POKHARAUNIVERSITY

School of Development and Social Engineering

Internal Examination
Subject: Environment and Development, Semester: Fourth

Attempt all the questions. Figures in the margin indicate full marks.
1 a. What do you mean by environment? Describe different components of environment 8
with examples.

Environment:

Definition:

a. The environment refers to our immediate surroundings in which all

living and non-living components co-exist. It can be used to refer to
the social, natural or built environment.
b. Environment is the sum total of conditions that surrounds us at a
given point of time and space.
Components of Environment

There are two components of environment:

a. Physical/Natural/Geographical Environment
b. Built/Man-made Environment
a. Physical/Natural/Geographical Environment
It consists of all components provided by nature and hence can be called as the
natural environment. It is also referred to as the physical environment as it
pertains to the physical requirements of life. These physical or geographic
conditions are not dependent on the existence of humans. Sometimes, humans
have no control over the physical conditions of the environment.

It includes natural resources, the earth’s surface, mountains, plains, land, water,
deserts, storms, cyclones, volcanoes, oceans, climatic factors, and so on. It is also
used to refer to biological situations such as complexities associated with plants
and animals.

b. Built/Man-Made Environment
This environment is used to refer to the one created by man in order to regulate
and monitor certain environmental conditions. Some address it as a social-cultural
environment. It can further be divided into two types of environments.

1. Inner Environment
2. Outer Environment
1. The Inner Environment
 It is a social environment and it exists as long as a particular society exists. It
pertains to the regulations, traditions, organizations and institutions. It involves
customs and folkways which is existent in every human group. It is addressed with
names such as non-material culture, social heritage etc. This heritage is essential
for the social life of humans to flourish, it is known to have an influence on an
individual’s life. The altered form of the economic and physical environment –
artificial environment, are seen as two different aspects of the man-made
environment.

2. The Outer Environment

Through advancement in the field of science and technology, humans have
attempted to alter conditions of their physical environment. This outer
environment is as a result of these modifications which includes modern
infrastructure in cities, our homes and their associated amenities, our modes of
communication and transport, our resorts to conveniences and luxury, different
kinds of industry manufacturing luxurious commodities, electrical appliances and
so on which ultimately aims at civilization and urbanization.

The inner and the outer environments are correlated and hence inseparable.

b. Describe the meaning and process of environmental impact assessment. 7

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Can be defined as:

a. The systematic identification and evaluation of the potential

impacts (effects) of proposed projects plans, programmes or
legislative actions to the environment.
b. The systematic process of identifying future consequences of
a current or proposed action.
EIA is both an art and a science. Management aspect in EIA is an art, whereas the
technical analysis is based on the scientific principles.

Objectives of EIA

Consequently, the aims and objectives of EIA can be divided into two categories.

• Inform the process of decision-making by identifying the potentially significant

environmental effects and risks of development proposals.

• Promote sustainable development by ensuring that development proposals do

not undermine critical resource and ecological functions or the wellbeing, lifestyle
and livelihood of the communities and peoples who depend on

them.

• Protect human health and safety.

• Avoid irreversible changes and serious damages to the environment.

• Safeguard valued resources, natural areas and ecosystem components.

• Enhance the social aspects of the proposal.

Characteristics/Principles used in EIA:

1. Participation:

An appropriate and timely access to the process for all interested parties.

2. Transparency:

All assessment decisions and their basis should be open and accessible.

3. Certainty:

The process and timing of the assessment should be agreed by all participants in
advance.

4. Accountability:

The decision makers of all parties are responsible for their action and decisions
under the assessment process.

5. Credibility:

Assessment is undertaken with professionalism and objectivity.

6. Cost effectiveness:

The assessment process and its outcomes will ensure environmental protection at
the least cost to the society.

7. Flexibility:

The assessment process should be able to deal efficiently with any proposal and
decision making situation.

8. Practicality:

The information and outputs provided by the assessment process are readily
usable in decision making and planning.

History of EIA

Environmental impact assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of

increasing environmental awareness. In the United States, environmental impact
assessments obtained formal status in 1969, with the enactment of the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). EIAs have been used increasingly around the
world. The number of environmental assessments filed every year "has vastly
overtaken the number of more rigorous Environmental Impact
Statements (EIS). An environmental assessment is a "mini-EIS designed to provide
sufficient information to allow the agency to decide whether the preparation of a
full-blown Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is necessary.

Common Stages in an EIA Process

Typically, the EIA process begins with screening to ensure that time and resources
are directed at the proposals that matter environmentally and end with some form
of follow up on the implementation of the decisions and actions taken as a result
of an EIA report. The eight steps of the EIA process are briefly presented below.

1) Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project,
requires an EIA and if it requires EIA, then the level of assessment required.

2) Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impact that should be further
investigated. This stage also defines the boundary and time limit of the study.

3) Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts likely environmental
and social impact of the proposed project and evaluates the significance.

4) Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the
 potential adverse environmental consequences of development activities.

5) Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a report to the
decision-making body and other interested parties.

6) Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA report and
provides information necessary for the decision-making.

7) Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved or needs

further change.

8) Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is commissioned. It
checks whether the impacts of the project do not exceed the legal standards and
implementation of the mitigation measures are in the manner as described in the
EIA report.

Some Misconceptions about EIA:

1. “EIA is too complex”

2. “EIA is too expensive”

3. “EIA will be misused to stop development”

4. "We are too poor to afford EIA"

5. "EIA doesn't produce useful results"

6. "EIA is just an add-on and occurs too late to do any good"

7. “EIA delays projects”

2 a. Discuss the effects of climate change on agricultural systems with examples 8

b. Discuss the role of IPCC on climate change. 7

Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change:

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental

body of the United Nations that is dedicated in providing the world with objective
and scientific information relevant to understand the scientific basis of the risk of
human-induced climate change, its natural, political, and economic impacts and
risks, and possible response options.

