AN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT ON COROMANDEL INTERNATIONAL LIMITED KAKINADA

Industrial training report submitted to GICE, VISAKHAPATNAM

In partial fulfillment for the award of
DIPLOMA IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING [OIL TECHNOLOGY]

BY
MARISETTI PAVAN

14O65-CHOT-026

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. MARISETTI PAVAN bearing PIN:

14065-CHOT-026 CHEMICAL OIL TECHNOLOGY bonafied a student of GOVERNMENT INSTITUTE OF
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,
Visakhapatnam has undergone sandwich industrial training (chemical engineering) in murugappa group
M/s.COROMANDEL
INTERNATIONAL LIMITED, BEACH ROAD KAKINADA during the period 06-DEC-2016 to 31-MAY-2017.
During the period of training his conduct is found to be

PLANT MANAGER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the management of M/s Coromandel International
Limited for providing us the opportunity to do industrial training in their industry.
We are indebted to SRI K.SHANKARANARAYANAMOORTHIGARU, SR. ASSOCIATEV.P AND HEAD– MFG., for
co-operation in completion of our industrial training.
WE ARE ALSO SO THANKFUL TO:

JAI PRAKASH BHAGAT - SR MANAGER (TECHNICAL SERVICE)

MANIMARAN - MANAGER (OPERATIONS)

MR. P.S.N MURTHY - SR.MANAGER (HR)

For their immense co-operation. A special thanks to all employees of Coromandel international
limited, Kakinada for their co-operation and guidance.

We extend our copious thanks to our respected principle and our respected lecturers, who gave the
opportunity to us.

PRINICIPAL (GPM)

HOD OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

[CHEMICAL OIL TECHNOLOGY]

LECTURER

LECTURER
 INDEX
 COMPANY PROFILE
 INTRODUCTION TO FERTILIZERS
 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH AND SAFETY
 OFFSITES
 GRANULATION PLANT
 BAGGING PLANT
 INTRODUCTION TO COROMANDEL

The Company was initially promoted by The Government of Andhra Pradesh and the Asia’s largest
cooperative, M/s. Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co-operative Limited (IFFCO), and was incorporated as Joint
Venture Company on 17th December, 1981 with a capital outlay of Rs.108 cores to produce 300,000 MT of
Di-Ammonium Phosphate Fertilizer. The Plant was expanded from time to time and the installed capacity
has been revised to 11.25 lacks MT per annum with capability to produce wide range of products.
The developments of New Deep Water Port at Kakinada in 1994, on side berthing facilities for the
vessels are available at Kakinada since 1996.The Company had developed facilities at New Deep Water Port
for transferring raw materials i.e., Ammonia, Phosphoric Acid & Sulphuric Acid through 2.7Kms long, 400
mm ID pipelines to the plant storages.
As a part of Disinvestments process of the Government of Andhra Pradesh of its stake (25.88%) in
the company, the Government invited open bids from interested parties. M/s. Coromandel International
Limited (COROMANDEL) as Preferred Bidder has paid the consideration. M/s. COROMANDEL entered into a
sale purchase agreement with the Government of Andhra Pradesh on 12 th July 2003. M/s. Coromandel has
obtained ISO-9001, ISO-14001 certification and has also obtained OHSAS 18001 in December 2006.
M/s. Coromandel have a proposal is to expand the capacity of NPK fertilizers manufacturing by 4.25
Lacks /year by adding “C” train of pipe reactor system to the existing A and B trains of manufacture. The
existing A and B trains are used for the manufacturing of both Di- Ammonium Phosphate and NPK grade
Fertilizers with an annual capacity of 11.25 lacks tons. The technology adopted at present is the pipe
reactor system and the technology was provided by M/s. INCRO Spain. The pipe reactor
system was identified for its environmental and other techno economic advantages.
The Company is accredited with ISO 14001 – 1999, ISO 9001
– 2000 & ISO 18001 – 2006, PSMS and awarded with FAI award for improvement in overall performance for
the year 2004-05 from Fertilizer Association of India system was identified for its environmental and other
techno economic advantages.
The Company is accredited with ISO 14001 – 1999, ISO 9001
– 2000 & ISO 18001 – 2006, PSMS and awarded with FAI award for improvement in overall performance for
the year 2004-05 from Fertilizer Association of India.
PLANT LOCATION
 Plant located at the sea-port of Kakinada, A.P., and India
 Latitude: 16O.57’ North
 Longitude: 82O.14’ East
 Total Land Area: 704.75 acres.
 Plant Area: 223 acres.
 Green Belt and others 481.75 acres.
 INTRODUCTION TO FERTILISERS

FERTILISERS:
Fertilizers are those substances, which must be added to the soil in order to remove the deficiency of
essential elements required for plant growth.
THE NEED OF FERTILIZING A LAND IS THEREFORE THREE FOLD.
 To supplement what has been eaten up by the plants.
 To supply them an additional tonic and good food. So that they may grow more healthy and produce a
better yield
 To maintain the pH of the soil in the range of 7-8.
 By facilitate optimum growth and health.

ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS:
 Every compound containing nitrogen or phosphorus or calcium etc. cannot be used as a Fertilizer. The chief
requisites of Fertilizer are:
 The element present in the compound must be easily available to the plant.
 The substance must be soluble in water.
 It should be stable, so that it may be made available to the plant for a long time.
 It should maintain the pH of the soil in the vicinity of 7-8
 It should not be a poison for the plant.
 It is also interesting to note that soil fertilization is not merely a matter of supplying certain compound in
given proportion. The most important factor, which is of prime importance in the functioning of fertilizers,
is the movement of water in the soil. Application of lime opens the pores of the soil and enables a free
circulation of water.

Another factor of importance in the functioning of the fertilizers is the action of CO2 on the material in
the soil. CO2 is soluble in water and forms carbonic acid which has a high solvent power for the carbonates
of Ca and Mg and oxides of Fe and Mn. These compounds are nearly insoluble in pure water. Hence
carbonic acid helps to circulate many fertilizing substances in the soil, which are otherwise hardly available.

CLASSIFICATION OF FERITILIZERS:

FERTILIZERS ARE CLASSIFIED AS:

 Straight fertilizer
 Compound fertilizer
 Complex fertilizer

STRAIGHT FERTILIZERS:
A Fertilizer intended to supply only one nutrient is known is known as straight fertilizer. This is used to
supply additional nitrogen there by reducing leaching loss. Potash is often added to pasture as a straight
material. Phosphate is also applied straight, but not much lesser extent than in mixed fertilizers.
E.g.: Urea - NH2CONH2
COMPOUND FERTILIZERS:
A Fertilizer intended to supply more than one nutrient is called compound fertilizer. Compound
fertilizer production involves a chemical reaction.
COMPLEX FERTILIZERS:
These are prepared by mixing appropriate amounts of compound fertilizers like ammonium salts,
super phosphates, and potassium salts etc. and in this manner they supply more than one essential
element to the soil.

ACTION OF UREA AS FERTILIZER:

Urea is first hydrolyzed by soil water to NH3 and CO2. Then Nitrosifications of NH3 Takes place by the
agency of nitro amines and Nitrosococcus bacteria and nitrites are formed nitrification of nitrites is brought
about by nitrobacteria to form nitrates utilized by the plants in the soil.
Urea is used in complex fertilizer products only for making up balance of nitrogen required for preparing a
particular grade while the main source of nitrogen is ammonia. Its use is limited to certain maximum, as
use more than this will affect the keeping quality of the fertilizers. For instance urea and DAP have critical
relative humidity of 72.5% and 82.8% respectively at 300oC. When urea is mixed with DAP, the critical
relative humidity of mixture may drop up to 62%. This will make the fertilizer more prone to moisture
absorption from atmosphere as a result of which granules will stick to each other. It is, therefore, desirable
to limit the urea content to a certain maximum in these grades so that a good physical condition is
maintained.

BASIC PARAMETERS OF FERTILIZER SPECIFICATION:

SIGNIFICANCE OF NUTRIENT LIMITS:
The main purpose of using fertilizer is to supply nutrients. Hence it is desired to guarantee some
minimum amount of nutrients that shall be contained in a fertilizer. Nitrogen is guaranteed not only as a
total but also in different forms such as Ammonia (NH3), nitrate (NO2), and urea form. In case of
phosphate, values are given in terms of total P205, water soluble P2O5 and citrate soluble P2O5 potassium
and Zinc are given as water-soluble K2O and Zn respectively.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MOISTURE LIMITS:
Moisture in small quantity acts as a binding agent and, therefore helps in maintaining desired physical
structure. However moisture beyond a certain limit destroys physical structure and it becomes difficult to
handle the product, in addition, excessive moisture also makes the fertilizer a heterogeneous mass and
thus difficulty is experienced for taking representative sample. It is therefore, desirable to restrict limit for
moisture content in fertilizers to a certain maximum limit.
SIGNIFICANCE OF FREE ACIDITY:
Most of the fertilizers are manufactured by reaction of raw material with acids. Excess of acid has three
main effects. It becomes corrosive to bags containing such fertilizer. It becomes difficult to apply these
fertilizers with bare hands In consumers lime or calcium form the soil in equivalent among and continues
use of fertilizer having excessive acidity depletes the lime content, which is essential for maintaining good
physical conditions of the soil.

SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPURITIES:
Impurities are unwanted chemicals, which are present in fertilizer due to their inherent presence in raw
material during manufacturing process. There is always limit below which their removal is not economical.
Keeping this is mind, a maximum limit is provides beyond which the impurity is either harmful to plants and
soil or affects the keeping quality of fertilizers. Some of the impurities specified in fertilizer specification are
given below.

 Arsenic, which is harmful to plant, should not be more than 0.01% in Ammonium Sulphate.
 Calcium nitrate presence in fertilizer deteriorates keeping quality of fertilizer. A maximum limit of 0.5%
is provided in calcium ammonium nitrate.
 Sodium chloride, which can deteriorate physical properties of soil, should not be more than 2% in SOP
and 3.5% in MOP.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PARTICAL SIZE LIMITS:
Surface are per unit of fertilizer depends on the particle size. If the particles are too small more surface
area is exposed resulting in interaction with soil particles, which may cause nutrient fixation.

SIGNIFICANCE OF ANGLE OF REPOSES AND GRANULATES STRENGTH:

Angle of repose is a measure of flow ability of fertilizer. It is measured by dropping known quantity of
fertilizer from definite size of funnel. The fertilizer settles down in the form of a cone. Tangents of this
cone, should not more than 45o for a good free flowing fertilizer. The strength of granule is important as
fertilizer is subject to a pressure during transport and storage. If fertilizer granules are not stronger enough,
to put up with this pressure, they will turn into loose power.
 TOLERANCE LIMIT:
Fertilizers are manufactured as per defined standard and guaranteed nutrient contents. If on analysis it is
found that the product if failing short of nutrients by certain limits, which are accepted as due to the error
creating in these limits is called as tolerance, limits. In other words, the limits of variation within which a
sample is not considered to be nonstandard are called tolerance limit. In case of compound fertilizers,
there are two limits and a fertilizer must satisfy both the conditions. The permissible limits of tolerance are
0.5 unit of variation of individual nutrients and 2.5% of all the nutrients combined together. In NP & NRK
complexes containing less than 40% and 60% combined nutrients respectively, as per first condition, 0.5
units can be allowed for individual nutrients but the total should not be more than 2.5% in all combined
nutrients.

In NP & NPK complexes containing more than 40% and 60% combined nutrients respectively, the
second limit (of 2.5%) ceases to apply. By allowing 2.5% tolerance allowance, the total tolerances exceed
the limit of 1.0 unit for binary fertilizers and 1.5 units for 3 nutrients containing fertilizers and thus will
exceed the limit of 0.5 units for each nutrient. Hence, in fertilizers, one can permit 0.5 units of variation for
each nutrient but not a variation of 2.5% in all. In NP & NPK complexes containing 40% and 60% total
nutrients respectively, both the conditions of tolerance limits are applicable.
Fertilizer specification provides standards for moisture, free acidity, impurities and particle size but
there is no tolerance limits provided for them. It may be noted that tolerance limits is provided for total
nutrients and not for different forms of nutrients say
Ammonical- nitrate and urea forms of nitrogen and citrate soluble and water-soluble forms of P2O5.
Any fertilizer not meeting the requirement of prescribed standards of specification is anon standard
of substandard fertilizer. A fertilizer can be substandard due to
Slackness during manufacturing, storage and transportations.
2. Addition of some cheaper material.
PLANT NUTRIENTS:
Plants for their growth require 17 elements, namely carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, potassium, nitrogen,
calcium, magnesium, sulphur, zinc, cobalt, born, copper, manganese, molybdenum, chlorine and iron out of
these three, namely carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are supplied by air and water and so these are called
“natural nutrients”. The remaining elements are supplied by soil. If the soil is deficient in meeting the
equirement, then those are supplied through fertilizers. Nutrients required in large amounts are termed as
macronutrients and those required in small quantity are called micronutrients.
 There are six macronutrients. Plants cannot take up nutrients in very chemical form. The chemical
forms in which nutrients are available to plants are given in table. The following are the forms in which
nutrients are available to plants.

NUTRIENTS ELEMENTS SYMBOL CHEMICALFORMS

N
Nitrogen, NH3, NO3,
P
phosphorus, H3PO4,H2PO4,
K
Potassium, K+
MACRONUTRIENTS Ca
calcium, Ca++
Mg
magnesium, Mg++
S
sulphur SO4+2
Iron, Fe Fe++
MICRONUTRIENTS Manganese, Mn Mn++
copper Cu Cu+2

NUTRIENT FUNCTIONS:
The role of various nutrients in the plant growth has been studied extensively but is not yet fully
understood. Some of the important findings are, however briefly given below.
NITROGEN:
Nitrogen is also a special constituent of the chlorophyll without which photosynthesis is not possible.
Nitrogen makes up 16-18% of the plant protein and constitutes 1-4% of the dry weight of the plants and is
required in large amounts than any of the plant nutrients. A plentiful supply of nitrogen may cause
relatively more protoplasm to be produced than cell walls and the leaves are soft and juicy and also less
robust to withstand the wind and rain. Leaves are as usually dark green. Restricted supply of nitrogen may
cause the leaves thin small and mature quickly and become yellow soon.The main sources of Nitrogen are
 Fertilizers
 Organic nitrogen compounds formed in the soil by reoccurring natural
 Atmosphere

PHOSPHORUS:
Most soils contain phosphate in the form of complex calcium phosphate, iron and aluminum complexes
and organic compounds. Such sources are insoluble and so the plants can make very little use of them. It
has been found that certain high-energy phosphate bonds are involved in the respiratory and
photosynthetic processes.
POTTASIUM:
It is found that a major proportion of the potash in a plant resides in the straw or haulm. It has been found
that it is essential for healthy growth of plants and cannot be replaced even by closely related elements as
sodium and lithium. In the plant it either occurs as a part of the anion of organic acid or as a soluble
inorganic salt in the tissues. Formation and movement of carbohydrates in the plant is contributed by
potassium and a deficiency of potassium and a deficiency of potassium quickly reduce the carbohydrate
content. Potassium has also been found to contribute to the vigor and resistance of plants. Signs of the
potassium deficiency in the plant are readiness to wilt and the yellowing of the plant, a falling of the leaves,
and leaf scorch and poor development of fruit. Plants growing with sufficient potash don’t wilt or scorch so
easily in warm dry weather.
MAGNESIUM:
Magnesium acts as a carrier of phosphate and therefore plays an important role in the formation of
phospholipids and insynthesis of nucleoproteins. Magnesium is also a mineral constituent of chlorophyll
and makes up 2.7% of the weight of chlorophyll.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS:
GRADE:
The minimum analysis of a fertilizer containing primary nutrients fertilizer compounds is commonly
referred to by a sequence of three numbers. The first of which represents the percentage of nitrogen
expressed as N2. The second the percentage of phosphorous expressed as P 2O5 and the third percentage of
potassium expressed as K2O.
E.g. 18-46-0 (N-P-K), indicates 18% (wt) of N 2 of total and 46% (wt) of P 2O5 of total and 0.0% (wt) of
potash.
NOTE:
Plants do not take phosphorous as P 2O5 and potassium as K2O5 even then they are expressed in fertilizer as
P2O5 and K2O because early chemists when analyzing plant for various elements, they found that when
these elements were expressed as oxides, it sum up to hundred indication total analysis. Since then it has
been a practice to express various plant nutrients found in plant in oxide form. All such nutrient except
nitrogen, which was not found in plant ash, is expressed as oxides. For instance P as P 2O5, Ca as CaO, and K
as K2O etc.
MOLE RATIO:
This is the abbreviation for molecular ratio and is defined as the ratio of number of moles of ammonia
reacted with one mode of phosphoric acid. Since each mole of NH 3 contains one atom of nitrogen and each
mole of H3PO4 contains an atom of phosphorous, mole ratio is defined as N/P.
E.g.: Mole ratio of pure Mono-Ammonium Phosphate is 1.0
Mole ratio of pure Di-Ammonium Phosphate is 2.0
RECYCLE RATIO:
The recycle ratio is the ratio of weights of recalculating fertilizer and product. E.g.: If 180 MTPH of material
is recalculated to obtain 30 MTPH of production, the recycle ratio is 180/30 i.e. 6:1.

AMMONICAL NITROGEN:
It represents the quantity of Nitrogen, which is present in the form of ammonia fertilizers.

UREA NITROGEN:
It represents the quantity of Nitrogen present in the fertilizer in the form of urea to increase the Nitrogen
content to reach the given specification.

TOTAL NITROGEN:
It is the sum of Ammonical and Urea Nitrogen. It represents the total amount of Nitrogen content present
in the fertilizer.

WATER-SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE:
It represents the amount of P2O5 in the form of DAP and MAP.

CITRATE SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE:

It represents the amount of P2O5 in the form of Calcium Di Phosphate, Iron and Aluminum Phosphate.

AVAILABLE PHOSPHATE:
It is the sum of Water Soluble Phosphate and Citrate Soluble Phosphate.

CITRATE IN-SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE:

It represents the amount of P2O5 in the form of Calcium, Iron, and Aluminium Tri Phosphate.

TOTAL PHOSPHATE:
It is the sum of available Phosphate and Citrate in Soluble Phosphate.

ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH & SAFETY

Every process industry is exposed to many Hazards and incidents. To prevent the accidents in a
industry safety plays a very important role. COROMANDEL has a promising integrated safety policy PSMS
i.e., Process safety management system and OSHAS (Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series.)
There are some specific dos and dont’s in the safety so as to prevent the accidents.
 DO’S:

 Understand the instructions clearly and in case of any doubt clarify them before acting
 Use personal protective equipment recommended and learn correct
 Take a position on windward side (I.e. your position should be such that wind blows from your back
towards the equipment, valve machine being operated). While issuing or collecting samples or draining
any line or vessel or equipment.
 Maintain a log of all events carried out by you chronologically without emissions and commissions.
 Wear safety helmet and safety shoes while in the factory premises
 Learn the location of safety cupboards, first aid boxes, fire hoses, fire hydrants and fire extinguishers, eye
wash fountains, showers.
 Step the job or report immediately to supervisor concerned if any unsafe conditions or act is observed or
in the event of any doubt.
 Keep the work area neat and tidy.

DONT’S:
 Do not smoke or use naked light/flame etc., in no smoking zones.
 Do not adopt any make shift arrangements.
 Do not attempt to operate or set in motion any machine or stop any running machine without authority
to do so.
 Do not indulge in horseplay.
 Do not wear loose fitting clothing
 Do not position yourself in line with valve spindle while opening or closing.
 Do not distract others to allow you to be distracted by other.
 Do not leave tools or materials where they are likely to fall accidentally on persons working at lower
levels.
 Do not temper with any instruments.
 Do not wear synthetic clothes.
 Do not park or allow to park or side scooters, mopeds etc., in the no smoking zones.
 Do not enter into any equipment vat fit or vessel without proper authority.
 Do not enter indulge in chit chatting.
 Do not allow outsiders, visitors and other than your plant staff to come to your section.
 Do not allow others job interferes with your job or vice –versa.
 Do not leave the work spot without being relieved properly nor relieve a body without taking charge fully.
 Do not position yourself before a purge point. It may cause, asphyxia.
 Do not start or charge any equipment without clearance from all concerned indulging safety.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT:

During design, construction and erection phases all efforts have been exercised to ensure safety, and
eliminate the hazard altogether. In spite of all this sometimes it becomes un evitable whether due to
human error or machinery failure to confront a hazardous situation where neither an engineering revision
nor alternative method is possible to immediately execute. Under such circumstances it becomes necessary
to use personal protective equipment as last resort but not as an alternative.

IN SUCH INSTANCES:
1)Choose the personal protective equipment very carefully, taking into consideration all aspects.
 Explain the nature of the hazard to the employee.
 Explain what will happen if such personal protective equipment is not used.
 Ensure the employee knows about the device thoroughly.
 Make sure he knows the capabilities and limitations of the equipment.
2)Only after explaining the above vividly and clearly then alone and employee shall be allowed to enter
the hazardous area.
 The various personal protective equipment provided along with a brief description of the
items are given below.

HEAD PROTECTION:
To protect the head from flying particles, falling objects and electric shocks, hard hats or safety
helmets are used. The helmet consists of shell and suspension cradle. There should be at least a gap 1 1\2 ‘’
between the shell top and the cradle top when worn to take the designed impact and for uniform
distribution.

The following precautions are required;

 It should not be painted as the solvents weaken the shell.
 Holes should not be drilled as it weakens structure and alter the protection.
 The hardness is to be periodically changed.
 The helmet is to be washed with soap solution periodically.

EYE PROTECTION:
 Eyes constitute most important and delicate organ of the human body and it requires utmost
protection. So while choosing safety appliances for the protection of eyes maximum care is to be exercised.
Injury to eyes can be caused by physical agents like flying particles, welding sparkles, dust grit or chemical
agents like splashes of chemicals or radiations. So appropriate protective devices is to be selected taking
into consideration to the individual’s eyes and the type of hazard.

