Chapter 7 - Tree

Basic tree concepts

AVL stands for
"Adelson-Velsky and
Binary trees Landis"

Binary Search Tree (BST)

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Expression Trees

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 Binary Tree ADT
DEFINITION: A binary tree ADT is either empty, or it consists
of a node called root together with two binary trees called
the left and the right subtree of the root.
Basic operations:
• Construct a tree, leaving it empty.
• Insert an element.
• Remove an element.
• Search an element.
• Retrieve an element.
• Traverse the tree, performing a given operation on each
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element.
 Binary Tree ADT
Extended operations:
• Determine whether the tree is empty or not.
• Find the size of the tree.
• Clear the tree to make it empty.

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 Specifications for Binary Tree
<void> Create()
<boolean> isFull()
<boolean> isEmpty()
<integer> Size()
<void> Clear()
<ErrorCode> Search (ref DataOut <DataType>)
Depend on various
<ErrorCode> Insert (val DataIn <DataType>) types of binary
<ErrorCode> Remove (val key <KeyType>) trees
(BST, AVL, 2d-tree)
<ErrorCode> Retrieve (ref DataOut <DataType>)
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 Specifications for Binary Tree
• Binary Tree Traversal: Each node is processed once and
only once in a predetermined sequence.

• Depth-First Traverse:
<void> preOrderTraverse (ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))
<void> inOrderTraverse (ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))
<void> postOrderTraverse (ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))

• Breadth-First Traverse:
<void> BreadthFirstTraverse (ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))
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 Contiguous Implementation of Binary Tree

BinaryTree
Data <Array of <DataType> >
End BinaryTree

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
A B C D E F G ...

Physical Conceptual

i
(suitable for complete tree,
nearly complete tree, and 2i+1 2i+2
bushy tree)
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 Contiguous Implementation of Binary Tree
Record
Data <DataType>
Parent <DataType>
Flag <ChildType>
End Record

BinaryTree
Data <Array of <Record> >
End BinaryTree
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 H
Data A B E C F G H ...
...
Conceptual
Parent - A B A C C F
Flag - L R R L R R ...

Physical (suitable for sparse tree) 25

 Contiguous Implementation of Binary Tree
BinaryTree
NLR <Array of <DataType> >
LNR <Array of <DataType> >
End BinaryTree

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
NLR A B E C F H G

LNR B E A F H C G H

Physical Conceptual
(A binary tree without identical data can be restored from
two array of LNR and NLR traverse) 26
 Linked Implementation of Binary Tree
BinaryNode
A
data <DataType>
left <pointer>
right <pointer>
End BinaryNode B C

BinaryTree
root <pointer> E F G
End BinaryTree

Physical 27
 Depth-First Traversal
Auxiliary functions for Depth_First Traversal:

recursive_preOrder

recursive_inOrder

recursive_postOrder

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 PreOrder Traversal
Algorithm recursive_preOrder (val subroot <pointer>,
ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))
Traverses a binary tree in node-left-right sequence.
Pre subroot points to the root of a tree/ subtree.
Post each node has been processed in order.

1. if (subroot is not NULL)

1. Operation(subroot->data)
2. recursive_preOrder(subroot->left)
3. recursive_preOrder(subroot->right)

End recursive_preOrder
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 InOrder Traversal
Algorithm recursive_inOrder (val subroot <pointer>,
ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))
Traverses a binary tree in left-node-right sequence
Pre subroot points to the root of a tree/ subtree
Post each node has been processed in order

1. if (subroot is not NULL)

1. recursive_inOrder(subroot->left)
2. Operation(subroot->data)
3. recursive_inOrder(subroot->right)

End recursive_inOrder
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 PostOrder Traversal
Algorithm recursive_postOrder (val subroot <pointer>,
ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))
Traverses a binary tree in left-right-node sequence
Pre subroot points to the root of a tree/ subtree
Post each node has been processed in order

1. if (subroot is not NULL)

1. recursive_postOrder(subroot->left)
2. recursive_postOrder(subroot->right)
3. Operation(subroot->data)

End recursive_postOrder
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 Depth-First Traversal
<void> preOrderTraverse (ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))
1. recursive_preOrder(root, Operation)
End preOrderTraverse

<void> inOrderTraverse (ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))

1. recursive_inOrder(root, Operation)
End inOrderTraverse

<void> postOrderTraverse (ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))

1. recursive_postOrder(root, Operation)
End postOrderTraverse 32
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 Breadth-First Traversal
Algorithm BreadthFirstTraverse
(ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))
Traverses a binary tree in sequence from lowest level to highest
level, in each level traverses from left to right.