The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological

 Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

The IPCC has adopted and published "Principles Governing IPCC

Work",[7] which states that the IPCC will assess:

• the risk of human-induced climate change,

• its potential impacts, and
• possible options for prevention.

Three Working Group of IPCC:

• Working Group I: Assesses scientific aspects of the climate system and

climate change.
• Working Group II: Assesses vulnerability of socio-economic and natural
systems to climate change, consequences, and adaptation options.
• Working Group III: Assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions
and otherwise mitigating climate change.

Assessment Reports Prepared by IPCC

The IPCC has published five comprehensive assessment reports reviewing the
latest climate science, as well as a number of special reports on particular topics.
These reports are prepared by teams of relevant researchers selected by the
Bureau from government nominations. Expert reviewers from a wide range of
governments, IPCC observer organizations and other organizations are invited at
different stages to comment on various aspects of the drafts.

Process in the preparation of the Reports:

There are generally three stages in the review process:[28]

• Expert review (6–8 weeks)

• Government/expert review
• Government review of:
o Summaries for Policymakers
o Overview Chapters
o Synthesis Report

3a. What do you mean by carrying capacity? Differentiate between biophysical and 8
social carrying capacity. Suggest ways to enhance carrying capacity of the earth.
Carrying Capacity:

Can be defined as:

The maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained in that
specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and
other resources available.

The maximal population size of a given species that an area can support without
reducing its ability to support the same species in the future.

Carrying capacity is never static. It varies over time in response to gradual

environmental changes, perhaps associated with climatic change or the
successional development of ecosystems. More rapid changes in carrying capacity
may be caused by disturbances of the habitat occurring because of a fire or
windstorm, or because of a human influence such as timber harvesting, pollution,
or the introduction of a non-native competitor, predator, or disease. Carrying
capacity can also be damaged by overpopulation, which leads to excessive
exploitation of resources and a degradation of the habitat’s ability to support the
species.

In the standard ecological algebra, carrying capacity is represented by the

constant K:

Where;

N = population size,

r= maximum growth rate,

K= carrying capacity of the local environment, and

dN/dt=rate of change in population with time.

Carrying capacity is a function of characteristics of both the area and the organism.

Types of Carrying Capacity:

Bio-Physical Carrying Capacity: The maximal population size that could be

sustained biophysically under given technological capabilities. When the
 population is at carrying capacity, there is no fluctuation in the birth or death
rates. But when there is an increase in the population size above the carrying
capacity, there is an overutilization of natural resources such as water, land, etc.

Also, there tends to be an increase in pollution-causing many environmental

problems. Furthermore, this increase leads to the spread of many diseases. These
diseases cause health problems. It increases death rates in comparison to birth rates.

Thus, the carrying capacity now becomes more as there is less consumption due to
fewer births. This causes the population to increase again. The cycle goes on and once
at carrying capacity, stops changing.

Thus, the importance of such a regulating factor in the carrying capacity can be
assessed. Thus, there should be an adequate use of natural resources, proper
treatment of sewage, proper disposal of waste.

Social Carrying Capacity: The maximum population that could be sustained under a
specified social system and its associated pattern of resource consumption. Social
dimensions of carrying capacity include lifestyle aspirations, epidemiological
factors, and patterns of socially controlled resource distribution, the disparity
between private and social costs, the difficulty in formulating rational policy in the
face of uncertainty, and various other features of human sociopolitical and
economic organization.

Sustainability and Carrying Capacity:

A sustainable condition, process, or activity is one that can be maintained without

interruption, weakening, or loss of valued qualities. Sustainability is thus a
necessary and sufficient condition for a population to be at or below carrying
capacity. The wide appeal of sustainability as a societal condition or goal reflects
the moral conviction that the current generation should pass on its inheritance of
natural wealth–not unchanged but undiminished in potential–to support future
generations.

b. Discuss the chronological events on environmental movements in brief. 7

Environmental Movement:

A political movement that focuses on protecting the environment, reducing

environmental damage (such as pollution), and reducing unsustainable use of
natural resources.

History of Environmental Movement:

The origins of the environmental movement lay in response to increasing levels

of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The
emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal
consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial
centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the
growing load of untreated human waste.[2] Under increasing political pressure
from the urban middle-class, the first large-scale, modern environmental laws
came in the form of Britain's Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the
deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc
process, used to produce soda ash.

In 1916, the National Park Service was founded by U.S. President Woodrow
Wilson. Pioneers of the movement called for more efficient and professional
management of natural resources. They fought for reform because they believed
the destruction of forests, fertile soil, minerals, wildlife, and water resources
would lead to the downfall of society. The group that has been the most active in
recent years is the climate movement.

in the 1940s, Aldo Leopold wrote "A Sand County Almanac". He believed in a land
ethic that recognized that maintaining the "beauty, integrity, and health of natural
systems" as a moral and ethical imperative.

1962 - Rachel Carson publishes "Silent Spring". This book brought together
research on toxicology, ecology and epidemiology to suggest that agricultural
pesticides were building to catastrophic levels. This was linked to damage to
animal species and to human health. It shattered the assumption that the
environment had an infinite capacity to absorb pollutants.

1968 - Paul Ehrlich publishes book "Population Bomb" on the connection between
human population, resource exploitation and the environment.

1968 - The Club of Rome, led by Italian industrialist Aurrelio Peccei and Scottish
scientist Alexander King, is established by 36 European economists and scientists.
Its goal is to pursue a holistic understanding of and solutions to the 'world
problematique'. It commissions a study of global proportions to model and analyze
the dynamic interactions between industrial production, population,
environmental damage, food consumption and natural resource usage.

