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Introduction to Polynomial Functions Alternative Format

Lesson Part 1
In This Module
We will review and introduce terminology that will be used throughout the Polynomial Functions
unit.
We will explore the behaviour of the graphs of two simple polynomial functions, y = x
3
and
y = x
4
.

Polynomials
We will begin with a definition of a polynomial.

A polynomial is a mathematical expression constructed by the sum and/or difference of algebraic terms.
Each term consists of variable factors raised to non-negative integer exponents and multiplied by real
numerical coefficients.

We will give meaning to this definition by considering a couple of examples.

Consider

2 – 2 x
3 2
− x y z − √5x y + + π
3 2

This is a polynomial, although not a typical one.

The coefficients are all real values. In the first term, − 23 x3 y 2 z, the coefficient is − 23 . In the
– –
second term, −√5x2 y , the coefficient is −√5. The coefficient of the third term, x

2
, is actually
1

2
, and the last term, π , the coefficient is π .
The exponents of the variable factors are all non-negative integers. Note that the last term is a
constant, which is allowed by the definition. It has zero variable factors and can, for example, be
expressed as π = πx
0
.

However,

4
−1 −
−
2xy + + √x
2
y

is not a polynomial for several reasons.

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The variables have negative exponents. In the first term, y is to the exponent −1 . In the second
term, 4
2
is, in fact, 4y −2 .
y
1
−
−
The variables have fractional exponents. The last term, √x = x 2 .

Degree of Polynomial
The degree of a term of a polynomial is determined by the number of variable factors in the term, and can
be calculated by adding the variable exponents in the term.

For instance, if we return to our first example, which was the polynomial
2 – 2 x
3 2
− x y z − √5x y + + π
3 2

Our first term, − 23 x3 y 2 z 1 , is of degree 6. We can add the exponents of the x , the y, and the z :
3 + 2 + 1 .

–
The second term, −√5x2 y 1 , is of degree 3.

The third term, x

2
, is of degree 1, and the final term, πx0 , is of degree 0.

Terms of degree 0 are called constants.

Polynomial Functions
Our focus for this unit will be polynomial functions and the related polynomial equations.

A polynomial function is a function whose equation is defined by a polynomial in one variable. The
general form of a polynomial function is

n n−1
f (x) = an x + an−1 x + ⋯ + a1 x + a0

where the numerical coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , … , an are real numbers and the exponents of x given by
n, n − 1, n − 2, … are whole numbers (non-negative integers).

Examples of Polynomial Functions

Let’s consider a few examples of polynomial functions

2
f (x) = x − 2x

1 – 3
5
y = − x − √2x + 5x + π
3
2
g(x) = 3(x − 1) − 5

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In the first two examples, all coefficients are real numbers, and the exponents of x are non-negative
integers.

The last example, g(x) , is not in the form of the previous two. However, by expanding and simplifying the
right-hand side of the equation, this function can be expressed as g(x) = 3x
2
− 6x − 2 .

Examples of Non-Polynomial Functions

Now let's consider some non-polynomial functions.

1
−1
h(x) = or h(x) = x
x
3
y = 2x + |x |
1
−
−
f (x) = 2x 3 − √x

2
x = y

In the first example, h(x) = x

−1
, which is the reciprocal function, exponents of x cannot be negative in
value.

In the second example, the second term, |x3 | is not a term alllowed in a polynomial function.

In the third example, exponents of x must be whole numbers instead of fractions.

The final example is not a function. In this relation, there are two possible values of y for all positive real
values of x . For example, x = 25 gives y = ±5 .

Check Your Understanding A

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side navigation.

Lesson Part 2
Terminology
The numerical coefficient of the highest degree term in a polynomial is called the leading coefficient.

In the general function,

n n−1
f (x) = an x + an−1 x + ⋯ + a1 x + a0

an is the leading coefficient.

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The terms of the polynomial are usually arranged in descending order of the degree of the term.

In this standard form, the leading coefficient is the coefficient of the first term.

In the polynomial function examples,

2
f (x) = x − 2x

1 – 3
5
y = − x − √2x + 5x + π
3
2
g(x) = 3(x − 1) − 5

the leading coefficients are −2, − 13 , and 3, respectively.

The domain of all polynomial functions is the set of all real numbers; that is, D = {x ∣ x ∈ R} , since
there is no restriction on the value of x .

The range of the polynomial function depends on the behaviour of its graph. We will discuss this more
when we begin to analyze the graphs of polynomial functions.

The degree of the polynomial function is given by the value of the highest exponent of the variable.

Check Your Understanding B

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side navigation.

Terminology
A constant function, f (x) = a , with no factors of x , is a polynomial function of degree 0 since
f (x) = ax
0
.

