ENG 221

(Basic Electrical Engineering I)

Dr. Femi Onibonoje
Office - E3-11
+2348069531521
 • Units: 3
• Lecturers:
➢ Dr. Femi Onibonoje
➢ Dr Adigun
➢ Engr Fabunmi
➢
 Course Outline capacitance, inductance and their
terminal characteristics.
• The electric field of charge, electric
• Network theorem; Kirchoff’s law,
conduction.
superposition, Thevenin’s, Norton’s
• The magnetic field of current.
and reciprocity theorems.
• Magnetic circuit: Magnetomotive force,
• Delta / Star transformations.
magnetic field strength, permeability at • AC circuit: active loads and
free space, relative permeability, B-H sources, solving single phase circuit
curves of materials, solving magnetic using j-operator and the concept of
circuits. apparent power, solving 3-phase
• Lumped circuit elements, resistance, balanced and unbalanced loads.
 Textbooks
• Elements of electromagnetics by N. O. Sadiku
• Network Theory by C. K. Alexander and M. N.
O. Sadiku Jean-Pierre
• Measurement and Instrumentation Principle by
Alan S. Morris
Structure of Atom
• The structure of ordinary matter can be described in terms of three
particles:
➢ the negatively charged electron,
➢ the positively charged proton,
➢ uncharged neutron.
• The protons and neutrons in an atom make up a small, very dense core called
the nucleus The negative charge of the electron has approximately the same
magnitude as the positive charge of the proton.
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the
number of protons in the nucleus, and the net electric charge
(the algebraic sum of all the charges) is exactly zero.
Structure of Atom (Cont’d)
• The number of protons or electrons in neutral atoms
of any element is called the atomic number of the
element.
• When the number of protons in an object equals the
number of electrons in the object, the total charge is
zero, and the object is electrically neutral.
• Therefore, the charge on an object refers
to its net charge.
Structure of Atom (Cont’d)
Structure of Atom (Cont’d)
 Electric Charge
• Electric charge is one of the fundamental attributes of the
particles of which matter is made.
• The interactions responsible for the structure and
properties of atoms and molecules—and, indeed, of all
ordinary matter—are primarily electrical interactions
between electrically charged particles.
• The ancient Greeks discovered as early as 600 B.C. that
when they rubbed amber with wool, the amber could
attract other objects.
Electrostatic Attraction:
• According to Benjamin Franklin, the
law of electrostatic attraction:
“Two positive charges or two
negative charges repel each
other; a positive and a negative
charge attract each other.”
Charging
A charged object can exert forces even on objects
that are not charged themselves.
• If you rub a balloon on a rug and then hold the balloon
against the ceiling, it sticks, even though the ceiling has no
net electric charge.
• After you electrify a comb by running it through your hair,
you can pick up uncharged bits of paper on the comb.
• The interaction between the balloon and the ceiling or
between the comb and the paper is an induced-charge
effect.
Charging (cont’d)
Even in an insulator, the electric charges can shift
back and forth a little when there is charge nearby.
• This shows how a static charge enables a charged plastic comb
to pick up uncharged bits of paper.
• Although the electrons in the paper are bound to their
molecules and cannot move freely through the paper, they can
still shift slightly to produce a net charge on one side and the
opposite charge on the other. Thus, the comb causes each
molecule in the paper to develop induced charges (an effect
called polarization).
• The net result is that the scrap of paper shows a slight induced
charge—enough to enable the comb to pick it up.
Explanation
• The plastic rod and the silk have negative
charge; the glass rod and the fur have positive
charge.
• When we rub a plastic rod with fur (or a glass
rod with silk), both objects acquire net charges,
and the net charges of the two objects are
always equal in magnitude and opposite in sign.
Charging an uncharged ball
• The two methods of electrically charging an uncharged metal ball
are Conduction and Induction
• Conduction
Charging an uncharged ball (Cont’d)
• Induction
• These experiments show that in the charging process:
• Electric charge was not created, but transferred from one object
to another.
• The plastic rod acquires extra electrons, which have negative
charge. These electrons are taken from the fur, which is left with a
deficiency of electrons (that is, fewer electrons than positively
charged protons) and thus a net positive charge.
• The total electric charge on both objects does not change.
This explains the law of conservation of charges.
• Charges are neither created nor destroyed, but transferred from one
object or medium to the other
• The algebraic sum of all the electric charges in any closed system is
constant.
 Ionization
• Theoretically, to give a neutral object an excess negative charge, we
may either add negative charges to it or remove positive charges from
it. Similarly, we can give an excess positive charge to a neutral body
by either adding positive charge or removing negative charge.
• Meanwhile, only the negative charge (Electron) can be easily
detached from or shared by atoms
• An ion is an atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons.
• If one or more electrons are removed, the remaining positively
charged structure is called a positive ion. A negative ion is an atom
that has gained one or more electrons.
• This gaining or losing of electrons is called ionization.
 Quantization of Charges
• The magnitude of the charge of
electron or proton is a natural unit of
charge.
• Every amount of observable electric
charge is always an integer multiple of
this basic unit.
• Therefore, charge is quantized.
• For example, MONEY in Nigeria.
• When you pay cash for an item in a store, you
have to do it in 1Naira/Kobo increments.
• If grapefruits are selling three for a naira, you
1
can’t buy one for 3 3 Naira; you have to pay
3.50 Naira. Cash can’t be divided into smaller
amounts than the least unit available, and
electric charge can’t be divided into smaller
amounts than the charge of one electron or
proton.
Example (Illustration)
Question:
• Three identical metal balls A, B, and C are mounted on insulating rods. Ball
A has a charge +q, and balls B and C are initially uncharged (q is the usual
symbol for electric charge). Ball A is touched first to ball B and then
separately to ball C. At the end of this experiment, the charge ratio on ball A
is
Solution:
• Note: When identical metal objects come in contact, any net charge they
carry is shared equally between them.
• Thus, when A touches B, each ends up with a charge +q/2. When A then
touches C, this charge is shared equally, leaving A and C each with a charge
of +q/4.
Coulomb’s Law of Charges
•Coulomb’s law states that:
The magnitude F of the force that each of two
point charges q1 and q2 a distance r apart exerts on
the other is directly proportional to the product of
the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. The
relationship is expressed symbolically as
•The relationship is expressed symbolically as:
• The SI unit of electric charge is called one coulomb
• The forces that two charges exert on each other always act along
the line joining the charges. The two forces are always equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction, even when the charges are
not equal. The forces obey Newton’s third law
Conductors and Insulators
• A moving charged particle constitutes the
Electric Current
• Conductors permit electric charge to move through
them; insulators do not.
• Most of the materials we call metals are good
conductors, and most nonmetals are insulators.
Some materials called semiconductors are intermediate in
their properties between good conductors and good
insulators
 Electric Field and Electric Forces
• All charged particles create electric fields