1968 - The UN General Assembly authorizes the Human Environment Conference

to be held in 1972.

1969 - Friends of the Earth forms as a non-profit advocacy organization dedicated

to protecting the planet from environmental degradation; preserving biological,
cultural, and ethnic diversity; and empowering citizens to have an influential voice
in decisions affecting the quality of their environment -- and their lives.

Beginning in 1969 and continuing into the 1970s, Illinois-based environmental

activist James F. Phillips engaged in numerous covert anti-pollution campaigns
using the pseudonym "the Fox." His activities included plugging illegal sewage
outfall pipes and dumping toxic wastewater produced by a US Steel factory inside
the company's Chicago corporate office. Phillips' "ecotage" campaigns attracted
considerable media attention and subsequently inspired other direct action
protests against environmental destruction.

1970 - First Earth Day held as a national teach-in on the environment. An

estimated twenty million people participated in peaceful demonstrations all across
the USA.

1971 - Greenpeace starts up in Canada and launches an aggressive agenda to stop

environmental damage through civil protests and non-violent interference.

1972 - Rene Dubos and Barbara Ward write "Only One Earth". The book sounds an
urgent alarm about the impact of human activity on the biosphere but also
expresses optimism that a shared concern for the future of the planet could lead
humankind to create a common future.

1972 - United Nations Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm

under the leadership of Maurice Strong. The conference is rooted in the regional
pollution and acid rain problems of northern Europe. This eco-agenda is opposed
by the Group of 77 and the Eastern bloc. Nevertheless, it provides the first
international recognition of environmental issues. The concept of sustainable
development is cohesively argued to present a satisfactory resolution to the
environmental vs. development dilemma. The conference leads to the
establishment of numerous national environmental protection agencies and the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism had moved beyond local protests and
politics to gain a wider appeal and influence.
1972 - Club of Rome publishes "Limits to Growth". The report is extremely
controversial because it predicts dire consequences if growth is not slowed.
Northern countries criticize the report for not including technological solutions
while Southern countries are incensed because it advocates abandonment of
economic development. The ensuing debate heightens awareness of the
interconnections between several well-known global problems.

1973 - Chipko Movement born in India in response to deforestation and

environmental degradation. The actions of the women of the community
influenced both forestry and women's participation in environmental issues.

1977 - Greenbelt Movement starts in Kenya. It is based on community tree-

planting to prevent desertification.

1977 - UN Conference on Desertification is held.

1980 - World Conservation Strategy released by IUCN. The strategy defines

development as "the modification of the biosphere and the application of human,
financial, living and non-living resources to satisfy human needs and improve the
quality of human life". The section "Towards Sustainable Development" identifies
the main agents of habitat destruction as poverty, population pressure, social
inequity and the terms of trade. It calls for a new International Development
Strategy with the aims of redressing inequities, achieving a more dynamic and
stable world economy, stimulating accelerating economic growth and countering
the worst impacts of poverty.

1980 - US President Jimmy Carter authorizes study which led to the "Global 2000"
report. This report recognizes biodiversity for the first time as a critical
characteristic in the proper functioning of the planetary ecosystem. It further
asserts that the robust nature of ecosystems is weakened by species extinction.

1983 - World Commission on Environment and Development forms. Chaired by

Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, the commission works for
three years to weave together a report on social, economic, cultural, and
environmental issues.

1983 - Development Alternatives is established in India as a non-profit research,

development and consultancy organization. It fosters a new relationship between
people, technology and the environment in the South in order to attain the goal of
sustainable development.
 1984 - Worldwatch Institute publishes its first State of the World Report. The
report monitors changes in the global resource base, focusing particularly on how
changes there affect the economy. It concludes that "we are living beyond our
means, largely by borrowing against the future."

1986 - IUCN Conference on Environment and Development held in Ottawa.

Meeting participants define sustainable development as the emerging paradigm
derived from two closely related paradigms of conservation 1) one reacting against
the laissez-faire economic theory which considers living resources as externalities
and free goods and 2) one based on the concept of resource stewardship

1987 - "Our Common Future" (Brundtland Report) published. It ties problems

together and, for the first time, gives some direction for comprehensive global
solutions. It also popularizes the term "sustainable development".

1987 - Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is adopted.

1988 - Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change established with three

working groups to assess the most up-to-date scientific, technical and socio-
economic research in the field of climate change.

1992 - U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de

Janeiro. It results in the publication of Agenda 21, the Convention on Biological
Diversity, the Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Rio Declaration, and
a statement of non-binding Forest Principles. The parallel NGO Forum signs a full
set of alternative treaties.

4. Describe the context and major policy outcomes of the Earth summit 1992. 15
The Earth Summit-1992

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also

known as the 'Earth Summit', was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June
1992. This global conference, held on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the
first Human Environment Conference in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972, brought
together political leaders, diplomats, scientists, representatives of the media and
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from 179 countries for a massive effort to
focus on the impact of human socio-economic activities on the environment. There
were 7,000 diplomats and their staff. It was called "mother of all summits"
because it was "the biggest gathering of world leaders ever held“.
The Rio de Janeiro conference highlighted how different social, economic and
environmental factors are interdependent and evolve together, and how success
in one sector requires action in other sectors to be sustained over time. The
primary objective of the Rio 'Earth Summit' was to produce a broad agenda and a
new blueprint for international action on environmental and development issues
that would help guide international cooperation and development policy in the
twenty-first century.

