UNIT-V

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Principle And Constructional Features of Salient Pole and Round Rotor Machines -E.M.F
Equation-. Voltage Regulation by Synchronous impedance methodMethods – Theory of
operation of Synchronous motor.
Introduction
Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current generators.
Synchronous machines are AC machines that have a field circuit supplied by an
external DC source.
Synchronous machines are having two major parts namely stationary part stator and a
rotating field system called as a rotor.
In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor winding producing a rotor
magnetic field. The rotor is then driven by external means producing a rotating magnetic
field, which induces a 3-phase voltage within the stator winding.
Field windings are the windings producing the main magnetic field (rotor windings for
synchronous machines); armature windings are the windings where the main voltage is
induced (stator windings for synchronous machines).

Construction:
1. Salient pole Machines: These type of machines have salient pole or projecting
poles with concentrated field windings. This type of construction is for the
machines which are driven by hydraulic turbines or Diesel engines.
2. Non salient pole or Cylindrical rotor or Round rotor Machines: These machines
are having cylindrical smooth rotor construction with distributed field winding in
slots. This type of rotor construction is employed for the machine driven by steam
turbines.

Fig: construction of alternator

stator core:
The stator is the outer stationary part of the machine, which consistof
• The outer cylindrical frame called yoke, which is made either of welded sheet steel,
cast iron.
• The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations called stator
core pressed into the cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is
laminated to reduce eddy currents, reducing losses and heating. CRGO laminations
of 0.5 mm thickness are used to reduce the iron losses.
For a 3-phase generator, 3 sets of windings are required, one for each phase connected in
star. Fig. 1 shows one stator lamination of a synchronous generator. In case of generators
where the diameter is too large stator lamination can not be punched in on circular piece. In
such cases the laminations are punched in segments. A number of segments are assembled
together to form one circular laminations. All the laminations are insulated from each other
by a thin layer of varnish.

Rotor:
It is the rotating part of the alternator. It contains the field windings which are energized by
direct current from the separate dc source
Salient Pole Type:

This generators have many poles . Therefore, salient pole rotor is used in low and
medium speed alternators. Salient poles are fixed to the shaft of the alternator by bolts.
The air-gap b/w stator the rotor is not uniform.

Fig: Salient pole type alternator

Non-salient or cylindrical pole Alternator:

This rotor is used in the large generator with two or four poles. Steam turbine is used to
drive this type of an alternator. The rotor is made of solid steel and the air-gap is
uniform. .Normally runs at higspeed(3000rpmor1500rpm).
 Fig: cylindrical type alternator
Synchronous Generator Working Principle

The principle of operation of synchronous generator is electromagnetic induction. If there

exits a relative motion between the flux and conductors, then an emf is induced in the
conductors. To understand the synchronous generator working principle, let us consider two
opposite magnetic poles in between them a rectangular coil or turn is placed as shown in the
below figure.

Rectangular Conductor placed in between two opposite Magnetic Poles

If the rectangular turn rotates in clockwise direction against axis a-b as shown in the below
figure, then after completing 90 degrees rotation the conductor sides AB and CD comes in
front of the S-pole and N-pole respectively. Thus, now we can say that the conductor
tangential motion is perpendicular to magnetic flux lines from north to south pole.

Direction of Rotation of Conductor perpendicular to Magnetic Flux

So, here rate of flux cutting by the conductor is maximum and induces current in the
conductor, the direction of the induced current can be determined using Fleming’s right hand
rule. Thus, we can say that current will pass from A to B and from C to D. If the conductor is
rotated in a clockwise direction for another 90 degrees, then it will come to a vertical position
as shown in the below figure.
Now, the position of conductor and magnetic flux lines are parallel to each other and thus, no
flux is cutting and no current will be induced in the conductor. Then, while the conductor
rotates from clockwise for another 90 degrees, then rectangular turn comes to a horizontal
position as shown in the below figure. Such that, the conductors AB and CD are under the N-
pole and S-pole respectively. By applying Fleming’s right hand rule, current induces in
conductor AB from point B to A and current induces in a conductor CD from point D to C.