• The force acting on the test charge q′ varies from point to point, so the electric field is also
different at different points.
• Note: E is not a single vector quantity but an infinite set of vector quantities, one
associated with each point in space.
• Therefore, E is a vector field—a vector quantity associated with every point in a region of
space, different at different points.
• In general, each component of E at any point depends on (i.e., is a function of) all the
coordinates of the point.
• If an electric field exists within a conductor, the field exerts a force on every charge in the
conductor, causing the free charges to move.
• An electrostatic condition is a situation in which
the charges do not move. In an electrostatic
situation, the electric field at every point within
the material of a conductor must be zero.
• The magnitude and direction of an electric field
can vary from point to point. If, in a particular
situation, the magnitude and direction of the field
are constant throughout a certain region, we say
that the field is uniform in that region.
Assignment
An electron is propelled horizontally within a
conducting medium, with uniform electric
field directed downward within the region.
Use the Newton Second Law of Motion to
determine the acceleration and direction of the
electron.
Example
Electric Field of a Point Charge

***Illustration
Electric Lines of Force
• A diagram that helps in visualizing the electric
fields at various points in space is very useful. A
central element in such a diagram is the concept
of electric field lines.
• An electric field line is an imaginary line drawn
through a region of space so that, at every point,
it is tangent to the direction of the electric field
vector at that point.
Magnetic Field of Current
• All charged particles create electric fields, and these fields
can be detected by other charged particles resulting in
electric force.
• Meanwhile, a completely different field, both qualitatively
and quantitatively, is created when the charged particles
move. This is the magnetic field.
• All moving charged particles create magnetic fields, and all
moving charged particles can detect magnetic fields
resulting in magnetic force. This is in addition to the electric
field that is always present around charged particles.
•Moving electric charges form an electric
current. The simplest source of magnetic field
is electric current flowing through a long,
straight wire.
• In a similar manner, a bar magnet is a source of a magnetic
field B’.
• The magnetic field is wrapped in circles about the wire, with
the direction of the rotation of the circles determined by the
right hand rule (if the thumb of your right hand is in the
direction of the current, your fingers will curl in the direction
of the magnetic field).
Magnetic Force
• A charged particle moving through a magnetic field experiences a
magnetic force F’. Because electric current consists of a collection of
charged particles in motion, when placed in a magnetic field, a
current-carrying wire will also experience a magnetic force. This is
the principle used in the law of electromagnetic induction.
• The above observations can be
summarized by the following
definition for the magnetic field at
any point P . The field causes a
force on a moving electric charge
given by
• The SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T),

Another commonly used non-SI unit for B’ is the gauss (G), where 1T =104 G.