The 'Earth Summit' concluded that the concept of sustainable development was an
attainable goal for all the people of the world, regardless of whether they were at
the local, national, regional or international level. It also recognized that
integrating and balancing economic, social and environmental concerns in meeting
our needs is vital for sustaining human life on the planet and that such an
integrated approach is possible. The conference also recognized that integrating
and balancing economic, social and environmental dimensions required new
perceptions of the way we produce and consume, the way we live and work, and
the way we make decisions. This concept was revolutionary for its time, and it
sparked a lively debate within governments and between governments and their
citizens on how to ensure sustainability for development.

The issues addressed included:

systematic study of patterns of production — particularly the production of toxic

components, such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioactive
chemicals

alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which delegates
linked to global climate change

new reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle

emissions, congestion in cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and
smoke

the growing usage and limited supply of water

Achievements:

1. Agenda 21: Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of

the United Nations with regard to sustainable
development. Agenda 21 is grouped into 4 sections:
Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combating poverty,
especially in developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting
health, achieving a more sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in
decision making.
 Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development includes
atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments,
conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the
management of biotechnology, and radioactive wastes.

Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children
and youth, women, NGOs, local authorities, business and industry, and workers;
and strengthening the role of indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers.

Section IV: Means of Implementation includes science, technology

transfer, education, international institutions, and financial mechanisms.

2. The Rio Declaration on Environment and

Development: It consisted 27 principles intended to
guide countries in future sustainable development.
3. An important achievement of the summit was an
agreement on the Climate Change Convention which
in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris
Agreement. Another agreement was to "not to carry
out any activities on the lands of indigenous
peoples that would cause environmental
degradation or that would be culturally inappropriate".
4. Moreover, important legally binding agreements (Rio
Convention) were opened for signature:
Convention on Biological Diversity

Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

5. Forest Principles
6. The 'Earth Summit' also led to the creation of
the Commission on Sustainable Development

5 a. Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable natural resources with 8

examples.

Renewable resource Non-renewable resource

It can be renewed as it is available in infinite Once completely consumed, it cannot be renewed due to
quantity limited stock

Sustainable in nature Exhaustible in nature

 Low cost and environment-friendly High cost and less environment-friendly

Replenish quickly Replenish slowly or do not replenish naturally at all

b. Discuss the causes and consequences of air pollution with examples. 7

Air Pollution:
Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air.
It is the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects
plants, animals and humans drastically.
There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase
or decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This
imbalance in the gaseous composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s
temperature, which is known as global warming.

I. Types of Air Pollutants

There are two types of air pollutants:

Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary
pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.

Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary
pollutants are known as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the
intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary pollutant.

II. Causes of Air Pollution

Following are the important causes of air pollution:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide.
Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also
results in air pollution.

Automobiles
The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc.
pollute the environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases
and also result in diseases among individuals.
Agricultural Activities
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural
activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers emit harmful chemicals
in the atmosphere and contaminate it.

Factories and Industries

Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic
compounds, hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air,
degrading its quality.

Mining Activities
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large
pieces of equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not
only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people
living in the nearby areas.

Domestic Sources
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are
released in the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the
chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also affects
breathing.

III. Effects of Air Pollution

The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

Diseases
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases
among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few
decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia
and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect effects
of air pollution.

Global Warming
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the
gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature
of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known as global
warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an increase in sea
levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.

Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides
and sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these
pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal
and plant life.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydro chlorofluorocarbons
in the atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The
depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming
from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among individuals.

Effect on Animals
The air pollutants suspend on the water bodies and affect the aquatic life.
Pollution also compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new
place. This renders them stray and has also led to the extinction of a large
number of animal species.

IV. Air Pollution Control

Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:

Avoid Using Vehicles

People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should
prefer public modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not
only prevents pollution, but also conserves energy.

Energy Conservation
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do
not forget to switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you
can save the environment at the individual level. Use of energy-efficient
devices such CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level.

Use of Clean Energy Resources

The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a
larger level. Various countries, including India, have implemented the use of
these resources as a step towards a cleaner environment.
Other air pollution control measures include:

1. By minimizing and reducing the use of fire and fire products.

2. Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the
pollutants can be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its
effects. For example, if the reactions of a certain raw material yield a
pollutant, then the raw materials can be substituted with other less
polluting materials.
 3. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts
of India, petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed
Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These are mostly adopted by vehicles that
aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
4. Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the
quality of air, most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced
properly. There are still a lot of vehicles on roads which haven’t been
tested for vehicle emissions.
5. Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify
and maintain existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of
pollutants is minimized.
6. Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case,
we can have process control equipment to control the pollution.
7. A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air
pollutants.
8. The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree
plantation. Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air.
Ideally, planting trees in areas of high pollution levels will be extremely
effective.

6. Explain the effects of gender discrimination on natural resources conservation in 15

Nepal. Suggest some ways to improve the situation.
Gender Aspect of Natural Resource Management:

Natural resources are fundamental to sustaining the human population because

they serve as the basis for many of the goods and services on which humans
depend including food, energy, clothes, manufacturing, medicine and sanitation.
Across the world, the rural poor have the greatest dependence on natural
resources; there are over 1.3 billion subsistence farmers, hunters and gatherers,
waged farm labourers and fishers that require access to land, water and
plant/animal species for their livelihoods1 . Approximately 60 million indigenous
people rely fully on forests for survival; in developing countries, roughly 1.2 billion
people depend upon agroforestry farming systems to increase agricultural yields
and make a living. The condition of natural resources relates closely to the
sustainability and quality of human livelihoods, particularly within the developing
world and for individuals living in harsh environmental conditions.

As competition for natural resources grows, it is likely that the rural poor –
particularly women – will be hit the hardest.

