Glossary

Absorption The movement of nutrients from the intestines into the blood
Accommodate Changing the shape (and focal length) of the eye lens to focus on near or
distant objects
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) A sexually transmitted infection, also passed
on through infected blood and from infected mother to her baby in the uterus, during birth or
through the mother’s milk. It is caused by a virus called the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV)
Acrosome The tip of a sperm cell, which secretes enzymes to digest the cells around an egg
and the egg membrane
Active immunity Defence against a pathogen by antibody production in the body
Active site Part of an enzyme molecule, which exactly fits the substance on which the
enzyme acts. Its shape can be permanently deformed by a high temperature or extreme pH
Active transport The movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration (i.e. against a concentration gradient) using
the energy from respiration
Actual size The true size of an object
Adaptation The process resulting from natural selection by which populations become more
suited to their environment over many generations
Adaptive feature An inherited feature that helps an organism to survive and reproduce in its
environment
Adrenal gland Adrenal glands are attached to the back of the abdominal cavity, one above
each kidney, and produce the hormone adrenaline
Adrenaline A hormone, secreted by the adrenal glands, which causes increased heart beat
and breathing rate and depth, along with dilation of the pupils. Its effects allow us to react more
quickly and vigorously in dangerous situations
Aerobic respiration The chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient
molecules to release energy
Allele An alternative form of a gene
Alveoli Little, thin-walled, pouch-like air sacs attached to the bronchioles in the lungs and
closely associated with capillaries. Responsible for gas exchange
Amino acid Organic compound composed of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It is a
sub-group of proteins and there are about 20 different amino acids in animal proteins
Amniotic fluid Fluid which surrounds the embryo as it develops, protecting it from damage
and preventing unequal pressure acting on it
Amniotic sac A fluid-filled sac surrounding the embryo as it develops
Amylase Starch-digesting enzyme secreted by the salivary glands into the mouth and the
pancreas into the duodenum
Anaerobic respiration The chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules to
release energy without using oxygen
Antagonistic Refers to muscles that oppose each other. For example, circular and radial
muscles in the iris of the eye
Anther Contains pollen sacs in which pollen grains are formed
Antibiotic An antibacterial drug derived from a fungus or bacterium
Antibody Proteins produced by lymphocytes
Antigen A substance which promotes the formation of antibodies
Aorta The main artery leaving the heart from the left ventricle, carrying oxygenated blood to the
head and body
Arteriole Small branch of an artery leading into capillaries
Artery (pl. Arteries) A vessel carrying blood from the heart at high pressure
Artificial insemination (AI) A means of achieving pregnancy by introducing semen into the
uterus of a female. It is sometimes used in captive breeding programmes to increase
numbers of an endangered species
Artificial selection A technique used by humans to produce varieties of animals and plants
that have an increased economic importance
Asexual reproduction The process resulting in the production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent
Assimilation The uptake and use of nutrients by cells
Atmosphere The envelope of gases surrounding the Earth
Atrioventricular valve A heart valve which lies between the atrium and ventricle and prevents
the back-flow of blood
Atrium (pl. Atria) The upper chamber of the heart receiving blood from the veins
Auxin A chemical which affects the rate of growth in plants
B cell Lymphocyte derived from bone marrow
Bacteria Single-celled organisms belonging to the Prokaryote kingdom. They are different
from other single-celled organisms because their chromosomes are not organised into a
nucleus
Bacterial infection An infection caused by harmful bacteria
Balanced diet Diet that contains all the essential nutrients in the correct proportions to
maintain good health. The nutrients needed are carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamins, mineral
ions, fibre (roughage) and water
Base (organic) The part of a nucleotide that contains nitrogen. In DNA the bases are adenine
(A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G)
Benedict’s solution A test for the presence of reducing sugar (e.g. glucose). The solution
turns from clear blue to cloudy green, then yellow and finally to a red precipitate (deposit) of
copper (I) oxide when glucose is present
Bile A green, watery fluid made in the liver. It is stored in the gall bladder and is sent to the
duodenum through the bile duct. It contains no enzymes but contains bile salts, which emulsify
fats, breaking them up into small droplets with a large surface area
Binomial system An internationally agreed system in which the scientific name of an
organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and species
Biodiversity The number of different species that live in an area
Biological catalysts The definition of an enzyme, which is a protein that speeds up reactions,
for example, inside cells
Biomass The weight (mass) of all the organisms in a population, community or habitat
Biotechnology The use of living organisms or biological processes for industrial, agricultural
or medical purposes
Bladder A hollow muscular organ that collects and stores urine from the kidneys before
disposal by urination
Breeding in captivity The process of encouraging the reproduction of animals in controlled
environments, such as wildlife reserves, zoos and other conservation facilities
Bronchi A pair of air pipes branching from the trachea and going to the lungs
Bronchiole A branch of a bronchus in the lungs, which is attached to alveoli
Capillary The smallest type of blood vessel in the circulatory system. Its walls are only one
cell thick to allow the exchange of materials between the blood and surrounding cells
Carnivore An animal that gets its energy by eating other animals
Carpel The female reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of a stigma, style and ovary
Catalyst A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is not changed by the
reaction
Cell The smallest basic unit of an animal or plant. It is microscopic and acts as a building
block
Cell membrane A thin layer of cytoplasm around the outside of a cell. It is selectively
permeable, controlling what substances enter and leave the cell
Cell sap The liquid inside the large central vacuole of a plant cell. It stores materials and
provides mechanical support to a plant
Cellulose A polysaccharide made of chains of glucose units which is found in plant cell walls.