Applications
There are many applications involving charged particles moving through a uniform
magnetic field.
1. Velocity Selector : By combining the two fields (electric and magnetic), particles that
move with a certain velocity can be selected.
2. Mass Spectrometer: This is used in measurement of the mass of an atom.
Magnetic Circuits
B – H Curve
Lumped Circuit Elements
The main elements in the
passive electrical circuits
are: Resistors, Capacitors
and Inductors
 Resistor Circuits
• Resistors can be seen in almost every
electronic circuit. Basically, it is used to
reduce the flow of electric current and
regulate the flow of electrons.
• The symbol of resistor is: or
• The unit of resistance (effect of resistor) is Ohms (Ω)
• The types of resistor include:
Types of resistor
1. BASED ON FUNCTION
a. Linear resistors -
i. Fixed resistors - Carbon composition resistors, Wire wound resistors,
Thin-film resistors (Carbon film resistors, Metal film resistors), Thick film
resistors (Metal oxide resistors, Network resistors, Fusible resistors)
ii. Variable resistors – Potentiometer, Rheostats, Trimmers.
b. Non-linear resistors –
i. Thermisters.
ii. Varistors.
iii. Photoresistors or Light dependent resistors (LDR).
2. BASED ON CONNECTION:
a. Wire-connected
b. Surface-mounted
Calculating the resistor value
• Calculating Resistor Values from Colour Codes
Summary of Calculating Resistor Values with Colour Codes

• Each color represents a number if it's located from the 1st to 2nd band for a 4-band type or
1st to 3rd band for a 5-band and 6-band type.
• The 6th band for a 6-band type resistor is the temperature coefficient. This indicates how
much the actual resistance value of the resistor changes when the temperature changes.
Colour Codes Exceptions
a) 5 Band Resistor with a 4th Band of Gold or
Silver
• Five band resistors with a fourth band of silver or
gold form an exception, and are utilized on
specific or older resistors.
• The first two bands represent the significant digits,
the third band is a multiplication factor, the fourth
band is for tolerance and the fifth band is for the
temperature coefficient (ppm/K).
b) Deviating Colour
• In order to prevent metal and other particles from getting
in the coating of high voltage resistors, the gold and silver
bands are often replaced with a yellow and gray band.
c) Single Black Band or Zero-Ohm Resistor
• A single black band on a resistor is called a zero-ohm
resistor. Basically, it is a wire link used to connect traces on
a printed circuit board (PCB) that is packaged in the same
physical package format as a resistor.
• This packaging allows the zero-ohm resistor to be placed
on the circuit board using the same equipment typically
used to place other resistors.
Resistor in Series
Resistor in Parallel
Resistor in Series-Parallel
Example 1
Find the equivalent resistance, REQ for the following resistor combination circuit.
Example 2
Find the equivalent resistance, REQ for the following resistor combination circuit.

• Again, at first glance this resistor ladder network may seem a complicated task, but as before it
is just a combination of series and parallel resistors connected together.
• Starting from the right hand side and using the simplified equation for two parallel resistors, we
can find the equivalent resistance of the R8 to R10 combination and call it RA.
• RA is in series with R7 therefore the total resistance will be RA + R7 = 4 + 8 = 12Ω
• The resistive value of 12Ω is now in parallel with R6 and can be calculated as RB.
• RB is in series with R5 therefore the total resistance will be RB + R5 = 4 + 4 = 8Ω
• The resistive value of 8Ω is now in parallel with R4 and can be calculated as RC
• RC is in series with R3 therefore the
total resistance will be RC + R3 = 8Ω
• The resistive value of 8Ω is now in
parallel with R2 from which we can
calculated RD as:
• RD is in series with R1 therefore the total resistance will be RD + R1 = 4 + 6 = 10Ω