Gender Inequalities in Natural Resource Management:

■ Typically, women and men have different roles and responsibilities when it
comes to the use and management of natural resources, such as land, water,
forests, trees, biomass (fuelwood, dung, etc.), livestock and fisheries.

Women and girls tend to have responsibility for sourcing, collecting and
transporting natural resources for domestic purposes. In the majority of
developing countries, men are more prone to use natural resources for
commercial purposes (agriculture, fishing, timber). For example:

In crop production, it is common for men to prioritise (market-orientated) cash

crops for export, whereas women agriculturalists tend to focus more on food crops
for the household and community (FAO et al., 2009; IFAD 2010).

In developing countries, national food security often rests upon women's

production of food crops (Open Society Foundations, 2014).

In nearly all developing countries, women and girls are the main individuals
responsible for collecting, transporting and managing water for domestic use
(drinking, cleaning, etc.) (IFAD, 2012). Men and boys are likely to have other roles
and priorities in relation to water supply and sanitation, such as watering livestock
and undertaking irrigated agriculture

■ Often, the domestic responsibilities of women and girls in relation to natural

resources management result in significant time burdens for them, undermining
their ability to undertake productive activities, such as education, decision-making
and entrepreneurship.

Women spend up to 3-4 hours each day collecting household fuel . On average,
women in many developing countries are estimated to walk 6 km daily in order to
collect water (UNFPA, 2002). Women in women-headed households have
highlighted water and fuelwood collection as one of their most time-intensive
responsibilities. (FAO/IFAD 2003, cited in FAO et al., 2009).

■ Women and men do not have the same rights and ability to access natural
resources (land, trees, water, animals, etc.). Although the situation differs, women
generally do not have as many ownership rights as men (SIDA, n.d.). Despite their
role as food producers, women do not normally own the land that they cultivate or
have stable control (e.g. long-term lease) (ibid.). For example, women may have
land-use rights rather than ownership rights, or may be more dependent on
communal property (relative to men). These circumstances undermine women's
ability to influence the control of the land and its products, as well as to produce
food, accumulate income, gain access to agricultural credit and have expectations
of long-term stability.

■ Limited access to secure land tenure has a knock-on effect on women's ability to
access other natural resources, such as water and trees (IFAD, 2012; CIFOR, 2013).
For instance, tree rights are often linked to land rights. Due to having fewer formal
land rights, women may have to travel long distances to collect fuel, despite having
local trees closer to their homes (on private land). Alternatively, they may have to
collect other types of fuel, such as dung and stalks.

■ Biodiversity loss and the growing competition over natural resources is likely to
hit the rural poor hardest, particularly women.

More than three-quarters (76%) of the world's extreme poor live in rural areas
(World Bank and IMF, 2013). Poor rural households in developing countries are
often those that depend the most upon local ecosystems – including the genetic
diversity of natural resources – for their livelihoods. Many lack the productive
resources to cope with rapid changes to ecosystems (IFAD 2010). Gender-based
inequalities in access to land, credit, information, markets and other productive
resources put women on the frontline of these risks. For instance, in the division of
resources, women are often left with the most instable, marginal lands, which are
particularly susceptible to environmental shocks. Land degradation and
deforestation also impacts upon common property, on which many poor rural
women rely for natural resources such as fuelwood, fodder and food. In general,
land and water degradation increase food scarcity, malnutrition and instability (all
of which affect the pool of natural resources).

■ Reduced access to natural resources can lead to significant rises in women's

labour, such as the distances they must travel and the amount of time they must
spend collecting household food, water and fuel (UNEP/CBD, 2010). Lower access
to resources can also heighten risks to women's health and security (for example,
longer journeys can increase women's susceptibility to gender-based violence;
degradation of water can bring greater likelihood of contracting waterborne
diseases – such as cholera and diarrhea – during the process of collection). Land
degradation can bring additional social costs, such as the migration of men from
rural communities, leaving women to take on the traditional 'male responsibilities',
but without the same ability as men to access supporting resources (for example,
financial services, technology, social networks) (Lambrou and Laub 2004).

■ There are signs that natural disasters, to which women are particularly
vulnerable, are becoming more common. Long-term climate changes are expected
to increase the incidence of extreme weather events, such as droughts, heat
waves and tropical cyclones (IPCC, 2007). There are some signs to suggest that
women are more vulnerable to these than men, largely due to social norms
influencing the construction of gender roles and overrepresentation of women
amongst vulnerable groups in society (e.g. the poor, the elderly) (Neumayer and
Plümper, 2007). These events also have an impact upon the pool of available
natural resources.

Several Structural and Cultural factors causing gender inequalities in Natural

Resource Management

■ Legal systems (both formal and customary) of land ownership can discriminate
against women:

■ Women may face institutional barriers when seeking to exercise influence and
control over natural resources.

■ Socio-cultural norms and practices may undermine women's access to secure

natural resources. For example, in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, the bonojibi
community traditionally believe that the forest Goddess does not permit women
to enter the forest, due to their impurity. Such practices undermine women's
power to collect non-timber forest products (NTFPs) (wild honey, essential oils,
etc.), which can be an important source of extra income for them (UNREDD et al.,
2013). Traditional practices can also undermine women's rights to water and land.
For instance, women farmers are often allocated the most marginal and vulnerable
lands.

■ Social norms may also impact upon women's ability take full advantage of
markets. Relative to men, women may have trouble in taking full advantage of
markets, for example due to lower rates of literacy and limited access to private
transport, information and commercial networks. In some areas, women are more
like to sell domestic crops in local markets, whereas men more likely to focus on
national/international markets.

Ways to address gender inequalities in Natural Resource Management:

■ Make use and create demand for sex-disaggregated data, for example on land
tenure and the membership of forest user groups and water user associations.