For protection of eyes there are two types:

1. Protection against impact / physical contact.
2. Protection against radiations.
Various models of goggles are available meeting the requirements of protection against impact as
well as radiation.
FACE PROTECTION:
A wide variety of face shields are available to protect the face and neck from flying particles sprays of
hazardous liquids, hot solutions and molten metal.
NOTE: Face shields do not offer full protection ex. flying particles, should be used with discretion
and in combination with other safety devices.

EAR PROTECTION:
Industrial noise may cause annoyance, permanent loss in hearing acuity and difficulty in
communication if noise level is more than 90dBA. For protection two types of personal protective
equipment are available viz. ear plugs and ear muffs. The former efforts protection up to 115 db and the
later up to 135 db . For noises higher than 135 db engineering controls are required. However both are to
be worn properly in the absence of which it affects the efficiency of the ear muff or ear plug.
HAND PROTECTION:
Several types of hand protective devices are available ranging from finger guards to that of gauntlets.
The type of guard to be used depends up on the actual conditions of work and requires to be chased
carefully.

The following types are made available.

PVC Gloves For acids, alkalies, solvents.

Rubber Gloves For acids, alkalies, solvents.

Asbestos Gloves For high temperatures.

Canvas Gloves For general wear and tear abrasions.

Electric Gloves For electrical purpose of specific rating.
 FOOT PROTECTION:
Once again several types of foot protectors are available, the choice of selection being on the type of
work.
The types of shoes being used here are
SAFETY SHOE WITH STEEL TOE: For general protection against falling materials, rolling objects,
accidental kicking of sharp objects.
GUM SHOES: For protection against acid and alkali splashes are where water spillages, is there.

BODY PROTECTION:
In addition to the above sometimes it is essential to use other protective devices for protecting body.
Some of them are Aprons and Suits etc,. Aprons provided partial protection and hence should be used with
discretion.

PVC Aprons Protection of body against chemicals.

Rubber Aprons Protection of body against chemicals.

Leather Aprons Protection from falling / flying sparks burning particles.

PVC suit with hood Protection of body .

FALL PROTECTION:
When persons are employed to work at elevations more than 1.5m high, to prevent falls, use of safety
belt is recommended. Several types of safety belts are available and selection should be based on the
nature of work. For general purpose to prevent falls through short distances i.e., not more than through a
fall of 6 ‘ or for retrieving a person from hazardous work area safety belts are must.

PRECAUTION:
1. Lifeline should be tied to permit as little slack as possible to minimize freefall. There should not be any
beam, or other abstraction in the path, which he may strive in the event of a fall.
2. While assessing the length of life line, total free fall and elongation are to be taken into consideration.
3. Ropes should not be exposed to high temperatures. In the event of any damage to the rope it should be
rejected.
4. Knots reduce the strength of ropes.
5. Safety belt should be inspected before each use.
6. At least in a quarter, it should be inspected.
7. Safety belt should be tested.
8. Safety belts subjected to maximum impact in the event of an accidental fall shall be condemned
immediately.
9. It should be worn properly to prevent slipping out of it.

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION:

Like any other personal protective equipment (PPE) respiratory protection shall be resorted only when
other methods of control of Hazard are not feasible or even if feasible they may not be immediately
feasible due to various administrative or technical reasons.
The following factors are to be considered while choosing an appropriate respiratory protective device
for any given situation involving air contamination.
1. The nature of the Hazardous operation or process.
2. The type of air containment including its physical properties, chemical properties, physiological effects on
the body and concentration of contaminant. The duration for which respiratory protection to be provided.
3. The location of the uncontaminated Hazardous area with respect to source of un contaminated repairable
air.
4. The state of health of personal involved.
5. The functional and physical characteristics of respiratory protective devices.
QUALITY OF AIR:
The air being supplied to or provided by any respiratory protective device must be free from
contaminants. The maximum concentrations of impurities permitted are:

Condensed Hydrocarbons 5 mg/m3 at NTP

Carbon Monoxide 10mg/m3
Carbon Dioxide 1000 mg/m3
odour Odourless

AIR PURIFYING DEVICES:

This type of devices cleanses the contaminated atmosphere. Chemicals are used to remove specific
gases and vapours and mechanical filters are used to remove
particular matter.

TYPES OF AIR PURIFYING DEVICES:

1. Canister mask
2. Chemical cartridge
3. Particulate filter respirator

PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (PSMS):

It is a system based on the Occupational Safety & Health Administration of the USA. It is now
required by law in the USA for all chemical plants handling hazardous chemicals to adopt this system. In
India, the system is not mandatory. The Murugappa group has developed its own corporate PSMS
standards.
The goal of the Process Safety Management System is to avoid any incident or accident in a
Chemical Process Plant facility that handles or processes hazardous chemicals. There are 13 standards of
the system, which have to be followed. These standards have been developed after analyzing incidents
accidents in the chemical industry. The Process safety management system is in addition to the existing
safety policies and procedures.
Murugappa Group’s topmost priority is to protect the health and safety of its employees, the
community, and environment and facility assets. The Process Safety Management System has been
adopted to focus on excellence, by fostering continuous improvement and employee involvement in the
safe operation of our plants.
THE ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ARE:
 Process Safety Information
 Process Hazards Analysis
 Standard Operating Procedures
 Contractor Control
 Training
 Pre-Start up Safety Review (PSSR)
 Safe Work Practices
 Mechanical Integrity
 Incident Investigation
 Emergency Response and Planning
 Management of Change
 Compliance audit and management review
 Employee participation
STANDARD:
A standard is a set of written minimum requirements for each element, which has to be met
compulsorily.
BRIEF EXPLANATION OF EACH STANDARD OF PSMS:

1) PROCESS SAFETY INFORMATION:

Every plant personnel must be able to get ready information on:
Safety information of hazardous chemicals and Material Safety Data Sheets. Safe operating limits and
consequences of deviating these limits. Maximum and safe operating inventory data. Up to date Process
and Instrumentation Drawings. Up to date Process flow drawings. Design information like material of
construction, Relief system design basis, Emergency interlock system etc. Calculations performed to verify
relief device settings. Documentations of inspections, testing of safety critical devices.
2) PROCESS HAZARD ANALYSIS:
This is a standard, which requires a scientific system of evaluating process hazards associated with the
daily operation of the facilities and to provide recommendations. The most common method used is
Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) studies.

3) OPERATING PROCEDURES:
This standard requires written operating procedures for operations involving storage, handling or
processing of hazardous materials. The procedures must be accurate, up to date and consistent with
process safety information. The operating procedures will have to be strictly followed.
4) CONTRACTOR CONTROL:
This standard describes the steps necessary to ensure an effective system for contractors to perform
all work in a safe manner and that they are fully prepared to work in the facilities environment.

5) TRAINING:
This standard ensures that each employee presently involved in a process and each employee before
being involved in a newly assigned process are trained in the overview of the process and procedures.
Special emphasis on specific safety and health hazards, emergency operations shutdown and safe work
practices applicable to the employees job task.
6) PRE-START UP SAFETY REVIEW (PSSR):
To ensure that systems are in place to prevent process related incidents caused by inadequate,
incomplete or unauthorized design and / or installation.
7) SAFE WORK PRACTICES:
This standard ensures that systems are in place for the safe performance of operations,
maintenance and construction work practices. It also ensures that there is a system to control materials
and substances that could affect process safety.
8) MECHANICAL INTEGRITY:
This standard requires effective systems to establish and maintain safety critical equipment in
proper condition. Safety critical equipments are those equipments whose failure could result in process
related incidents.
9) INCIDENT INVESTIGATION:
This standard ensures that a system is in place to provide effective investigations of process related
incidents which result in, or could have reasonably have resulted in injury to personnel, fire, explosion,
toxic release or damage to equipment.
10) EMERGENCY PLANNING AND RESPONSE:
This standard ensures that an effective system is in place for an emergency management program
and response plan.
11) MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE:
This standard ensures that a system exists for management of changes to process units that process
or handle hazardous materials. When changes occur, this system ensures that they do not cause a process
related incident. The changes governed by this standard deal with process technology, facilities,
procedures, materials of construction, equipment and protective systems.
12) EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION:
This standard ensures that all employees are involved in the implementation of the PSMS system.
13) COMPLIANCE AUDIT & MANAGEMENT REVIEW:
 This standard ensures that an effective system exists to verify that the procedures and practices
developed under the Process Safety Management System standards are adequate and are being followed.
The system is implemented using a team approach. The constant feedback on the understanding of
the Process Safety Management System and full participation in the system is essential to the success of
this system.
The system is an elaborate one and any new system requires time to implement. Normally, it takes
about 36 months for the full implementation of this system.

PERMIT WORKS:
If you do any work (job) either it may be risk or easy. We must take the permission from the belonging
departments. In the CORMANDEL different works have different permits. The following types of permits
are given below.
CLASS – 1:-

1A:- Height at work, hot work, pipe line opening, work on fragile roofs.

1B:- Confined space entry, work on equipment internally.

1C:- Work in the ground below 1 meter depth, cable wires, water and air lines etc,.

1D :- Electrical equipments and also electrical related operations.

CLASS- 2:- Remaining works and housekeeping works etc,

 OFF-SITES PLANTS
Away from the plant is called off sites. This department will collect the raw materials (for the manufacture
products) &store that raw material. They are mainly Ammonia, Phosphoric Acid, Sulphuric acid, water and
steam.

MAIN SECTIONS:
 Water treatment plant.
 Steam generation Plant.
 Solar plant.
 Ammonia storage and handling.
 Phosphoric Acid storage and handling.
 Sulphuric acid Storage and handling.

WATER TREATMENT PLANT

Water is one of the most important raw materials for chemical industries. In COROMANDEL it is used
as boiler feed water, cooling tower water, process water and potable water, firewater.
The chief source of raw water for the plant is Aratla Katla reservoir of Godavari River in East Godavari
District. This raw water contains various impurities like dissolved mineral matter, turbidity, sediment, color
& organic matter, dissolved gases & microorganisms.

ANALYSIS OF RAW WATER:

Turbidity : 6-20(avg.) NTU

PH : 7.3 – 8.3
P-Alkalinity : Nil
M-Alkalinity : 118ppm
Total Hardness : 104ppm
TDS : 214ppm
Chlorides as Cl : 24ppm
Sulphate as SO4 : 18ppm
Conductivity : 376(avg.) μ
This water should not be directly fed to the boiler due to be following reason ;
1. FORMATION OF SCALES:
If water containing Ca & Mg salts i.e., hard water is used for producing steam
continuously, the dissolved salts deposit on the boiler tubes as a scale. The scale has low thermal
conductivity and hence increases fuel consumption. It also leads to tube failure due to corrosion and
erosion.
2. Corrosion:
The hydrolysis of the Chlorides of Ca & Mg produces free acids in water. These acids react with iron
walls of the boiler causing corrosion. Dissolved oxygen also corrodes the boiler.

3. Tube failure:
The scale on the boiler tubes reduces the rate of heat transfer and hence they are often heated to
red-hot. Hence the boiler tubes become softer and weaker and this cause distortion of boiler tubes.

4. Danger of explosion:
Whenever thick scales crack, due to uneven expansion, water suddenly comes in contact with
overheated tubes. Hence a large amount of steam is produced suddenly, which may even cause explosion
of the boiler.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION:
The plant receives the raw water through pipeline into the cylindrical dome tank. The water from the
dome tank is then pumped either to the open pond of 7500 m 3 or raw water storage tank of 2700 m 3
capacity or Flash mixer according to the requirement. The water from these tanks is again pumped to flash
mixer.
FLASH MIXER:
Alum is injected to the main pipeline from the water pumps to flash mixer as coagulant. Flash mixer is
a small rectangular tank having a stirrer where lime is added to maintain water at higher Ph due to cause of
adding the alum Ph comes down. Max floc-T is also adding in the flash mixer, it is used for the kill the algae.
HCL, Drewchloro, and Hypo these are adding through by using Generox system. These three chemicals are
using for to kill micro organisms. The water from the flash mixer passed into the clari-flocculator from its
bottom.
SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION:
In plain sedimentation finely divided & colloidal impurities, will not settle down under ordinary
conditions, as their settling vacuities are very small & it needs very long detention period to travel up to
tank bottom which is not practicable. It’s there for necessary that these smaller particles are converted into
large ones with higher settling velocities. This is done by coagulation. For this purpose certain chemicals
known as coagulants are added to water in the tank and thoroughly mixed. The coagulates react with
alkaline salts & form a thick gelatinous precipitate known as flock. This flock has a property of entangling or
attracting fine suspended particle and colloids to form a big flock which settles relatively rapidly by
absorbing color & carrying bacteria. This process is called flocculation. In COROMANDEL alum is used as a
coagulant chemical.
The result of sedimentation with coagulation is that, the coloring matter, bacterial etc., is reduced to
great extent. The bottom of the clari-flocculator is blown down at regular intervals so as to reduce the
extent of residual matter. The clarified water tank used in the process is thoroughly cleaned from time to
time to remove the deposits. The water is allowed to retain in the tank for about 2-3 hours and then run in
to the filter unit.
Fine particles may be agglomerated to increase their size and permit settling along with settable
solids, so that coagulation of fine particles make larger ones by flocculation and these are then removed by
sedimentation. The total process is clarification process. The
added coagulant assistant in these operations, which
under alkaline conditions
form, hydrated
colloidal floes of their
hydroxides.

CLARI-FLOCCULATOR:
The clarifloculator is a circular tank with an inner wall and a sloping bottom is a combined unit
consisting of clarifloculator tank and mechanism installed concentrically inside a conventional clarifier tank.
The clarifloculator mechanism provides control of the floes formation and the clarifier mechanism is
collects the solids as fast as they settle, conveying them towards central outlet by means of a blades
attached to the slowly revolving paddle arm.
The feed is introduced through the hollow center pier of the clarifloculator tank. It enters the
flocculator compartment below the liquid surface through openings in the center pier. Here two provided
stirrers rotating opposite direction produce a gentle controllable to and for motion to provide most
effective contact between newly formed floes and incoming liquid without damaging the flow structure. By
this action floes are given intimate impact with finely divided particulate, which are there by scrubbed out
of suspension.
The completely flocculated liquid flows through the opening at the bottom of clarifloculator tank into
clarifier compartment while the settle solids are conveyed to this opening by means of redial bladed
attached to paddle arm. The solids are given time to
settle and be raked inwards as the liquid
flows radically out ward and clear effluent
discharged over peripheral weirs. The
collected settled solids from the bottom
of clarifloculator are drained periodically.
The clarified water from the clarifloculator is
passed to the clarification tank through
a launder. The clarified water as service water is
pumped to DAP plant, raw material unloading platform and
to cooling tower. The water from this tank is pumped to the
sand filters.

CLARIFLOCULATOR

FILTRATION:
For Filtration, 2 filters (pressure Type) are installed in COROMANDEL. The principle of sand filtration is
basis in formation of slurry surface layer consisting finely deviated clay, algae, bacteria etc. the layer acts as
the filtering medium and the finely deviated suspended matter which escape sedimentation in the
clarifloculator, is arrested along with various types of bacteria by the filter bed. A thin film of layer
suspended matter formed on filter bed, after filtration has proceeded for some time, it is called as vital
layer. Filtration is continued until the resistances build up to such level at which the rate of filtration is too
slow. The bed is then cleaned by scoring with compressed air and an upward current of liquid carries the
solid away.

PRESSURE SAND FILTER:It is cylindrical bed type filter consists of fine sand, a middle layer of coarse sand
and a bottom layer of graded gravel, supported on a perforated metal screen. In operation, the water to be
filtered is introduced at the top on to a baffle, which prevents distributing the sand bed by a direct stream.
The capacity of the sand filter is 23M3 /hr and the pressure maintaining in the pressure sand filter is
0.8 KG/Cm2. The water from the Pressure sand filter is divided into two sections. They are a) Portable water
b) Softening process.
PORTABLE WATER TANK:
The water from the pressure sand filter is taken into a tank called portable water tank where the
water is chlorinated for the removal of germs and bacteria. Chlorination is carried out in the clarification
tank by injecting either chlorine gas from the cylinders of bleaching powder. The chemical action produces
hypo-chlorousacid (HOCL).
CaOCl2Ca (OH) 2 + Cl2
Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCl
Bacteria’s + HOCl Bacteria’s are killed
SOFTENING PROCESS:
The process of removing the hardness of water is termed as softening. As the evaporation rate in
boiler is low the soft water is enough to produce steam. As soft water contains sodium salts, which are
highly soluble even at high temperatures, the boiler is free from scaling. Due to this the Ca and Mg salts,
the potable water is converted into sodium salts in the softening process. The system consists of Base
exchanger (BE) and strong acidic cat ion Exchanger (SAC). The
water from the filters to the softening process in split into two streams to pass parallely through both BE
and SAC.
BASE EXCHANGER:
In contains Zeolite (Hydrated sodium alumino Silicate – Na 2O. Al2O3, xSiO2, yH2O) bed, which is
provided with freely moving sodium ions for exchanging with Ca and Mg ions in the passing water.

Na2Ze + Mg (HCO3)2 MgZe + 2NaHCO3

Na2Ze + CaCl2 CaZe + 2NaCl
Na2Ze + MgSo4 MgZe + Na2SO4

REGENERATION:
After certain time of operation as all the cations in Zeolite bed are replaced by cations present in water the
bed exhausted, it has to be regenerated. Generally brine solution is used for regeneration. Due to higher
sodium ion concentration, reverse ion exchange takes place the bed gets Na 2Ze from the water along with
salts is drained.
CaZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2
MgZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + MgCl2

STRONG ACID CATION EXCHANGER (SAC) :

In this exchanger all the cations are removed. It contains anion exchanging resin which is insoluble,
cross linked long chain organic polymer with a micro porous structure and the functional group attached to
the chain (R-H are responsible for ion exchanging properties. As the passage water contains cations
through the resin, results in the forwarded reaction.
CaCl2 + 2RH+ R2Ca + 2HCl
MgSO4 + 2 RH+ R2Mg + H2SO4
Ca(HCO3) + 2RH+ R2Ca + 2H2CO3
 Here the mineral salts have been converted into their respective mineral acids and the alkaline salt
changes into corresponding acid. Hence the SAC other water low pH and are acidic.

REGENERATION:
As the resin will be exhausted after a certain time of operation, it has to be regenerated. Generally
Sulphuric acid is used for regeneration. Due to high H+ ion concentration reverse ion exchange takes place
and resin gets RH+ form and the salts along with water and acid are drained.
R2Cac (or R2Mg) + H2SO 2RH + CaSO4 (or MgSO4)

“Water must be passed in 1:3 ratio of base exchanger and strong acid cation exchanger to degassifier
tank to maintain sufficient pH of boiler feed water.”

DEGASSIFIER:

The softened water from both BE and SAC get mixed and directed to top of the degasified tower
where bed of ranching rings are provided. The blower continuously blows up air through the bottom of the
tower. AS the carbonic acid (H2CO3) being weekly-ionized form in the water, is decomposed into CO2 and
H2O by the blowing air. The degasified soft water is gets collected and stored in the degassed water tank of
11m3 capacity. As the degasified soft water contain low pH about 0.5, sodium hydroxide is injected to bring
the pH about 8.5 where free mineral acids get neutralized.
 Na2S

The soft water from the degassed water tank is pumped to water storage tanks to solar plant. The
sodium sulphate and phosphates is injected to the soft water tank in the boiler house to remove dissolved
oxygen in the soft water.

SOFT WATER ANALYSIS:

Hardness: <5ppm

Oxygen: <3ppm

PH: <8.5 – 9

Total dissolved Solids: 400ppm (max)

Conductivity : 50ppm of Na2SO4

STEAM GENERATION HOUSE

The construction of boiler is of Revotherm chambers supplied by M/s.

THERMAX BOILER LTD.
The Revotherm in general is a horizontal fired, smoke tube type, wet back packed boiler. The boiler is
a high efficient three pass, which can be fired on any liquid or gaseous fuel. It has well-insulated shell so
that the heat losses are low.
Previously the fuel used in the boiler was LSHS, which has any disadvantages. Firstly the temperature of the
fuel has to be raised before being fired, secondly the heating value is very low and finally the non
combustible material in LSHS is also more which causes exhaustion of excess amount of CO2 in this stack
flue gas The boiler consists of two cylindrical steel shell arranged vertically with each other. The inner shell
is closed at the back by a plate, which is connected to the rear tube plate by steel bars. The inner shell is
also extended up to the rear back plate. This forms the combustion chamber and the furnace. The space
between the two shells forms the water room in which tube are fitted. The area between
the water surface and the inner shell forms the steam space.
 The front side of the boiler is fitted with a refractory lined door. The door when opened gives total
access to the furnace, burner, smoke tubes and spiral agitators. The cylindrical boiler shell is fully covered
with glass wool insulation and enclosed in an aluminum sheet at site.
The Revotherm is provided with a fully wet black construction; consequently, the radiation loss is very
low. The boiler is accomplished with a forced draught fan. Pressure jet type horizontally fired burner,
specially designed to suit the flame reversal requirement. The gas fired burner assembly is designed in such
a way to provide a safe efficient burner system. The burner is secured to the front plate and it comprises
the following components.
Air register assembly, flame stabilizer (Swirler), self inspirited ignition, Sight glass assembly, Gas poker
assembly & Sprayer carrier assembly.
The ignition of natural gas is achieved by means of self-inspired ignitor. The combustion air is fed into
the boiler through a wind box and throat, which is shaped to provide correct air distribution for the
combustion process. The natural gas is fed to the burner through four pokers and gas is metered by orifice
plate. To facilitate proper distribution of gas, a divider plate has been provided.
Air is supplied from wind box via a combustion (quench) air fan. The air is passed down the air register
to the firing end, at which the primary air swirler is provided. The swirler has fully curved vanes so that
when air passed through it at any angle of approximately 600 without much energy the pressure head
available from the fan unit is converted into velocity causing air to flow tangentially toward in hollow cone.
This action causes the pressure to drop in the zone immediately in front of the atomizer which results in air
being thrown out from the air swirler to be drawn back towards the center and flow back to the atomizer,
in the form of continuously circulation “ eddy currents”. This action is what stabilizers the flame and what
prevent air from burning aimlessly the middle of the furnace. This is called the primary combustion zone.
The certain proportion of the air is passed around the outside of the swirler, which provides the secondary
combustion, and also in holding the flame shape.
GAS POKER ASSEMBLY:
Natural gas is supplied through 25 nb of four number and gas is metered by orifice plate which has
mounted individual poker assembly connection with common gas passage. To facilitate proper distribution
of gas, a divider plate has been provided with individual poker outlet nozzle.