• Then the complex combinational resistive network above

comprising of ten individual resistors connected together in
series and parallel combinations can be replaced with just one
single equivalent resistance ( REQ ) of value 10Ω.
Resistance Variation Circuit:
Potentiometers and Variable Resistor
• The name “potentiometer” is an acronym of the words
Potential Difference and Metering
• The term potentiometer and variable resistor are often used
together to describe the same component, but it is important
to understand that the connections and operation of the two
are different.
• They both share the same physical properties in that the two
ends of an internal resistive track are brought out to
contacts, in addition to a third contact connected to a
moveable contact called the “slider” or “wiper”.
 • When used as a potentiometer, connections
Potentiometers are made to both ends as well as the wiper, as
shown. The position of the wiper then
provides an appropriate output signal (pin 2)
which will vary between the voltage level
applied to one end of the resistive track (pin
1) and that at the other (pin 3).
• The potentiometer is a three-wire resistive
device that acts as a voltage divider
producing a continuously variable voltage
output signal which is proportional to the
physical position of the wiper along the track.
 • When used as a variable resistor, connections are made to
Variable Resistor only one end of the resistive track (either pin 1 or pin 3) and
the wiper (pin 2) as shown. The position of the wiper is used
to vary or change the amount of effective resistance
connected between itself, the movable contact, and the
stationary fixed end.
• Sometimes it is appropriate to make an electrical connection
between the unused end of the resistive track and the wiper to
prevent open-circuit conditions.
• Then a variable resistor is a two-wire resistive device that
provides an infinite number of resistance values controlling
the current offered to the connected circuit in proportion to
the physical position of the wiper along the track. Note that a
variable resistor used to control very high circuit currents
found in lamp or motor loads are called Rheostats.
 Capacitor Circuits
• The capacitor is a passive component and it stores the
electrical energy into an electrical field.
• The effect of the capacitor is known as a capacitance.
• It is made up of two close conductors and separated by
the dielectric material.
• If the plates are connected to the power then the plates
accumulate the electric charge. One plate accumulates
the positive charge and another plate accumulates the
negative charge.
•The symbol of Capacitor is: or
• Types of capacitors:
i. Electrolytic Capacitor
ii. Mica Capacitor
iii. Paper Capacitor
iv. Film Capacitor
v. Non-Polarized Capacitor
vi. Ceramic Capacitor
Assignment 2
a. Describe four types of potentiometer
b. Briefly describe these characteristic features of
capacitors:
▪ Nominal capacitance
▪ Working voltage
▪ Tolerance
▪ Leakage current
▪ Working temperature
▪ Temperature coefficient
▪ Polarization
▪ Equivalent Series Resistance
• Capacitance (effect of capacitor)
is the ratio of electric charge (Q)
to the voltage (V)
C = Q/V
• Q is the electric charge in coulombs (C)
• C is the capacitance in farad (F)
• V is the voltage between the plates in volts (V)
• where:
• A is the area of the plates in square metres, m2
• d is the distance or separation between the two plates.
• ε0 (epsilon) is the value of the permittivity for air which is 8.84 x
10-12 F/m, and εr is the permittivity of the dielectric medium used
between the two plates.
Example
Capacitor Values by Colour Coding
• The actual values of Capacitance, Voltage or Tolerance are
marked onto the body of the capacitors in the form of
alphanumeric characters.
• Meanwhile, a better accurate method for calculating the values
(including the ones with decimal values) is the Colour Codes
Method
Capacitor Voltage Reference
• Type J – Dipped Tantalum Capacitors.
• Type K – Mica Capacitors.
• Type L – Polyester/Polystyrene Capacitors.
• Type M – Electrolytic 4 Band Capacitors.
• Type N – Electrolytic 3 Band Capacitors.
Examples
• Most ceramic capacitors values are written in
numbers on them
• The capacitor on the left is of a ceramic
disc type capacitor that has the
code 473J printed onto its body.
• Then the 4 = 1st digit, the 7 = 2nd digit,
the 3 is the multiplier in pico-Farads, pF
and the letter J is the tolerance and this
translates to: 47pF * 1,000 (3 zero’s) =
47,000 pF, 47nF or 0.047uF
the J indicates a tolerance of +/- 5%
Capacitors in Series

• Capacitors in Series all have the same current flowing through

them as
iT = i1 = i2 = i3
• Therefore each capacitor will store the same amount of electrical
charge, Q on its plates regardless of its capacitance.
• Therefore, capacitors connected together in series must have the
same charge.
QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3
 Example 1