Post each node has been processed in order

Uses Queue ADT

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 Breadth-First Traversal
Algorithm BreadthFirstTraverse
(ref<void>Operation(ref Data <DataType>))
1. if (root is not NULL)
1. queueObj <Queue>
2. queueObj.EnQueue(root)
3. loop (not queueObj.isEmpty())
1. queueObj.QueueFront(pNode)
2. queueObj.DeQueue()
3. Operation(pNode->data)
4. if (pNode->left is not NULL)
1. queueObj.EnQueue(pNode->left)
5. if (pNode->right is not NULL)
1. queueObj.EnQueue(pNode->right)
End BreadthFirstTraverse 35
Binary
Binary
Search
Search
Tree
Tree
(BST)

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 Binary
Binary
Search
Search
Tree
Tree
(BST)
 BST is one of implementations for ordered list.

 In BST we can search quickly (as with binary search

on a contiguous list).

 In BST we can make insertions and deletions quickly

(as with a linked list).

 When a BST is traversed in inorder, the keys will

come out in sorted order.

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 Binary Search Tree (BST)
Auxiliary functions for Search:

recursive_Search

iterative_Search

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 Search node in BST (recursive version)
<pointer> recursive_Search (val subroot <pointer>,
val target <KeyType>)
Searches target in the subtree.

Pre subroot points to the root of a tree/ subtree.

Post If target is not in the subtree, NULL is returned. Otherwise,
a pointer to the node containing the target is returned.

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 Search node in BST (recursive version)
1. if (subroot is NULL) OR (subroot->data = target)
1. return subroot
2. else if (target < subroot->data)
1. return recursive_Search(subroot->left, target)
3. else
1. return recursive_Search(subroot->right, target)
subroot
End recursive_Search

Target = 22
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 Search node in BST (recursive version)
1. if (subroot is NULL) OR (subroot->data = target)
1. return subroot
2. else if (target < subroot->data)
1. return recursive_Search(subroot->left, target)
3. else
1. return recursive_Search(subroot->right, target)

End recursive_Search
subroot

Target = 22
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 Search node in BST (recursive version)
1. if (subroot is NULL) OR (subroot->data = target)
1. return subroot
2. else if (target < subroot->data)
1. return recursive_Search(subroot->left, target)
3. else
1. return recursive_Search(subroot->right, target)

End recursive_Search

subroot

Target = 22
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 Search node in BST (recursive version)
1. if (subroot is NULL) OR (subroot->data = target)
1. return subroot
2. else if (target < subroot->data)
1. return recursive_Search(subroot->left, target)
3. else
1. return recursive_Search(subroot->right, target)

End recursive_Search

subroot
Target = 22
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Search Node in BST (nonrecursive version)
<pointer> iterative_Search (val subroot <pointer>,
val target <KeyType>)
Searches target in the subtree.

Pre subroot points to the root of a tree/ subtree.

Post If target is not in the subtree, NULL is returned. Otherwise,
a pointer to the node containing the target is returned.

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Search Node in BST (nonrecursive version)
1. while (subroot is not NULL) AND (subroot->data.key <> target)
1. if (target < subroot->data.key)
1. subroot = subroot->left
2. else
1. subroot = subroot->right
2. return subroot
subroot
End iterative_Search

Target = 22
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Search Node in BST (nonrecursive version)
1. while (subroot is not NULL) AND (subroot->data.key <> target)
1. if (target < subroot->data.key)
1. subroot = subroot->left
2. else
1. subroot = subroot->right
2. return subroot

End iterative_Search
subroot

Target = 22
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Search Node in BST (nonrecursive version)
1. while (subroot is not NULL) AND (subroot->data.key <> target)
1. if (target < subroot->data.key)
1. subroot = subroot->left
2. else
1. subroot = subroot->right
2. return subroot