BOILER DATA SHEET:

Equipment: Revotherm boiler by M/s. Thermax India Ltd.
Boiler Capacity: 7 TPH and 9 Kg/Sq.cm
Type of Burner: Forced draught gas burner
Location/Mountings: Horizontally fired, front plate of boiler
Flue Gas Temp: 180-220 o C
Steam Out let Temp: 155- 160o C
Natural Gas to Air Ratio: 1:1.5
Natural Gas Pr at Boiler Inlet: 1.5Kg/Cm2
Burner:
Burner Capacity: 5.5 x 106 Kcal/ Hr
Gas flow Rate/Burner: 484 Kg/Hr
 SOLAR PLANT

Solar energy which is most abandoned energy by nature. The solar energy is received be earth in the
form of electromagnetic waves. Energy is received by earth in the form of electromagnetic waves. It is a
non-conventional energy source that is lasts forever. Coromandel has succeeded in moving step forward to
utilize the solar energy by implementation the solar energy system.

Solar plant specifications:-

Purpose : pre heating
Water inlet temp : 30oC
Water outlet Temp : 80oC
No. Of Collectors modules : 1305
Area of each module : 2q.m
Storage Tank system : 4x60000capacity (lit)
Solar Insulation Available : 5.0 KWh/sq.m/day
Pumps : centrifugal Pumps
Total Project Cost : Rs/1, 55, 00, 000

PROCESS DESCRIPTION:-
The solar plant consists of 4 tanks in which 2 tanks combined represent a system. It has 2 insulated
storage tanks in which one is used to recirculation the water to solar plant panels and the other tank is
used to pump the hot water to boiler at 80ºC.
Totally there are 1305 solar plates in which each plate consists of water tubes, which are placed under
the black, body which is a perfect absorber. The water will be circulated through centrifugal pumps to the
plates and this water will be again collected into the tank from plates. The circulation continues until the
water temp is raised to 80ºC and then the water is send to another tank through 3-way pneumatically valve
and from the bottom of tank the hot water is pumped to boiler through centrifugal pump. Similarly the
other two tanks also have same system.

5. AMMONIA STORAGE AND HANDLING :

As the ammonia is the chief and hazardous raw material, its storage and handling plays a key role in
plant maintenance. Coromandel has 4 atmospheric storage tanks named atm ammonia tank-A, atm
ammonia tank-B, atm ammonia tank-C, atm ammonia tank- D. Out of these 4 atm tanks A&B tanks are each
of 5,000MT capacity C tank is of 10,000MT capacity and D tank is of 12,500MT capacity. And there is also a
refrigeration system for maintaining the pressure and temperature. The plant has a flare stack system In
case of tank pressures increases and also refrigeration system is not in worked condition to maintain the
sufficient pressure in tanks by using flare stack to burn the toxic ammonia and vapors.
ATMOPHERIC AMMONIA STORAGE TANKS:
The atmospheric ammonia storage tanks(2x5,000MT, 1x10,000MT, 12,500 MT) facility serves to store
liquid ammonia effectively at slightly above atmospheric pressure. Ammonia is almost invariably stored and
transported in liquid state, therefore it must be either compressed or refrigerated or some combination of
two.
The Ammonia is being imported from the other countries by the sea way on ship. Importing activities
are done by the deep-water seaport at Kakinada.

I) DESIGN CRITERIA:
LIQUID AMMONIA IMPORT FROM SHIP:
Maximum imported rate: 500TPH
Temp: -32/-33ºC
Pressure : 6 kg/cm2
 Pipe line length : 2.7 Km
Capacity of line : 220MT/Hr
CAPACITY OF AMMONIA IN PLANT:
Atmospheric NH3 tank-A : 5000 MT
Atmospheric NH3 tank-B : 5000 MT
Atmospheric NH3 tank-C : 10000 MT
Atmospheric NH3 Tank-D : 12,500 MT
Total Storage Capacity : 32,500 MT
SPECIFICATIONS OF AMMONIA:
State : liquid
NH3 content : 99.5%
Water content : 0.5%
Oil content : 20ppm
II) Temperature : -33 ºC
II) AMMONIA STORAGE TANKS:
A) ATMOSPHERIC STORAGE TANKS:
The huge amounts of liquid ammonia is stored in the 4 atmospheric storage tanks of two having a
capacity of 5000 MT and one of 10000MT and one of 12,500 MT of liquid NH3 excluding the vapour space
and dead level of pump suction slightly above the atmospheric pressure. These tanks are of “cup-in-tank”
type (Double integrity). Both the inner and outer tanks are made of low temperature carbon steel. The
outer tanks are insulated with 130 mm thick polyurethane foam (PUF). Insulation is protected with
corrugated Aluminium sheet cladding. The tanks top and below the roof is insulated with mineral wool
stacked to a thickness of 250mm on a deck suspended from the dome roof. Totally the insulation is
provided in such a way to withstand the liquid ammonia at –33 ºC.
The tanks are provided with the 2 pressure relief valves and 2 vacuum relief valves. The pressure relief
valves are arranged in such a way that if the tank pressure increases and comes beyond the safety
measures then the valve automatically opens and sets the pressure of the tank to a safety limit, similarly
the vacuum relief valves are used to avoid the formation of vacuum in the tank and also for maximum
withdraw condition. There is also a provision made that if the vapour generation is more than the vapour is
drawn and cooled to liquid state by refrigeration method and the liquid ammonia is brought back to Atm.
Tanks again.

At the initial stage of plant running there were no Atm. Tanks. During that period ammonia was
brought by railway wagons from Visakhapatnam storage terminal. But due to improved facilities in
Kakinada Sea port the ammonia is being directly imported from the overseas
III) REFRIGERATION SYSTEM:
PRESSURE CONTROL IN STORAGE TANKS:
The refrigeration system is provided to control the pressure in the atmospheric tanks. Although
insulation is provided some leaks makes the heat losses and that tends to evaporation of ammonia into
vapour form due to that simultaneously the tank pressure increases. For which refrigeration system is
provided such that it takes the vapours generated from tank and it is compressed in screw compressors at
the time of compression the vapours will be mixed with oil, these oil vapour mixture having temperature of
60-70ºC and these are separated by gravity in Oil Vapour Separator and these oil will be recalculated again
through cooler and filters. Oil is cooled in cooler with cooling water passing through shell side of the cooler.
Cooling water is coming from cooling tower. There are 5 compressors to compress vapor Ammonia. Out of
these 5 compressors 3 are Low Tension compressors and 2 are High Tension compressors. Whenever
sufficient amount of vapor is reached the compressors either LT compressors or HT compressors are
started based upon the direction of vapor in the line.

CONDENSERS
 AMMONIA COMPRESSING UNIT
The

ammonia from oil vapour separator at 60-70ºC is cooled in a 1-3 pass shell & tube heat exchanger by
sending vapours on shell side and circulating cooling water on tube side. The moderately cooled ammonia
at 40ºC is collected in receiver having capacity of 1m3. The uncondensed ammonia and nitrogen
vapours from receiver are sent to inert gas remover (helical type heat exchanger) on shell side and liquid
ammonia on tube side. The ammonia from receiver at 40ºC is flows through expansion valves for
decreasing temperature up to –30ºC and flows return to the storage tanks.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM DURING PRECOOLING AND SHIP UNLOADING:
During ship unloading, as the lines are at moderate temperatures the liquid displacement causes
sudden cooling and more vapour generation so that
The lines should be pre cooled before unloading. This accomplished by cooling the lines with liquid
ammonia from the tank to bring the temperature to liquid ammonia temperature. During precooling time
the line temperature comes up to -260C when the pipeline temperature will reach the pre cooling will be
stopped. At this time the line is ready for unloading the liquid ammonia from jetty to storage tanks (-
32.50C). During these operations the ammonia vapour generates more so why three compressors will be
running at that time.
SPECIFICATIONS OF COMPRESSORS:
Type: Reciprocating screw
type
Capacity: 124kg/hr
Suction pressure: 2.4Kg/cm2
Suction Temperature: 118ºC
Discharge pressure: 18 kg/cm2
The heat duty: 3,53,410 kcal/hr
IV) AMMONIA UNLOADING FACILITIES:
SHIP UNLOADING OPERATION:
Liquid ammonia is imported from overseas at a temperature of –33oC in the refrigerated ships and
the ammonia is discharged through the discharge pumps in the ship. The lines are connected through the
mobile marine unloading arm. As the unloading line gets heated due to heat leaks it should be pre cooled
otherwise due to the sudden flow of ammonia at low temperature causes undesirable stresses and also
develops more pressure in the tanks. So for this pre cooling line is used to cool the discharge line. The
ammonia from tanks is pumped through transfer pumps to the pre cooling line and this ammonia will be
recalculated.
There is also a separate vaporizer in which steam will be used to vaporize the ammonia condensate
from pre heater and is recycled back to the pre-heater.
B) UNLOADING FROM TANKS:
The ammonia from atmospheric tanks is pumped through the vertically erected submersible
centrifugal pump with Pressure: 25 Kg/ cm2 .Temperature is raised by sending the vapour ammonia on
shell side to the 1-1 pass shell and tube heat-exchanger (Pre – heater) where the liquid ammonia is passed
through the tube side.
V) FLARE STACK SYSTEM:
The flare system is provided to flare vapour ammonia vented from spherical tanks or from various
safety valves. The flare system designed for a flow rate of 22,000 Kg/Hr. the system consists of pilot burner,
flare burner molecular seal to flare header for maintaining continuous supply of nitrogen to flare header
from maintaining positive pressure in it. LPG is also supplied to pilot burners for start up. The flare stack
designing helps to vent the vapour ammonia at 25 ppm unburntly.

PROPERTIES OF ANHYDROUS AMMONIA

Molecular formula: NH3
Molecular weight: 17
Boiling point at 1 atmp: -33.4 oC
 Melting print at 1 atmp:-77.4 oC
Critical temperature: 133oC
Specific gravity at -33.4oC compared to water at 4oC:0.6819
Liquid density at -33.4oC and one atmosphere: 681.9 kg/cu.m or 0.6819 gm/ml.
Specific volume of vapour at 0oC and 1 atmosphere: 1.30 cu.m/kg.
Latent Heat at - 33.4oC:327.4K cal/Kg
Relative density of vapour compressed to dry air at 0 oC and 1 atmp:0.597
Vapour Density at –33.4oC and one atmosphere: 0.8899 Kg/Cu.m
Ignition temp: 651oC
Toxicity/Hazard: combustible, explosive mixture with air corrosive to eyes, skin and lungs.
Threshold limiting value (TLV): 50 PPM
Critical pressure :- 11.4 M Pa
Ammonia smell can be detected at : 25 PPM

Anhydrous Ammonia is stored and transported as liquefied gas either without cooling under a gauge
pressure which at 20oC is approximately 0.76M Pa(7.6bar) or with refrigeration, at lower temperature and
pressure. Mixture of ammonia gas and air can explode if ignited, when the proportion of ammonia gas is
within the limits of 16 to 26 percent by volume.

6) PHOSPHORIC ACID STORAGE & HANDLING SYSTEM:

The phosphoric acid that we use contains 54% P2O5.the handling of phosphoric acid is very difficult as
it tends to form sludge. Totally there are nine tanks out of those 4 tanks are each of 12,000MT capacity ,
one tank of 10,000 MT capacity, 2 tanks are each of 7,500 MT capacity and 2 tanks are each of 5,000 MT
capacity. The phosphoric acid is sent to DAP through centrifugal pumps. There is also a day tank near DAP
of 1,100 MT capacity.
PHOSPHORIC ACID STORAGE TANKS IN OFF-SITES
Specific gravity :1.892 at 25ºC
Boiling point :>130ºC
Heat of fusion :25.8 Kcal/g
Heat of solution :1.2 x 105cal/g
Density of Phosphoric acid :1.66gm/c.c
P2o5 content :53.81%
Fe2O3 :0.49%
Al2O3 :0.43%
MgO :0.89%
F :0.27%
CaO :0.07%
H2SO4 :2.11%
Suspended Solids :0.10ppm
7) SULPHURIC ACID STORAGE & HANDLING SYSTEM:
Sulphuric Acid, king of the acids which is used in COROMANDEL, is 99% concentrated. So that its
handling should be done carefully as it is an hazardous chemical. There are 4 cylindrical tanks each of
capacity 2400 MT. The Sulphuric acid is pumped to DAP through 2 centrifugal pumps and there is also a day
tank of capacity 2500 MT at DAP plant. There is another small Sulphuric acid tank located at water
treatment plant of capacity of 12MT which is used for regeneration purpose.
SPECIFICATIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID:
H2SO4 :98%
Pressure :3.5 Kg/cm2
Temperature :Ambient
Density :1.82 g/cc
Boiling Point :338ºC
Melting/Freezing Point :3ºC
Solubility in water at 30ºC :Sinks and
dissolves in water.
Specific Gravity at 20ºC (H2O=1) :1.84
 GRANULATION PLANT

The Granulation plant is laid down in two identical streams called trains ‘A’ and ‘B’ and a separate
stream called C-train for convenience having total capacity to produce 10,00,00 Mt per year. A&B train is
designed to produce 65 MTPH at instantaneous rate. The adopted technology is from tennis valley authority
USA, slurry granulation process. In 1995 the train A is revamped and adopted with retrofitting process to
produce at a rate of 70 TPH. Recently train–B is also revamped with the new technology of pipe reactor. In
2013 C- train is also came into progress to produce 17:17:17(NPK) with capacity of
PROCESS SUPPLIED FOR A&B TRAINS:
Hindustan Dorr Oliver, Mumbai.
PROCESS SUPPLIED FOR C TRAIN:
RAW MATERIALS:
1. Anhydrous liquid Ammonia (99%)
2. Phosphoric Acid (54%)
3. Sulphuric Acid (98%)
4. Filler
5. Potash (KCL)

PRODUCTS:
 Di-Ammonium Phosphate (18:46:0)
 Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate (20:20:0:13)
 14:35:14
 10:26:26
 17.17.17
 28.28.0
Average formulation tolerance for each of two grades is 0.5% (wt.)
SCREEN ANALYSIS:
>4mm to < 1 mm sieve: 90% (wt.)
<4mm &>1 mm sieve: 10% (wt.)
SIZE SPACE:
>4.7mm : 0.87%
<4.7mm to >4mm
<4mm to >2mm
 <mm to >1mm :
<1mm : 13.0%

RAW MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS:

AMMONIA SPECIFICATIONS:

content 99.5% w/w

Water content 0.5% w/w
Oil content
Temperature
(Min +3 Kg/Cm2 over equilibrium pressure)

PHOSPHORIC ACID SPECIFICATIONS:

: 1.66 gm/CC

1.52 – 3.3 %
0.04% max
0.24 – 1.1%
0.24 – 1.1%
0.12 – 0.8%
Fluorine 0.17 – 0.38%
Chlorine ppm 82-124ppm
Suspended Solids: 0.16% - 0.88%
UTILITIES:

PROCESS WATER:
Pressure : 3 Kg/cm2
Temperature : Ambient
: 7.8 – 8.3
Total hardness as CaCo3 : 136ppm
Calcium hardness as CaCo3 : 64ppm
Mg hardness as CaCo3 : 72ppm
: 30ppm
: 20ppm
Total dissolved solids at 105ºC : 140ppm

UREA:
State : Uncoated Prilled
Total nitrogen : 46%(min.)
Biuret : 1.5%(min.)
Moisture : 1%(min.)
Particle size : >6 to<16 Mesh Tyler
Bulk density :721Kg/cm3

FILLER:
Colour :light brown
Moisture :0.5% (max)
Screen analysis :>18 to < 80 mesh Tyler 100%
SiO2 :80
Bulk density :1400 – 1600Kg/m3
Temperature :Ambient

PLANT AIR (SERVICE AIR):

Specification : condensate free air
Pressure : 7.0 kg/cm2.g
Temperature : Ambient

INSTRUMENT AIR:
Specification Pressure
Temperature : Dry, oil & dust free
: 5.6 kg/cm2.g
: Ambient

NATURAL GAS:
Boiling Point : 161.5ºC
Melting Point : 1182.6ºC
Vapor density (air=1)
Specific gravity (water=1) : 0.422 at 160ºC
Physical state : colorless, odorless gas
Solubility in water at 30ºC : soluble
Flash point (liquid)
Auto ignition temp.

GRADE TRIMMING AGENTS:

Filler from Godavari riverbed and urea are received by roadway and stored in raw material storage
Godown.

DEFOAMER:
The avoid space between liquid media is termed as foam. Oleic acid is used as defoamer, which is
handled with barrels. Defoamer or anti foaming agent is not
 an essential raw material judicious use of it helps in avoiding operational upsets and ensures smooth
running of the plant. Normally, defoamers used are AZ – 2OL oleic acid, NEIGEN, HICCO, spac(brand name) ,
tall oil, turkey red oil, or equivalent.

ANTI CAKING AGENTS:

It is a pale cream to brownish color paste at room temperature on spraying the granulator of NPK, DAP
product it controls the cake formation of the material.

CONSUMPTION NORMS: (NORMS TABLE) :-

POWER OVERALL GAS OVERALL
NORMS KG/MT P2O5 NH3 UREA POTASH FILLER
KWH/MT SM^3/MT
DAP 467 223 11 0 35 46 10
20:20:0:13 207 242 18 0 0 55 16
17:17:17 178 149 172 303 0 124 10
14:35:14 357 182 0 249 0 53 115
10:26:26 267 130 0 460 0 48 105
12:32:16 327 149 0 278 0 48 105

POLLUTION CONTROL STANDARDS:

Liquid effluent: NIL
Emission level of the stack:
M g / n m 3 maximum a c t u a l
Ammonia
Fluorine
Particulate matter
Sulphur Dioxide
The relation between ammonia and phosphoric acid are cared out in two steps to achieve the product at
MR of 1.8-1.85. This reduces the emission of ammonia when slurry exceeds the MR of 1.45.
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS

The main raw materials used for manufacturing of NPK grade fertilizer are phosphoric acid (54%
P2O5), Ammonia, Sulphuric acid (98%), Urea & river sand as filler and muriate of potash.
Ammonia reacts with weak phosphoric acid using state of the art Pipe Reactor Technology to produce
Ammonium phosphate/sulphate slurries, which are sprayed inside the granulator directly on the granulator
solids bed, composed of all recycled product. In the granulator the slurry is further ammoniated to obtain
the required mole ratio (N/P) and to fix the required percentage of total Nitrogen in the product.
Whenever Sulphuric acid is not used or partially used Urea is fed to the granulator to obtain the required
total nitrogen percentage.
To obtain the required grade of P2O5 and Total Nitrogen, sieved river sand is fed to the granulator
through fines conveyor. River sand acts as a grade-trimming agent. Muriate of potash (MOP) is fed to the
granulator through fines conveyor as an additional raw material to get the required percentage of K2O
value in the product.
The granulator product having 2 to 3% moisture is directly discharged by gravity to the dryer where
the moister content of the product is required to less than 1%. The dried product is then passed through
various screens for sieving and to obtain the desired product size. The oversize product separated from
screens are crushed in crushers and recycled back to the granulator. The fines separated in screens are also
recycled back to the granulator. The finished product leaving the screens is passed through the rotary
cooler where the final temperature of the product is cooled down to 50/55OC before sending the product
to storage go down through conveyor belts for storing or for bagging.
The final product is also, if required from the storage go down through screens to remove the
undesired size of the product, sent to the respective bins of the bagging plant through conveyor belt for
bagging. The final product bagged in 50 Kg bags is dispatched to various destinations for selling.
The unreacted ammonia vapors from the granulator along with dust carried over will be scrubbed in
two-stage acid circulation scrubbing system, to recover and recycle ammonia and dust by way of reaction
and absorption. The gases after scrubbing shall go to the stack. Similarly the dust and traces of ammonia
released in dryer and cooler are passed through dust cyclones in first stage and then second stage-
scrubbing system before they are released through stack.
CHEMISTRY OF THE PROCESS:
Ammonium Phosphate is produced by reacting Ammonia and Phosphoric Acid under controlled
conditions such that the proper quantities of N and P205 are contained in the final product.
The principal chemical reactions involved are shown below :
NH3 + H3PO4 = NH4H2PO4 + 1200 Kcal
17 98
Ammonia + Phosphoric Acid = Mono ammonium Phosphate

NH4H2PO4 + NH3= (NH4)2 HPO4 + 900 Kcal

115 17 132

Mono ammoniumPhosphate + Ammonia=Di ammonium

Phosphate
Generally, the proportions of N and P2O5 are controlled to yield a mixture of mono ammonium
Phosphate and Di ammonium Phosphate in the product Fertilizer.
Wet process phosphoric acid normally contains small amounts of free
Sulphuric acid which reacts with NH3 as follows:

2 SO4 + 1500

Sulfuric Acid + Ammonia = Ammonium Sulphate

The above reactions are exothermic, liberating a considerable amount of Heat and evaporating large
amount of water from the reacting masses.
Wet process phosphoric acid normally also contains small amounts of F in the form of fluosilicic acid
(H2SiF6), which reacts with ammonia as follows:

6NH3 + H2SiF6 + 2H2O = 6NH4F + SiO2

Ammonia + Fluosilicic Acid+ Water = Ammonium Fluoride + Silica
The other impurities present in Phosphoric acid like Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO,
CaO.
Compounds, which contribute towards, total N and P2O5 in the product.
For NPK Products

(14:35:14 , 12:32:16 & 10:26:26 ):

The main chemical reaction is the Ammonia neutralization with Phosphoric
acid , and is a lesser extent with Sulphuric acid.

