuring adequate distribution of health facilities all over
Nigeria.
vi) Ensuring efficiency in health care services both in the public and
private sectors.
vii) Improving and harnessing private sector participation in the
provision of health care services.
viii) Maintaining high standard of health care delivery services within
the scheme.
ix) Ensuring equitable patronage of all levels of health care.
x) Ensuring the availability of funds to the health sector for
improved services.
The workings of NHIS
HMOs are required by the NHIS Law to collect contributions from

patrons to the scheme and maintain an efficient pool of Health Care
Providers (Hospitals, Clinics, Dental and Optical Clinics, etc).
Contributors to NHIS, on regular payment of their contributions, are
entitled to visit the appointed Health Care Providers, appointed by their
HMO, whenever they are ill or require medical advice or attention. Note
that the HMOs are required by Law to ensure that the highest quality
and quantity of health care services are provided by their appointed
Health Care Providers.
To guarantee financial adequacy of the scheme, the NHIS Law requires

all HMOs to have approved, a comprehensive insurance cover to the
tune of N100 Million; from this insurance cover, the HMO is
indemnified against incidents of defaults in settlement of claims by
71
Health Care Providers or by patrons of the scheme that is insured

persons like you.
Registration and contributions of employers and employees
All employers having ten or more than ten employees are required to
register their companies and their employees with a HMO and to pay to
the designated HMO contributions at such time and manner as provided
in the guidelines issued by the NHIS Council or as agreed to with the
HMO where there is no guideline from the NHIS Council. Employers
are forbidden by the NHIS Law from deducting their share of NHIS
contributions from their employees' wages and or emoluments.
Self-employed people or others who are described as "Voluntary

Contributors" under the NHIS Law and who want to enjoy the benefits
of the scheme are permitted to register and participate in the scheme by
choosing a HMO of their choice.
Benefits under NHIS
Persons registered under the various NHIS schemes are entitled to enjoy
insured benefits based on the contract that they have entered into with
their appointed HMO. Common services envisaged and enumerated
under the NHIS Law include:
a. Defined elements of curative care.

b. Prescribed drugs and diagnostic tests.
c. Maternity care for up to four live births for every insured person.
d. Preventive care including immune station, family planning, ante
natal and post natal care.
e. Consulting with defined range of specialist.
f. Hospital care in a private or public Hospital in a standard ward.
g. Eye examination and care, excluding test and actual provision of
spectacles.
h. A range of prosthesis and dental care as defined by the Council.
Failures of NHIS
The immediate problems with NHIS include:
i) There is a limitation on the scope of services and preferences of

medical professionals that contributors to the Scheme can access
and enjoy.
ii) There is also inadequate publicity on the existence and benefits
of the Scheme; this is especially amongst members of the
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CRD 324 MODULE
informal sector of the economy who constitute a vast majority of

the economy.
iii) There are still a very small number of participants/contributors to
this scheme and this is because of low per capital income in
Nigeria. In comparison, the current high rate of contributions by
HMOs is a disadvantage of spreading the net and having more
participants.
iv) The Public Officers Protection Law requires special notices and
procedures before law suits can be brought against members of
NHIS Council and their staff. The application of this Law to this
scheme is unfortunate as the Public Officers Protection Act is an
archaic colonial legislation. It is suggested that this provision be
removed and substituted with a kind of insurance indemnity
covering exposures such as this.
i. Select any one community modernization programme you are

familiar with and analyze its objectives, achievement and
failures.
ii. Identify the objectives of NAIC and assess the extent to which
the objectives have been achieved.
4.0 CONCLUSION
All the community modernization programmes were introduced at

different points in time by different governments of Nigeria. As it has
been discussed, they have their various achievements and failures. This
requires more efforts and readjustments on the part of the present and
incoming governments until Nigerian communities are truly modernized
like communities in the developed countries. Good policies and political
will are quite relevant to achieve such a target.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have explained the objectives, achievements and failures

or weaknesses of community modernization programmes of past and
present governments of Nigeria such as Mass Mobilization for Self
Reliance, Social Justice, and Economic Recovery (MAMSER), River
Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs), Nigerian Agricultural
Insurance Corporation (NAIC), National Directorate of Employment
(NDE) and National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS).
73
1. Study the whole packages of any two community modernization

programmes of the past government of Nigeria and suggest what
you would consider different from their objectives in the present
Nigerian situation.
2. Critically examine the immediate problems of NHIS in Nigeria
and suggest practical solutions that would turn the scheme around
for better.

