2 Data transmission

In this chapter you will learn about:

★ types and methods of data transmission
– how data is broken up into data packets before transmission
– the structure of data packets (header, payload and trailer)
– packet switching (including the role of the router in the process)
– methods of data transmission (serial, parallel, simplex, half-duplex and
full-duplex)
– the Universal Serial Bus (USB)
★ methods of error detection
– why error checking methods are needed
– error checking methods following data transmission:
– parity checks
– checksum
– echo check
– use of check digits to detect data entry errors
– use of automatic repeat requests (ARQs) to detect errors
★ encryption
– the need for and the purpose of encryption
– symmetric and asymmetric encryption
– use of public and private keys.

Data is frequently transferred from one device to another. The two

devices could be in the same building or thousands of kilometres away.
Irrespective of the distance travelled, the transmission of data needs to be
considered with respect to:
l how the data is transmitted
l how can errors following transmission be detected and can the data
be recovered
l the role of encryption to make sure data that falls into the wrong hands
can’t be used
It is also important to consider ways of checking for errors in data once it
has been entered into a computer.

2.1 Types and methods of data transmission

Data packets are 2.1.1 Data packets
usually referred to
simply as ‘packets’ Data sent over long distances is usually broken up into data packets (sometimes
called datagrams). The packets of data are usually quite small, typically 64 KiB,
which are much easier to control than a long continuous stream of data. The idea
of splitting up data in this way means each packet can be sent along a different
route to its destination. This would clearly be of great benefit if a particular
transmission route was out of action or very busy. The only obvious drawback of
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 2 Data transmission

splitting data into packets is the need to reassemble the data when it reaches its
destination.
Packet structure
A typical packet is split up into:
» a packet header
» the payload
» a trailer.

Header Payload Trailer

Sequence Some form of

The actual data Method of
IP address of IP address of number of Size of the error checking
in the packets identifying the
the source the destination the packet packet (in to ensure
(~64 KiB) – the end of the
device (sender) device (receiver) (allowing correct bytes) packet arrives
payload packet
reassembly) error-free

▲ Figure 2.1 Packet structure

For each packet, the packet header consists of:

» the IP address of the sending device
» the IP address of the receiving device
» the sequence number of the packet (this is to ensure that all the packets can
be reassembled into the correct order once they reach the destination)
» packet size (this is to ensure the receiving station can check if all of the
packets have arrived intact).

(Note: the header often also contains another value indicating how many packets
there are in total for this transmission.)
For each packet, the payload consists of the actual data being sent in the packet
(this is usually about 64 KiB).
For each packet, the packet trailer consists of:
» some way of identifying the end of the packet; this is essential to allow
each packet to be separated from each other as they travel from sending to
receiving station
» an error checking method; cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) are used to check
data packets:
– this involves the sending computer adding up all the 1-bits in the payload
and storing this as a hex value in the trailer before it is sent
– once the packet arrives, the receiving computer recalculates the number of
1-bits in the payload
– the computer then checks this value against the one sent in the trailer
– if the two values match, then no transmission errors have occurred;
otherwise the packet needs to be re-sent.

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 2.1 Types and methods of data transmission

Packet switching
Let us now consider what happens when a photograph, for example, is sent from
computer ‘A’ to computer ‘B’. The photograph will be split up into a number of
packets before it is sent. There will be several possible routes for the packets,
between computer ‘A’ (sender) and computer ‘B’ (receiver). Each stage in the route
contains a router. A router receives a data packet and, based on the information
in the header, decides where to send it next. For example:

Computer ‘B’

Note: R1 to R10 represent the

Computer ‘A’
routers (nodes) in the network
R1 between ‘A’ and ‘B’

R3
R2 R4
R5 Router ‘B’

Router ‘A’
R7
R6
R10
R8

R9

▲ Figure 2.2 Typical network showing possible routes between ‘A’ and ‘B’