■ Ensure that women’s needs and priorities are voiced, understood and
addressed.

■ Avoid reinforcing gender inequalities, by ignoring the existing gender relations

and power disparities between women and men.

■ Plan gender-specific actions, to address problems relating more particularly to

one or the other gender, either as separate initiatives or as part of larger
programmes. For instance, women-focused enterprises and cooperatives can be
an important way of strengthening women's position in the market, especially
their bargaining power (UNREDD et al., 2013).
 ■ Adopt longer term “transformative” perspectives, supporting women’s
participation in decision-making and changing prevalent negative attitudes on
women’s leadership capacities and social roles

■ Engage men, creating awareness on gender disparities and proving the benefits
of gender equality for communities.

7. Write short notes on ANY TWO of the following. 5×2=10

a. Eco-feminism
Ecofeminism:

Eco feminism is a social and political movement, attempts to unite

environmentalism and feminism with some currents linking deep ecology and
feminism

Ecofeminists argue that the capitalist and patriarchal system is based on triple
domination of the people of Third World, women, and nature

Belief that the social mentality that leads to the domination and oppression of
women is directly connected to the social mentality that leads to the abuse of
the environment

Ecofeminism, or ecological feminism, is a term coined in 1974 by Françoise

d'Eaubonne .

Ecofeminist analysis explores the connections between women and

nature in culture, religion, literature and iconography, and addresses the
parallels between the oppression of nature and the oppression of women.
There are different types of eco feminism which focus on areas such as
economics, spirituality, colonization, class struggle or racism.These
parallels include but are not limited to seeing women and nature as
property, seeing men as the curators of culture and women as the curators
of nature, and how men dominate women and humans dominate nature.
Ecofeminism emphasizes that both women and nature must be respected.
Though the scope of ecofeminist analysis is broad and dynamic,
American author and ecofeminist Charlene Spretnak has offered one way
of categorizing ecofeminist work: 1) through the study of political theory
as well as history; 2) through the belief and study of nature-based
religions; 3) through environmentalism.
Eco feminism basically has two grounds; One women are nearer to nature &
contributing for nature while man are exploiting nature; another The social
mentality that leads to the domination and oppression of women is directly
connected to the social mentality that leads to the abuse of the environment’
 Eco feminists also criticize Western lifestyle choices, such as consuming food
that has travelled thousands of miles and playing sports (golf) which require
ecological destruction.

Ecofeminism do share a commitment to developing ethics which do not

sanction or encourage either the domination of any group of humans or the
abuse of nature.

Ecofeminist theory asserts that capitalism reflects only paternalistic and

patriarchal values. This notion implies that the effects of capitalism have not
benefited women and has led to a harmful split between nature and culture. In
the 1970s, early ecofeminists discussed that the split can only be healed by the
feminine instinct for nurture and holistic knowledge of nature's processes.

Vandana Shiva wrote that women have a special connection to the

environment through their daily interactions and that this connection has been
underestimated. According to Shiva, women in subsistence economies who
produce "wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their own
right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature's processes". She makes
the point that "these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the
social benefits and sustenance needs are not recognized by
the capitalist reductionist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the
interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women's lives, work and
knowledge with the creation of wealth". Shiva blames this failure on the
Western patriarchal perceptions of development and progress. According to
Shiva, patriarchy has labeled women, nature, and other groups not growing
the economy as "unproductive".

Ecofeminists argue that the capitalist and patriarchal systems that

predominate throughout the world reveal a triple domination of the Global
South (people who live in the Third World), women, and nature.

This domination and exploitation of women, of poorly resourced peoples and

of nature sits at the core of the ecofeminist analysis.

b. Social Impact assessment

Social Impact Assessment:

Social Impact Assessment includes the processes of analysing, monitoring and

managing the intended and unintended social consequences, both positive and
negative, of planned interventions (policies, programs, plans, projects) and any
social change processes invoked by those interventions. Goldman and Baum
(2000:7) define Social Impact Assessment (SIA) as a method of analyzing
what impacts actions may have on the social aspects of the environment.

Its primary purpose is to bring about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical
and human environment.

Advantages of SIA:

• Identifying Affected Groups: SIA helps in identifying people and

groups who affect or are affected by the project
• Allying Fears and Winning Trust: SIA can help allay fears of
affected groups and build a basis of trust and cooperation which
is so essential for successful project implementation
• Avoiding Adverse Impacts: SIA provides the basis for preparing
mitigation measures to avoid, reduce or manage adverse
impacts
• Enhancing Positive Impacts: SIA preparation also helps identify
measures to maximize/share project benefits
• Reducing Costs: Addressing social impacts at an early stage
helps to avoid costly errors in future
• Getting Approval Faster: A well prepared SIA demonstrates that
social impacts are taken seriously and helps in getting project
clearance faster

Stages in Social Impact Assessment (SIA)

A social impact assessment process, as WCD (2000) envisaged, should be

built on three elements:

• A detailed assessment of the socio-economic conditions of the

people who may be negatively affected (Cernea’s risk assessment
model can be useful);
• A detailed study of the impacts in terms of the extent of
displacement, the loss of livelihoods, the second-order impacts as a
result of submergence, construction mitigation measures,
downstream impacts, and host communities; and
• A detailed plan to mitigate these impacts and an assessment of the
costs of such measures.

40 This chapter outlines the steps involved in carrying out the Social
Impact Assessment process, and includes suggestions on how to follow
them. (IOCPGSIA 1994)

Step 1: Define the Impact Area

The first step is to define the Area of Impact. The size of the area varies
according to a project. A dam submerges a large, contiguous geographic
area affecting several villages. The impact from a highway and other linear
projects occurs along the corridor as small strips of land on either side of the
road. The SIA team must get a map showing clearly demarcated area that
will be affected by the project (both directly and indirectly).