It is tough and stops the cell bursting but is freely permeable
Cement A thin layer of bone-like material covering the roots of the teeth of mammals. It
enables the tooth to grip to its bony socket in the jaw
Central nervous system Part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord
Cervix A ring of muscle separating the vagina from the uterus
Chemical digestion The breakdown of large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules
Chlorophyll A green chemical present in chloroplasts. It can trap light energy for
photosynthesis
Chloroplast A green organelle in the cytoplasm of a photosynthesising plant cell. It contains
chlorophyll to trap light energy for photosynthesis
Chromosome A thread of DNA made up of a string of genes
Ciliary body Part of the eye that produces aqueous humour and contains ciliary muscles
Ciliary muscle The muscle in the eye that alters the shape of the lens during accommodation.
It is attached to the lens and the ciliary body
Ciliated cells Cells with cytoplasmic ‘hairs’ called cilia which can flick to produce movement.
They are found in the nose and windpipe
Circular muscle A muscle with a ring shape, which can contract to reduce the diameter of a
structure, for example, oesophagus in the digestive system or iris of the eye
Circulatory system A system of blood vessels with a pump and valves to ensure a one-way
flow of blood
Classify To sort things into a meaningful order (e.g. groups of organisms)
Co-dominance A situation in which both alleles in heterozygous organisms contribute to the
phenotype
Collision Bumping of molecules due to kinetic energy
Community All of the populations of different species in an ecosystem
Competition An interaction between organisms or species in which both the organisms or
species are harmed. The competition may be for food, water, light, territory or a nesting site
Complementary A term to describe how the shape of the active site of an enzyme fits the
substance on which it acts
Concentration gradient The difference in concentration on either side of a membrane. The
bigger the gradient, the faster a molecule or ion will move from the higher concentration to the
lower concentration
Cone A light-sensitive cell in the retina of the eye that detects colour. Most cone cells are
concentrated in the fovea. They are only stimulated by high light intensity
Consumer An organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms
Continuous variation A type of variation which shows a complete range of characteristics
within a group of individuals of the same species. It is caused by both genes and the
environment
Control Part of an experiment missing a condition to compare with the variable in which the
condition is altered
Coordination The processes which make the different systems in an organism work
effectively together
Cornea The transparent tissue at the front of the eyeball that refracts light entering the eye to
help to focus it
Coronary artery A blood vessel on the surface of the heart which transports oxygenated
blood to the heart muscle
Cortex 1 The outer region of the kidney, containing capillaries, glomeruli and renal capsules
for filtering blood 2 A region of the root and stem of a plant inside the epidermis. In the root it
transfers water and mineral ions from root hair cells to xylem vessels
Cotyledon An embryonic leaf which often contains food stores
Cross-pollination Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a
flower on a different plant of the same species
Cuticle 1 A thin, waxy, non-cellular layer secreted by cells of the upper epidermis of a leaf. It
waterproofs the leaf and acts as a barrier to microbes 2 The hard, firm, external skeleton of an
arthropod, which encloses its body
Cytoplasm The jelly-like substance in a cell enclosed by the cell membrane. It contains the
cell organelles and is the site of chemical reactions
DCPIP Dichlorophenolindophenol. A blue dye that becomes to colourless in the presence of
certain chemicals including vitamin C
Deamination The removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea
Death phase The part of a growth curve where the death rate is greater than the birth rate, so
population numbers start to drop
Decomposer An organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic material
Decomposition The process of rotting (decay) of dead organic material, carried out by
decomposers
Denaturation The permanent effect of high temperature or extreme pH, changing the shape
of the active site of an enzyme. Once denatured, an enzyme cannot catalyse a reaction
Denitrification A process carried out by denitrifying bacteria in which compounds of nitrogen
are converted into gaseous nitrogen
Dentine Hard, dense, bony tissue found under the enamel of a tooth. It is softer than enamel
and more yellow
Deoxygenated Blood which does not contain much oxygen
Diabetes A condition resulting from an inability to control the level of glucose in the blood due
to lack of insulin production by the pancreas
Dialysis tubing Tubing made of cellophane which has partially permeable properties. Used for
experiments on osmosis
Diaphragm A sheet of tissue that separates the thorax from the abdomen. It contains muscles
involved in breathing
Dichotomous key A key used to identify unfamiliar organisms. It is made up of pairs of
contrasting features, starting with quite general characteristics and progressing to more
specific ones
Dicotyledon A plant having two cotyledons in its seed. Dicotyledonous plants tend to have
broad stalked leaves with netlike veins (e.g. strawberry, sunflower)
Diffusion The net movement of molecules and ions from a region of their higher concentration
to a region of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their
random movement
Digestion The breakdown of food
Digestive enzyme Enzymes produced in the digestive system which break down large,
insoluble food molecules into smaller, soluble ones
Diploid The number of chromosomes in the nucleus of normal body cells. The chromosomes
are in pairs
Discontinuous variation A type of variation where there are a limited number of obvious,
distinct categories for a feature, without intermediates. It is caused by a gene or a small
number of genes
Disease An abnormal condition of a part, organ or system of an organism resulting from
various causes, for example, infection, inflammation, environmental factors or a genetic
defect, and characterised by an identifiable group of signs, symptoms or both