H2SO4 + 2 NH3 = (NH4)2SO4+ 1500 Kcal /Kg NH3(I)

Sulfuric Acid + Ammonia = Ammonium Sulphate
H3PO4+ NH3 = NH4H2PO4 + 1200 Kcal /Kg NH3(I)
Phosphoric Acid+ Ammonia = Mono ammonium Phosphate
NH4H2PO4 + NH3 = (NH4)2 HPO4 + 900 Kcal /Kg NH3(I)
Mono ammonium Phosphate + Ammonia =Di ammonium
Phosphate

1st reaction takes mainly place in the scrubbing system but also in the Pre -neutralizer.
2nd reaction takes place in the Pre neutralizer, Pipe Reactor and scrubbing System.
3rd reaction occurs partially in pre neutralizer and Pipe reactor and it is completed during the
Ammonization in the granulator bed.
In case of NPK Grades produce, the process is to be used will the same proposed for DAP Production (mixed
PR & PN process).

In case of NPK Products, Potash (Solid) will be added along with the grade trimming agents like filler,
spillage materials and Urea will fed to the secondary elevator through metering conveyor , together with all
the Plants recycle solids.When Phosphoric Acid reacted with NH3, at atmospheric pressure and at
Temperature of 130 to 135oC for NPK Grades, Mono ammonium Phosphate will form, it is an intermediate
Product for further ammoniation of mono ammonium phosphate and potash addition through the recycle
material before Granulator. Granulator is mainly accomplish by a series of Chemical and Physical reactions
between the different raw materials.
 DETAILED PROCESS DESCRIPTION

RAW MATERIAL SECTION:

The main function of the RMS is to store and supply the liquid and solid raw materials to the
process plant as their requirements.

AMMONIA:
Anhydrous liquid Ammonia and generated vapour Ammonia during unloading operation from the
Ammonia storage system are delivered to the DAP plant and are handled by office facilities.

PHOSPHORIC ACID:
Phosphoric Acid is pumped to the day tank from the battery limits. The day tank is provided with a
roof and a capacity of 1100 MT for A&B trains and for C-train with a capacity of . The tank is made up of
mild steel and provide with internal rubber lining of inter connecting pipelines are rubber lined to avoid
corrosion attack of Acid. The day tank is provided with top entering turbine type agitator to avoid settling
of solids for easy pumping. The acid is reclaimed from this tank by centrifugal slurry pumps and delivered to
A, B&C trains and also provided with acid re-circulation system when the plant is stopped, which
accomplishes free from settling of solids.

SULPHURIC ACID:
A cylindrical tank is provided to store Sulphuric Acid of 93-98% concentration. There is1day tank
have a capacity of 2700 MT and is made up of mild steel. Sulphuric Acid is received from off-sites. The acid
is reclaimed from this tank by transfer pumps to all trains.

Solid raw materials like Urea, Filler are stored in raw material storage yard. These raw materials are
reclaimed by a pay loader to raw material hopper, which in turn discharges to raw material transfer
conveyor provided with magnetic separator for separating the iron and magnetic particles in the feed
material. Transfer conveyor discharges to the raw materials transfer elevator, isprovided with a clod
breaker at its feed hopper to break feeble agglomerates of lumps. The elevator of 24.5m heights has a
capacity of 30MTPH and discharges to the raw material distribution conveyor, which feeds to the
respective Urea and filler bins by operating gates at the conveyor discharges. For C- train all raw
materials are transferred through conveyor without using elevator.
PIPE REACTOR:
The main phosphoric acid and ammonia reaction takes place, is composed of pipe reactor, installed
in the granulator itself. Part of the neutralization reaction takes place in the pipe reactor, which is installed
so that the slurry of ammonium phosphate is poured directly onto the solids bed of the granulator. This
slurry has temperatures normally ranging from 130 to 155 OC and moisture content between 4 to 12%
depending on the grade and the required granulation moisture in the granulator solids bed.
The pipe reactor is a tubular reactor, developed by INCRO, S.A, of small dimensions, that is
composed of a mixture and reaction head to which the slurry distributing tube is fitted. In the former, the
phosphoric acid and the ammonia phosphate and the vaporization of water. The reaction is completed
along the distribution tube and the pressure in the system propels the formed slurry, which is distributed
directly over the solids bed inside the granulator at the same time that the steam and the unfixed ammonia
escape towards the granulator pre-scrubber.

The ordinary operation range for pipe reactor is between 10 to 25th of ammonium phosphate
slurry, and up to a maximum of 40th. The reactor’s reacting head is designed so that a good mixture of the
phosphoric acid and ammonia is produced, achieving a high efficiency reaction. The slurry distribution tube
has two slots through which the emerging slurry will be distributed. It also has, some collars that will totally
or partially close the slots depending on the operative capacity required in the reactor and on the solid bed
area on to which the slurry will be poured out. The system pressure maintained around 2-4 Kg/Cm2. the
flow to the reactor is controlled by the magnetic flow meter.
Steam is used to purge the raw material feed lines, the cross and reactor pipe. On every occasion
the reaction is interrupted. Steam purging is automatically activated, when raw material flows are diverted
to recycle. Steam purge time is controlled to 3-5 min. steam can also be used with water and phosphoric
acid in washing cycle for the pipe reactor.
The crystal growth of deposit could be modified to produce a soft deposit by altering levels of Fe,
Al, Mg and F in phosphoric acid. The build up considerably reduced when acid containing reduced when
acid containing smaller levels of Mg with higher levels of Fe, Al and F used
Note: at the sample point on the PCR, the slurry is only partially reacted and is not same as the
slurry that falls on the recycle bed in ammoniator -granulator.
MAIN REACTIONS:
NH3 + H3PO4 NH4H2PO4 ; H = -32.14KCAL
NH4H2PO4 + NH3 (NH4) 2HPO4 ; H= -19.26KCAL

SIDE REACTIONS:
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
6NH3 + H2SiF6 + 2H2O (NH4)F + SiO2
 Fe2O3 + 2H3PO4 FePO4 + 3H2O
Al2O3 + 2H3PO4 2AlPO4 + 3H2O

In Pipe cross reactor the scrubber liquor of Specific Gravity 1.5 and mole ratio 0.9 is from pipe
reactor feed tank and liquid ammonia from ammonia pumps.

PIPE REACTOR SYSTEM:

In 1991, the central government removes subsides on phosphates fertilizer unit. In order to offer a
lowest price to farmers the basic cost of production has to be reduced by adopting conservative measures
there was minimum scope to reduce the consumption norms of ammonia and phosphoric acid by having
strength measures. It was felt, there was much scope to reduce the energy consumption norms by
adopting pipe reactor technology.

ADOPTING PIPE REACTOR TECHNOLOGY DUE TO FOLLOWING REASONS CAN REDUCE THE
PRODUCTION:
Plants using pipe reactor can operate at low recycle ratios are 3 or 4:1. This gives an immediate up rated
production at low capital cost.
As there is no requirement of increasing the recycle rate for increased production, the energy
consumption of electrical power remains same quantitatively will he drastically reduce.
As the heat of reaction completely utilized from the pipe reactor to evaporate the moisture from
the slurry at the tip of pipe reactor gun, fuel consumption of drying of material can be saved to some
extent.
Steam consumption is reduced due to elimination of preneutraliser and jacketing slurry lines.
Utility consumption norms per metric ton of production will come down drastically due to higher rate
of production.

Pipe Reactor Technology:

There are four difficult systems of pipe reactor technology in operation.
They are:
1. Single gun or single pipe reactor without preneutraliser.
2. Pressure reactor or draught tube reactor without preneutraliser
3. Double gun or double pipe reactor fitted one in granulator and the other in dryer.
4. Mixed system using both the pipe reactor in granulator and pre-neutralizer for ammonia reaction.
 While any of the systems can be adopted for a new installation to produce NP or NPK, grade complex
fertilizer.
There are two types of pipe reactor namely pipe tee reactor and pipe cross
reactor. Pipe cross reactor is the new version of pipe reactor tee reactor
comprises two opposite side arms instead of one in the case of pipe tee reactor.
This enables pipe cross reactor to operate with three liquid streams instead of
two in case of pipe reactor.
Advantages of pipe reactor process;
1. With a low addition cost, the plant capacity can be almost doubled, thus the cost production can be
reduced.
2. Pipe reactor can be extremely flexible and precise control of reactants is possible due to short residence
time in the pipe reactor.
3. The plant can be started at full rate. Start up and shutdowns can be accomplished with fewer efforts and
thus some losses can be provided.
4. The power consumption is reduced due to its low recycle ratio.
5. Consumption norms are also reduced due to its higher rate of production.
Due to above advantages, the A-train in the DAP plant is fitted with Retrofitted pipe reactor
technology offered by M/S. Incitec Limited, Australia through M/S. Hindustan Dorr-Oliver, Mumbai. The
retrofitted train was commissioned July/August 1995 and it is running now with pipe reactor system.
The retrofitted process is a single gun pipe cross reactor process with minimum modification. A pipe
cross reactor is provided which is introduced in the granulator. Ammonia spargers in the granulator for
further ammoniation of the bed will remains as it is in position wise, in conventional plant with little
modification and hence the granulometry of the material will not get disturbed.
Increase in ammonia escape from the granulator is not envisaged and hence no much modification will be
required in the scrubbing and hence no much modification will be required in the scrubbing section. Four
new nozzles to introduce scrubber liquor are provided to the duct from the granulator connected to the
fumes scrubber to scrub the over escape of ammonia from granulator.

AMMONIA GRANULATOR:
This is provided to accomplish reaction between the slurry and ammonia which results increase in mole
ratio and to granulate the ammonium phosphate slurry using solid raw material and recycle solids.
The granulator is a rotary drum having its axis inclined at an angle of 8 o to the horizontal. It is made
of steel and 3.35m in diameter and 6.7m in length. The upper end of the granulator is closed and its lower
end is left open. A girth gear is provided on the granulator, a 200HP reversible motor through a reducing
 gearbox and a pinion drives which rotates at a speed of 8.8RPM. Two tires are mounted on either side of
the girth gear and these are supported on re-unions internally the granulator is provided with:
1. A slurry header containing five projected flooding type nozzles to spray the slurry from the pipe reactor.
2. Lip plate ammonia spargers of 3mm, schedule 80 pipe made of SS-3161 containing 96 holes of 5mm
diameter to inject liquid.
3. A 6``, schedule 120 heavy carbon steel pipe to support the slurry heard and ammonia spargers.

All these provisions enter into the granulator through upper end i.e., enclosed end. A circumferential weir
(brim) is provided near the lower end. The solid raw materials like filler, urea and the recycle solids are
maintained in the granulator from secondary elevator. A continuous bed of solids is maintained in the
granulator on which the slurry from PN gets sprayed. The final mole ratio of the product is maintained
using liquid ammonia obtained from offsite Horton spheres directly. The liquid ammonia spargers are
provided in such a way that during normal running the bed of material completely covers the spargers, thus
ammonia diffuses and thorough reaction takes place. During ammoniation, the following reaction takes
place.

NH4H2PO4 + NH3 (NH4)2HPO4; H = -19.26K CAL

The slurry containing 48% MAP and 52% DAP is converted to 82%DAP and 18% MAP by ammoniation. The
slurry at a mole ratio 1.4 – 1.45 is reacted with ammonia and simultaneously granulated and resulting the
ammoniator = granulator discharge at a mole ratio of 1.8 – 1.85 in order to get DAP grade.
The PR slurry is sprayed on recycle material in AG and granulation takes place by layering and
agglomeration processes. The ammoniation is also carried out simultaneously along with granulation. The
recycle granules and crystals are act as nucleus for formation of new granules. The primary mechanism of
granulation is the addition of successive layer of a thin coating of slurry to a recycle stream of dried
granules. The application of this film at the surface of granules slows the resulting bigger granules to dry
quickly and thoroughly.
In layering granulation the nucleus (fine granule) is coated with a layer of slurry and then dried. The
resultant nodules are recycled through granulator several times until each nodule is build up to the correct
size to pass into the product section of product screen. This is carried out on recycle fertilizer solids.
The agglomeration granulation consists of coating and cementing small crystals of fertilizer and
filler with slurry to form nodules. The coatings deposits at each cycle are relatively thick and several-
agglomerated nucleus may be cemented together with in the envelope. Some oversize granules are always
produced when near product size nodules are re-circulated. These oversize granules are broken down in
pulverized and recycled back to AG, mixing is very thorough and AG discharge mass consists mainly of
nodules coated with slurry.
The recycle ratio (the ratio between re-circulating fertilizers to product) has a great effect on
granulation. It is maintained at about 6:1. As large quantity of water in the slurry (about 15%) requires
more quantity of recycle material for good granulation. Drop in recycle ratio, accomplishes the formation of
large agglomerated lumps and wet discharge from granulator and reduces the dryer outlet temperature.
The recycle equipments contain the recycle solid material of 60- 70 MT and whole mass is circulated three
times per hour.

THE VARIOUS FACTORS EFFECTING THE GRANULATION ARE AS FOLLOWS:

 Mole ratio of material in the granulator
 Evaporation rate in the drum
 Particle size, temperature of recycles material
 Slurry quality i.e., viscosity and composition

The Ph of AG outlet is maintained about 7.6 which gives an indication of the mole ratio of material at
1.85. As the ammoniation carried out, the liberated heat evaporates the moisture content of solids and
results outlet solid moisture content reduced up to 2.5 – 3.5. The ammoniation also helps in reducing
recycle ratio as it accomplishes in evaporation if moisture.
The inner surface of the granulator is provided with flexible rubber panels which prevents the buildup on
the inside of the shell. Breather holes are provided on the surface of granulator, which helps in free
moment of rubber panels. Occasionally the granulator is rotated in reverse direction to remove the scale
and build up material.
The granulated product near open end of the AG discharges though over flow weir. A chute is
provided beneath the open end of the granulator, which receives the granulated product through a grizzly
and diverts them to the dryer. During ammoniation ammonia losses are inevitable. So in order to recover
the un-reacted ammonia from the granulator, ammonia along with water vapour and air is directed to
fumes scrubber.
 CONDITIONS:
1. Mole Ratio -----> 1.8 – 1.85
2. Solid temperature -----> 75-80oC
3. Moisture content -----> 2.5 – 3%
4. Solids Ph -----> 7.6
5. Residence time -----> 6 minutes.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER:
The combustion chamber supplied the hot quenched gasses to the drier. This is an oil-fired furnace,
which utilizes natural gas (NG) as fuel. In past they used to use LSHS (low sulphur heavy stock). The
combustion chamber has a cylindrical structure placed in a horizontal position. The shell of combustion
chamber is made up of steel, which is internally lined with fire clay bricks which serve as refractory
material.
A burner is provided at one end of the furnace. NG at a high pressure is supplied to the burn by
means of atomizing air to ensure complete combustion and to avoid formation of coke in the combustion
chamber. Air required for combustion of fuel is supplied by primary act blower at a pressure of 8 Kg/cm2
driven by a 20HP motor, provided with a suction filter and damper. Pilot burner is also provided with LPG
connection, which is used during start up. A spark generated by transformer can ignite LPG. A separate line
to pilot assembly supplies air required to burn the LPG. As combustion proceeds the hot flue gases are
produced at a temperature of 600oC. These hot gases get quenched with air from quench air fan and
temperature of hot quenched gasses drop down to 300oC. The quench air fan is driven by a 50HP motor
provide with a suction damper to adjust the dryer fan suction. The inlet temperature of hot quenched
gases to dryer is adjusted by quantity fuel supplied to the burner.
The hot quenched gasses then enter the bottom of the vertical well, which is lined with fine clay bricks. The
top portion of the well is connected to dryer with sharp bend to convey the hot gases to dryer. Plenum well
is a part of this well where forces and induced draughts are balanced. The vertical well is provided to safe
guard the products from degradation due to direct radiation from the flame. Any unburnt oil, if present
also gets separated. For C-train in the place of Quench air the de-humidified is used.

ROTARY DRYER:
The crushing strength of granules is low for granules with higher moisture content. To avoid the
formation of granules into powder, it moisture content is reduced by rotary dryer; the function of the dryer
is to reduce the moisture content of granules discharging from granulator to improve the crushing strength
and to avoid the caking of granules. The granulator discharge is dried from 3.0% to 1% moisture using hot
quenched gases from the combustion chamber.
It is rotary drum type placed at an inclination of 1.91o to the horizontal. It is 24.4m long and 3.6m in
diameters. Externally, it is provided with knocker ring lifters on the upper end of the shell. A girth gear is
mounted on the drier, which is driven at a speed of 3.5RPM using a 350HP motor through a reducing
gearbox. Two tires are placed on either side of the girth supported on trunions. Graphite dry lubricants are
provided for a trunion of each pair to accomplish continuous lubrication of tires. Thrust rollers or guide
rollers are arranged to prevent end wise travel of the dryer.

Internally it is provided with four types of flights, viz., spiral or helical flights as well as cascade flights
are provided with chains. At the lower end of the dryer,
 trimmer bars are also provided. A spill back chute is also provided which removes the excess material
from the dryer, thus avoid the fall of material into the combustion chamber.
The wet granules from the granulator chute gravitate to the upper end of the dryer. The hot quenched
gases from combustion chamber also enter the dryer through vertical well. During initial stages, the
granules contain higher moisture content hence they tend to form a scale on the inner surface of the dryer
near their entrance. The provided knocker rings help to remove the adherent scale, as they strike the dryer
shell by knocking from outside during the rotation of dryer. As the dryer had absorbs the shocks by striking
with knocker rings, the provided chains gravitates freely and adherent scale whatever around it, is
removed. At the feed end of the dryer, provided spiral flights assist in importing the initial forward motion
to the solids before they reach other flights. The remaining flights lift the material and exposing them
thoroughly too hot gases for effective drying.
The heat is neither supplied with in the dryer nor lost to surroundings. Operation is adiabatic and
the gas will lose sensible heat and cool down as the evaporated moisture absorbs latent heat of
vaporization. In an adiabatic operation, the wet solid contacted with the hottest gas.
As long as unbound surface moisture is present, the solid will be heated on to the wet bulb
temperature of the gas, and for this reason even heat sensitive solids can frequently be dried by fairly hot
gas in co-current operation. In any event the wet bulb temperature can never exceed the boiling point of
the liquid at prevailing pressure. At the out let of the dryer the gas will have been considerably cooled, and
no damage will result to the dry solids. In this co-current drying process, the fertilizer material is protected
from degradation as ammonia is evolved at 90o C and urea gets melted at a 130oC.

Co-current drying also permits grater control of the moisture content of the discharged solid, when the
solid must the solid must not be completely dried. By controlling the quantity of gas passing through the
dryer consequently it’s existed temperature and humidity are controlled. As the temperature in the drier
above the boiling point of the moisture to be evaporated, the humidity of the gas has only a minor
influence on the rate of drying and it is easiest to work directly with rate of heat transfer.
The dryer outlet temperature should into be reached below the 90oC where the drying rate drops
as well as hot gases reaches their dew pint, causes in caking and lumps formation. The drop in outlet
temperature also causes the problems like chocking of cyclone hopper and sealing in dryer as well as in
dust recovery system.

The dried granules form the lower end of the dryer, gravitates through the trimmer bars to the
bottom of primary elevator. Any lumps formed in the granulator and dryer are broken up autogenously by
the trimmer bars arrangement prior to passing through the lump crusher. The flue gases along with
entrained dust leave end of the dryer and enter the dryer cyclone. As quick drying of product is required,
co-current drying is employed.
CONDITIONS:
Moisture content of wet solids ---------------- 2.5 – 3.0%
Moisture content of dry solids ---------------- 1%
Flue gas inlet temperature ----------------- 190-210oC
Flue gas outlet temperature ----------------- 75- 90oC
Temperature of dried solids ---------------- 75 – 80oC
Retention time ----------------- 10 minute

SCREEN DRAG FEEDER (SDF):

It is also called drag chain feeder, receives the solid material from primary elevator and distributes the
material to scalping screens. It has a length of 9.3m. It contains number of flights, made up of steel, both
ends of which are attached to chains two in number. Sprockets are provided at both ends of feeder, one of
which is driven by an electric motor of 40HP. The flights, chains and sprockets are enclose in a rectangular
box to avoid dust problem. The bottom portion of this box is provided with fines conveyor by means of a
pipe. Excess product by passes the screens and recycles to fines conveyor through this pipe.
 Gate covers the entire width of the conveyor with a crossed opening. It is also helps in equal
distribution of solid materials over the screens. Inspection doors are also provided on each side o the
conveyor. Rectangular boxes are also provided to check the percentage of gates opening. The feeder box is
maintained at slight negative pressure by means of dust fan to avoid dust problem.But in C-train there is no
screen drag feeder instead of that they are using chutes with gate adjustments for screening.

SCREENING:
The material from SDF, contains product size material along with over size and fines I.e., undersize.
Screening is adapted to separate product size material from over size material from over size and fines.
Two stage screening issued in which single deck screens are provided for efficient operation. The screen
separates the oversize material from remaining fertilizer is called scalping screens and that is separates
product from fines is called as product screens. Each train is provided with three scalping screens and three
product screens.
SCALPING SCREENS:
The dried material it is distributed over the scalping screens, scalping screens have been providing with
a mesh of 4mm dia. To separate oversize material from the remaining fertilizer. Oversize material over the
scalping screens is directed to oversize pulverizes. Product size and fines are gets collected in scalping
screen hopper, is VSC hopper, made up of steel. A variable speed belt conveyor (VSC) is provided at the
bottom of screens. Each VSC hopper has 3m in length. The overflow line from this hopper is also provided
to product, fines conveyor. Excess product size material over flow through this line to the recycle system,
thus preventing depletion of the circulating material by changing the speed of VSC discharges the material
at inlet of product at inlet of product screens.