End iterative_Search

subroot

Target = 22
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Search Node in BST (nonrecursive version)
1. while (subroot is not NULL) AND (subroot->data.key <> target)
1. if (target < subroot->data.key)
1. subroot = subroot->left
2. else
1. subroot = subroot->right
2. return subroot

End iterative_Search

subroot
Target = 22
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 Search node in BST
<ErrorCode> Search (ref DataOut <DataType>)
Searches target in the subtree.
Pre DataOut contains value needs to be found in key field.
Post DataOut will reveive all other values in other fields if that
key is found.
Return success or notPresent
Uses Auxiliary function recursive_Search or iterative_Search
1. pNode = recursive_Search(root, DataOut.key)
2. if (pNode is NULL)
1. return notPresent
3. dataOut = pNode->data
4. return success
End Search 49
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 Search node in BST
 The same keys may be built into BST of many different
shapes.

 Search in bushy BST with n nodes will do O(log n)

comparisons of keys

 If the tree degenerates into a long chain, search will do Ө(n)

comparisons on n vertices.

 The bushier the tree, the smaller the number of comparisons of

keys need to be done.

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Insert Node into BST

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Question:
Insert Node into BST
??
Can Insert method use recursive_Search or iterative_Search
instead of recursive_Insert like that:

<ErrorCode> Insert (val DataIn <DataType>)

1. pNode = recursive_Search (root, DataIn.key)

2. if (pNode is NULL)
1. Allocate pNode
2. pNode->data = DataIn
3. return success
3. else
1. return duplicate_error
End Insert

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 Insert Node into BST
Auxiliary functions for Insert:

recursive_Insert

iterative_Insert

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 Recursive Insert
<ErrorCode> recursive_Insert (ref subroot <pointer>,
val DataIn <DataType>)
Inserts a new node into a BST.

Pre subroot points to the root of a tree/ subtree.

DataIn contains data to be inserted into the subtree.
Post If the key of DataIn already belongs to the subtree,
duplicate_error is returned. Otherwise, DataIn is inserted
into the subtree in such a way that the properties of a BST
are preserved.
Return duplicate_error or success.
Uses recursive_Insert function.
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 Recursive Insert (cont.)
<ErrorCode> recursive_Insert (ref subroot <pointer>,
val DataIn <DataType>)
subroot

1. if (subroot is NULL)
1. Allocate subroot
2. subroot->data = DataIn
3. return success
2. else if (DataIn.key < subroot->data.key)
1. return recursive_Insert(subroot->left, DataIn)
3. else if (DataIn.key > subroot->data.key) DataIn.key = 22
1. return recursive_Insert(subroot->right, DataIn)
4. else
1. return duplicate_error
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5. End recursive_Insert
 Recursive Insert (cont.)
<ErrorCode> recursive_Insert (ref subroot <pointer>,
val DataIn <DataType>)

subroot
1. if (subroot is NULL)
1. Allocate subroot
2. subroot->data = DataIn
3. return success
2. else if (DataIn.key < subroot->data.key)
1. return recursive_Insert(subroot->left, DataIn)
3. else if (DataIn.key > subroot->data.key) DataIn.key = 22
1. return recursive_Insert(subroot->right, DataIn)
4. else
1. return duplicate_error
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5. End recursive_Insert
 Recursive Insert (cont.)
<ErrorCode> recursive_Insert (ref subroot <pointer>,
val DataIn <DataType>)

1. if (subroot is NULL)
subroot
1. Allocate subroot
2. subroot->data = DataIn
3. return success
2. else if (DataIn.key < subroot->data.key)
1. return recursive_Insert(subroot->left, DataIn)
3. else if (DataIn.key > subroot->data.key) DataIn.key = 22
1. return recursive_Insert(subroot->right, DataIn)
4. else
1. return duplicate_error
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5. End recursive_Insert
 Recursive Insert (cont.)
<ErrorCode> recursive_Insert (ref subroot <pointer>,
val DataIn <DataType>)

1. if (subroot is NULL)
1. Allocate subroot
2. subroot->data = DataIn
subroot
3. return success
2. else if (DataIn.key < subroot->data.key)
1. return recursive_Insert(subroot->left, DataIn)
3. else if (DataIn.key > subroot->data.key) DataIn.key = 22
1. return recursive_Insert(subroot->right, DataIn)
4. else
1. return duplicate_error
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5. End recursive_Insert
 Recursive Insert (cont.)
<ErrorCode> recursive_Insert (ref subroot <pointer>,
val DataIn <DataType>)