• Note: For two capacitors connected

in series
 Example 2
Find the overall capacitance and the individual rms voltage drops across the
following sets of two capacitors in series when connected to a 12V AC
supply.
•a) two capacitors each with a capacitance of 47nF
•b) one capacitor of 470nF connected in series to a capacitor of 1μF
Solution
a) Total Equal Capacitance,

• Voltage drop across the two

identical 47nF capacitors
b) Total Unequal Capacitance,
Capacitors in Parallel
• The voltage ( Vc ) connected across
all the capacitors that are connected
in parallel is THE SAME.
Then, Capacitors in Parallel have a
“common voltage” supply across
them
VC1 = VC2 = VC3 = VAB
Inductor Circuits
• An Inductor is a coil of
wire wound around a
central core. The current,
(i) flowing through the coil
produces a magnetic flux,
(NΦ) around it that is
proportional to this flow of
electrical current.
• Inductors are devices that
can store their energy in
the form of a magnetic
field.
Inductance of a Coil
• Inductance is the name given to the property of a
component that opposes the change of current flowing
through it and even a straight piece of wire will have
some inductance
• Inductors do this by generating a self-induced emf
within itself as a result of their changing magnetic field.
• In an electrical circuit, when the emf is induced in
the same circuit in which the current is changing
this effect is called Self-induction, ( L ) but it is
sometimes commonly called back-emf as its
polarity is in the opposite direction to the applied
voltage.
• When the emf is induced into an adjacent
component situated within the same magnetic field,
the emf is said to be induced by Mutual-induction,
(M) and mutual induction is the basic operating
principal of transformers, motors, relays etc.
• Self inductance is a special case of mutual inductance, and
because it is produced within a single isolated circuit we
generally call self-inductance simply, Inductance.
• The basic unit of measurement for inductance is called the
Henry, ( H ) after Joseph Henry, but it also has the units
of Webers per Ampere ( 1 H = 1 Wb/A ).

Self-Inductance of a Coil
where: L is in Henries, N is the Number of Turns,
Φ is the Magnetic Flux Linkage, Ι is in Amperes
Example
• A hollow air cored inductor coil consists of 500 turns of
copper wire which produces a magnetic flux of 10mWb
when passing a DC current of 10 amps. Calculate the self-
inductance of the coil in milli-Henries.

• Calculate the value of the self-induced emf produced in

the same coil after a time of 10mS.
Inductors in Series (without mutual inductance)

VAB = V1 + V2 + V3 IL1 = IL2 = IL3 = IAB

Example
• Three inductors of 10mH, 40mH and 50mH are connected together in a series
combination with no mutual inductance between them. Calculate the total inductance
of the series combination.
Inductors in Series (mutually connected)
• When inductors are connected together in series so that the
magnetic field of one links with the other, the effect of mutual
inductance either increases or decreases the total inductance
depending upon the amount of magnetic coupling.
• The effect of this mutual inductance depends upon the distance
apart of the coils and their orientation to each other.
• Mutually connected series inductors can be classed as either
“Aiding” or “Opposing” the total inductance.
• If the magnetic flux produced by the current flows through the
coils in the same direction then the coils are said to be
Cumulatively Coupled.
• If the current flows through the coils in opposite directions then
the coils are said to be Differentially Coupled
a. Cumulatively Coupled Series b. Differentially Coupled
Inductors Series Inductors

LTotal = L 1 + L 2 + 2M LTotal = L 1 + L 2 - 2M
Where: M is the mutual inductance Where: M is the mutual inductance
Inductors in Parallel (without mutual inductance)
VAB = V1 = V2 = V3

• For only two individual inductors in parallel

Example
• Three inductors of 60mH, 120mH and 75mH respectively, are connected together in a
parallel combination with no mutual inductance between them.
• Calculate the total inductance of the parallel combination in millihenries
Inductors in Parallel (mutually connected)
• Mutually connected parallel inductors can be classed as either
“Aiding” or “Opposing” the total inductance.
a. Parallel Aiding Inductors b. Parallel Opposing Inductors
Example 1
• Two inductors whose self-inductances are of 75mH and 55mH
respectively are connected together in parallel aiding. Their mutual
inductance is given as 22.5mH. Calculate the total inductance of the
parallel combination.
Example 2
• Calculate the equivalent inductance of the following inductive circuit.

Solution
• Calculate the first inductor branch LA, (Inductor L5 in parallel with inductors L6
and L7)
• Calculate the second inductor branch LB, (Inductor L3 in parallel with inductors L4
and LA)

• Calculate the equivalent circuit inductance LEQ, (Inductor L1 in parallel with inductors
L2 and LB)