CHAPTER 1

SETTING OUT

The importance of setting out belongs from the necessity of ensuring that the
construction remains within the legal boundary.

It is sometimes forgotten in small scale developments because people think it is  an

unnecessary cost, but it is not. The simplest and tiniest projects are still committing
mistakes. So as a result, setting out is needed on every building project, even on the 
area extending ones.

There are many machinery which is helpful when setting out, as for example the
theodolites which are used to properly measure: angles, distances…It is also used for
small projects but on this ones is more commun to use tape measure, marker pegs or
string lines to demacrate wall thickness.

STEPS
1. Clearing the ground where the building will be settled
2. Placing solid pedestals on all corners which will be able to hold the strings
3. Before digging, it is recommended to revise the measures given on the previous
sketch
4. Then you should be able to start building or digging or wherever the project
requires.
There are also common methods helpful when setting out as the 3-4-
5 method used for getting a perfect square corner. It consists of
creating a triangle with a measure tape with those measures (3-4-5). 
 SOIL INVESTIGATION METHODS 

1. TEST PITS METHOD 

Test pits is an simple and economical method of soil integration used to find the nature
of the subsoil

Collecting: In this method a square pit is excavated and the pits can be excavated
either manually with crowbars or with small tractor mounted mechanical excavators 

Size:Test pits are normally square or circular in plans and are large enough to allow
the entry of persons. Usually 1.2-3 m
Test trenches are usually 1-2 m wide and may be extended to any length to reveal soil
condition 

Stabilizing side walls: Excavations to depths of approximately 1.5 m often  do not

require lateral support to side walls. The pits can be stabilized by sloping the side wall 
Excavations for test pits below GWT (ground water table) requires  proper dewatering
arrangements to ensure stability of the side walls.

Collecting simples: The soil sample can be collected from the bottom of the test pit.
The sample is collected by driving the thin-wall soil sampler into the bottom of the test
pit. This is done by placing the sampling  tube vertically on the bottom of the test pit.
The sample then is carefully lifted from the ground and transported to the laboratory.

Advantages: It’s simple and fast and it’s one of the most economical means of soil
exploration. In addition samples can be collected with minimum disturbance.

2. AUGER BORING METHOD 

Auger boring is defined as a trenchless application in which casing a pipe is jacked into
the earth's surface while simultaneously rotating helical augers remove the excavated
soil  

Method: Vertical holes are advanced by rotating the cross arm of the auger and
pushing the auger into the ground. When the auger is filled with soil, it’s withdrawn. The
soil is removed from the auger and examined. Then the process is repeated.

Types of augers:
(1)Spiral or helical augers: Helical augers facilitate collection of undisturbed soil
samples by fixing the sampler to the bottom of the drill rod. Suitable for depths up to 12
(2) Post-hole augers :This type of auger is usually suitable for depths up to 5-7 m in
soft to firm clays of sands.

Suitability: Auger boring is generally suitable in soils where the walls of the borehole
can stand without casing or stabilizing with a drilling fluid above the GWT (ground
water table). Augers are also found to be particularly suitable for highways, railways or
airfields projects 

Disaadvantages:The samples collected  are highly disturbed and mixed. 

The method it’s not suitable if large cobbles or boulders are present in any depth.
3.WASH BORING METHOD 

Wash boring is a method for advancing boreholes for site exploration and geotechnical
investigation in most types of soil except gravels and boulders. The method is fast and
simple to carry out and utilizes inexpensive, easily portable handling and drilling
equipment 

Method: A casing is driven into the ground to a depth of 1.5-3 m with a hollow drill rod
inserted to the casing.
Then water is pumped down into the drill rod that emerges as a strong yet.
The jet disintegrates the soil in the borehole and carries the broken fragments upwards.
The fragments are collected. The holes is further advanced by alternately raising and
dropping the chopping bit by a winch. And the prices is repeated 

Changes: Rate of progress of drilling, color of the drilling fluid and examination of the
soil cuttings 

Aplicability: It’s used to advance a borehole in the interval between collecting soil
samples at different levels in the borehole 

Advantages: 
Simple and fast method.
Equipment is inexpensive.
It can be adopted in inaccessible locations.
Undisturbed soil sampling can be done in this method.

Disadvantages: Is slow in stiffer and coarse grained soils and not efficient In materials
like cemented soils, rocks and soils with boulders.

4. PERCUSSION DRILLING METHOD 

A method in which a heavy hammering or cutting bit is attached to a cable and inserted
into the borehole. The heavy bit or hammer is repeatedly lifted and dropped, thus
boring through the earth. 
Is used to take disturbed and undisturbed samples 

Method of drilling: Heavy drilling tools are raised and dropped to break down the
material at the bottom to form slurry of the material. The slurry is removed using bailers.
The water introduced into the holes is to form slurry.

Removal of soil: Bailers and sand pumps are used for the removal of the slurry. 
A bailer is a pipe that has a one way valve at its lower end and a nail at its upper end.
When the bailer is pushed into the ground the valve opens and the slurry enters the
bailer. Then the bailer is lifted and the valve closes so the slurry remains retained in the
bailer 

Advantages: It’s used for all types of soils and rocks including stiff soils and rocks.
It’s also useful to probe cavities and weakness in rock

Disadvantages: The quality of the undisturbed samples are not good because of the
heavy blows of the chisel.
It’s also not economical for boreholes with a diameter smaller than 100mm
It’s difficult to trace thin layers of slight changes in soil strata when the method is used.