1. if (subroot is NULL)
1. Allocate subroot
2. subroot->data = DataIn
subroot
3. return success
2. else if (DataIn.key < subroot->data.key)
1. return recursive_Insert(subroot->left, DataIn)
3. else if (DataIn.key > subroot->data.key) DataIn.key = 22
1. return recursive_Insert(subroot->right, DataIn)
4. else
1. return duplicate_error
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5. End recursive_Insert
 Iterative Insert
<ErrorCode> iterative_Insert (ref subroot <pointer>,
val DataIn <DataType>)
Inserts a new node into a BST.

Pre subroot is NULL or points to the root of a subtree. DataIn

contains data to be inserted into the subtree.
Post If the key of DataIn already belongs to the subtree,
duplicate_error is returned. Otherwise, DataIn is inserted into
the subtree in such a way that the properties of a BST are
preserved.
Return duplicate_error or success.

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 Iterative Insert (cont.)
<ErrorCode> iterative_Insert (ref subroot <pointer>,
val DataIn <DataType>)
1. if (subroot is NULL)
1. Allocate subroot subroot
2. subroot->data = DataIn
3. return success
2. else

DataIn.key = 22

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 Iterative Insert (cont.)
<ErrorCode> iterative_Insert (ref subroot <pointer>,
val DataIn <DataType>)
1. if (subroot is NULL)
1. Allocate subroot subroot
2. subroot->data = DataIn
3. return success
2. else

DataIn.key = 22

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 Iterative Insert (cont.)
2. else subroot
pCurr
1. pCurr = subroot
2. loop (pCurr is not NULL)
1. if (pCurr->data.key = DataIn.key)
1. return duplicate_error
2. parent = pCurr
3. if (DataIn.key < parent->data.key)
1. pCurr = parent -> left
4. else
1. pCurr = parent -> right
3. if (DataIn.key < parent->data.key)
1. Allocate parent->left
2. parent->left.data = DataIn DataIn.key = 22
4. else
1. Allocate parent->right
2. parent->right.data = DataIn
5. return success
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End Iterative_Insert
 Iterative Insert (cont.)
2. else parent
subroot
1. pCurr = subroot
2. loop (pCurr is not NULL) pCurr
1. if (pCurr->data.key = DataIn.key)
1. return duplicate_error
2. parent = pCurr
3. if (DataIn.key < parent->data.key)
1. pCurr = parent -> left
4. else
1. pCurr = parent -> right
3. if (DataIn.key < parent->data.key)
1. Allocate parent->left
2. parent->left.data = DataIn DataIn.key = 22
4. else
1. Allocate parent->right
2. parent->right.data = DataIn
5. return success
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End Iterative_Insert
 Iterative Insert (cont.)
2. else subroot
1. pCurr = subroot
2. loop (pCurr is not NULL) parent
1. if (pCurr->data.key = DataIn.key)
1. return duplicate_error pCurr
2. parent = pCurr
3. if (DataIn.key < parent->data.key)
1. pCurr = parent -> left
4. else
1. pCurr = parent -> right
3. if (DataIn.key < parent->data.key)
1. Allocate parent->left
2. parent->left.data = DataIn DataIn.key = 22
4. else
1. Allocate parent->right
2. parent->right.data = DataIn
5. return success
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End Iterative_Insert
 Iterative Insert (cont.)
2. else subroot
1. pCurr = subroot
2. loop (pCurr is not NULL)
1. if (pCurr->data.key = DataIn.key)
1. return duplicate_error parent
2. parent = pCurr
3. if (DataIn.key < parent->data.key)
1. pCurr = parent -> left pCurr
4. else
1. pCurr = parent -> right
3. if (DataIn.key < parent->data.key)
1. Allocate parent->left
2. parent->left.data = DataIn DataIn.key = 22
4. else
1. Allocate parent->right
2. parent->right.data = DataIn
5. return success
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End Iterative_Insert
 Iterative Insert (cont.)
2. else subroot
1. pCurr = subroot
2. loop (pCurr is not NULL)
1. if (pCurr->data.key = DataIn.key)
1. return duplicate_error parent
2. parent = pCurr
3. if (DataIn.key < parent->data.key)
1. pCurr = parent -> left pCurr
4. else
1. pCurr = parent -> right
3. if (DataIn.key < parent->data.key)
1. Allocate parent->left
2. parent->left.data = DataIn DataIn.key = 22
4. else
1. Allocate parent->right
2. parent->right.data = DataIn
5. return success
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End Iterative_Insert
 Insert Node into BST
<ErrorCode> Insert (val DataIn <DataType>)
Inserts a new node into a BST.