Packet switching is a method of data transmission in which a message is broken

up into a number of packets. Each packet can then be sent independently
from start point to end point. At the destination, the packets will need to be
reassembled into their correct order (using the information sent in the header).
At each stage in the transmission, there are nodes that contain a router. Each
router will determine which route the packet needs to take, in order to reach its
destination (the destination IP address is used in this part of the process).
Suppose our photograph (Figure 2.3) has been split up into five packets that have
been sent in the following order:

▲ Figure 2.3

» each packet will follow its own path (route)

» routers will determine the route of each packet
» routing selection depends on the number of packets waiting to be processed
at each node
» the shortest possible path available is always selected – this may not always
be the shortest path that could be taken, since certain parts of the route may
be too busy or not suitable
» unfortunately, packets can reach the destination in a different order to that in
which they were sent.
Figure 2.5 shows one possible scenario. Notice the different paths taken by
each packet from computer ‘A’ to computer ‘B’. Also notice that the packets have
arrived in a different order compared to the way they were sent, namely:

▲ Figure 2.4

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 2 Data transmission

Computer ‘B’ will now have to reassemble the packets into the original sequence.

Computer ‘B’

Computer ‘A’

R1

R3
R2 R4
R5 Router ‘B’

Router ‘A’
R7
R6
R10
R8

R9

▲ Figure 2.5 Typical network showing possible paths taken by each packet

The benefits of packet switching are:

» there is no need to tie up a single communication line
Find out more » it is possible to overcome failed, busy or faulty lines by simply re-routing
packets
Another method of
sending packets is
» it is relatively easy to expand package usage
called circuit switching. » a high data transmission rate is possible.
Find out how this
differs to packet The drawbacks of packet switching include:
switching, and then
re-draw Figure 2.5 » packets can be lost and need to be re-sent
showing the route the » the method is more prone to errors with real-time streaming (for example, a
packets take when live sporting event being transmitted over the internet)
using circuit switching. » there is a delay at the destination whilst the packets are being re-ordered.

Sometimes it is possible for packets to get lost because they keep ‘bouncing’ around
from router to router and never actually reach their destination. Eventually the
network would just grind to a halt as the number of lost packets mount up,
clogging up the system. To overcome this, a method called hopping is used. A
hop number is added to the header of each packet, and this number is reduced
by 1 every time it leaves a router (Figure 2.6).

Router 3 Router 5 Router 8 Router 11 Router 15 Router 21

Hop number: 10 9 8 7 6 5

▲ Figure 2.6 Hop numbers between routers

Advice
Hopping is not included Each packet has a maximum hop number to start with. Once a hop number
on the syllabus but reaches zero, and the packet hasn’t reached its destination, then the packet is
is included here for deleted when it reaches the next router. The missing packets will then be flagged
completeness (to by the receiving computer and a request to re-send these packets will be made.
help understand how
packets can get lost).

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 2.1 Types and methods of data transmission

Activity 2.1
1 Suppose a video conference is taking place between delegates in two different
countries. Packet switching is being used to send video and sound data
between the delegates:

Delegate 1 in USA Delegate 2 in India

Video and sound sent between

delegates using packet switching

▲ Figure 2.7

Describe:
i any potential problems with sound and video quality
ii how these problems could be caused.
2 Explain how packet switching could be used to download a large web page
from a website.
3 a The trailer in a packet will use one form of error checking.
Explain what is meant by a cyclic redundancy check.
b The payload contains the following data:

11110000 10000011 00110011 00111111 11111110 11100011

Use this data to show how the receiving computer can verify that the
received payload was error-free.
4 a Explain how it is possible for packets to be lost during their transmission
across a network.
b Describe how it is possible for a system to deal with lost packets and
prevent them from slowing down the transmission process.
c Explain why you think packet switching might improve data security.

2.1.2 Data transmission

Data transmission can be either over a short distance (for example, computer
to printer) or over longer distances (for example, from one computer to another
in a global network). Essentially, three factors need to be considered when
transmitting data:
» the direction of data transmission (for example, can data transmit in one
direction only, or in both directions)
» the method of transmission (for example, how many bits can be sent at the
same time)
» how will data be synchronised (that is, how to make sure the received data is
in the correct order).

These factors are usually considered by a communication protocol.

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