DNA A molecule made up of two long strands coiled together to form a double helix. It contains
the genetic instructions for the development and function of living things
Dominant An allele that is expressed if it is present in the genotype
Double circulation A circulatory system in which blood passes through the heart twice for
each complete circulation of the body
Drug Any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the
body
Duct A tube leading from a gland or an organ
Duodenum The first part of the small intestine, opening from the stomach
Ecosystem A unit containing the community of organisms and their environment, interacting
together (e.g. a decomposing log or a lake)
Effector An organ that responds to a stimulus, nerve impulse or hormone
Egestion The passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed as faeces through
the anus
Egg cell Female sex cell (gamete) involved in sexual reproduction. It contains a haploid
number of chromosomes
Electrocardiogram (ECG) A trace of electrical activity associated with heartbeat. Any
irregularity in the trace can be used to diagnose heart problems
Embryo The stage during which an organism develops from a fertilised egg to an
independently functioning individual
Emulsify To break down fat globules in the duodenum into tiny droplets, which provides a
larger surface area on which the enzyme lipase can act
Enamel Hard outer layer on the crown of a tooth
Endocrine gland A gland (also known as a ductless gland) that produces chemicals called
hormones, which are released directly into the bloodstream
Endocrine system A system depending on hormones that are released into the bloodstream
from endocrine glands
Enhanced greenhouse effect A gradual increase in the atmospheric temperature caused by
the build-up of greenhouse gases, for example, carbon dioxide and methane
Enzymes Proteins that function as biological catalysts and are involved in all metabolic
reactions
Enzyme–substrate complex A temporary combination of an enzyme molecule and the
substrate molecule it acts on. The molecules join together at the enzyme’s active site
Epidermis 1 The outer layer of skin of an animal e.g. a human 2 The layer of cells on the
outside of a plant structure such as a stem or leaf
Epithelium A layer of cells in an animal lining the inside of some organs
Eukarya Organisms that have a membrane-bound nucleus
Eutrophication The process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved
nutrients (such as phosphates) that stimulate the growth of aquatic plants. It usually results in
a reduction of dissolved oxygen, killing the animals living in the water
Evolution The change in the characteristics of a species over several generations, caused by
slow changes in the environment. The process relies on natural selection
Excretion Removal of waste products of metabolism and substances in excess of
requirements
Exponential (log) phase Part of a sigmoid population growth curve where the population
doubles at each generation, producing logarithmic growth. At this stage there are no limiting
factors to limit the rate of increase of growth
Expression The process by which the instructions carried in a gene of a DNA molecule are
activated to make a protein
External intercostal muscle Muscles attached to the outside of the ribs, which contract to
pull the ribs upwards and outwards to breathe in
Extinction The time when a species ceases to exist
Extracellular enzyme Enzyme that works outside cells
Faeces The undigested material, plus bacteria, left in the colon after food has been digested
and absorbed
Fallopian tube The tube down which the ova pass when released from the ovary. Also called
the oviduct
Fatty acid A sub-unit of a fat, which is released when the fat has been digested by lipase. A fat
is made up of three fatty acid units chemically bonded to one unit of glycerol
Fermenter A large, sterile container used to grow microorganisms, for example, fungi and
bacteria, on a large scale, to produce useful products such as insulin, penicillin and
mycoprotein
Fertilisation The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (egg
cell)
Fetus The later stages of an animal’s embryo when all the organs are present
Fibre Also known as roughage, it consists of the cellulose cell walls of plants. Humans cannot
digest fibre, but it adds bulk to food being moved through the digestive system, keeping the
muscles in good tone and preventing constipation
Fibrin An insoluble blood protein which forms a network of fibres across a wound, trapping red
blood cells to make a blood clot
Fibrinogen A soluble protein in the blood plasma which, when a blood vessel is damaged,
changes to insoluble fibrin and forms a blood clot
Filament Slender stalk which supports the anther of a flower
Flaccid The condition of a plant cell when it loses water from the vacuole
Flagellum A long filament of cytoplasm which projects from some forms of Protoctist or
bacteria. Whip-like movements of the flagellum propel the organism through water
Follicle stimulating hormone A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates the
development of an ovum in a follicle
Food chain A chart showing the transfer of energy (food) from one organism to the next,
beginning with a producer
Food supply One of the factors which can limit the growth of a population
Food web A network of interconnected food chains
Fossil fuels Fuels such as coal, natural gas and oil which have formed over millions of years
from the trapped and compressed remains of dead organisms
Fovea The small area of the retina of the eye having the largest concentration of light-sensitive
cells
Fruit The seed-bearing structure in flowering plants, formed from the ovary after fertilisation of
a flower. Examples include strawberries and tomatoes
Fungus A group of organisms made up of thread-like hyphae instead of cells. Nuclei are
spread throughout the cytoplasm. They are heterotrophs (cannot make their own food)
because they do not have chloroplasts
Fuse Part of the process of fertilisation, when the cytoplasm and nuclei of the gametes join
together to form a single cell called a zygote
Gamete A reproductive cell. In animals, gametes are eggs and sperm. In plants they are
ovules and cells contained in pollen grains
Gas exchange The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, which takes place between the
air and blood vessels, for example, in the lungs