PRODUCT SCREENS:
Product screens are provided with a mesh size of 2mm dia to separate product size material from
fines. Product size collected over the screens is directed to the cooler feed conveyor. Fines separated from
product size material is collected is product screen hopper i.e., fines shopper from which the material
gravitates to the fines conveyor; scalping screens as well as product screens are placed inclined to the
horizontal. These are also providing with vibrators which are driven by individual 1HP MOTOR. Both screen
hoppers are maintained at slight negative pressure by dust fan to avoid the dust evolution.
Single-deck sieving is supervisor to double-deck sieving because there is no connection between the area
required for upper size limit and the area required for the lower and the area required for the lower size
limit and the conditions are unlikely to be optimal for both screens. Also cleaning and general access to
single screens are easier. Because the screens can be matched more efficiently when they are each single
deck equipment costs are usually into different from those of double screens.

LUMP CRUSHER:
The purpose of the lump crushed is to break the +3mm material into -3mm material. It consists of a
fixed shaft containing 16 teeth on its periphery. The teeth get matched with provided stationary grooves.
The shaft can be rotated by means of an electric motor of 25HP. On rotation, the oversize material gets
crushed and the gets reduced. The material then discharged into the bottom of primary elevator. The
primary elevator elevates the material to screen drag feeder. The height of the elevator is 36m and its
capacity is 210MTPH.
OVERSIZE PULVERIZER:
Each train is provided the three over size pulverizers (OSP). There are also called as twin rotary chain
mills. OSP crushes the material to fines less than –4mm with too minimum generation of dust. Each
pulveriser consists of two hammer rotors or chain rotors having circular links made up of steel. A stationary
rod having chain links is also providing between and at slight elevated position to motors of 60 HP. The
material gets crushed between two rotors by the striking of the links. The crushed material obtained
gravitates to the fines conveyor. The rotors and the stationary rod are enclosed in steel casing to avoid dust
problem. The capacity of pulverizers is about 55MTPH. Product size material from scalping screens is
gravitates to the cooler feed conveyor (CFC), which further conveys this material to product cooler. This is a
belt conveyor of 9m lengths and is driven by an electric motor.

PRODUCT COOLER:
Particles, which are hot are sometimes plastic and easily sticking together or deform so that pack
into the interstices between particles. Coiling of particles before storage is therefore desirable. For this a
product cooler is provided to cool the hot product using ambient air immediately to avoid caking of
granules.
It is cylindrical drum having its axis is placed at an inclination 3.37o to the horizontal. It is 15.24m in
length and 2.27m in diameter; it based on four trunions and is by girth gear system at speed of 6.5 RPM by
a 100HP motor. Inside the cooler lifting flights extending from the cylinder wall for the full length of the
cooler are provided.
The hot product at a temperature of 75 –85 OC enter the top end of the cooler feed conveyor and
passes counter currently to the direction of ambient air. The flights lift and material and show them down
in a moving curtain through the air, thus exposing them thoroughly to the cooling action of the cool air.
Solids leave from the lower end of the cooler at a temperature of 35 – 45OC. by drop in temperature the
relative humidity of the product increases and there by storage characters are improved. The along with
entrained dust at a temperature of 80OC we directed to the cooler cyclone. The cooled product from
product cooler is sent to begin plant or bulk storage using product conveyor. Temp. Of cooled product: 55-
65OC
Retention time: 2.44min
FINES CONVEYOR:
The fines conveyor also called drag chain conveyor, receives the various solid materials like urea and
filler from raw material bin, seed from RMTS, fines from fines hopper, and crushed material from over size
pulverizes, material from cyclone hoppers and excess fertilizer from SDF and VSC hopper. It transfers the
whole mass to the secondary elevator. It has a length of 19.7m and a capacity of 300MTPH.
It contains number of flights, made up of steel, both ends of which are attached to chains, two in
number, sprockets are provided at both of the conveyor one of which is driven by an electric motor of
50HP through fluid coupling. The flights, chains and sprockets are enclosed in a rectangular box to avoid
dust problem. The material is conveyed by scraping with flights. Belt conveyor is not suitable for these
operations. The fines conveyor Is maintained under slight negative pressure to avoid dust evolution by dust
fan. The secondary elevator provided at the discharge end of the fines conveyor, which elevates the recycle
material to a height of 20m and discharges them to the granulator.
AMMONIA AND DUST RECOVERY SYSTEM
This system is provided not only to avoid ammonia and dust losses from the plant but also to help in
pollution control. It is equipped with cyclones. Venturi scrubbers, spray type scrubbers, weak acid scrubber
liquor storage sumps, circulating pumps, exhaust fans and a stack.
Due to the exothermic reaction taking place in the preneutraliser the water in the PN evaporates and the
evaporated water along with un reacted ammonia from the PN is given to this system for recovery of
ammonia. Un reacted ammonia from granulator also enters this system. As the material in the granulator is
in wet condition, dust evolution is less minute quantities. If also any get recovered in the scrubber.
The gasses from dryer and air from cooler contains much amount of dust in dry state. Dust line collects the
dust air from screen hoppers, oversize pulverizes, conveyors, SDF and fines conveyor. These gases are
directed to cyclones. There are three cyclones form dryer; cooler and dust evolution points are given to
dryer cyclone, cooler cyclone and dust cyclone respectively.
The dust line is given tangentially to cyclone bueals. The coarse dust particles will move radically
towards the wall of the cyclone due to centrifugal action. The particles that reach the wall and losses its
energy by colliding the wall and slide down then gets collected in cyclone hopper provided at the bottom of
the cyclone from where it is fed to the fines conveyor through a trickle valve. The cyclones have the chain
at the middle of their bueals at its full length to remove scaling. The air will pass from the top of the
cyclones. Fine particles of dust will not be removed in the cyclones. Hence these gases are directed to
scrubbing section In C-train for dryer, dust cyclones are operated in a single set of cyclones.
In scrubber section, six scrubbers are provided. Ammonia and dust present in the effluent gases obtained
from pre-neutralizer, ammoniator-granulator (AG), and dryer cyclone are Recover in this system. It is
provided with six scrubbers out of which four are venture scrubbers and two are spray type scrubbers viz.
 Pre-Scrubber
 Fumes Scrubber
 Dryer-Scrubber
 Cooler Scrubber
 Dust-Scrubber
  Tail gas-Scrubber

SCRUBBING SYSTEM

The hot vapors from pre-neutralizer and granulator are mixed and then directed to Granulator Fumes
Pre-Scrubber. The effluent gases from dryer cyclone are directed to dryer scrubber. The effluent gases from
cooler cyclone and dust cyclone are sucked by cooler fan and dust fan and they are directed to cooler and
dust scrubber respectively. During manufacturing process of DAP / NPK fertilizers the main pollutants that
are releasing to the atmosphere are ammonia, dust, fluoride and sulphur dioxide. The main nutrients that
are escaping during the manufacturing process are unreacted ammonia and dust and are required to be
recovered for plant economy as well as for protecting the environment by providing Cyclones, Venturi,
Cyclonic wet scrubbers, Dust scrubber and finally Tail gas scrubber.
The venture scrubbers contain a venture portion and a cyclonic separator. The effluent gases are
directed on to the top of the venture portion having rectangular cross section. It has a weir along its length
at the top of the converging section to which scrubber liquor is pumped. A variable throat is also provided
between converging and diverging sections, which help in adjustments of gas flow. The liquid from the
overflow weirs cascades down the sides of the converging section and contacts with the accelerating gas
stream at the throat here the high velocity of gas atomizes the liquid into droplets small enough to impact
upon the vapours so as to absorb them.
The mixed gas & liquid then pass through the diffusing section where the forces of diffusion &
agglomeration act to increase the size of droplets & wetted particles to point, where they may be
separated from the moving gas in the cyclonic separator. For this mixed separate, liquor enters through six
nozzles around its periphery. The acid after scrubbing gets collected at the bottom of the separator &
gravitates to the sump through vacuum seal leg. Cooler scrubber is a hollow cylinder with a conical bottom.
The top portion of scrubber contains a bench of modules i.e., mist eliminators which separates entrained
acid passes over along with gas steam. It is provided with a ring header, externally, from gasses from the
cooler cyclone is injected near bottom of the scrubber, and gravitates to the sump through seal leg. The
scrubbed gas from the entire scrubber passes to the TGS & vented through the stack.
The fumes scrubber effluent gases contain ammonia and fluorine vapours. These are scrubbed with hot
scrubber liquor at high Ph, where fluorine holds in gas stream along with small quantity of ammonia. This is
followed by the high moisture and low Ph scrubber acid, scrubbing in tail gas scrubber. The high moisture
reduces scrubber temperature and hence fluorine escapes in minimized.
The scrubber effluent gases from dryer scrubber still contain ammonia vapours, which are further
scrubbed, with low mole ratio scrubber liquor in tail gas scrubber. For this scrubber effluent gases from
fumes scrubber and dryer scrubber are sucked by fumes fan and dryer fan respectively and even the
scrubbing gases form cooler and dust scrubber are sucked by their respective fans and get discharged to
tail gas scrubber nearly to its bottom through a duct line. Modules in cooler scrubber and tail gas scrubber
and tail gas scrubber are flushed frequently, with pressured water to maintain them as free of block age.
68.
Each scrubber is provided with individual sump at her bottom, viz., fumes sump cooler sump, dust
sump, tail gas sump and scrubber effluent tank (SET). Sumps help to maintain the liquid level above the
bottom and of seal legs. Each sump is provided with overflow launder except SET. Scrubber liquor form tail
gas.sump overflow to cooler sump. The over flow launders from fumes sump, dust sump are connected to
SET.
The scrubber liquor from SET is pumped to fumes scrubber dryer scrubber and dust scrubber by fumes
scrubber liquor pump respectively. Part of scrubber liquor from SET is pumped continuously by scrubber
effluent pump to PN as well as ring header of fumes scrubber and cooler scrubber by means of cooler and
tail gas scrubber circulating pumps.
Phosphoric acid to scrubbing system is added at weir box of fumes scrubber and in cooler sump to full
fill the P2O5 consumed in pre-neutralizer through scrubber liquor. To reduce the SPG of scrubber liquor,
water is added to cooler sump and SET. De-foamer is also added, to reduced foaming in cooler sump and
SET inlet launders

OPERATIONAL CONTROL OF PROCESS:

As the phosphoric acid used for preliminary raw materials in fertilizer industry produced by the wet process
containing impurities with different compositions which in turn causes ammonia fixation. Due to this
operation control in necessary to achieve production with required grade. The rate of production of a
particular fertilizer depends on the product demand, capacity of fertilizer plant and availability of raw
materials.
I. Control of the feed rates of raw materials:
1. Phosphoric acid:
The feed rate of phosphoric acid is constant for product rate of a particular fertilizer. The amount of P2O5
fed to plant determines the instantaneous production rate and not product take out rate. The volumetric
feed rate of phosphoric acid will depend upon the concentration of the acid (with respect P2O5) and its
specific gravity. The acid split between fumes scrubber and preneutraliser to hold the mole ratio in the
scrubber liquor at about 1.3 to 1.354.

2.Ammonia:
About 60 to 75% of liquid ammonia to the plant is fed to the preneutraliser is to adjusted to keep the mole
ratio in the slurry at 1.4 – 1.35. the slurry mole ratio should not increase beyond 1.5, otherwise the partial
pressure of ammonia increases and losses of ammonia to a great extent. The balance of the ammonia is fed
to the granulator is adjusted to keep the desired mole ratio in product.
 3. GRADE TRIMMING AGENTS:
The feed rates of grade trimming agents like urea and filler will depend up on slurry conditions and
granulator operations.
UREA :Urea supplies additional nitrogen required to the product. In percentage of P2O5 content is
remaining constant and percentage of nitrogen content is low in product, urea feed is to be increase to get
the required grade of fertilizer. According to FCO, 2% urea nitrogen is maintained in the product.
FILLER: If the percentage of nitrogen and percentage of P2O5 contents is high in product, the filler feed is
to be increased to bring down the nutrients to required grade by trimming. If the scrubber liquor specific
gravity raised (solid content). Filler additional to the plant is also increased. It also acts as no clear to
granule.
PLANT WATER BALANCE: All of the process water feed to the plant is fed to the scrubbing station feed
water mixes with re circulating scrubber liquor and fresh phosphoric acid to make up the scrubber liquor.
The quantity of the re circulating scrubber liquor in the system is held constant by feeding fresh water to
SET to replace the portion of scrubber liquor fed to the pre-neutralizer and the evaporation losses in the
scrubbers.

II. SCRUBBER SYSTEM CONTROL:

The control of the scrubber system involves mole ratio, specific gravity and Ph of the foam generation. As
the ammonia slip and dust evolution raised due to normal condition, the mole ratio, specific gravity and Ph
of scrubber liquor is maintained at optimum value. The foam generation in the plant may be due to,
High temperature of the slurry
High PR feed tank level
Bad quality of phosphoric acid, which is made from certain phosphate rocks, shows a property for
generation of persistent foam in the scrubber system and in the PR feed tank.The foam generation results
in losses of raw material sand serious upsets in the process. To reduce this problem an anti-foaming agent
like oleic acid should be added on continuous basis for more effective to the SET of the scrubbing system.
Water is sprayed on the surface of foam as last alternative. However, the spraying of water will results in
diluting the slurry to some extent and hence deceases in production rate. Defoamer addition on continuous
basis is the best choice to avoid the foam generation in the scrubber system. The control of the scrubbers
using pipe reactor for DAP production involves a high level of ammonia losses from the granulator and pipe
reactor which can easily exceed 30% of the ammonia fed to the process. This is due to,
1. Excessive ammonia sparging.
2. Blocked pipe reactor.
3. Excessive dryer temperature increases ammonia losses and feeding the hotter recycle material increases
ammonia slip in the granulator.
 THE MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE SCRUBBER SYSTEM CONTROL ARE:
1. Ensuring a stable flow and composition of scrubber liquor to the pipe reactor.
2. Maintaining the mole ratio, specific gravity and Ph of scrubber liquor at optimum level controls scrubber
blockages.
3. Maintain high scrubbing efficiency.
To provide a suitable reactor feed slurry, the process is designed to operate in either of two modes
discussed in detailed below.

SCRUBBER LIQUOR AT 1.4 MOLE RATIO, MOISTURE CONTENT 35-40%:

This mode contains primary and secondary stage scrubbing system. Ammonia, which slips through primary
scrubber system due to excess ammonia, gets scrubbed in the secondary scrubbing system with dilute acid
medium under normal conditions of operation. The stack emissions are controlled within acceptable limits.
During excessive slips upsets, the secondary system overloads, Ph raises to 8 or 9 and ammonia slips
through. No solidifications occur because of high water content

SCRUBBER LIQUOR AT 0.3 MOLE RATIO, 60-70%:

Moisture content approximately 30% of phosphoric acid added to the scrubber seal tank. In both the
scrubbing modes a central scrubber liquor tank is used as buffer so that variations in the scrubbing system
are damped out before being carried through to the tee reactor. The moisture content is adjusting the
water flow to the tank.
Problems in plant operations:
 Blocking of PCR due to scale build up
 Blocking of Scrubber due to higher ammonia escape to scrubbing system
 over granulation due to reduction in recycle ratio.

III. PRODUCT COOLING SYSTEM:

As the production rate rose, this system is provided to cool the product in existing cooler with relatively low
temperature air and to supply the vapor ammonia required in the granulator. In this system, an air cooler
and an air heat exchanger are provided.
In the product cooling system (PCS), dehumidification of air is takes place. This is an enclosed box having
canvas cloth as one of its face. As mild steel duct provided at the opposite face of the cloth connects the
dehumidifier with product cooler. It contains ammonia coils in air drum is provided on the top of the
enclosed box. A liquid ammonia-circulating pump is also provided for the circulation of liquid ammonia
through ammonia coils.
The ambient dust laden air is sucked through the canvas cloth by cooler fan. The clean air passes over the
liquid ammonia coils. The air gets cooled and dehumidified. Much of the moisture gets separated and the
water droplets get collected at the bottom, which is drained into scrubber effluent tanks (SET). Liquid
ammonia is evaporated in the coils by taking heat from air and becomes vapor ammonia and is sent to
surge drum. As the air stream passes at higher velocity, there is no time to separate the condensate from
the saturated air. The entrained condensate is then separated in mist eliminators.
The saturated air thus produced at a temperature of 100oC should not be directly exposed to hot granules
because due to difference in relative humidity between the streams, condensation takes place within the
cooler and leads to caking problem. To overcome this problem, the saturated air is then sent to pass over
the steam coil, which raises the temperature of the air to 180oC. Thus the relative humidity of the air
decreases. The air then leaves to the cooler.

IV. AMMONIA VAPOURISER:

In winter season the ambient air temperature is at the process-desired temperature, so the PCS is not
taken into working. There by no vapor ammonia generation takes place. But vapor ammonia is required in
the granulator. For this purpose ammonia vaporizer is providing in which vapor ammonia is produced from
liquid ammonia using steam as heating medium.
The system consists of a vertical surge drum and a shell and tube type vaporizer. The liquid ammonia taken
on the shell side of the vaporizer form surge drum and med pressure steam at a pressure of 7kg/Cm2 is
passed on tube side form the top of vaporizer. Thus generated vapor ammonia is sent to surge drum. The
condensate is collected and sent to SET. The PCS as well as ammonia vaporizer are insulated with PUF. The
vapor ammonia at a pressure of 2.5- 3.5 Kg/Cm2 and temperature of 40oC from both surge drums is sent to
the granulator

V. PROCESS CONTROL:
The objectives of the process control with pipe cross reactor are steady continuous operation at maximum
possible production rate consistent with product quality meeting the specification. An optimum utilization
(yield) of raw materials.

The control of the PCR operation involves with following parameters for increasing production capacity of
the plant with required grade. They are
1. Short retention time of reactants.
2. Operating at lesser moisture load by utilizing the heat of reaction.
3. Operating at lesser recycle ratio by maintaining the optimum granulation conditions.
4. Lower energy consumption by controlling the wetness of the granulator discharge.

The pipe reactor gives an instant response on control of the granulation. The feed rates of ammonia and
phosphoric acid are controlled to obtain the optimum mole ratio for good granulation. The balance of
ammonia is spared in the recycle bed of granulator to optimize the product fraction in the granulator
discharge, which also helps for maintaining AG discharge in good condition. The process water is added
directly or as scrubber liquor to the PCR to quench the heat of reaction and to aid in granulation. The
moisture, which is required for effective granulation, is only fed along with slurry on the recycle bed of AG.
The moisture content of the slurry is controlled by feeding the scrubber liquor, which in turn controls the
dryer outlet temperature to avoid ammonia losses.
The heat released due to the exothermic reactions maintains the high temperature in the pipe reactor and
granulator. Hence the total ammonia is not reacted and UN reacted ammonia along with generated steam
is vented off to the scrubbing system for recovery of ammonia and carry over dust. The performance of
instrumentation on PCR is very critical to its operation as there is no opportunity for checking the
composition of the slurry entering into AG. This is accomplished by sending scrubber liquor with constant
composition from SET. The product fraction in AG discharge should be very high; otherwise recycle will
increase and bleed off falls down.

ENERGY SAVING ACHIEVEMENT:

Energy saving in terms of lower consumption norms of electrical power, fuel and steam has been achieved
as a result of increasing production rate.
 MATERIAL BALANCE OF DAP

BASIS: 1 Ton of DAP

ASSUMPTION: Complete reaction takes place

GIVEN:
1. Phosphoric Acid (54% P2O5, 2.5% H2SO4)
2. Sulphuric acid (98% Pure)
3. Liquid ammonia (99.95% Pure)
4. Mole Ratio of the product 1.78
5. Grade to be manufactured

18-46-0

For 1 Ton of 18 – 46 – 0, The amount of nitrogen required is 182Kg, the amount of P 2O5 is required is 465
Kg. And the amount of K2O required is nil.
For 1 ton i.e., 1000Kg of DAP the amount of P2O5 required = 465Kgs

The amount of P2O5 present in 100Kg of Phosphoric acid

Hence the amount of acid required for 465Kgs of P2O5 is (465*100/54) =

861.1Kgs.
 Given that the mole ratio of the final product in the manufacture of DAP is 1.78. That is 1.78 moles of
Ammonia will react with 1 mole of Phosphoric acid to form DAP. For Pure DAP The mole ratio will be 2.
Amount of moisture present in Phosphoric acid containing 54% P 2O5
Let us assume that the phosphoric acid contains 4% H 2SO4 and 2.5% impurities.

Basis: 100 kg of available Phosphoric acid

The reaction between P2O5 and water to form phosphoric acid is as follows

+ 3H2O

Hence 1 mole of P2O5 reacts to form 2 moles of phosphoric acid.