Post If the key of DataIn already belongs to the BST, duplicate_error is

returned. Otherwise, DataIn is inserted into the tree in such a way
that the properties of a BST are preserved.
Return duplicate_error or success.
Uses recursive_Insert or iterative_Insert function.

1. return recursive_Insert (root, DataIn)

End Insert

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 Insert Node into BST
 Insertion a new node into a random BST with n nodes
takes O(log n) steps.

 Insertion may take n steps when BST degenerates to a

chain.

 If the keys are inserted in sorted order into an empty tree,

BST becomes a chain.

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 Delete node from BST

• Deletion of a leaf:
Set the deleted node's parent link to NULL.

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 Delete node from BST

• Deletion of a node having only right subtree or left subtree:

Attach the subtree to the deleted node's parent.

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 Delete node from BST
Replace X by W Delete
original W
W is predecessor
of X

• Deletion of a node having both subtrees:

Replace the deleted node by its predecessor or by its successor,
recycle this node instead.
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 Delete node from BST
• Node having both subtrees

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 Delete node from BST
• Node having both subtrees

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 Delete node from BST
Auxiliary functions for Insert:

recursive_Delete

iterative_Delete

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 Recursive Delete
<ErrorCode> recursive_Delete (ref subroot <pointer>,
val key <KeyType>)
Deletes a node from a BST.

Pre subroot is NULL or points to the root of a subtree. Key contains value
needs to be removed from BST.
Post If key is found, it will be removed from BST.
Return notFound or success.
Uses recursive_Delete and RemoveNode functions.

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 Recursive Delete (cont.)
<ErrorCode> recursive_Delete (ref subroot <pointer>,
val key <KeyType>)

1. if (subroot is NULL)
1. return notFound
2. else if (key < subroot->data.key)
1. return recursive_Delete(subroot->left, key)
3. else if (key > subroot->data.key)
1. return recursive_Delete(subroot->right, key)
4. else
1. RemoveNode(subroot)
2. return success

End recursive_Delete 78
 Delete Node from BST
<ErrorCode> Delete (val key <KeyType>)
Deletes a node from a BST.

Pre subroot is NULL or points to the root of a subtree. Key contains value
needs to be removed from BST.
Post If key is found, it will be removed from BST.
Return notFound or success.
Uses recursive_Delete and RemoveNode functions.

1. return recursive_Delete (root, key)

End Delete

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 Auxiliary Function RemoveNode
<void> RemoveNode (ref subroot <pointer>, val key <KeyType>)
1. pDel = subroot // remember node to delete at end.
2. if (subroot ->left is NULL) // leaf node or node having only right subtree.
1. subroot = subroot->right // (a) and (b)
3. else if (subroot->right is NULL) // node having only left subtree.
1. subroot = subroot->left

subroot subroot
pDel pDel

(a)

key needs to be deleted = 18 (b) 80

 Auxiliary Function RemoveNode
<void> RemoveNode (ref subroot <pointer>, val key <KeyType>)
1. pDel = subroot // remember node to delete at end.
2. if (subroot ->left is NULL) // leaf node or node having only right subtree.
1. subroot = subroot->right // (a) and (b)
3. else if (subroot->right is NULL) // node having only left subtree.
1. subroot = subroot->left

subroot subroot
pDel pDel

(a)
key needs
key needs to
to be
be deleted
deleted == 18
18 (b) 81
 Auxiliary Function RemoveNode
<void> RemoveNode (ref subroot <pointer>, val key <KeyType>)
1. pDel = subroot // remember node to delete at end.
2. if (subroot ->left is NULL) // leaf node or node having only right subtree.
1. subroot = subroot->right
3. else if (subroot->right is NULL) // node having only left subtree.
1. subroot = subroot->left // (c)