Gastric juice A liquid secreted by glands in the lining of the stomach containing the enzyme
protease
Gene A length of DNA that codes for a protein
Gene mutation A random change in the base sequence of DNA
Genetic modification is changing the genetic material of an organism by removing, changing
or inserting individual genes
Genetically identical A term used to describe clones, which contain the same genetic
information as the parent from which they were formed
Genetically modified (GM) Crops containing genetic material from which genes have been
removed, changed or inserted
Genotype The genetic make-up of an organism in terms of the alleles present
Genus (pl. Genera) One of the categories in classification; a group of closely related species
Germination The process by which a plant grows from a seed
Gland An organ which secretes a substance such as an enzyme or hormone
Glomerulus A coiled knot of capillaries in the cortex of the kidney that is involved in the
filtration of blood
Glucagon A hormone secreted by the pancreas, which stimulates cells of the liver to convert
stored glycogen to glucose to restore blood sugar levels when lower than normal
Glucose An example of a carbohydrate. It is a monosaccharide sugar, which is soluble and
used as a substrate for respiration
Glycerol One of the functional units of fats, released when fat is digested by lipase
Glycogen An example of a carbohydrate. It is a polysaccharide consisting of long chains of
glucose units that acts as a food storage molecule in many animal cells, for example, liver and
muscle cells
Goblet cell A mucus-secreting cell found in the epithelial lining of the trachea, bronchi and
some bronchioles of the respiratory tract
Gravitropism A response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from gravity
Growth A permanent increase in size and dry mass
Guard cell Present in the epidermis of a leaf. Found in pairs surrounding a stoma. Involved in
controlling the rate of transpiration from the leaf
Gum Fleshy covering of the jaws through which the crown of a tooth grows
Haemoglobin Red, iron-containing pigment in the red blood cells that combines with oxygen
Hair erector muscles Muscles found in the dermis of the skin responsible for raising hairs on
the skin to reduce heat loss when the body is cold
Haploid Containing a single set of chromosomes, for example, in the sex cells
Hepatic artery The blood vessel responsible for transporting oxygenated blood to the liver
Hepatic portal vein The blood vessel responsible for transporting blood containing digested
food molecules from the digestive system to the liver
Hepatic vein The blood vessel responsible for transporting blood from the liver to the vena
cava
Herbicide A chemical used to kill plants that compete with crop plants
Herbivore An animal that gets its energy by eating plants
Heterozygous Having two different alleles of a particular gene. A heterozygous individual will
not therefore be pure breeding
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) A virus transmitted by sexual contact, and also
passed on through infected blood and from infected mother to her baby in the uterus, during
birth or through the mother’s milk. The infection can lead to AIDS (acquired immune deficiency
syndrome)
HIV positive A person who is carrying HIV antibodies in their blood, indicating an infection of
the virus
Homeostasis The maintenance of a constant internal environment
Homozygous Having two identical alleles of a particular gene. Two identical homozygous
individuals that breed together will be pure breeding
Hormone A chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which alters
the activity of one or more specific target organs
Hydrophyte A plant that is adapted to grow either partly or totally submerged in water
Ileum Part of the small intestine, which is responsible for absorbing digested food and passing
it into the bloodstream
Image size The dimensions of an image seen through a magnifying object such as a hand
lens or microscope
Immunity Defence against pathogens or disease
Implant The process by which an early embryo sinks into the lining of the uterus
In vitro fertilisation (IVF) The process of fertilisation where an egg is combined with sperm
outside the body (in vitro). Used in captive breeding programmes to increase numbers of an
endangered species of animal
Ingestion The taking of substances (e.g. food, drink) into the body through the mouth
Inheritance The transmission of genetic information from generation to generation
Insect-pollinated flowers Flowers producing small amounts of sticky pollen to be spread by
insects
Insecticide A chemical used to destroy insects that eat and damage plants
Insulation Material such as fatty tissue or raised body hairs which reduces heat loss from an
animal
Insulin A hormone secreted by the pancreas, which stimulates cells of the liver to store
glucose and cells to respire more quickly to restore blood sugar levels when higher than
normal
Intercostal muscle Muscle attached to the ribs that is involved in the process of breathing
Internal intercostal muscle Muscles attached to the inside of the ribs, which contract to pull
the ribs downwards and inwards to breathe out
Intracellular enzyme Enzyme that works inside cells
Iodine solution A chemical reagent used to test for the presence of starch. It turns from
brown to blue-black if starch is present
Ionising radiation A type of energy in the form of X-rays, radioactive compounds and
ultraviolet light, which can increase the mutation rate. Exposure may lead to cancer
Iris A coloured ring of circular and radial muscle that controls the size of the pupil in the eye
Kinetic energy The energy of movement
Kingdom The highest taxonomic group used in classifying organisms. Examples include
animals, plants and fungi
Lacteal The tube in the centre of a villus into which pass the products of fat digestion in the
intestine
Lactic acid A product of anaerobic respiration in muscles. Its build-up causes muscle cramps
and creates oxygen debt
Lactose intolerance A digestive problem where the body does not produce enough of the
enzyme lactase. Symptoms include flatulence (wind), diarrhoea and stomach pains
Lag phase Part of a sigmoid population growth curve where the population is small. Although
the numbers double at each generation, this does not result in a large increase in the
population
Larynx The voice box. It lies between the back of the mouth and the trachea