So, the direction of current can be indicated as A – D – C – B and direction of current for the
previous horizontal position of rectangular turn is A – B – C – D. If the turn is again rotated
towards vertical position, then the induced current again reduces to zero. Thus, for one
complete revolution of rectangular turn the current in the conductor reaches to maximum &
reduces to zero and then in the opposite direction it reaches to maximum & again reaches to
zero. Hence, one complete revolution of rectangular turn produces one full sine wave
of current induced in the conductor which can be termed as the generation of alternating
current by rotating a turn inside a magnetic field.
Now, if we consider a practical synchronous generator, then field magnets rotate between the
stationary armature conductors. The synchronous generator rotor and shaft or turbine blades
are mechanically coupled to each other and rotates at synchronous speed. Thus, the magnetic
flux cutting produces an induced emf which causes the current flow in armature conductors.
Thus, for each winding the current flows in one direction for the first half cycle and current
flows in the other direction for the second half cycle with a time lag of 120 degrees (as they
displaced by 120 degrees). Hence, the output power of synchronous generator can be shown
as below figure.
Relation between frequency& poles:
the relation between speed and frequency and number of poles is given by
Frequency f = P x N /120 Hz

EMF Equation of an alternator:

Consider the following Φ = flux per pole in wb
P = Number of poles
Ns = Synchronous speed in rpm
f = frequency of induced emf in Hz
Z = total number of stator conductors
Zph = conductors per phase connected in series
Tph = Number of turns per phase
Assuming concentrated winding, considering one conductor placed in a slot
According to Faradays Law electromagnetic induction,
The average value of emf induced per conductor in one revolution
eavg = d /dt eavg = Change of Flux in one revolution/ Time taken for one revolution
Change of Flux in one revolution = p x
Time taken for one revolution = 60/Ns seconds
Hence eavg = (p x ) / ( 60/Ns) = p x x Ns / 60 We know f = PNs /120
hence PNs /60 = 2f
Hence eavg = 2 f volts
Hence average emf per turn = 2 x 2 f volts = 4 f volts
If there are Tph, number of turns per phase connected in series, then average emf induced in
T ph turns is
Eph, avg = Tph x eavg = 4 f ø Tph volts
Hence RMS value of emf induced E = 1.11 x E ph, avg
= 1.11 x 4 f ø Tph volts
= 4.44 f ø Tph volts
This is the general emf equation for the machine having concentrated and full pitched
winding.
In practice, alternators will have short pitched winding and hence coil span will not be 180 0,
but on or two slots short than the full pitch.

Pitch Factor:
Pitch factor Kp= emf induced in a short pitched coil/ emf induced in a full pitched coil =(2E
cos α/2 )/ 2E
Kp = cos α/2
where α is called chording angle.
Distribution Factor:
It is defined as the ratio of emf induced in a distributed winding to emf induced in a
concentrated winding.
Distribution factor Kd = emf induced in a distributed winding/ emf induced in a
concentrated winding = vector sum of the emf/ arithmetic sum of
the emf
Let
E = emf induced per coil side
 m = number of slots per
pole per phase, n = number
of slots per pole β = slot
angle = 180/n

The emf induced in concentrated winding with m slots per pole per phase = mE volts.
Hence the distribution factor Kd = vector sum of the emf / arithmetic sum of the emf =
(2rsin mβ/2) / (m x 2r sin β/2)
Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sinβ/2)

Voltage Regulation:
Regulation is defined as the change in no load voltage to full load voltage and is expressed in
terms of % of full load voltage.
% Regulation = (Eph – Vph / Vph ) x 100
Where Eph = induced emf /phase,
Vph = rated terminal voltage/phase.
Determination of Regulation :
1.EMF Method ( Synchronous –impedance method)
2. MMF Method ( Ampere turn method)
3.ZPF Method ( Zero power factor method ) or potier method
The above three quantities could be determined by performing the following three
tests:
 Open-circuit test
 Short-circuit test
 DC test
EMF method: This method is also known as synchronous impedance method. Here the
magnetic circuit is assumed to be unsaturated. In this method the MMFs (fluxes) produced
by rotor and stator are replaced by their equivalent emf, and hence called emf method.
To predetermine the regulation by this method the following informations are to be
determined. Armature resistance /phase of the alternator, open circuit and short circuit
characteristics of the alternator.