In addition, field visit to the area needs to be undertaken to have a better

understanding of the geographic limits of the area and the people living
there.

Step 2: Identify Information/Data Requirements and their Sources

Review the existing data on impacts likely to follow from the project to see if
that could be used for assessment purposes. This may provide
disaggregated data according to caste, religion, sex and other
administrative categories, such as persons below poverty line. The
secondary should be checked as much for its adequacy as for its reliability.

This review will also help identify the need for collection of additional
primary data through surveys and participatory methods.

Step 3: Involve All Affected Stakeholders

Share information and consult with all stakeholders. Stakeholders are

people, groups, or institutions which are likely to be affected by a proposed
intervention (either negatively or positively), or those which can affect the
outcome of the intervention. Develop and implement an effective public
involvement plan to involve all interested and affected stakeholders. The
first step in developing plans for consultation and participation is to identify
stakeholders who will be involved in the consultative processes. The basic
questions to consider in identifying stakeholders include:

• Who will be directly or indirectly and positively and negatively

affected?
• Who are the most vulnerable groups?
• Who might have an interest or feel that they are affected?
• Who supports or opposes the changes that the project will produce?
• Whose opposition could be detrimental to the success of the
project?
 • Whose cooperation, expertise, or influence would be helpful to the
success of the project?

Step 4: Conduct Screening

Social Impact Assessment (SIA) process begins with screening. Screening

is undertaken in the very beginning stages of project development. The
purpose of screening is to screen out “no significant impacts” from those
with significant impacts and get a broad picture of the nature, scale and
magnitude of the issues.

This helps in determining the scope of detailed SIA that would be

subsequently carried out.

Step 5: Carry Out Scoping in the Field

The next step is scoping. Essentially, this involves visit to the project site,
and consultation with all stakeholders. It is important to confirm their
understanding of key issues. On-site appreciation of impacts is
indispensable for projects that cause displacement on a large scale. The
local knowledge can be invaluable in finding alternatives that help avoid or
at least reduce the magnitude and severity of adverse impacts.

This is an initial assessment of likely impacts and not meant to determine

the level of impact. It should only identify all of the issues and affected
groups to get ‘all the cards on the table’

The next step is undertaking Social Impact Assessment and the following
are the major activities:

Step 6: Prepare a Socioeconomic Profile of Baseline Condition

To assess the extent of social impacts, it is necessary to assess the socio-

economic conditions of the affected people. This assessment generally
involves conducting a socioeconomic survey and a broad based
consultation with all affected groups.

The socioeconomic profiling should not be restricted to adversely affected

population. The survey should include those who benefit from the
employment and other economic opportunities generated by the project.

Step 7: Survey of Host Population

This survey is carried out to see that in the host area enough land, income
earning opportunities and other resources exist to sustain additional
population from the affected area, and that this influx does not put pressure
on local resources that the host population may resent. The other important
thing to see is that the people being relocated and the hosts are socially
from a similar socio-cultural background. The similarity in background helps
greatly reduce social/ethnic frictions.

Step 8: Identify and Assess the Impacts

Once the range of impacts that are predictable has been identified, the next
step is to determine their significance (that is, whether they are acceptable,
require mitigation, or are unacceptable). Since many impacts are not
quantifiable, it is impossible to rank them objectively. The community
perceptions of an impact and those of the SIA team are not necessarily the
same. The affected people should therefore be consulted in ranking
impacts.

If impacts are found unacceptable, the SIA must clearly state that giving
reasons. Generally, the Social Impact Assessment is expected to result in
specific mitigation plans to address relevant social/resettlement issues and
potential impacts.

Step 9: Develop a Mitigation Plan

Develop a mitigation plan to firstly avoid displacement, secondly to minimize

it, and thirdly to compensate for adverse impacts. The major contribution of
a SIA study is to help plan for, manage, and then mitigate any negative
impacts (or enhance any positive ones) that may arise due to a proposed
project.
Step 10: Monitoring

After the mitigation plan has been implemented, it should be monitored. A

monitoring programme should be developed that is capable of identifying deviations from
the proposed action and any important unanticipated impacts. This should track project
and program development and compare real impacts with projected ones. It should spell
out (to the degree possible) the nature and extent of additional steps that should take
place when unanticipated impacts or those larger than the projections occur.

Principles of SIA:

(1): Involve the Diverse Public

It is important to first identify all potentially affected groups and

individuals, and involve them throughout the SIA process. This involvement
must reach out to groups that are routinely excluded from decision making
due to cultural, linguistic and economic barriers (lower caste and tribal
groups, minorities and poor people). The involvement should be truly
interactive, with communication flowing both ways between the agency and
affected groups. This engagement will ensure that stakeholder groups
understand what the project is about and the possible ways it might affect
them, both positive and negative.

(2): Analyze Impact Equity

Projects affect different groups differently. Impacts should therefore

be specified differentially for affected groups, not just measured in the
aggregate. Identification of all groups likely to be affected is central to the
concept of impact equity. There will always be winners and losers as a
result of the decision to build a dam or undertake some other development
work. SIA should identify who will win and who will lose, but no groups and
individuals that are considered vulnerable due to race, ethnicity, caste,
gender, occupation, age or other factors should have to bear the brunt of
adverse social impacts.
(3): Focus the Assessment

Often, time and resources available for doing social impact

assessment are very limited. In such circumstances, the best course is to
focus on the most significant social impacts, giving high priority to impacts
identified by the people themselves. It is well known that some groups low in
power do not usually participate in project preparation stage, but SIA must
ensure that their concerns are fully addressed. At the same time, the role of
SIA practitioners in impact analysis and assessment remains important.
They have the expertise to help prioritize issues, and are able to identify
impacts often missed out by the people themselves.