subroot
pDel

key needs to be deleted = 44 (c) 82

 Auxiliary Function RemoveNode
<void> RemoveNode (ref subroot <pointer>, val key <KeyType>)
1. pDel = subroot // remember node to delete at end.
2. if (subroot ->left is NULL) // leaf node or node having only right subtree.
1. subroot = subroot->right
3. else if (subroot->right is NULL) // node having only left subtree.
1. subroot = subroot->left // (c)

subroot
pDel

key needs to be deleted = 44 (c) 83

 Auxiliary Function RemoveNode (cont.)
4. else // node having both subtrees. (d)
1. parent = subroot
2. pDel = parent ->left // move left to find the predecessor.
3. loop (pDel->right is not NULL) // pDel is not the predecessor
1. parent = pDel
2. pDel = pDel->right key needs to be deleted = 23
4. subroot->data = pDel->data subroot
parent
5. if (parent = subroot)
1. parent->left = pDel->left pDel
6. else
1. parent->right = pDel->left
7. recycle pDel

End RemoveNode
(d) 84
 Auxiliary Function RemoveNode (cont.)
1. else // node having both subtrees. (d)
1. parent = subroot
2. pDel = parent ->left // move left to find the predecessor.
3. loop (pDel->right is not NULL) // pDel is not the predecessor
1. parent = pDel
2. pDel = pDel->right key needs to be deleted = 23
4. subroot->data = pDel->data subroot
5. if (parent = subroot)
1. parent->left = pDel->left
parent
6. else
1. parent->right = pDel->left
7. recycle pDel pDel

End RemoveNode
(d) 85
 Auxiliary Function RemoveNode (cont.)
1. else // node having both subtrees. (d)
1. parent = subroot
2. pDel = parent ->left // move left to find the predecessor.
3. loop (pDel->right is not NULL) // pDel is not the predecessor
1. parent = pDel
2. pDel = pDel->right key needs to be deleted = 23
4. subroot->data = pDel->data subroot
5. if (parent = subroot)
1. parent->left = pDel->left
6. else
1. parent->right = pDel->left
7. recycle pDel parent

End RemoveNode pDel

(d) 86
 Auxiliary Function RemoveNode (cont.)
1. else // node having both subtrees. (d)
1. parent = subroot
2. pDel = parent ->left // move left to find the predecessor.
3. loop (pDel->right is not NULL) // pDel is not the predecessor
1. parent = pDel
2. pDel = pDel->right key needs to be deleted = 23
4. subroot->data = pDel->data subroot
5. if (parent = subroot)
1. parent->left = pDel->left
6. else
1. parent->right = pDel->left
7. recycle pDel parent

End RemoveNode pDel

22 (d) 87
 Auxiliary Function RemoveNode (cont.)
1. else // node having both subtrees. (d)
1. parent = subroot
2. pDel = parent ->left // move left to find the predecessor.
3. loop (pDel->right is not NULL) // pDel is not the predecessor
1. parent = pDel
2. pDel = pDel->right key needs to be deleted = 23
4. subroot->data = pDel->data subroot
5. if (parent = subroot) 22
1. parent->left = pDel->left
6. else
1. parent->right = pDel->left
7. recycle pDel parent

End RemoveNode pDel

22 (d) 88
 Auxiliary Function RemoveNode (cont.)
1. else // node having both subtrees. (d)
1. parent = subroot
2. pDel = parent ->left // move left to find the predecessor.
3. loop (pDel->right is not NULL) // pDel is not the predecessor
1. parent = pDel
2. pDel = pDel->right key needs to be deleted = 23
4. subroot->data = pDel->data subroot
5. if (parent = subroot) 22
1. parent->left = pDel->left
6. else
1. parent->right = pDel->left
parent
7. recycle pDel

End RemoveNode pDel

(d) 89
 Performance of random BST
 The average number of nodes visited during a search of average BST
with n nodes approximately 2 ln2 = (2 ln 2) (lg n)≈ 1.39 lg n

 The average BST requires approximately 2 ln2 ≈ 1.39 times as many

comparisons as a completely balanced tree.

90