OC & SC test on alternator:

Figure: . OC & SC test on alternator
OC Test:
1. The generator is turned at the rated speed
2. With the help of rheostat, the field current is varied from minimum value to rated
value. This results in increase in EMF. By using voltmeter and ammeters measure the
induced EMF and field current for various excitation current.
3.It is thus possible to obtain an open-circuit characteristic of a generator (Ef or Vt versus
If) from this information.

Short-circuit test:
1. Adjust the field current to zero and short-circuit the terminals of the generator through
a set of ammeters.
2. Record the armature current Isc as the field current is increased.
3. Such a plot is called short-circuit characteristic.

Determination of synchronous impedance Zs:

As the terminals of the stator are short circuited in SC test, the short circuit current is
circulated against the impedance of the stator called the synchronous impedance. This
impedance can be estimated form the oc and sc characteristics.
The ratio of open circuit voltage to the short circuit current at a particular field current, or
at a field current responsible for circulating the rated current is called the synchronous
impedance.
synchronous impedance Zs = (open circuit voltage per phase)/(short circuit current per
phase) for same If
Hence Zs = (Voc) / (Isc) for same If
From figure 33 synchronous impedance Zs = V/Isc
Armature resistance Ra of the stator can be measured using Voltmeter – Ammeter method.
Using synchronous impedance and armature resistance synchronous reactance and hence
regulation can be calculated as follows using emf method.
Zs = √(Ra)2 + (XS)2 and Synchronous reactance Xs = √( Zs)2 - (Ra)2
Hence induced emf per phase can be found as Eph = √[ (V cos + IRa)2 + (V sin ± IXS)2]
where V = phase voltage per phase =
Vph , I = load current per phase
in the above expression in second term + sign is for lagging pwer factor ans – sign is for
leading power factor.
% Regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
where Eph = induced emf /phase, Vph = rated terminal voltage/phase
Synchronous impedance method is easy but it gives approximate results. This method gives
the value of regulation which is greater (poor) than the actual value and hence this method is
called pessimistic method. The complete phasor diagram for the emf method is shown in
figure.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:
 A synchronous motor is the same physical machine as a generator, except that the
direction of real power flow is reversed.
 synchronous motor operates with constant speed from no load to full load.
 Main features:
 Synchronous motors are inherently not self starting..
 This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any electrical power
factor. This makes it being used in electrical power factor improvement.
 Advantages:
 synchronous motors are more efficient than induction motors.
 Cost is less
 Disadvantages:
 Synchronous motor requires separate dc source.
Speed adjustment cannot be done.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
Synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine i.e two electrical inputs are provided to it.
It’s stator winding which consists of a 3 phase winding is provided with 3 phase supply and
rotor is provided with DC supply. The 3 phase stator winding carrying 3 phase currents
produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux. The rotor carrying DC supply also produces a
constant flux. Considering the frequency to be 50 Hz, from the above relation we can see that
the 3 phase rotating flux rotates about 3000 revolution in 1 min or 50 revolutions in 1 sec. At
a particular instant rotor and stator poles might be of same polarity (N-N or S-S) causing
repulsive force on rotor and the very next second it will be N-S causing attractive force. But
due to inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due to attractive or repulsive
force and remain in standstill condition. Hence it is not self starting.
To overcome this inertia, rotor is initially fed some mechanical input which rotates it in same
direction as magnetic field to a speed very close to synchronous speed. After some time
magnetic locking occurs and the synchronous motor rotates in synchronism with the
frequency.
Figure: 4.1. Force of attraction between stator poles and rotor poles - resulting in
production of torque in clockwise direction.

Figure: 4.2. Force of repulsion between stator poles and rotor poles - resulting in
production of torque in anticlockwise direction