Amount of P2O5 reacted owing that complete reaction had taken place = 54 kg

Moles of P2O5 present = (Weight /Molecular Weight)

= 54/((31*2) + (16*5) = 54/142 = 0.38 k – moles Therefore moles of phosphoric

acid present in impure phosphoric acid

= 2 * 2.38 = 0.76 k – moles

sphoric acid present in impure phosphoric acid = 0.76 * 98 = 74.53kgs.

uding sulphuric acid present in 100kgs of impure phosphoric acid

= 4 + 2.5 = 6.5Kgs

Therefore amount of water present in impure phosphoric acid

= 100 – 74.53 – 6.5

= 18.97Kgs

Percentage of P2O5 present on dry basis

= 54/(100 – 18.97)*100 = 66.65%

Weight of pure phosphoric acid present in 861.1Kgs of impure phosphoric acid

= 861.1*74.53/100

= 641.78Kgs

Therefore moles of phosphoric acid present in the impure phosphoric acid

= Weight/molecular weight = 641.1/98

= 6.542 K – mol

The mole ratio of the final product is given as 1.78 which is the ratio of moles of ammonia to the moles of
phosphoric acid

Therefore moles of ammonia to be reacted to satisfy the mole ratio of 1.78 are

1.78*6.542

= 11.65 k – moles

Therefore weight of ammonia required = 11.65*17 = 198 kg

 Amount of ammonia required to neutralize 2.5 % H2SO4

t in phosphoric acid = 861.1*2.5/100 = 21.53 kg

Moles of sulphuric acid present in phosphoric acid = 21.53/98 = 0.22 k – mol

The reaction between ammonia and sulphuric acid is as follows

2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4

Hence moles of ammonia required is 2*0.22 = 0.44 Therefore amount of ammonia required is 0.44*17 =

7.5 kg Therefore total amount of ammonia required is 198 + 7.5 = 205.5 kg % of nitrogen present in

ammonia = 14/17*100 = 82.35%

Therefore amount of nitrogen present in 205.5 kg of ammonia = 205.5*82.35/100

= 169.2Kgs of nitrogen.

The amount of nitrogen to be present as stated by FCI = 18.2%

Therefore the weight of nitrogen to be present in 1 ton of DAP = 182 kg

Amount of nitrogen deficient = 182 – 169.2 = 12.8 kg

% of nitrogen present in urea = 28/60*100 = 46%

Therefore amount of urea required which can produce 12.8 kg of nitrogen = 12.8*100/46 = 27.83 kg
Amount of dry phosphoric acid required for the reaction = 465*66.67/100

= 698Kgs.

Phosphoric acid

Ammonia

Moisture

Percentage of MAP and DAP present in the DAP product of 18:46:0

From the above calculation the amount of moles of phosphoric acid required is 6.542 k – mol

And the moles of ammonia required is 11.65 k – moles

The first reaction that takes place between ammonia and phosphoric acid is the formation of Mono
Ammonium Phosphate (MAP). The reaction is as follows:-
NH3 + H3PO4 NH4H2PO4

From the above reaction 1 mole of ammonia will react with 1 mole of Phosphoric acid to form 1 mole of
Mono Ammonium Phosphate.

Assuming that complete reaction takes place without any wastage of the raw materials

Moles of Phosphoric acid available = 6.542 k – moles

Therefore moles of ammonia that react with 6.542 k – mol of phosphoric acid = 6.542 k – mol

Moles of Mono Ammonium Phosphate formed = 6.542 k –mol

In the second reaction remaining ammonia will react with Mono Ammonium Phosphate to form Di
Ammonium Phosphate. The reaction is as follows

NH3 + NH4H2PO4 (NH4)2HPO4

Actually all the 6.542 moles of Mono Ammonium Phosphate formed should react with ammonia to form di
ammonium phosphate

Therefore moles of ammonia required = 6.542 k –mol

Moles of ammonia still left unreacted in the first reaction = 11.65 – 6.542 = 5.108 k – moles

For the conversion of MAP to DAP 6.542 k – mol of ammonia is required.

But only 5.108 k – moles of Ammonia is present. Therefore only 5.108 k – moles of Mono Ammonium
Phosphate will react with ammonia to form Di Ammonium Phosphate1 mole of ammonia will react with
Mono Ammonium Phosphate to form 1 mole of Di Ammonium Phosphate.

Therefore moles of Di Ammonium Phosphate formed = 5.108 k – mol

Moles of Mono Ammonium Phosphate left unreacted = 6.542 – 5.108 = 1.434 k – mol
Weight of Di – Ammonium Phosphate formed = 5.108*(36+1+31+64) = 5.108*132 = 674.26 kg
Weight of Mono Ammonium Phosphate left = 1.434*(18+2+31+64) = 1.434*115 = 164.91 kg
Therefore percentage of di ammonium phosphate formed = 674.26/(674.26+164.91)*100 =
674.26/839.17*100 = 80.4%
Percentage of Mono Ammonium Phosphate present = 100 – 80.4 = 19.6%

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A,B & C TRAINS

There are small differences between A,B&C –trains. They are as follows’ There is a Pre-Neutralizer in C-train
which scrubs the vapor ammonia from the ammonia pre heater.
There is an elevator in C-train to carry the product to spray anti-caking oil if it is necessary.
Ammonia is heat exchanged with Ethylene glycol to use the vapor ammonia in pre-neutralizer.

S.NO Equipment M-kw/hp Voltage/RPM Capacity Length Width Dru

1 Granulator 250/335 6600/1500 220-440/450 9mts 3.8mts 7 to
2 Dryer Drum 575/771 6600/1000 220-440/450 33mts 4.2mts 2.8
3 Cooler Drum 160/220 415/1500 80-100 20mts 3.5mts 2.6
4 Coating Drum 37/50 415/1500 80-100 7mts 2.7mts 8
 S.NO Equipment
1 Recycle Elevator \453
2 Exit Dryer Elevator
3 Final Product elevator
4

PRODUCT HANDLING SYSTEM ( BAGGING PLANT )

 Bagging plant is the last operation in the COROMANDEL. In this section the product coming from DAP
plant is packed or bagged here through conveyors with polymer bags having size 560 x 860 mm with 50 kg
weight.

THIS PLANT HAS TWO SECTIONS,

1. Old bagging plant
2. New bagging plant.
The cooled fertilizer at a temperature of 40-50oC from the DAP is plant is conveyed through the 2 belt
conveyors. The bagging plant is provided in such a way that the product can be bagged otherwise it can be
stored in silos of capacity 25,000MT &18,000MT (New Bagging).
The product from product conveyors is fed through chutes to the conv.1A and Conv.1B and these
conveyors separate the various streams i.e., to bagging machines,, storage silo and new bagging plant one
stream of product i.e., to bagging machines is fed through conveyors to reversible conveyors and from
there it is fed again to 2 reversible conveyors through chutes and these reversible conveyors feeds the
product to surge bins and from there product is b aged through bagging machines which will accurately
weigh 50Kg product. The load cell is provided to fill the bag with exactly 50 Kg products and this cell will be
operated pneumatically. Similarly the new bagging machine, which will bag nearly 22 bags/minute while as
the manual bagging machines in old bagging plant bags nearly 10 bags/minute.

STORAGE SILO:
Silo is provided to store the product if the bagging is not in operation or some other causes. There
are 2 two silo’s each of capacity 25,000MT. The conveyor from screen house is sent through the top off silo
to the traveling tripper, which is useful to pour the length of the silo. The stored product will be reclaimed
through pay loaders and they pour on to the conveyors through hopper. This product is sent for screening
through the bucket elevator. The oversize and fines in the product, which will be formed during storage,
are separated and the product is directed to the bagging conveyors certain precautions are to be taken
while storing, that not to be much exposed to surroundings due to moisture.

AUTO BAGGING MACHINE:

The bag filling plant is used for bagging of DAP/ NPK granules and mainly consists of parts discussed below:
1. Automatic Bag fitter
2. Spreading Spout
3. Integrated Bag top transport system
4. Bag transport with link belt conveyor
 The bags for singling out are supplied by magazines which are adjustable for different bag widths. The
capacity of magazines varies from 120-approximately 600 bags foil thickness of the bags.
AUTO BAGGING FITTER:
The automatic supply of bags is carried out by ABF. It consists of rigid frame with following components:
Lifting table for positioning of bag magazines.
Magazine feed attachment.
Vacuum system with singling out and bag opening suckers.
Rubber chain and positioning motor.
Swinging frame with bag opening device.

SPREADING SPOUT:
The bag filling spout is a swinging spout with an integrated spreading device and it is fixed on the
supporting frame. All parts in contact with the product are made up of SS. Integrated clamps on the
spreading spout fix the bag tight on the spout and integrated take over fingers stretch the bag at its open
end. Then the spout swings in a vertical position, during this movement the spout opens already so that the
product can flow into the bag and at the same time two spreading fingers swing into bag. As soon as the
bag is filled, the clamps and take over fingers release the bag and it drops on to link belt conveyor
underneath. Then the filling spout swings back in itsside wards position and is ready for the next bag. At the
same time the spreading fingers stretch the open end of the bag. Then a closing device closes, to keep the
open end of the bag together. Thereafter the spreading fingers swing out of the bag.
INTEGRATED BAG TOP TRANSPORT SYSTEM:
It consists mainly of:
1. The scissor- like bag transporting upper part. Two swiveling arms equipped with transport belts close and
fix the formed bag mouth.
2. The link belt conveyor, which removes the bag from the filling station and transfers it to the sewing /
sealing Machine.
3. The lateral guide plates, which keep the bags in upright position during transport.

1. Length of the bag :- 90cms(Avg.)

2. Width of the bag :- 55cms(Avg.)
3. Breaking strength :- 113Kgf(Avg.)
4. Weight of the bag :- 120gm
5. Material of the bag :- HDPE (High Density Poly Ethylene)

DUST EXTRACTION SYSTEM:

While transferring the DAP the fines will be over carried by the air and this makes much dust and pollution
so for this the dust at various points are collected near the chutes, hoppers etc and this lines are connected
to main line which will scrubbed to remove the dust in venturi scrubber
Process water is used as the scrubbing liquid and this water is recirculated through pumps. The
scrubbing liquid is used until its concentration increases and then new water is introduced. The air from
scrubber is sent through the fan to the stack, which is of force draught mist eliminator is provided to
prevent the carry out of moisture.

Process:
1. The feed in the bins are filled with using various conveyors from DAP plant.
2. The new bagging plant has a one P.L.C unit having capacity 1200 bags per hour & one bin with manual
operating system having two hoppers with capacity 12 bags per minute.
3. The product coming from DAP plant is converted to this section at old screening section through conv.101,
with using flap gates.

4.
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION:

The product from granulation plant is discharged to conveyors 1A & 1B. Conveyors 1A&1B conveys
the product to the bagging plant through conveyor 2 which feeds the reversible conveyor 3. Conveyor 3 in
turn feeds two reversible conveyors RBFD1 & RBFD2. RBFD1 discharges the material into surge bin 1 or
surge bin 2. While RBFD2 discharges the material into surge bin 3 or bulk-loading hopper. Slat conveyors
provided below the bagging machines (by others) at each of four discharge outlets of surge bin 1 and surge
bin 3 receive the feed bags and conveys them to bag conveyors 4A, 4B, 4C, 4D & 6A, 6B, 6C & 6D.
Conveyors 4C, 4D, 6C & 6D UN loads the bags on to the truck loading flat form. Conveyors 4A, 4B, 6A, &6B
unload the bags on to the rail loading flat form. However, there is also provision to divert the bags from
conveyors 11, 7, 8, 9 & 10, which are mounted on tyres. The bulk-loading hopper is provided with rack and
pinion gate and will discharge DAP into the container trucks placed directly below the hopper.
When DAP is not required to be bagged, the same shall be stored in bulk storage silo (by others).
Conveyors 1A&1B discharge the material on to tripper conveyor 12. The tripper has a two way chute for
discharge on both sides of the conveyor. The stored DAP is reclaimed by pay loaders (by others) and feed
into any one or more o the six reclaim hoppers. These hoppers have rack and pinion gate and
electromagnetic vibratory feeders mounted at its outlets to regulate the feed on to the reclaim
conveyor13. Conveyor 13 feeds the bucket elevator which in turn discharges the DAP on to double deck
vibrating screen through the screen feeder conveyor. DAP with product size of +1 to – 4 mm is fed into
conveyor 2 for conveying on to the bagging plant. Over size and under-sized granules are collected in
manually operated traveling hoppers to be taken back to the process plant.

OPERATING INSTALLATION INSTRUCTION FOR VIBRATING FEEDER:

‘ELEKTROMAG’ vibrating feeders provided the most efficient and economical method of conveying
bulk material and are the simplest and easiest means of controlling the rate of flow of feed.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
‘ELEKTROMAG’ vibrating feeder consists of a vibrating tray fitted to a power unit of considerable
weight. The electromagnetic is mounted inside the heavy power unit by means of adjusting bolts. The
power unit also houses the vibrators bars which consist of a number of leaf springs clamped at the two
ends of the power unit. A heavy fabricated center clamp carries the magnet armature at one end and the
vibrating feeder tray at the other end. The center clamp is tightly clamped around the middle of the spring
system. The drives of the magnetic impulse are transmitted to the feed tray through the center clamp. The
feed tray is of heavy welded construction with stiffeners and gussets to provided rigidity.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
Electrical impulses are passed through the stator and coils, forming the magnetic circuit to create a
sequence of interrupted magnetic pulls on the armature, which is connected to the vibrating bars through
the center clamp.
During the first half of the stroke the vibrator are flexed towards the magnet. A restoring force is
built up in the bars and when the magnetic pull is interrupted, this force is released and supplies the power
for the second half of the stroke. No sooner bars return to their original position by their own momentum
another magnetic pull begins. The amplitude of vibration of infinitely variable up to 1.5mm or 1/16”. At no
time during the stroke do the stator and armature faces come into actual contact. The length of stokes of
vibration is controlled by increasing or decreasing the current input. Frequency in this is 3000 vibrations
each minute.
 WATER AND WASTE WATER ANALYSIS

ACIDITY:
Acidity of a liquid is its capacity to donate H+ ions. Since most of the n atural waters and sewage’s are
buffer ed by carbon dioxide – bicarbonate syste m, the acidity present due to free CO2 has no significance
from public health view point. Waters containing mineral acidity (due to H2 SO4 and HCL) are
unacceptable. Further, acid waters pose problem of corrosion and interf ere in water softening and water
treatment processes.

PRINCIPLE:
The mineral acids present and contributing mineral acidity can be calculated by titrating or neutralizing
samples to pH 4.3. The CO2 and bicarbonates (carbonic acid) present in th e sample can be neutralized
complete ly by continuing the titration to pH 8.3.

PROCEDURE:
1) Measure suitable volume of s ample (50 or 100ml) in 250 ml conical flask or beaker depending upon the
method to be followed.
2) Add 2 drops of methyl orange and titrate with standard 0.02 N Na OH till colour changes to faint orange
characteristic of pH 4.4 – 4.3.
3) Note down the volume of Na OH. Required ………A
4) Add 2-3 drops phenolphthale in indicator and continue titration with NaOH till faint pink colour appears
indicating pH 8.3.
5) Note down the volume of additional NaOH required ….B
CALCULATE AS FOLLOWS:
I)Each ml of 0.02N NaOH is = 1m g CaCO3
Therefore, acidity mineral or due to CO2

ml(0.02) N NaOH reqd. x 1000 as mg/l CaCO3 =

ml sample
 In case if normality of NaOH is other than 0.02N calculate as follows.
ii)Acidity mineral or due to CO2 as mg/l CaCO3

A/B x N x 50000
=
ml s ample
Where,

A = ml NaOH required f or sample to raise pH up to 4.4 – 4.3

B = ml NaOH required for sample to raise pH from 4.4 to 8.3
N = Normality of NaOH u sed.

ALKALINITY:
Hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates contribute alkalinity to a liquid. Alkalinity values provide guidance
in applying proper doses of chemicals in water and wastewater treatment processes, particularly in
coagulation, softening and operational controller anaerobic digestion.

PRINCIPLE:
Alkalinity can be obtained by neutralizing OH, CO3 and HCO3 with standard H2SO4. Titration to pH 8.3. or
de-colorization of phenolphthalein indicator will show complete neutralization of OH and ½ of CO3, while
to pH 4.4 or sharp change from yellow to pink of methyl orange indicator will indicate total alkalinity, i.e.,
OH, CO3 and HCO 3.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take 25 or 50ml sample in a conical flask and add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
2. If pink colour develops titra te with 0.02N H2 SO4 till it disappears or PH is 8.3. Note the vol. of H2 SO4
required………..(A)
3. Add 2-3 drops methyl orange to the same flask and continue titration till pH comes down to 4.5 – 4.4 or o
range colour changes to pink.
Note the vol. Of H2SO4 added………….(B)
4. In case pink colour does n ot appear after addition of phenolphthalein continue as in 3 above.
5. Calculate Total (T), phenolphthalein (P) and methyl orange (MO) alkalinity as follows and express in mg/1
as CaCO3:

P Alkalinity, mg/1 as CaCO 3 = A x 1000/ml sample M Alkalinity, mg/1 as CaCO3 = B x 1000/ml

sample
Total Alkalinity, mg/1 as CaCO3 = (A+B) x 1000/ml sample.

In case H2SO4 is not 0.0 2 N apply the following formula:

A x N x 50000
Alkalinity mg/1 as CaCO 3 = ------------------------------
ml Sample

Where N = Normality of H2SO4 used.

Calculate OH -,CO3 -2 and HCO3- forms from the values of P & T alkalinity as shown below:

CHLORIDES:
Chlorides occur widely in water and wastewater and are u sually associated with sodium ions.
Although chlorides are not harmful, concentration beyond 250mg/l impart a peculiar taste to water
rendering it unacceptable from aesthetic p oint of view for drinking purpose. Prese nce of chlorides above
the usual background concentration in a water source is also used as an indicator of pollution by domestic
sewage.

PRINCIPLE:
Chloride ion is determined by titration with standard AgNO3 in which AgCl precipitates out. The end of
titration is indicated by formation of red silver chromate from excess AgNO3 and potassium chromate used
as an indicator in neutral to slightly alkaline solution.

PROCEDURE:
(A) (I) Pretreatment: Take 1 00ml sample and add 3ml special reagent. Mix well and allow to settle. Filter
the supernatant for titration purpose.
(II)To the samples containing suphite, add about 1 ml H2O2 after neutralization.
 (III)In case if sulphide o r thiosulphate is present raise the PH of the sample to 8.3 or more, add
H2O2 (1 ml), and then again neutralize the sam ple.

(B) Titration:
 Adjust the pH of sample be tween 7.0 and 8.0
 Take 50ml well mixed sa mple adjusted to PH 7.0 – 8 and add 1.0 ml K2CrO4.
 Titrate with standard AgNO 3 solution till AgCrO4 starts precipitating.
 Standardize AgNO3 against std. NaCl.
 For better accuracy, titrate distilled water (50ml) in the same w ay to establish reagent blank

Calculate as follows:
Cl mg/l = [(A-B) N x 3545 0] / ml sample taken for test Where, A = ml AgNO3 for sample
B = ml AgNO3 for bl ank
N = Normality of AgNO 3 used
DISSOLVED OXYGEN:
Living organisms need oxygen for their metabolic processes. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is also important in
preci pitation and dissolution of inorganic subst ances in water. The solubility of oxygen in water depends
upon its temperature. Analysis of DO is a key test in sanitary engineering practice. The following
illustrations reveal important of DO as a parameter:

It is necessary to know DO levels to assess quality of raw water and to k eep a check on stream pollution.
DO test is the basis of BOD test which is an important parameter to evaluate pollution potential of wastes.
DO is necessary for all aerobic biological wastewater treatment processe s. Oxygen is an important factor
in corrosion. DO test is used to control a mount of oxygen in boiler feed waters either by chemical or
physical methods.

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND:

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B OD)is defined as the amount of O 2 requi red by microorganisms while
stabilizin g biologically decomposable organic matter in a waste under aerobic conditions. The BOD test is
widely used to determ ine 1) the pollution load of wastewater, 2) The degree of pollution in lake s and
streams at any time and their self – purification capacity, and 3) efficiency of wastewater treatment
methods.
Since the test is mainly a bio – assay procedure, involving measurement of O 2 consumed by bacteria while
stabilizing organic matter under aerobic conditions, it is necessary to provide standard conditions of
nutrient supply, PH, absence of microbial gro wth inhibiting substances and temperature. Because of the
 low solubility of O2 in water, strong wastes are always d iluted to ensure that the demand do es not
increase the available oxygen. A mixed group of organisms should be p resent in the sample; if not, the
sample has to be seeded artificially. Temperature is controlled at 20 0C. The test is cond ucted for 5 days as
70 to 80% of the waste is oxidized during this period.

CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND:

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test determines the Oxygen re quired for chemical oxidation of org
anic matter with the help of strong chemical oxidant. The test can be emplo yed for the same purpose as
the BOD test after taking into account its limitations.
The intrinsic limitation of the test lies in its inability to differentiate between the biologically
oxidizable and biologically inert materia l.COD determination has an advantage over BOD determination in
that the result can be obtained in about 5 h ours as compared to 5 days required for BOD test. Further, the
test is relatively easy, gives reproducible result and is not affected by interferences as the BOD test.

HARDNESS:
Hardness in water ca uses scale formation in boilers. It i s also objectionable from viewpoint of
water use for laundry and domestic pu rposes since it consumes a larger qu antity of soap. Generally, salts
of Ca an d Mg contribute hardness to natural waters.
Hardness may be classified either as (1) carbonate and noncarbo nated hardness or (2) calcium and
magnesium hardness or (3) temporary and permanent hardness.