5. ROTARY BORING METHOD 

 
Is a fast method of advancing holes in rocks and soils.
This method is suitable for all types of soil including rocks. It is used  to take disturbed
as well as undisturbed soil samples which makes it specifically applicable for stiff soil
layers 

Method of drilling borehole: In this method, the borehole is advanced by rotating a

hollow drill rod, which has a cutting bit at its lower end. The drill rod is rotated by a drill
head, provided at the top of the drill rod. The drill head consists of a rotary drive
mechanism and an arrangement for applying downward pressure.As the drill rod is
rotated, the cutting bit shears of chips of the material penetrated. A drilling mud, usually
a water solution of bentonite with or without other admixtures, is continuously forced
down the hollow drill rod.

Function of the drilling fluid: The drilling fluid carries the cuttings of the material
penetrated from the bottom of the borehole to the ground surface.
It cools the cutting bit and supports the walls of the borehole in uncased boreholes 

Sample collection: When needed the drill rod is raised and the cutting bit is replaced
by a soil sampler. A coring bit is used at the bottom of the drill rod, instead of the
cutting bit. The coring bit cuts an annular hole around an intact core that enters the
barrel and is recovered.

Types of rotary boring:

1.Straight rotary method
2.Reverse rotary method.
The reverse rotary method is best suited to holes 30 cm and larger in diameter.

Advantages: This method is the superior method to all totter methods of soil
exploration.
Is more rapid and it causes less disturbance to the soil. 

Disadvantages: The equipment is bulky and expensive.

The method is not suitable for inaccessible locations 
If the soil contains large gravel, it will rotate beneath the drill bits and cannot be easily
broken 

GEOTECH REPORT
Before  construction can begin, it’s important to find out about the quality of the soil on
the site. A geotechnical report will be necessary to determine the various
characteristics of the soil and if it's suitable for your building plans. 
The geotechnical report offers an analysis of the chemical and geotechnical qualities of
your soil. The geotech report should include :
 Identification of the type of soil 
 Strength and density of soil 
 Any organic material or contamination present 
 Ground water and soil compaction 
 Foundation design recommendations 
 Seismic design factors 
 Solutions for any possible problems 

The reports will give a description of the site conditions and geological data, as well as
provide appropriate recommendations for site preparation and any other conditions that
might affect 
the project. 

THE KNOWLEDGE OF SOIL 

Definition: Soil is the thin layer that covers the Earth surface and it is usually made up
by rocks, living organisms, mineral particles

Types:  There are different types of soil, each one provides alternative benefits so that
they do not have the same advantages.

Sandy soil: It is dry and tends to have lower nutrients; it is also light and has fast
drainage. All these characteristics make this soil really easy to work with.

Clay soil: It is heavy, so that means it is sometimes difficult to deal with, but in contrast
has a lot of nutrients in comparison to sandy soil. They are made in 25% of clay and
because of the gaps between the clay this soil is susceptible to hold greatly water.
Their drainage is too slow so that makes this soil hard to warm.

Silt soil: The one with the most fertility and it is light and humidity retentive. They are
usually great drained and easy to compact.

Peat soil: It is rare to see it appearing in gardens but it is often necessary to create a
good base for your garden, that means it is an optimal soil for planting. It is high in
organic matter and retains humidity.

Chalk soil: It could be found light or heavy but mainly with high alkaline structure. As it
contains alkaline particles it impossibilities supporting the growth of plants that require
acidic soils.

Loam soil: Loam soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay that combines all of them to
avoid the negative aspects of each type. So, this soil has great drainage, is easy to
work and is fertile at the same time. They can sometimes contain sand or even clay but
is not usual. They are considered to be the gardener's best friend as they contain all
requirements a gardener asks for.
To sum up, loam soil is the best one at least in construction as it doesn’t tend to shift or
to expand and it also holds water very well. This soil is the most balanced one as we
said before.  

There are some different laws that involve soil which are: (according to the EU
soil policy)

1.The polluter should pay to prevent and remedy any environmental damage.
2.Take control of the pollution that industries emit so that the health of humans and
every soil should remain properly.
3.The environmental impact assessment will identify direct and indirect effects of a
project following these aspects:  human beings, fauna and flora, soil, water, air, climate
and the landscape, material assets, etc.
4.Establishes which fertilizing products are available on the market to minimize soil
pollution.

BUILDING TECHNIQUES ON EACH TYPE OF SOIL

1.Sandy soil
-Use a soil report 
-Calculate the weight of the building 
-Drill deep 
-Reduce vibration 
-Use of helical piers 
-Use of high quality materials 

2.Clay soil
Clay soil isn’t particularly good for construction because it’s susceptible to moisture
fluctuation. It contracts when it’s dry and expands when it is wet. But it’s still possible to
construct on clay if the right foundation is used . In this case the best foundation is a
pier and beam foundation 

3.Silt soil

4.Peat soil

5.Chalk soil

6.Loam soil
 STRESS OF SOIL

1.Sandy soil

2.Clay soil

3.Silt soil

4.Peat soil

5.Chalk soil

6.Loam soil