Lens A transparent, convex, flexible, jelly-like structure that refracts light to focus it onto the
retina
Ligase An enzyme used in genetic modification to close up plasmids after a gene has been
inserted
Lignin A material found in xylem vessels, which makes the cell walls very strong and
impermeable
Limiting factor Something present in the environment in such short supply that it restricts life
processes
Lipase An enzyme, secreted by the pancreas, which digests fats
Lumen The inside space in a tubular structure such as an artery
Lungs Gas exchange organ found inside the ribcage
Luteinising hormone Also called lutropin (LH), a hormone, produced by the pituitary gland,
that stimulates the release of an ovum at ovulation
Lymphocyte A type of white blood cell which makes antibodies
Magnification The observed size of an image divided by the actual size of the image
Maltase Enzyme that breaks down maltose to glucose
Maltose Two molecules of glucose joined together
Medulla A region of the kidney where there is reabsorption of substances the body needs and
fluid is collected for excretion
Meiosis Reduction division, in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to
haploid resulting in genetically different cells
Memory cell A type of lymphocyte that stays in the lymph nodes, reproducing swiftly if the
body becomes re-infected by the same foreign organism
Meniscus The edge of a water surface that curves upwards to touch the edge of a container
Menstrual period A stage in the menstrual cycle when the uterus lining breaks down and the
cells, along with blood, are passed out of the vagina
Messenger RNA (mRNA) A single-stranded molecule copied from part of a DNA molecule,
which takes the code out of the nucleus to a ribosome to synthesise a protein

Micrometre A unit of length that is one-millionth of a metre (1 × 10−6 metre)

Microorganism A microscopic organism, for example, a bacterium or Protoctist
Microvilli Microscopic projections on the surface of epithelial cells in the ileum, which
increase its surface area for the absorption of digested food molecules

Millimetre A unit of length that is one-thousandth of a metre (1 × 10−3 metre)

Mitochondrion (pl. Mitochondria) Tiny organelles in the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells.
They are responsible for releasing energy through aerobic respiration
Mitosis Nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells
Monocotyledon A plant having one cotyledon in its seed. Monocotyledonous plants tend to
have elongated, stalkless leaves with parallel veins (e.g. grasses and lilies)
Monoculture Growing a single species of crop plant, usually in the same ground, for
successive years
Motor neurone A nerve cell which carries electrical impulses from the central nervous
system to an effector (e.g. a muscle or a gland)
Movement An action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or
place
MRSA A bacterium that causes infections in different parts of the body. It can be very difficult
to treat because it is resistant to some commonly used antibiotics
Mucus A slippery and stringy fluid substance which is secreted by many cells in the body to
act as a lubricant, to prevent dehydration and to trap irritants like dust, smoke or bacteria
Mutation Genetic change
Natural selection The greater chance of passing on genes by the best adapted organisms
Negative feedback A reaction that causes a decrease in a function as part of the process of
homeostasis
Nephron A microscopic filtering and reabsorbing structure in the kidney, made of a single
glomerulus with its renal capsule, renal tubule and blood capillaries
Nervous system A system of the body that coordinates its actions and sensory information
by transmitting electrical signals to and from different parts of the body through a series of
neurones
Neurone A nerve cell which conducts electrical impulses
Neurotransmitter molecule A chemical messenger which transmits signals across a
chemical synapse from one neurone to another neurone
Nitrate A negative ion with the formula NO3-. It is a common component of fertilisers used to
promote plant growth
Nitrification An important part of the nitrogen cycle in soil, in which ammonia is converted to
nitrate by nitrifying bacteria
Nitrogen fixation An important part of the nitrogen cycle, in which nitrogen-fixing bacteria take
in gaseous nitrogen and convert it to compounds of ammonia
Nitrogenous waste products Urea and similar waste products, like uric acid, from the
breakdown of proteins containing the element nitrogen
Nucleotide A building block of DNA. It consists of a base (A, T, G or C) plus a molecule of
sugar and phosphoric acid
Nucleus A structure found in the cytoplasm of most animal and plant cells containing DNA in
the form of chromosomes. Its function is to control cell division, cell development and cell
activities
Nutrition The taking in of materials for energy, growth and development
Oesophagus Part of the digestive system. It is a muscular tube through which food passes
from the mouth to the stomach
Oestrogen A hormone, produced by the ovaries, which promotes the development and
maintenance of female characteristics of the body
Optic nerve A nerve attached to the back of the eye, which transfers visual information from
the retina to the brain by means of electrical impulses
Optimum The most favourable (e.g. temperature, pH)
Organ A structure made up of a group of tissues working together to perform a specific
function
Organ system A group of organs with related functions working together to perform a body
function
Organism A living thing that has an organized structure, can react to stimuli, reproduce, grow,
adapt, and maintain homeostasis
Osmosis The movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (a dilute
solution) to a region of lower water potential (a concentrated solution) through a partially
permeable membrane
Ovary 1 Part of the female reproductive system of mammals, where eggs are produced 2
Part of the reproductive system of a flowering plant, where ovules are produced. After
fertilisation, it becomes a fruit
Oviduct A tube in female mammals which carries an egg from an ovary to the uterus, with
propulsion provided by tiny cilia in the wall. Also, the site of fertilisation. Also called the
Fallopian tube
Ovule Contains a haploid nucleus, which develops into a seed when fertilised
Ovum (pl. Ova) An alternative name for an egg. Contains a haploid nucleus
Oxygen debt A temporary shortage of oxygen in the body tissues because of vigorous