A linear function, f (x) = ax + b , is a polynomial function of degree 1 or less. A constant function is also
a linear function.

A quadratic function, f (x) = ax

2
+ bx + c, a ≠ 0 , is a polynomial function of degree 2.

A 3rd degree polynomial function, f (x) = ax

3
+ bx
2
+ cx + d,  a ≠ 0, is called a cubic function.

A 4th degree polynomial function, f (x) = ax

4
+ bx
3
+ cx
2
+ dx + e,  a ≠ 0, is called a quartic
function.

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A 5th degree polynomial function, f (x) = ax

5
+ bx
4
+ cx
3
+ dx
2
+ ex + f ,  a ≠ 0, is called a
quintic function.

Any polynomial function with degree n, where n > 5 , will be referred to as an nth degree polynomial
function.

Special names exist for some higher degree polynomial functions, but are less commonly used.

Even Degree vs. Odd Degree

In our future studies of polynomial functions, we may group functions as even degree polynomial
functions or odd degree polynomial functions.

If the value of the highest exponent of x is even, then the function is an even degree polynomial function.
That is an even degree polynomial is an nth degree polynomial where n is even. Constant (degree 0),
quadratic (degree 2), and quartic (degree 4) functions are even degree polynomial functions.

An odd degree polynomial is an nth degree polynomial where n is odd. Linear functions of degree 1,
cubic (degree 3), and quintic (degree 5) functions are odd degree polynomial functions since the highest
degree exponent of x is odd.

Different Forms of Polynomial Functions

We will also be working with various forms of the function's equation, each form providing information
about the behaviour of the function.

For example, when working with quadratic functions, we have the following:

In standard form, f (x) = ax

2
+ bx + c , the degree, 2; leading coefficient, a; and y-intercept,
c , of the function are easily identified.
In factored form, y = a(x − p)(x − q) , the zeros (or x -intecepts), p and q, are readily
determined.
In the form y = a(x − h)
2
+ k , the vertex of the function, (h, k) , can be quickly identified. We
can also identify the transformations applied to the parent function, y = x
2
, which can help us
graph the function. For a quadratic function, this form is referred to as vertex form.

We can and will need to transition between these forms or identify information that is not readily available
to us in the given form of the equation.

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Example 1
Consider the following polynomial function in factored form:

2
y = −4x(x − 4)(2x + 3)

To obtain the degree of the polynomial function, we must determine the exponent of the highest degree
term of the polynomial.

Expanding and simplifying to standard form will provide this information:

y = −4x(x − 4)(2x + 3)(2x + 3)

2 2
= (−4x + 16x)(4x + 12x + 9)

4 3 2 3 2
= −16x − 48x − 36x + 64x + 192x + 144x
4 3 2
= −16x + 16x + 156x + 144x

However, simply considering the product of the highest degree terms in each linear factor will give the
highest term of the polynomial. In y = −4x(x − 4)(2x + 3)(2x + 3) , calculating −4x(x)(2x)2 will
also produce −16x4 .

Thus, the function is a 4th degree polynomial, or a quartic function, and the leading coefficient is −16 .

In another situation, we may need to determine the zeros of a polynomial function given to us in standard
form. We will need to factor the polynomial. Techniques used to factor polynomials will be covered in the
unit, titled Polynomial Equations and Inequalities.

Check Your Understanding C

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side navigation.

Lesson Part 3
Simple Polynomial Functions: Power Functions
Let's now look at some simple polynomial functions. We will begin our study of polynomial functions by
discussing the behaviour of the cubic function, y = x
3
, and the quartic function, y = x
4
.

These functions are called power functions and are the simplest type of polynomial functions.

By definition, a power function is a function of the form f (x) = ax

n
, where a, n ∈ R .

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If the power function is also a polynomial function, then n, the exponent of x , is an integer and n .
≥ 0

The Cubic Function y = x

3

Consider the cubic function y = x

3
.

Since there are no restrictions on the value of x , the domain of the function is the set of all real numbers
(Domain: {x ∣ x ∈ R} ).

We can now create a table of values for the function and graph the curve.

x y

−3 −27

−2 −8

−1 −1

1 1
− −
2 8

0 0

1 1

2 8

1 1

2 8

3 27

Since the function has opposite end behaviour with y approaching both negative and positive infinity, the
range of the function is also the set of all real numbers (Range: {y ∣ y ∈ R} ).

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This cubic function's behaviour is somewhat similar to the line y = x ; it has the same end behaviour and
appears to be continuously increasing.

However, the curve of y = x

3
seems to linger close to the x -axis as it crosses the axis, causing a slight
wave.

y = x
3
actually becomes horizontal at x = 0 . In this case, the function is said to be stationary at x = 0

since it is neither increasing nor decreasing at this point.