PRINCIPLES:
In alkaline condition ED TA reacts with Ca and Mg to form a soluble
cheated complex. Ca and Mg ions develop wine red colour with Erioc hrome
Black ‘T’ under alkaline conditio n. When EDTA is added as a titrant the C a and
Mg divalent ions get complexed resulting in sharp change from wine red to
blue which indicates end point of the titration. The pH for this titration has to
be maintained at 10.0 + 0.1. At a higher pH, i.e., about 12.0, M g ion
precipitates and only Ca ion rem ains in solution. When EDTA is added Ca ++gets
complexed resulting in a chang e from pink to purple which indicates end point
of the reaction.
PROCEDURE:

TOTAL HARDNESS:

1. Take 25 or 50ml well-mixed sample in porcelain dish or conical flask.

2. Add 1-2 ml buffer solution followed by 1 ml inhibitor.
Add a pinch of Eriochrome black ‘T’ and titrate with standard EDTA (0.01M) till wine red colour changes
to blue. Note down the vol. of EDTA required (A)

SKALARAUTO ANALYSER ANAL YSIS PROCEDURE :

The Skalar Analyzer is an autom atic analyzer that provide for continuous flow analysis method. Continuous
flo w analysis is an automatic analysis met hod of one of several liquid streams (sample, wash, reagents,
detergents, diluents) where sequentially aspirated sa mples are introduced in a modular, chemistry unit,
spaced by means of air bu bbles aimed at avoiding carry-over.
The Skalar analyzers consist basically of the following equipment:
A sampler that picks up the samples and wash, creating a flow that is aspirated into the chemistry unit.
Manual or automatic rins ing valves to easily or automatically switch the system on and off reagents and /
or rinsing liquid.
A chemistry unit that add s air bubbles and reagents and diluents to the flow and transports it through
tubes and coils, where it und ergoes treatment such as mixing, heating, dialysis etc.,
Detectors that continuously measure the flow and pass the signals on to recorder and/or interfac e. The
flow can be debubbled just before entering the flow cell of the detector, but measuring the flow with the
air bubbles-the –so-called bubble-gating analysis, is also possible, saving time and reagents, because in the
latter case, shorter sampling times can be applied. A special measuring method in which the flow is
measured at two wave lengths is provided by the matrix and turbo detection heads. These detection heads
are used to eliminate matrix effects (by measuring at two different wave lengths and automatically
subtracting one channel from the other), that same analysis suffer from (e.g. sea water).

The interface collects in most cases – analog signals and converts them into digital signals to pas s them in
to the computer to be treated by the skalar data processing pa ckage.
The computer with Skalar data processing package simultaneously treat, filter, calculate and store the raw
signals and the results of a max imum of three systems with a m aximum of physical and a total of 19
chemistry channels each.

PHOSPHATE ANALYSIS:
Range: 0.4-20% P2O5 (40 – 2000 PPM P205)
PRINCIPLE :-
The automated procedure of th e determination of Phosphate is based on the following reaction. The
sample solution containing phosphate is mixed with an ammonium molybdate sol ution to form
molybdophosphoric acid. The molybdophosphoric acid reacts with the ammonium metavandate to form
the yellow coloured vanado molybdophosphoric acid. The color intensity is measured at 420 nm.
Required Chemicals :- (AR – grade)
 Ammonium metavandate, (NH4 VO3)
Ammonium molybdate, (NH4)6 Mo7 O24.4H2O
Perchloric acid, HCl O4 (70 %)
Sodium Lauryl Sulphate
Extran (Phosphate free) or Teepal or FFD6 (Skalar Product)
Potassium dihydrogen O – Phosphate
. Distilled Water

AMMONIA ANALYSIS:
Range : 0.2 – 10% N (20 – 10 00PPM N)

PRINCIPLE :
The automated procedure fo r the determination of Ammonia is based on the modified Berthlot reactio n.
Ammonia is chlorinated to monochloramine which reacts with Salicylate to 5- aminosalicylate. A fter
oxidation and oxidative coup ling a green coloured complex is formed at 37 0C. The absorption of the
formed complex is measured at 660nm.

Chemicals Required (AR – grade) : -

1. Sodium Salicylate, C7H5NaO3
2. Sodium nitropruside, Na2 [Fe (CN)5 NO]. 2 H2O
3. Di-Sodium hydrogen orthophosphate, Na2 HPO4
4. Potassium Sodium T artrate, C4H4O6K Na. 4H2O
5. Sodium Hydroxide, Na OH
6. Sodium hypochlorite, Na ClO (4%)
7. Brij 35 (30%), or Extran or Teepol.
8. Distilled water
9. Ammonium Chloride.
 UREA ANALYSIS :
Range :- 0.2 – 10% CH4 N2O
(20 –1000 PPM CH4 N2O)

PRINCIPLE:-
The Automated procedure fo r the determination of urea is based on the following reaction. The samp le is
diluted in a sodium chloride and is dialysed against a colour reagent. Here after an acidic acid catalyst rea
gent is added. The analytical syste m is heated to 90oC, where the chromoge n is formed between the urea
and the diacetyl monoxime. The presence of thiosemicarbazide intensifies the colour. The absorbance is
measured at 520 nm.
Chemicals Required (AR grade):-
Sod ium chloride, NaCl
Di- acetyl monoxim, C4H7NO2
. Thi o semi carbazide, C H5N3S
Ferric Chloride, Fe Cl3 6H2O
Ortho Phosphoric acid, H3PO4 (85%)
Brij - 35 (35%)
. Sul phuric acid (97%)

DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE :
HOT AIR OVEN METHOD:
To determine the free water co ntent in a solid fertilizer (it is not applicable to sample which yield volatile
substances other than water at drying condition].

PROCEDURE:
Weigh 2 grams of sample into a weighing dish. Place the dish in a Hot Air Oven at 100 + 10c for two hours. R
emove from oven, cover the dish & coo l in a desiccators. Then take the weig ht and determine the weight
loss. CALCULATION: H20% = [wt.loss in gms X 100]/[wt. of the sample].

Samples like Urea, Di-ammoni um Phosphate and Ammonium Nitrate, which yield volatile substances other
than water at drying temperature, the Karl
 Fischer Method or Dean and Stark method, can be used for the determination of moisture.

DEAN AND STARK METHOD:

Chemicals required: Toluene

Apparatus:Dean & stark Appara tus consisting of a 250 ml flat bottomed round flask with joint, condenser &
side arm burette [10 ml capacity]. PROCEDURE:

Take about 100 grams of DAP granules containing not more than 2% moisture in a 250 ml. flat
round bottom flask. Then add toluene so that the flask should be half filled. Rins e the Dean & Stark
apparatus with toluen e and fix it with a condenser. Heat the flask in a heating mantle and collect the
condensed distillate in the side arm burette until a constant water l evel is obtained below the condensed
toluene solution. Then calculate the mo isture percentage from the volume o f water condensed. In case of
PR fee d tank slurry sample, take about 25 grams [containing not more than 2-4% moisture] and then
determine the moistu re as above.
Standard water solution or 1 drop of water [0.05 grams] is added into the methanol in the beaker.
W hile doing this stirring should be stoppe d and care should be taken not to allow any powder to stick to
the sidewall of the beaker. Close the opening of the beaker with a cork and start the magnetic stirrer.
KARL FISCHER METHOD:
REAGENTS
1. Karl Fischer Reagent: It is a mixture of Iodine, Sulphur dioxide, Pyridin e and methanol.
2. Dried Methanol of special Ka rl Fischer grade having moisture content of the Order less than 0.04%.
3. Sodium tartrate dihydrate sp ecial Karl Fischer grades.
4. Standard water solution: M easure exactly 2 ml of water into a thor oughly dry one liter volumetric flask,
dilute to the mark with methanol. Retain sufficient quantity of the sam e methanol for blank
determination. Ke ep the solution in tightly closed containers.
5. Apparatus: Karl Fischer Apparatus.
PROCEDURE:
Take the K.F.Reagent in the reservoir bottle. Fit the burette, flexible tub e and the deliver tip. Pipette 10 ml.
O r more of methanol into reaction beaker. Care should be taken to see that the metal electrodes in the
beaker m ust be immersed in the methanol. Th en close the cork of the beaker. Connect the titrator to
mains supply and put the main switch on. The red lamp of the titrator will then glow. Conne ct the leads of
the solenoid valve to the small three-hole socket on the titrator. Adjust the speed of the magnetic stirrer
such that the wired ends of the ele ctrodes do not get exposed. Fill the auto matic burette with Karl Fischer
reage nt by pumping air with the help of rubbe r bulb. Open the burette stopcock full y and press the start
push button for a second and release. With this the red li ght will go off and the green light will be o n.
The solenoid valve will start ope rating and the reagent will start falling in to the beaker. The small red
`flasher`` indicating lamp will flash with the additions of reagent. The automatic operation will continue till
the `end point` is reached with the green light will go off a nd the red light will be on. The burette r eading
of this first operation need not be taken as the K.F.Reagent consumed in this process is utilized only for rem
oving the moisture from the methanol in the beaker and for removing the air bubbles from the delivery
tube, etc. F ill the burette again with K F R reagent and the titrator is now ready for accepting samples for
determination of m oisture.

AMMONICAL NITROGEN [MAG NESIUM OXIDE DISTILLATION METHOD] :

REAGENTS:
1. Magnesium oxide
2. Sulfuric acid [0.5N]
3. Sodium hydroxide [0.5N]
4. Methyl red indicator

PROCEDURE:
Take about one gram of sampl e in kjeldahl flask, add approximately 30 0ml of water and 2 grams (four
spoons) of freshly ignited carbonate free Magnesium oxide, connect the flask to the condenser by the
connecting bulb, distill 200ml of the liquid in to a measured quantity of standard acid (0.5N) and back
titrate with standard sodium hydroxide (0.5N) solution, using methyl red as an indicator.

(NH4)2 HPO4 + MgO 2NH3 + MgHPO4 + H2O

 CALCULATION:
Ammonical nitrogen = (VI N1 - V2 N2) x 14 x 100 Wt. of sample x 1000

Where,
volume of standard acid used
volume of standard NaOH used
Normality of acid
Normality of alkali
NOTE:This method can be use d in presence of urea if the distillation can be carried out in a low flame and
around 150ml distillate is collected. In ab sence of urea, NaOH can also be used in place of MgO to distill
ammonia
DETERMINATION OF PHOSPHAT ES:
Three methods have been pr escribed for determination of phosphorous,
Namely:
A) Gravimetric quinoline molybdophosphate methods
B) Alkalimetric quinolini um molybdophosphate methods, and
C) Spectro photometric molybdovando phosphate method

Out of these three, the first one (gravimetric)shall be the r eferee method in case of any dispute.

GRAVIMETRIC QUINOLINE MOL YBDOPHOSPHATE METHOD:-

PRINCIPLE:
This method is based on the precipitation of quinoline phosphomolybate from an Aci d solution of
orthophosphate. The prec ipitate quinoline phosphomolybdate (C 9 H7N) 3. H3PO4. 12MoO3 is filtered, washe
d and dried to constant weight at 250 0C.

CHEMICALS REQUIRED :
Hydrochloric Acid 5. Citric Acid
Nitric Acid 6. Synthetic quinoline
3. Molybdic Anhydride 7. Sodium molybdate
Sodium Hydroxide 8. Acetone
PROCEDURE:
Take about one gram of prepared sample in a Philips beaker. Add about 20 ml of digestion mixtu re.
Digest in fume hood till brown fumes are clear and organic matter is des troyed. Cool and wash the sides of
the b eaker with distilled water and transf er the contents quantitatively into a 500 ml measuring flask and
make up to the mark with distilled water and shake well.

Pipette an aliquot (20-ml) of the above filtered sample so lution containing not more than 25 m g of
P2O5 into a 500 ml Philips beaker and dilute to approximately 100 ml wit h water. Proceed with one of the
following methods:
I) Add 30 ml of citric molybodic acid reagent and boil gently on a hot plate for 3 minutes (solution
should be precipitate free). Remove from heat and swirl carefully. Immediat ely, add 10 ml if quinoline
solution (from a burette) with continuous swirlin g, first 3 to 4 ml drop wise and then in a steady stream.

(Or)
ii)Add 50 ml of Quimoc iac reagent, shake well, and cover with watch glass place on a hot plate and
boil for one minute. The precipitate f ormed should settle down readily on c ooling.
Then cool to room temperature swirl carefully 3 to 4 times during cooling, filter through a G-4 sintered
glass crucible previously dried at 250 oC and weighed. Dry the crucible and contents f or 30 minutes at
250oC. Cool in a desiccators to constant weight as (C 9 H7 N ) 3, H3PO4 12 MoO3. Carry out a blank
determination with all the reag ents without the sample.

CALCULATION:
Total phosphates (as P2 O5) percent by mass = 3.207(M1 - M2) x500 W X V
Where, M1 = Mass of the residue
M2 = Mass of the residue in blank
W = Weight of the sample taken
V = Volume of sa mple solution taken for the test.
3.207 = equivalent weight of the precipitate x 100
 Molecular weight of the precipitate = 2213.28 grams
Molecular weight of ½ P 2 O5
Equivalent weight of precipitate = 71/2213.28
= 0.03207 grams
DETERMINATION OF POTASSIUM – INDIRECT METHOD :
This is a rapid method for NPK fertilizers. A very good estimation can be made

of the potassium content of a mixed fertilizer by determining the ch loride present, assuming all chloride as
derived from KCl, and calculatin g the
potassium present as K2O. This method is applicable only when pota ssium chloride (muriate of potash) is t
he exclusive source of potassium and chl oride. The chloride can be determine d by the classical vol. hard
titration meth od or By chloride meter.

PROCEDURE:
Weigh accurately a sample con taining around 140 to 150 mg K 2O into a 250 conical flask. Add 10 ml of 1:2
Nitric Acid, shake well to dissolve. Add 25 ml silvator solution through a burette. Shake well and back titrate
with sta ndard KCNS Solution till the brick red colour, which appears and discharge during titration, persists
for at least 30 seconds. Note the volume of silver n itrate consumed and calculate the K 2O as follows:
CALCULATION:
K2O = V x N x 35.453 x F x 100 1000 x wt. of sample
Where,
V = volume of Ag NO3 consumed
N = Normality of Ag N O3
F = is the factor, which is derived as follows:

As discussed in the begi nning, actually we are titrating for chloride, and expressing it as K 2O .

Normally, the raw mat erial of red or white potash will have sodium chloride also. So during
titration , this chloride will also come to picture. B ut we are interested in chloride from potassium chloride
only. So, to compensate the contribution of NaCl the factor 'F' is used,
 F = K2O absolut e K2O apparen t
Where,
K2O apparent = Total ch loride expressed as K2O.

K2O absolute = K2O apparent – K2O equivalent to NaCl in potash.

Suppose, if normality’s of Ag NO 3 (silvator) and KCNS usedare exactly 0.2 123 N, and 1.333 is used to
convert estimated chloride as K2O (47.1/35.453 ), the above expression becomes

% K2O = VXF
WT. of sam ple

DETERMINATION OF MOLE RATIO OF DAP:

Mole ratio can be determined in two ways. Mole ratio is the ratio of m oles of Ammonia to moles of Ortho
phosphoric acid present in a sample. Estim ation of Mole ratio helps to estimate the MAP and DAP
formulations in the slurry.
Mole ratio can also be determined by titrating first with alkali using phenolphthalein and then with acid
using methyl orange indicator.

Mole ratio = 2 – (B / A)
Where, B = ml. of alkali consumed
A = ml. of acid consumed

Details of obtaining the formula (2 - B/A) for Mole Ratio:

P
a) NH4H2 PO4+ NaOH NH4 Na H PO4
M.O
b) 2NH4 Na HPO4 + H2 SO4 (NH4) 2 SO4+ Na2 SO4 + 3H2O

c) (NH4)2 H PO4+ H2 SO4 (NH4) 2 + H3SO4

PO4

Mole Ratio = 2- T.V. of NaOH (B) / T.V. of H2SO4(A)

 One mole of MAP impor ts one mole of Ammonia and one mole o f DAP imports two moles of
Ammonia.

Total moles of Ammonia = (2 moles of NH3 of DAP) +(1 mole of NH3 of

MAP)
Total moles of H3 PO4 = 1 mole of DAP + 1 mole of MAP

Moles of NH3 2 DAP + MAP

Mole Ratio ---------------- = ------------------
Mole of H3PO4 DAP + MAP

2- (B/A)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FE RTILIZER:
CRITICAL RELATIVE HUMIDI TY:
Critical relative humidity (CRH) is that humidity of the atmosphere abo ve which a material will absorb a
significant amount of moisture and belo w which it will not. For each fe rtilizer compound or mixture, there
is a maximum relative humidity t o which the fertilizer can be exposed with out absorbing moisture from
the air. Determination of this value is necess ary when controlled humidity st orage areas are being
designed for a material.

ANGLE OF REPOSE:
The angle of repose is the angle at the base of the cone of fertilizer obtained by allowing sample to fall onto
a horizontal base plate. It is o f interest when considering st orage capacity and the design of hoppers ,
chutes, conveyors, and slopp ed roofs of bulk storage buildings.

BULK DENSITY (LOOSE POUR):

Bulk Density is the weight per unit volume of a material. Including voids between particles. Loose-pour bulk
density represents the minimum density (greatest volume occupancy) t hat would be expected from a
given ma terial. Bulk density is of interest in b ag sizing. In calibration of volumetric feeders, and when
considering capacity of storage bins and transport vehicles
.Bulk Density (Tapped):
Bulk density is the weight per unit volume of a material, including voids between particles. Tapped bulk
density represents the maximum den sity to which a material might be r educed by vibration during
processing or in transport. Bulk density is of i nterest in bag sizing, calibration of volumetric feeders, and
when considering capacity of storage bins and transport vehicles.

GRANULE CRUSHING STRENGT H :

Crushing strength is a measure of the resistance of granules to deformat ion of fracture under pressure.
Crushing strength is of interest in estimati ng the expected handling and stora ge properties of a granular
material and determining the pressure limits applied during bag and bulk storage.

SIZE ANALYSIS (SIEVE METHOD):

Particle size of fertilizer produc ts and/or fertilizer raw materials is defi ned as the particle diameter ranges
of the test material. Particle size a ffects agronomic response; granulat ion techniques; and storage, handlin
g and blending properties. These procedures can be used to determin e size distributions of materials
ranging in size from 25.0 mm to 38 mm

POROSITY:
Porosity is a measurement o f the pore space within fertilizer granules. External and to some extent,
internal pores can be detected. Pores that have openings to the granule surface are considered external
pores; pores th at are completely enclosed within a gr anule are considered internal pores. Excessive
porosity is often the reason fo r weak granules. Also, in fertilizer compacting and briquetting systems,
porosity is an indication of the degree of compaction.
 UV-VISIBLE SPECTRO PHOTOMETER

The

functioning of this instrument is relatively straightforward. A beam of light from a visible and/or UV light
source (colored red) is separated into its component wavelengths by a prism or diffraction grating. Each
monochromatic (single wavelength) beam in turn is split into two equal intensity beams by a half-mirrored
device. One beam, the sample beam (colored magenta), passes through a small transparent container
(cuvette) containing a solution of the compound being studied in a transparent solvent. The other beam,
the reference (colored blue), passes through an identical cuvette containing only the solvent. The
intensities of these light beams are then measured by electronic detectors and compared. The intensity of
the reference beam, which should have suffered little or no light absorption, is defined as I0. The intensity
of the sample beam is defined as I. Over a short period of time, the spectrometer automatically scans all
the component wavelengths in the manner described. The ultraviolet (UV) region scanned is normally from
200 to 400 nm, and the visible portion is from 400 to 800 nm.

Principle of UV spectrophotometer

UV spectroscopy obeys the Beer-Lambert law, which states that: when a beam of monochromatic light is
passed through a solution of an absorbing substance, the rate of decrease of intensity of radiation with
thickness of the absorbing solution is proportional to the incident radiation as well as the concentration of
the solution.
The expression of Beer-Lambert law is-
A = log (I0/I) = Ecl
Where, A = absorbance
I0 = intensity of light incident upon sample cell
I = intensity of light leaving sample cell
C = molar concentration of solute
L = length of sample cell (cm.)
E = molar absorptivity

From the Beer-Lambert law it is clear that greater the number of molecules capable of absorbing light of a
given wavelength, the greater the extent of light absorption.
 FLAME PHOTOMETER

photoelectric flame photometer is a device used in inorganic

chemical analysis to determine the concentration of certain metal ions, among them sodium, potassium,
lithium, and calcium. Group 1 and Group 2 metals are quite sensitive to Flame Photometry due to their low
excitation energies.

HOW A FLAMEPHOTOMETER WORKS.

• In a flame photometer, the solution is aspirated through a nebulizer (or aspirator) into the flame. After
the sample matrix evaporates, the sample is atomized. Atoms then reach an excited state by absorbing
heat from the flame. When these excited atoms return to their lowest-energy state, they give off radiation
in certain wavelengths, leading to the creation of a line spectrum.

• A filter pre-selected based on the atom being analyzed is used in flame photometry. The emission line’s
intensity is then practically measured and is related to the solution’s original concentration

In principle, it is a controlled flame test with the intensity of the flame color quantified by photoelectric
circuitry. The intensity of the colour will depend on the energy that had been absorbed by the atoms that
was sufficient to vaporise them. The sample is introduced to the flame at a constant rate. Filters select
which colours the photometer detects and exclude the influence of other ions. Before use, the device
requires calibration with a series of standard solutions of the ion to be tested.Therefore,this is how flame
photometer works.

MOISTURE ANALYSER
Moisture analysis covers a variety of methods for measuring moisture content in both high level and trace
amounts in solids, liquids, or gases. ... There are many applications where trace moisture measurements
are necessary for manufacturing and process quality assurance.

Moisture Dewpoint (the temperature at which moisture condenses out of a gas) and moisture
content (how many molecules of water as a fraction of the total) are inherently related. Both can be used
as a measure of the amount of moisture in a gas. They are inherently related and one can be calculated
from the other fairly accurately.
LOD stands for loss on drying. Most standard methods are LOD methods. LOD is a method that
determines the moisture content of a sample by analyzing the weight loss of a sample upon heating. The
loss of weight is interpreted as loss of moisture of the sample. When all of the moisture is out of the
sample the weight of the sample no longer changes. The moisture content of a sample is then calculated by
comparing the initial sample weight to the dried or final sample weight.
The Halogen Moisture Analyzer works according to the thermo-gravimetric principle, also often
referred to as 'Loss on Drying' (LOD) principle. The moisture analyzer consists of two components, a
balance unit and a heating unit. In order to measure the moisture content the sample's start weight is
recorded, afterwards a halogen radiator heats and dries the sample while the integrated balance
continually records the sample weight. When the sample no longer loses weight the instrument shuts off
and the moisture content is calculated. The total loss in weight is used to calculate the moisture content.
PH METER
A pH meter is a scientific instrument that measures the hydrogen-ion activity in water-based solutions,
indicating its acidity or alkalinity expressed as pH.[2] The pH meter measures the difference in electrical
potential between a pH electrode and a reference electrode, and so the pH meter is sometimes referred to
as a "potentiometric pH meter". The difference in electrical potential relates to the acidity or pH of the
solution.