exercise. Cells begin to respire anaerobically, and lactic acid builds up, which must be
converted back to a harmless chemical, using oxygen in the process of aerobic respiration
Oxygenated A substance that has had oxygen added to it (e.g. blood in the lungs)
Palisade mesophyll A tissue in the leaf which is the main region for photosynthesis. Made of
columnar cells that are packed with chloroplasts to trap light energy
Pancreas An organ in the abdomen which secretes pancreatic juice for the digestion of
proteins, fats and starch. Also acts as an endocrine gland, secreting the hormones insulin and
glucagon
Pancreatic amylase A starch-digesting enzyme secreted by the pancreas
Pancreatic juice Digestive juice from the pancreas containing sodium hydrogencarbonate
and enzymes
Partially permeable A structure which allows some molecules to pass through but acts as a
barrier to others, for example, cell membrane
Passive immunity Resistance to a pathogen through antibodies being passed from one
individual to another, such as from mother to child
Pathogen A disease-causing organism
Pedigree 1 A diagram that shows the biological relationships between an organism and its
ancestors 2 The record of origin of an animal showing it to be pure-bred
Penicillin An antibiotic used to treat bacterial infections
Penis Male sex organ which can become firm so that it can be inserted into the vagina of the
female during sexual intercourse to transfer sperm
Pepsin A protein-digesting enzyme secreted in the stomach
Peptide A short chain of amino acids resulting from the partial digestion of a protein
Peripheral nervous system Part of the nervous system that is made up of nerves that lie
outside the central nervous system (CNS). Its main function is to connect the CNS to the
organs, limbs and skin
Permeability The extent to which a structure will allow molecules or ions to pass through it
Permeable A structure which allows molecules or ions to pass through it. The cell wall of a
plant cell is freely permeable to water and mineral ions
Petal Part of a flower. Often large and brightly coloured to attract insects
Phagocyte A white blood cell that can ingest foreign particles, for example, bacteria
Phagocytosis A process of engulfing and digesting harmful bacteria and cell debris
Phenotype The observable features of an organism
Phloem Vascular plant tissue responsible for the transport of sugars and amino acids from a
source (e.g. leaf) to a sink or storage roots
Photosynthesis The process by which plants synthesise carbohydrates from raw materials
using energy from light
Phototropism A response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the direction of
the light source
Physical digestion The breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to
the food molecules
Placenta The organ in the uterus, formed during pregnancy, which enables nutrients, oxygen
and waste materials to pass between the mother and her embryo
Plasma The liquid component of the blood. It transports substances in solution around the
body
Plasmid Small circle of DNA in a bacterium. Often carries genes for antibiotic resistance.
Used in genetic modification to introduce foreign DNA
Plasmolysis The partial collapse of a cell as the result of loss of water by osmosis
Platelets Special blood cells formed in the red bone marrow that help to clot the blood at
wounds to stop bleeding and prevent pathogens entering the body
Pollen Contains the male sex cell of a flowering plant. The sex cell is haploid
Pollen tube A tube that grows from a pollen grain, carrying the male sex cell to the ovule
Pollination The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to a stigma
Polysaccharide Chain of single sugar units like glucose
Population A group of organisms of one species, living and interacting in the same area, at
the same time
Potometer Apparatus designed to measure the rate of uptake of water by a plant
Predation The act of a predator feeding on its prey
Primary consumer An organism that feeds on producers (plants) for energy. Also known as a
herbivore
Producer An organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy from
sunlight, through photosynthesis
Product A substance that is formed as the result of a chemical reaction
Progesterone The female hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary after
ovulation
Prokaryote Very small, single-celled organisms with a cell wall but no nucleus (e.g. bacteria)
Prostate gland A gland in the male reproductive system below the bladder, which adds fluids
and nutrients to sperm to form semen
Protease An enzyme, secreted by the stomach, pancreas and ileum, which digests protein
Protein A molecule containing the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sometimes sulfur or phosphorus. Consists of long chains of sub-units called amino acids
Protein carrier A protein in a membrane, which is involved in the movement of ions, small
molecules and larger molecules, such as other proteins, across the membrane. Movement is
often against the concentration gradient and requires energy
Protoctist Single-celled organisms with a nucleus (e.g. amoeba). Some contain chloroplasts
(e.g. Euglena)
Puberty The period of growth during which humans become sexually mature
Pulmonary artery The blood vessel which carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle
of the heart to the lungs
Pulmonary vein The blood vessel which carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left
atrium of the heart
Pulp Soft material inside the pulp cavity of a tooth, containing nerves and blood vessels
Pulse The ripple of pressure that passes down an artery as the result of a heart beat
Punnett square A square diagram, used to predict the genotypes of a genetic cross
Pupil The hole in the centre of the iris of the eye. Its diameter can be changed by the muscles
of the iris, according to the brightness of light entering the eye
Pure breeding Breeding of genetically identical individuals that always produce offspring of
the same phenotype when bred together
Pyramid of biomass A diagram showing the amount of biomass at each trophic level in a food
chain. It forms the shape of a pyramid
Pyramid of energy A diagram showing the amount of energy at each trophic level in a food
chain. It forms the shape of a pyramid
Pyramid of numbers A diagram showing the number of organisms at each trophic level in a
food chain
Quantitative Results you can measure