In addition to impacts on households, an accurate assessment of

loss to the community assets also needs to be carried out. This impact
assessment should include the following: (a) Common property resources,
(b) Public structures, (c) Cultural property, and (d) Infrastructure

(4): Identify Methods and Assumptions and Define Significance

SIA should use easily understood methods and assumptions that are
transparent and replicable. The methods and assumptions used in the SIA
should be made publicly available. A brief summary should clearly describe
the methods used, the assumptions made, and the significance of impacts
determined. This will allow decision makers as well as affected people to
evaluate the assessment process.

(5): Provide Feedback on Social Impacts to Project Planners

The SIA findings are inputs for designing a project to mitigate

negative impacts and enhance positive impacts. The project design process
must ensure that all affected and interested persons get an opportunity to
comment on the draft before it is given a final shape.
(6): Use SIA Practitioners

Trained social scientists using social science research methods

alone will get the best results. An experienced SIA practitioner will know
what data to look for. His familiarity with impacts that have occurred
elsewhere under similar settings will be an asset. It will be easier for him to
identify the full range of impacts and then select procedures appropriate for
their measurement. The presence of a social scientist in the interdisciplinary
team will reduce the probability of any major social impact remaining
uncounted.

It is extremely important that the SIA practitioner be an independent

social scientist, not a part of the regulatory authority sponsoring the SIA
study.

(7): Establish Monitoring and Mitigation Programmes

The monitoring of important social impact variables and the

mitigation programmes is critical to the SIA process. The monitoring and
mitigation should be a joint responsibility of the project and the affected
community.

A social impact assessment not only predicts the likely impacts, it

should also identify means to mitigate those adverse impacts. Mitigation
includes: avoiding the impact by not undertaking the project; or undertaking
it with a modified design that reduce the impact; or by compensating for
unavoidable and/or irreducible impacts.

(8): Identify Data Sources

Generally, SIAs draw on the following three sources of information:

(a) Published scientific literature, (b) Secondary data sources including
various government documents and official reports, and (c) Primary data
from the affected area. All these three sources are important, but not all
 projects may need them in equal measure. Some SIAs may require more
primary data from the affected area than the published materials from
journals or books, for example.

The SIA can usefully consult previously published social science

books, journal articles that document knowledge of impacts and case
studies from similar projects. The best secondary data sources include
census, compendium of statistics, land records data, and several
government planning and development reports. Survey research, informant
interviews, and participant observation are among the important primary
data sources that can be used to verify data collected from other sources.
Often, project area people are quite knowledgeable about the local
socioeconomic situation and can provide a better understanding of the
broader range of likely impacts.

(9): Plan for Gaps in Data

Often, data relevant and necessary to carry out an assessment is not

available yet the SIA is to be carried out. In circumstances when information
is incomplete or unavailable, it should be made abundantly clear that
assessment has been made in the absence of relevant and necessary data,
explaining why this could not be obtained.

c. Food security

Food Security

Food security is defined as the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is
considered food secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.
The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as existing "when all people at all
times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active
life".

Commonly, the concept of food security is defined as including both physical and
economic access to food that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food
preferences. Household food security exists when all members have access to enough
food for an active, healthy life. Food security incorporates a measure of resilience to
future disruption or unavailability of critical food supply due to various risk factors
including droughts, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.
Pillars of Food Security:
The WHO states that there are three pillars that determine food security: food availability, food
access, and food use and misuse. In 2009, the World Summit on Food Security stated that the
"four pillars of food security are availability, access, utilization, and stability".
1. Availability
2. Access
Food access refers to the affordability and allocation of food, as well as the preferences of
individuals and households. The UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights noted
that the causes of hunger and malnutrition are often not a scarcity of food but an inability to
access available food, usually due to poverty. Poverty can limit access to food, and can also
increase how vulnerable an individual or household is to food price spikes. Access depends on
whether the household has enough income to purchase food at prevailing prices or has
sufficient land and other resources to grow its own food. Households with enough resources can
overcome unstable harvests and local food shortages and maintain their access to food. There
are two distinct types of access to food:
a. Direct access: A household produces food using human and material resources.
b. Economic access: A household purchases food produced elsewhere.

Location can affect access to food and which type of access a family will rely
on. The assets of a household, including income, land, products of labor,
inheritances, and gifts can also determine a household's access to food.
3. Utilization
It refers to the metabolism of food by individuals. Once food is obtained by a household, a
variety of factors affect the quantity and quality of food that reaches members of the household.
In order to achieve food security, the food ingested must be safe and must be enough to meet
the physiological requirements of each individual.
4. Stability
Food stability refers to the ability to obtain food over time. Food insecurity can be transitory,
seasonal, or chronic.
a. Transitory food insecurity: In this food insecurity food may be unavailable during
certain periods of time. At the food production level, natural disasters and
drought result in crop failure and decreased food availability. Civil conflicts can
also decrease access to food. Instability in markets resulting in food-price spikes
can cause transitory food insecurity. Other factors that can temporarily cause
food insecurity are loss of employment or productivity, which can be caused by
illness.
b. Seasonal food: This insecurity can result from the regular pattern of growing
seasons in food production.
c. Chronic (or permanent) food insecurity: It is defined as the long-term, persistent
lack of adequate food. In this case, households are constantly at risk of being
unable to acquire food to meet the needs of all members. Chronic and transitory
food insecurity are linked, since the reoccurrence of transitory food security can
make households more vulnerable to chronic food insecurity.