The shape of the curve also changes at the origin. Such a point on a curve is known as a type of inflection
point.

Inflection Points and Concavity

A point of inflection is defined as a point where a graph of a function changes concavity. Concavity is
used to describe the way a curve bends.

If a line segment joining any two points on a curve is entirely below the curve, then the curve is said to be
concave down between the two points.

If a line segment is entirely above the curve, the curve is concave up between the two points.

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Concavity is a topic of study in calculus, but the concept is not difficult to visualize.

The change in concavity at the point of inflection of y = x

3
can be pictured in the following way:

We begin with two curves: one entirely concave up, the other concave down.

By taking the left branch of the concave down curve and the right branch of the concave up curve and
connecting them, we create a curve with an inflection point similar to the one found on the curve of
y = x
3
.

Image Description: The left side of

the concave down curve is attached to the right side of the concave up curve creating a single function
resembling y = x
3
.

In other situations, the change in concavity is more pronounced.

In this diagram, the point of inflection occurs between two turning points.

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In our study of the graphs of polynomials, we will discuss only those points of inflection similar to the one
found in the y = x
3
function.

In most cases, the location of an inflection point is determined using calculus techniques.

The function y = x
3
is an odd function, since it is symmetrical about the origin.

If you reflect the graph of the function in the x -axis and then the y-axis, it will map onto itself.

Algebraically,

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3 3
f (−x) = (−x) = −x = −f (x)

The Quartic Function y = x

4

Moving on to the quartic function y = x

4
, we note that the domain is the set of all real values (Domain:
{x ∣ x ∈ R} ).

We create an appropriate table of values and graph the function.

x y

−3 81

−2 16

−1 1

1 1
−
2 16

0 0

1 1

2 16

1 1

2 16

3 81

The range can now be identified as the set of all real values greater than or equal to zero (Range:
{y ∣ y ≥ 0, y ∈ R} ).

This quartic function's behaviour is similar to that of a quadratic function.

However, the curve lingers closer to the x -axis at the turning point (0, 0) than it does in the quadratic,
and this gives the quartic function a broader, flatter appearance around x = 0 .

The graph is decreasing when x < 0 and increasing when x > 0 .

The curve is much steeper than a quadratic when x < −1 or x > 1 , as can be seen by the y values in
the table.

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The graph of this quartic, like the quadratic y = x

2
, is concave up everywhere.

Furthermore, the quartic is both an even degree function (x4 ) and an even function. That is, it is
symmetrical about the y-axis.

Algebraically,

4 4
f (−x) = (−x) = x = f (x)

Lesson Part 4
Higher Degree Power Functions
It is worth noting that the graphs of y = x
5
and y = x
6
have similar shapes to those of the parent cubic
and quartic functions, respectively.

5 6
y = x y = x

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The curves will increase (or decrease) even more quickly when x < −1 or x > 1 , and linger more
closely to the x -axis for −1 > x < 1 .

Considering the value of y when x = 2 for each function:

3 4 5 6
2 = 8, 2 = 16, 2 = 32, 2 = 64, …

we see that the y value grows much quicker as the exponent of the power function is increased.

When x =
1

2
:

3 4 5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( ) = ,( ) = ,( ) = ,( ) = ,⋯
2 8 2 16 2 32 2 64

we can observe the behaviour of the flattening out as the degree of the power function increases.

In general, this behaviour repeats itself for y = x

n
.

The function will have the shape of y = x

3
with a point of inflection if n is odd and it will have the shape
of y = x
2
with a turning point if n is even.

Summary
In this module, we have defined polynomial functions and discussed some basic characteristics and
terminology that apply to these functions.

In the subsequent modules, we will explore the affects of transformations on the cubic and quartic power
functions, as you did previously with the quadratic power function, y = x
2
, and explore the behaviour of
more general polynomial functions.

As an extension to our knowledge of power functions, you may wish to investigate the behaviour of
functions of the form y = x
n
where n is not an integer, but a positive rational value.

1
−
−
For example, consider y = x 2 , one you are familiar with since it is equivalent to (y = √x ) . But we can
1 1

take this further, and consider the graphs of y = x 3

,y = x 4
,…

You could extend this to consider functions such as:

2 3 5 2 3 4

y = x 3
,y = x 4
,y = x 4
,y = x 5
,y = x 5
,y = x 5
,…

These functions are not polynomial functions and are not a focus in the high school curriculum.

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However, their graphs are not difficult to determine using the knowledge you have of functions and
exponents. When you compare the graphs, some interesting patterns will emerge.

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Except where noted, all rights reserved.

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