Very precise measurements necessitate that the pH meter is calibrated before each measurement. More
typically calibration is performed once per day of operation. Calibration is needed because the glass
electrode does not give reproducible electrostatic potentials over longer periods of time.

Consistent with principles of good laboratory practice, calibration is performed with at least two standard
buffer solutions that span the range of pH values to be measured. For general purposes, buffers at pH 4.00
and pH 10.00 are suitable.
The design of the electrodes is the key part: These are rod-like structures usually made of glass, with a bulb
containing the sensor at the bottom. The glass electrode for measuring the pH has a glass bulb specifically
designed to be selective to hydrogen-ion concentration. On immersion in the solution to be tested,
hydrogen ions in the test solution exchange for other positively charged ions on the glass bulb, creating an
electrochemical potential across the bulb. The electronic amplifier detects the difference in electrical
potential between the two electrodes generated in the measurement and converts the potential difference
to pH units. The magnitude of the electrochemical potential across the glass bulb is linearly related to the
pH.
 SCRAPER RECLAIMER

A reclaimer is a large machine used in bulk material handling applications. A reclaimer's function is to
recover bulk material such as ores and cereals from a stockpile. A stacker is used to stack the material.
Scraper reclaimers are designed to stack and/or reclaim materials with efficient reliability due to being able
to service parallel storage piles from booms mounted on either or both sides of the machine. Single, twin
and double-boom machines have trippers that permit materials to be bypassed through the machine
directly from unloading to loading.
The reclaimer coordinates with stacker to handle materials in blending stockyard. The stacker stack the
materials and then the materials stacked reclaimed by reclaimer on the other side. Then the materials are
transported to the belt conveyor through feed channel. Every time the reclaiming boom handle one layer
of materials, it would descend to fixed height according to the scheduled instruction. In fixed operating
speed, each layer of materials should be handled step by step until all the materials are reclaimed
completely. This reclaiming process make the materials handled evenly. When reclaiming the materials, the
reclaimer would be adjusted to the fixed stock bin. The series number of stock bin could be identified
through the travelling and inhibiting device. The reclaimer would be limited in limiting position in the stock
bin, doing reciprocating motion of reclaiming materials according to the process. The encoder installed in
electric block could control the descent angle of the scraper blade, ensuring the constant relaiming
capacity. Under the conditions of fixed constant reclaiming capacity and reclaiming speed, the descent
angle of boom and scraper blade is decreased step by step. In this way, the layer-by-layer reclaiming of
materials could be realized. The operating speed of reclaimer could be adjusted through drive motor, which
determines the reclaiming quantity of the reclaimer.
AIR COMPRESSING UNIT

AIM: In this plant, to produce se rvice air and instrument air by using doub le acting piston compressors.
Process description:-
The air sucking from the atmosp here is passes through a first stage compression. After compression , the
compressed air is sent to the shell and tube heat exchanger. In this exchanger, the compressed air flows
shell sid e and cooling water flows tube side. The compressed air is cooled by cooling wa ter and then
passes through a seco nd stage compression. In this stage, the compresses air pressure is above 5kg/cm2
and next passes through a cooler. The compressed air is cooled in cooler by cooling water is sent to an air
reservoir. In the air reservoir so me amount of air is used to service purpose is called “service air” and the
rem aining air from the reservoir is sent to air drying unit. In this unit, the air is dried in dryers called
“instrument air” and the instrument air is used in control valves, instrumentation equipment’s and other
purpose. The heat exchanger working pressure is 3kg/cm2g in shell & tube and the capacity is 690m3/ hr.

AIR DRYING UNIT

The stored air from reservoir is sent to air drying unit and the air is first passes through
a pre-filter. If any small dust particles are present in air is removed in pre-filter an d the filtered air is passed
through an adsorption air dryer towers. In this tower dryer, the adsorbent alumina balls are filled and the
out coming air from the filter is dried in tower dryers by adsorbent. The moisture presen t in air is adsorbed
in dryer by alumina ba lls. The dried air is again filtered in filter and then next used to instrumentation
purpose. The adsorption air dry er working pressure is 8kgf/cm2 and the capacity is 1699 m3/hr.
 SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
Sewage is generated from domestic usages (i.e.) toilets, wash water from canteen etc. sewage is pumped
to collection tank. It is observed from waste water characteristics that it is high in organic matter. As waste
water is easily biodegradable in nature, aeration system is adopted for removal of organ ic matter. The
system adopted is most ideal and suitable for waste water. Proper treatment of sewage is necessary for
many reasons such as:
a) To avoid odor and unpleasant smells and around the premises.
b) To safeguard water and soil in surrounding environment.
c) To have cleaner environment for comfortable life in the vicinity of industries.

Sewage treatment plant design is based on quality/quantity of different sewage streams from unit and to
the disposal practice of treated sewage as per the state pollution control board norms.
Characteristics of raw sewage: - Raw sewage generated is at the rate of 100m3/day with the following
characteristics.
pH 6.0 – 7.5
TSS 400 mg/lit
BOD 350mg/lit
Various units and operations involved in STP: -
1) COLLECTION TANK: - Sewage is sent to collection tank by gravity. Bar screens are provided to separate most
of the large particulates. This tank provides uniform quality of sewage and also smoothens flow variations
2) AERATION TANK: - Sewage undergoes bio-logical treatment with h elp of aerobic micro-organisms. Micro-
organisms degrade organic matter present in waste water. Two numbers of 5.0HP powered twin lobe
blowers are provided to supply required oxygen to micro-organisms for bio-logical activity. Bacteria
attaches to the moving bio-carriers provided in the aeration tank. Overflow from aeration tank-1 enters
tank-2 and from there to tank-3 by gravity.
3) CLARIFIER TANK: - Overflow from aeration tank-3 is fed to clarifier tank. Settled sludge is collected in
hopper bottom and wasted to sludge beds. Overflow from clarifier is fed to buffer storage tank.
4) SLUDGE BED TANKS: - Sludge tanks are provided to retain the wasted sludge and anaerobically digested
to have stable sludge. Initially slu dge is wasted to sludge tank-1 and filled up to 1.25m depth. After half
a nhour the clear top layer of water is drained to collection tank. Sludg e layers accumulate and wh en it
reaches the drain level, tank-1 is discontinued and tank-2 is used after 1 month or so, the top clear
water in tank-1 is removed and the thick cake like humus material is remo ved and used for plantation a
s manure. The cleaned tank-1 is ready for sludge filling like this alte rnatively sludge retention tanks is
operate d.
5) BUFFER STORAGE TANK: - Treated sewage from buffer storage tank is pumped through agricult ure sand
filter. Final treated sewage meets the standards as mentioned below.
6) AGRICULTURE SAND FILTER: - This filter is a closed vertical cylindrical vessel containing quartz sand as the
filter media over a collector system. Treated waste water flows from top-down wards percolating through the
media and is drawn off the collector system at the bottom. Cycle of option is service, backwas h, and short
rinse to waste and return to service. Increase in press ure drop indicates that filter media is foul ed and
requires backwashing . Backwash water for filter should always be filtrate water.
7) U.V WATER PURIFIER: - U.V water purifier is required for inactivation of micro biological conta mination.
When the raw water exposed to high intensity of U.V radiation, bacteria, virus and other microbes DNA
structure will be chemically changed. There by the micro-organism s will be inactivated. The U.V c hamber is
made from SS316 grade materi al for non-corrosive and long lasting and control panel is made from MS duly
powder coated. Purifier has wiper cleaning system to clean the qua rtz sleeves for 100% transmi ssion of U.V
radiation. Radiation chamber have both sides flange openings for easy maintenance and service. The purifier
has consisting of U.V radiation chamber, quartz sleeves, U. V lamps and electronic control panel.
Details of U.V purifier: -

Flow rate 10,000 lts/hr

No.of U.V lamps 5 of light sources make
U.V lamp wattage
U.V chamber 200mm diameter
Length of quartz sleeve
Inlet/outlet 2” BS P male threaded end.

U.V PURIFIER DIAGRAM

Design details of sewage treatment plant: -

Parameter Aeration Sludge tanks

Length of tank
Width of tank
Depth of tank 2.75m LD 3.5m TD 2.5m LD 1.5m LD
 COOLING TOWERS

Cooling Tower:

A structure where wa ter is splashed to get large surface area.

Air is passed interaction with water to achieve high evaporation.
PRINCIPLE OF COOLING TOWER:
• Evaporation causes cooling. Cooling water towers mainly opera tes on the principle of “Heat Transfer
Process”. These are nothing but direct heat transfer equipment. The Process side is “Water” an d Utility
side is “Air”. Heat transfer involves: a)Latent Heat transf er owing to vaporisation of a small portion of
water; b) Sensible H eat transfer owing to difference in temperature of water and air.
• Nearly 80% of the heat transfer is due to Latent Heat and 20% due to Sensible Heat transfer.
 PROCESS:
Both Ammonia an d Urea have individual cooling towers. Ammonia cooling tower caters to Offsite plants
also. The towers are induced draft cross-flow type supplied by M/s. Paharpur cooling towers.

In the process plants after var ious exchanges of heat among the pro cess streams some quantity of heat is
invariably rejected to cooling water in equipment’s like coolers, surfa ce condensers etc. The hot water
returning from the plant is made to tric kle down the cooling tower through fills. A motor with fan fixed on
top of the decks sucks air through the tower fills. Part of water evaporates, taki ng heat from its own
sensible heat. As a result the remaining water ge ts cooled. The water vapour with air is pushed by the fans
into the at mosphere. Thus hot water enters the cooling tower and gets cooled.

The cold water is pumped backed to the various heat exchangers for heat pick up in the process plants a nd
the cycle continues.

Classification of Cooling Towers

• Cooling Towers are clas sified according to the means by which Air is supplied to the tower.
• A] Natural Circulation T owers:
– Atmospheric
– Natural Draft
• B] Mechanical Draft Tow ers:
– Induced Draft
– Forced Draft
Induced Draft Towers:
In this Air is sucked into the t ower by fan at the top through louvers at the bottom
Forced Draft Towers
In this Air is forced in by a fan at the bottom and discharges through the top
Types of Induced Draft Towers
Counter Flow Induced Draft T ower
Cross Flow Induced Draft Tower

COUNTER FLOW TOWE RS

• The air enters the tower through the lower air inlet area and travel vertically upward throug h the fill,
distribution, drift eliminators and out the fan stack.
• The water flows from the pressure spray distribution near the top of the tower, vertically dow n through
the fill, and into the basin.
CROSS FLOW TOWERS
• The air enters the tower through louvers that extend from basin crub to the distribution deck on the sides
of the tower, and tra vel horizontally through the tower fill and the drift eliminator. It then flows vertically
upwards through the fan stack.
• The water flows from the open distribution system near the top of the tower, on the sides vertically down
through the fill, and int o the basin.
Advantages of Counter F low Towers
• More efficient use of air due to all passing through hottest wat er and finer droplet size fro m pressure
sprays.
• Minimum exposure of fill and distribution system to sun light reduces the growth of algae.
• Tower height can be increased easily to accommodate longer ranges(Change in water temperature).
Disadvantages of Counter Flow Towers
• Higher static pressure.
• Distribution nozzle difficult to inspect and clean.
• Requires individual riser to each cell and more external piping.
• Increasing water flow increases pumping head to tower.

Advantages of Cross Flow Towers

• Lowest Static Pressure.
• Open distribution deck a llows easy inspection and cleaning of nozzles.
Types of Cooling Water Sys tems
• 01. Once Through Syste ms
• 02. Closed Recirculating Systems
• 03. Open Recirculating Systems

ONCE THROUGH SYSTEM

• Cooling water passes through the Heat Exchanger equipment o nly once.
• This design is possible only if water is available in abundance at much lower cost and te mperature range of
5 to 10 DegF.
CLOSED RECIRCULATIN G SYSTEM
• The process heat is transferred to water in Heat Exchangers. T he heated water in turn is c ooled in heat
exchangers by circulating cooling water.
• The cooling water return s to the process heat exchanger and t he hot circulating cooling w ater either
returns to the cooling tower and gets cooled or goes onc e-through.

OPEN RECIRCULATING S YSTEM

• In this water recirculates through the heat exchangers and pic ks up the heat on to the coolin g tower
where heat is released from the water through evaporation.
• This is widely used and consists of Cooling Towers, Pumps and Heat Exchangers.
• Average Temperature C hange is 10 – 30 DegF
 Types of heat exchangers:
 Double pipe 2.Shell and Tube.
 Plate
 Plate-fin
 Spiral
 Direct Contact
 Extended surface
 Air cooled
 Scraped surface

Double Pipe Heat Exchanger:

One fluid flows through inside pipe (usually cold one) and second on e through annular space.
Eg: Steam Jacketed Naphtha lines.
It is used for lower heat trans fer area requirements.
For large quantities of heat to be transferred, several double pipes should be used in parallel, but the we
ight of the metal required for the oute r tubes becomes prohibitively costly.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger:
In this type of exchanger, one fluid flows through the shell and other through tubes.
This is the most used exchanger because of flexibility of operation and more options suiting specific needs.
These exchangers constitute chillers , reboilers condensers ,evaporators ,water coolers.
These exchangers can be classified based on 1.Passes
2.Construction.
Classification:
Based on passes: 1-1 , 1-2 , 2 -4 etc.

1-1 means 1 shell side p ass and 1 tube side pass Eg: hot heat exchanger , cold heat exchanger 1-2 means 1
shell side p ass and 2 tube side passes Eg:water cooler, trim heater inlet methanator
More tube side passes are nec essary for high fluid velocities for good heat transfer rate.
But more the tube side passes , more expensive is the unit.

Based on construction:
Fixed head:
Both the tube sheets are fixed to the shell Used as condensers.

They cannot withstand higher than 250 0F (120 0C) of temperature difference due to problem of d
ifferential expansion of the tubes.
Eg: CO2 final cooler, cond enser OH acid gas.

Floating head:
Tube sheet ‘floats’ in shell.
Back cover can be removed to expose tube ends.
It can withstand high tempera ture differentials.
It can handle dirty fluids; eas e of cleaning.
Internal gaskets can offer danger of leaking.
Eg: hot and cold heat exchangers.

U-tube heat exchanger

Removable tube bundle.

Only one tube sheet.
Gives a clean service or can be easily cleaned by removing the tube bundle.
Fluid should be free of suspended particles as erosion of inside bends due to high velocities may cause tube
rupture.
Eg: BFW preheated, BFW pre heater inlet co conv.

Kettle type Reboiler

Removable tube bundle with floating head.

Shell enlarged to allow boiling,vapor formation and separation.
It can be used as chillers .
It can be used horizontally only.
Eg:reboiler

Plate type Heat Exchangers:

It is used for heat transfer b etween fluids at low or moderate pre ssure about 20 atm.
Metal plates are supported in a frame
Hot fluid passes between alt ernate pairs of plates exchanging hea t with cold fluid in adjacent spaces.
Plates can be readily separated for cleaning.
Additional area can be provide d by simply adding a plate Used in food and beverage ind ustry.
They contain plates separated by corrugated sheets which form fins.
Also called matrix exchangers.
Pressures upto 75 bar and te mp of 150 deg C can be used as the y are
usually made of aluminium.
Used in cryogenic units.
Disadvantage is that it cannot be cleaned.
Eg: ammonia section excha nger
Spiral heat exchangers:
These can be considered as plate heat exchanger in which plats are formed into a spiral.
The fluids flow through chann els formed between plates.
It cannot be easily cleaned.
Advantage is that they are co mpact and pressure drop is less.
Direct contact heat exchangers:
Hot and cold streams are brou ght into contact without any separatin g wall.
High heat transfer rates are a chieved.
Both streams should be compatible
They are cheap in construction.
Uses : Reactor off gas quenching ,de-superheating and humidification, cooling towers.
Extended surface heat exchangers:
To conserve space and to reduce the cost of the equipment in cases where heat exchange is difficult
due to much greater difference of individual heat transfer coefficient between fluid streams, extended
surface have been developed .
Eg : E-555

Fins:
Fins can be used either as longitudinal or transverse.
Longitudinal fins are used whe n direction of fluid flow parallel to axis of tube.
Transverse is used when direc tion of fluid flows across the tube.
Outside area of tube is multiplied or extended by fins.
Fins are usually made of metals with high thermal conductivity.
 VALVES
In industry we saw a va riety of valves that used to co ntrol the flow or to stop the flow. Different types of

valves are used for different types of flows and liquids.

Gate Valve: -
Gate Valves are primarily used to permit or prevent the flow of fluids, but
typical gate valve s hould not be used for regulating flow, unless they are
specifically designed for that purpose. Because of their ability to cut
through liquids, gate valves are often used in the petroleum industry.
Typical gate valve are designed to be fully opened or closed. When
fully open the gate valve has no obstruction in the flow path, resulting in

very l ow friction loss.

Globe Valve: -
A Globe Valve is differe nt from gate valve is a type of v alve used

for regulating fl ow in a pipeline, consisting of a movable disk type

elem ent and a stationary ring seat in a generally spherical body.

Globe valves are so called because in the earlies t design the valve
body was spherical are widely used for co ntrolling flow. The
opening i ncreases almost linearly with steam position, and wear
is evenly distributed around the disk.
Butterfly Valve: -A butterfly valve is a valve which can be used for
i solating or regulating flow. The closing mechanism takes the
form of a disk. Operation is similar to that of a ball valve, which
allows for quick shut off.
A butterfly valve is fro m a family of valves called Quarter –Turn
valves.
In operation, the valve is fully open or closed when the disc is
turned so that it completely blocks off the passageway. When the
valve is closed, the disc is turne d so that it completely blocks off
the passage way. When the valve is fully open, the disc is rotated and quarter turn so that it allows an a
lmost unrestricted passage of the fluid.

Ball Valve: -
In a ball valve a hollowed-out sphere (ball) sits tightly inside a
pipe completely blocking the fluid flow. When you t urn the
handle, it makes the ball swivel through900, allowing the fluid to
flow through the middle of it.

Diaphragm Valve: -
Diaphragm valves(me mbrane valves)consists of a valve body with
two or more port, a diaphragm, and a weir or saddle or seat up whi
ch the diaphragm close the valve the valve is constructed from
either plastic or metal. In valve diaphragm, the
compressor is moved up and down by the valve steam hence the
diaphragm lifts when the compressor is raised. As the compressor is
lower, the diaphragm is pressed against the counter to bottom in
the straight through the valve or the body weir in the weir -type.
 PUMPS
Types of Pumps used : -
 Centrifugal Pumps
 Reciprocating Pumps

Centrifugal Pumps: -
A centrifugal pump is a roto-dynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure of a fluid.
Centrifugal pumps are commonly used to move liquids through a piping syst em. The fluid enters the pump
impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the imp eller, flowing radially outward into
a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal
pump s are used for large discharge through smaller heads.

Start-up of Centrifugal pump: -

1)Open suction valve. Ensure that the casing is full of liquid. Bleed, if necessary, from the bleeder valve.
Keep discharge valve closed.
2)Energize the motor . Start the pump and check the direction of rotation. Re ctify the direction of rotation
if not correct.
3)Check the discharge pressure. Open the discharge valve slowly. Keep watch on the current drawn by the
motor, if ammeter is provided.
4)Check temperature of the bearings and if necessary adjust the cooling water flow (if provided).
5)Check the gland/seal and if necessary adjust gland tightness/flow of t he coolant for the seal.
In case of hot stand by pump: Ensure that casing attain pumping temperature by draining to suitable closed

blow down system. This is to avoid vapour locking.

Shut Down of a C entrifugal pump: -

1)Close discharge valve fully if pump is single stage. If pump
is multi-stage, having high tension elec tric
motor, follow p ump vendors instructions particularly regar
ding
minimum continuous flow requirements.
2. Stop the pump.
Reciprocating Pumps: -
These are also called as Positive Displacement Pum ps. A reciprocating pump es sentially consists of a
piston or plunger which moves to and fro that is reciprocates back and forth in a close fitti ng stationary
cylinder.
During the outward mo vement of the piston or plunger, a partial vacuum is
created in the cylinder, which enables the atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid surface in the sump
below to force the liquid up the suction pipe and fill the cylinder by forcing opening the suction
valve. As during this o peration of the pump, the liquid is sucked from the pump , it is known as a suction
str oke. Then the stroke comes back and this is called as delivery stroke.
In reciprocating pumps the pressure developed is high and the flow rate is low.
It is used as chemical do sing pumps.

There are 3 types of reciprocating pumps: -

1. Piston Pump
2. Plunger Pump
3. Metering Pump
4. Diaphragm Pump

TWIN LOBE ROTARY BLOWER: -

It consists of two rotor s each having two

lobes, and are enclosed in a casing. Two rotors are
driven by a pair of equal spur gears. There is a sm all
clearance between the rotors and outer casing. This clearance reduces wear, but forms a leakage path
which as an adverse affect on the performanc e of the blower. The rotors rotate in opposite directions in
a casing. As the rotors rotate further, air is trapped be tween the rotors and casing. This air is transferred
to the delivery side at constant pressure. A further rotation of the rotor open this air to the receiver and
air flows back from the receiver since air is at high pressure in receive r. The air induced is compressed
irrevers ibly by the air from the receiver to the delivery pressure and then delivery begins.

THE END