Radial muscle A muscle in the iris. When the muscle contracts, the pupil dilates, for example,
in dim light
Ratio The proportion, showing one value compared to another
Receptor A sense organ which detects a stimulus
Receptor protein A protein which binds to a neurotransmitter substance in a synapse. When
this happens, a new nerve impulse is generated
Recessive An allele that is expressed only when no dominant allele of the gene is present in
the genotype
Recombinant plasmid A plasmid (a circular DNA strand in a bacterium) into which DNA has
been inserted, during the process of genetic modification
Reducing sugar Any sugar that acts as a reducing agent (e.g. glucose). It causes a colour
change when boiled with Benedict’s solution
Reflex action A means of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuli with
the responses of effectors (muscles and glands)
Reflex arc The nerve pathway involved in a reflex action, involving a receptor, sensory
neurone, motor neurone and effector
Refract Bending, used to describe curved surfaces of the cornea and lens both bending the
light rays that enter the eye
Relay neurone A nerve cell, found in the central nervous system, which passes signals from
a sensory neurone to a motor neurone
Renal artery A blood vessel which carries blood from the aorta to a kidney
Renal capsule Also called Bowman’s capsule, cup-like structure that makes up part of the
nephron, the filtering structure in the mammalian kidney
Renal tubules Tiny tubes in the kidney
Renal vein A blood vessel which carries blood from a kidney to the vena cava
Reproduction The processes that make more of the same kind of organism
Resistant Used to describe bacteria which are not killed by antibiotics
Respiration The chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release
energy for metabolism
Respirometer An apparatus used to measure the rate of respiration by seeing how quickly
oxygen is taken up
Restriction enzyme Enzyme that ‘cuts’ DNA at specific sites
Retina A light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye containing light receptors, some of which
are sensitive to light of different colours
Ribosome A cell organelle in the cytoplasm responsible for the synthesis of proteins from
amino acids
Rickets A deficiency disease caused by a shortage of vitamin D in the diet. The main
symptom is soft bones which can become deformed
Rod A light-sensitive cell in the retina of the eye, which is sensitive to low light intensity,
detecting shades of grey
Root hair cell A cell on the epidermis of a root with a hair-like outgrowth, increasing the
surface area of the cell to absorb water and mineral ions from the soil
Root system Part of a plant below ground. Roots anchor the plant in the soil, absorb water
and mineral ions for making food in the leaves and store food
Saliva A fluid produced and secreted by salivary glands in the mouth, containing the enzyme
salivary amylase
Salivary amylase A starch-digesting enzyme secreted by salivary glands in the mouth
Salivary gland A gland in the mouth which produces saliva
Scrotum A sac which holds the testes outside the body, keeping them cooler than body
temperature
Scurvy A disease in which skin and blood vessels are susceptible to damage and infection
due to lack of vitamin C in the diet
Secondary consumer An organism that feeds on primary consumers (herbivores) for energy.
Also known as a carnivore, or omnivore if the organism eats plants as well as animals
Secondary sexual characteristics Physical characteristics developing at puberty which
distinguish between the sexes but are not directly involved in reproduction
Seed A fertilised ovule containing the plant embryo
Selective breeding A process used by humans to produce varieties of animals and plants
that have increased economic importance
Self-pollination The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the
same flower, or a different flower on the same plant
Semilunar valves Pocket-like valves in the main arteries leaving the heart which prevent the
return of blood to the ventricles
Sense organs Groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli such as light, sound,
touch, temperature and chemicals
Sensitivity The ability to detect and respond to changes in the internal or external environment
Sensory neurone A nerve cell that conducts impulses from a sense organ to the central
nervous system
Sepal A leaf-like structure on the outside of a flower, which protects the flower while in bud
Septum A wall of muscle which separates the right and left sides of the heart
Set point The physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates
Sewage treatment The process of removing contaminants from municipal wastewater
containing mainly household sewage and some industrial wastewater
Sex-linked characteristic A feature in which the gene responsible is located on a sex
chromosome and this makes it more common in one sex than in the other
Sexual reproduction The process involving the fusion of gametes (sex cells) to form a
zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other
Sexually transmitted infection (STI) An infection that is transmitted through sexual contact
Shivering Uncontrollable bursts of rapid muscular contraction in the limbs, releasing heat to
increase the body temperature
Shoot The part of a flowering plant that is visible above the ground. It consists of an upright
stem with leaves and buds
Sigmoid A term used to describe an S-shaped curve on a graph
Single circulation A circulatory system in which blood flows through the heart once for each
complete circulation of the body (e.g. in fish)
Sink A part of a plant which receives sucrose translocated from the leaves
Source A part of a plant (the leaf) producing sucrose, which is moved to other parts of the
plant by translocation
Specialised A structure which has developed to do one particular job
Species A group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring
Specificity A characteristic of enzymes and antibodies in the way they only act on one
substance, for example, amylase only breaks down starch
Sperm Male sex cell (gamete) involved in sexual reproduction in animals. It contains a haploid
number of chromosomes
Sperm duct Muscular tube in the male reproductive system that links the testis to the urethra
to allow the passage of semen containing sperm
Sphincter A band of circular muscle
Spongy mesophyll A tissue in the leaf made of spherical, loosely packed cells containing