Barnett, .J. & Mahul, O. (2007). Weather Index Insurance for Agriculture and Rural
Areas in Lower-Income Countries. American Journal of Agricultural
Economics. 89(5)
Burton, J., (2003). Integrated Water Resources Management on a Basin

Level: A Training Manual. UNESCO, Paris.
Federal Government of Nigeria, (2003). National water resources

management policy. 2nd Draft, Federal Ministry of Water
Resources, Abuja.
Federal Ministry of Water Resources, (2003). Water resources

management institutions in Nigeria: Institutional mapping report.
Draft Report, Federal Ministry of Water Resources, Abuja.
Kao, K..N. (2002). Crop Insurance; Past, Present and Future. Vision.
July-Dec pp13 - 17.
Korafor, A. H. & L. C. Iwuyi, 1975. Urban Employment Problem in

NDE, (2004). Year 2005 annual report, Kaduna State. National

Directorate of Employment, Kaduna, Nigeria.
Roberts R. A, (2005). Insurance of Crops in Developed Countries, FAO, Rome.

American Economic Review 103 (56-78).
The World Bank (2009). Insurance for the Poor Program, Public Intervention for
Agricultural Insurance.
74

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CRD 324 MODULE

Course Team: Dr. (Mrs.) Salamatu I. Attahiru –(Course

Professor Bello Abubakar Zaki (Editor) –

Lawal Kamaldeen, A. A. Ph.D – (HoD)

Dr. Ishola, Timothy O. (Dean) –

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

This course guide is designed to help you have an adequate

The course primarily aims at equipping you with an in-depth knowledge

This course aims at:

i) Explain the meaning of development.

v) Explain the principles of rural development.

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

 have an in-depth knowledge of the structure and content of rural

The study units are fifteen in number contained in modules as follows:

Unit 1 The Meaning of Development

Unit 2 The Meaning of Rural Development

Unit 1 Approaches to Rural Development

Unit 1 The Meaning of Motivation

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

Okonkwo, P.C. (2010). Community and rural development strategies.

Olanrewaju, B. (2010). Fundamentals of management and

ASSIGNMENT AND MARKING SCHEME

5 The necessity for rural development in 2

HOW TO GET THE BEST FROM THIS COURSE

In the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), there are no visible

As a strategy to go through and understand the course, the followings

i) Read the Course Guide carefully.

FACILITATORS/TUTOR AND TUTORIALS

The course tutor will be willing to:

i) Provide answers to your questions;

This is another service from the NOUN to make you an all-round

Unit 1 Some Typical Problem of Rural Areas……………… 23

Unit 1 The Meaning of Development

UNIT 1 THE MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the meaning of development

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Meaning of Development

Development can be defined as the general improvement in economic,

or elimination of poverty, inequality, injustice, insecurity, ecological

Development goes beyond increases in per capita and financial aspects

3.2 Dimensions of Development

According to Filani, (2000), development could focus on any of the

From the definition and concept of development, the following

a. Development contributes to the well-being and comfort of the

3.3 Steps in Bringing about Development

According to Okonkwo, (2006), the steps in bringing about development

a. An informal survey, i.e. fact finding and identification of

i. In your own understanding, what is development?

In any society, development is necessary and conscious efforts are made

In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of development, the

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define the term development and justify the fact that

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Filani, M.O. (2000). “Nigeria: The need to modify center-down

Idachaba, F. A. (1985). “Integrated rural development: Lessons from

Korafor, A. H. & L.C. Iwuyi, (1975). Urban Employment Problems in