chloroplasts to trap light energy. Air spaces between the cells allow gas exchange
Stamen The male reproductive part of a flower, made up of the anther and filament
Starch An example of a carbohydrate. It is a polysaccharide consisting of long chains of
glucose units, that acts as a food storage molecule in plants
Stationary phase Part of a sigmoid population growth curve where the population stays the
same. The number of births equals the number of deaths
Stem cells Cells which have not become specialised themselves but can develop into a range
of different specialised cells
Stigma A sticky surface at the top of the carpel of a flower that receives pollen during
pollination
Stimulus An event in the surroundings or internal anatomy of an organism, which produces a
reaction
Stoma (pl. Stomata) A structure, in the epidermis of a plant, which consists of a pore
enclosed by two guard cells. It permits gaseous exchange with the atmosphere
Style Part of the carpel of a flower that links the stigma to the ovary. Pollen tubes grow through
it
Substrate The substance on which an enzyme acts
Sucrose A disaccharide sugar produced mainly from sugar cane or sugar beet. It is moved
around a plant in the process of translocation
Suspensory ligament The fibres running from the edge of the lens of the eye to the ciliary
body
Sustainable resource A resource that is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the
environment so that it does not run out
Sweat glands Structures in the dermis of the skin which secrete sweat to help reduce the
body temperature
Sweating The process of secretion of sweat onto the surface of the skin to help reduce the
body temperature
Synapse A junction between two neurones
Synaptic gap A small space in a synapse between the end of one neurone and the start of
another. Neurotransmitter substances diffuse across the gap to trigger a new electrical
impulse
Synthesis The production of an organic compound in a living thing, in a process catalysed by
enzymes
T cell Lymphocyte derived from the thymus
Tertiary consumer An organism that feeds on secondary consumers for energy
Test-cross A genetic cross used to identify an unknown genotype
Testis (pl. Testes) Part of the male reproductive system in animals that produces sperm
Testosterone A hormone, produced by the testes, which promotes the development and
maintenance of male characteristics of the body
Tissue A group of cells with similar structures working together to perform a shared function
Toxin A poisonous protein produced by pathogenic bacteria
Trachea A cartilaginous tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi of the lungs, allowing the
passage of air. Also called the windpipe
Translocation The movement of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem from source to sinks
Transmissible disease A disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to
another
Transpiration The loss of water vapour from leaves
Transpiration stream Flow of water up the xylem vessels in the vascular bundles
Trophic level The position of an organism in a food chain, food web, pyramid of numbers or
ecological pyramid
Trypsin An enzyme that digests protein in the small intestine
Turgid The state of a cell as the result of taking in water by osmosis
Turgor pressure The pressure built up in a plant cell as a result of taking in water by osmosis
Umbilical cord A tube linking the fetus and the placenta of its mother. Nutrients and oxygen
pass to the fetus; carbon dioxide, urea and other wastes pass to the mother
Urea A nitrogenous waste product, made in the liver during the breakdown of excess amino
acids, and excreted in urine
Ureter A tube connecting a kidney to the bladder, carrying urine
Urethra A tube leading from the bladder, carrying urine. In males it passes through the penis
and also carries semen
Uric acid Animal waste product containing nitrogen from the breakdown of proteins
Urine A solution of water, urea and mineral ions which is excreted by the kidneys
Uterus A muscular organ in the female reproductive system where the fetus develops
Vaccination The introduction into the body of a harmless form of a pathogen that has
antigens, either by injection or swallowing. The treatment is used to give active immunity to a
disease
Vaccine A preparation of dead, inactive or harmless bacteria or viruses which, when
introduced to the body, causes it to produce antibodies to protect against a disease
Vacuole A fluid-filled space in a cell, surrounded by a membrane
Vagina Part of the female reproductive system which receives the male penis during sexual
intercourse. Sperm are deposited in it
Variable A factor or condition that can exist in differing amounts
Variation The differences between individuals of the same species
Vascular bundle Group of specialised cells which carry water, mineral ions and food up or
down the stem
Vasoconstriction The process of narrowing the diameter of an arteriole by the contraction of
muscles in its walls to restrict the flow of blood through the vessel to the skin. It occurs when
the body is too cold
Vasodilation The process of widening the diameter of an arteriole by the relaxation of muscles
in its walls to allow the flow of more blood through the vessel to the skin. It occurs when the
body is too hot
Vein Transport vessel in animals and plants. In animals it returns blood to the heart
Vena cava The main vein of the body, carrying blood to the heart
Ventilation The exchange of air between the lungs and the atmosphere so that oxygen can be
exchanged for carbon dioxide in the alveoli
Ventricle A lower, more muscular chamber of the heart which receives blood from an atrium
and contracts to pump blood into the arteries
Venule A small vessel that collects blood leaving an organ for transfer to larger veins
Vertebrate An animal that has a backbone as part of a skeleton
Vesicle A structure in the cytoplasm of a cell which contains a liquid, for example,
neurotransmitter substance in a nerve cell
Villus (pl. Villi) Small, finger-like projections that extend into the lumen of the small intestine
Virus A sub-microscopic particle which only reproduces in cells of plants and animals,
causing disease
Water potential The relative tendency of water to move from one area to another by osmosis
Wilt The excessive loss of water from a plant resulting in the collapse of the leaves and stem
Xerophyte A plant that is adapted to grow in very dry conditions