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REDUCTION – OXIDATION (REDOX) REACTIONS

A redox reaction is a chemical reaction in which oxidation and reduction processes

take place. Oxidation is the opposite of reduction but the two opposite processes are
coupled because they occur simultaneously in a chemical reaction.

There are four definitions of oxidation – reduction processes.

1. In terms of oxygen

Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance while reduction is the

removal of oxygen from a substance i.e. the substance that gains oxygen in a
reaction is oxidised and the one that loses oxygen reduced.

Examples

(a) CuO + H2 Cu + H2O

Reduction
Oxidation

Copper II oxide has been reduced to copper while hydrogen has been
oxidised to water.

(b) Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

Reduction
Oxidation

Iron III oxide has been reduced to iron while carbon monoxide has been
oxidised to carbon dioxide.

2. In Term of Hydrogen

Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen from a substance while reduction is the

addition of hydrogen to a substance e.g.

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl

Oxidation
Reduction

3. In Terms of Electrons

Oxidation is the loss of electrons while reduction is gain of electrons by in

atom of an element.

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Examples

(a) Na + ½Cl2 NaCl

Na Cl Na+ Cl
Reduction
Oxidation

Sodium has been oxidised to form a sodium ion while chlorine has been
reduced to form a chloride ion.

(b) Mg + ½O2 Mg O
Oxidation
Reduction

Magnesium has been oxidised to form a magnesium ion while oxygen has
been reduced to form oxide ion.

4. In Terms of Oxidation Number (oxidation state)

Oxidation is the increase in the oxidation state while reduction is the decrease
in oxidation state of an atom of an element.

Oxidation state is defined as the coordination number an atom of an element

uses when it is combined with other elements.

Guidelines on the Determination of Oxidation Numbers

1. The oxidation state of a group 1 element when combined with element of +1.

2. The oxidation state of group 2 elements when combined with other elements
of +2.

3. The oxidation state of hydrogen when combined with other elements is +1

except in metal hydrides in which it has oxidation state of 1.

4. The oxidation state of oxygen when combined with other elements is 2

except in peroxide in which it has an oxidation state of 1.

5. The oxidation state of a halogen atom when combined with other elements is
1, except when combined with oxygen, it has variable valency.

6. The oxidation state of a charged element (ion) is equal to the charge on it.

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7. The oxidation state of uncombined elements and diatomic molecules of zero.

8. The sum of oxidation states of atoms of elements in a compound is equal to

zero.

9. The sum of the oxidation states of atoms of elements in a radical is equal to

the charge on the radical.

Examples

Determine the oxidation number of the underlined atoms of elements in each of

the following.

(a) Na2SO3 (Sodium Sulphite) (b) KIO3 (Potassium Iodate)

x + 3(2) = 2 I + 3(2) = 1
x  6 = 2 I  6 = 1
x = 2 + 6 I = 1 + 6
x=4 I=5

Oxidation state = 4 Oxidation state = 5

(c) Cr2O (Dichromate)

2Cr + 7(2) = 2
2Cr  14 = 2
2Cr = 2 + 14
2Cr 12

2 2

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Oxidizing Agents

An oxidizing agent is a substance, in a redox reaction, that causes the oxidation of

another substance and itself is reduced in the process. Oxidizing agents easily
accept electrons in the reaction.

Examples

(a) Oxygen
(b) Chlorine
(c) Fluorine
(d) Acidified potassium dichromate VI
(e) Acidified potassium permanganate VII
(f) Concentrated sulphuric acid

Reducing Agents

A reducing agent is a substance, in a redox reaction, that causes the reduction of

another substance and itself is oxidized in the process. A reducing agent easily loses
electrons in a reaction.

Examples

(a) Hydrogen
(b) Carbon
(c) Carbon monoxide
(d) All reaction metals
(e) Ammonia
(f) Sulphuric dioxide etc.

Examples

Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents in each of the following:

(a) Ca (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

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Ca (s) + 2H+ (aq) Ca2+ (aq) + H2 (g)

0 +1 +2 0
Oxidation
Reduction

Calcium is the reducing agent and the hydrogen ions are the oxidizing agents.

(b) 2FeCl2 (aq) + Cl2 (g) 2FeCl3 (aq)

2Fe2+ + 4Cl + Cl2 2Fe3+ + 6Cl

Ionic equation: 2Fe2+ + Cl2 2Fe3+ + 2Cl

2 0 3 1
Oxidation
Reduction

Iron II ions are the reducing agents and chlorine is the oxidizing agent.

(c) Zn (s) + CuCl2 (aq) ZnCl2 (a) + Cu (s)

Zn + Cu2+ + 2Cl Zn2+ + 2Cl + Cu

Ionic Equation: Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

0 2 2 0
Oxidation
Reduction

Zinc is the reducing agent and copper II ions are oxidizing agents.

Disproportionation Reaction

A disproportionation reaction is a redox reaction in which the same element is

oxidized and reduced in a chemical reaction. An element that is oxidized and
reduced in the same element is said to be disproportionated in each of the following:

(a) Cl2 (g) + H2O (l) HCl (aq) + HClO (aq)

0 +1;2 +1;1 +1;+1;2
Reduction

Oxidation

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Chlorine has disproportionated.

conc
(b) Cu2O + H2SO4 Cu + CuSO4 + H2O
+1;2 +1;+6;2 0 +2;+6;2 +1;2
Reduction

Oxidation

Copper has disproportionated.

(c) Br2 + 2NaOH NaBr + NaBrO + H2O

0 +1;2;+1 +1;1 +1;+1;2 +1;2
Reduction

Oxidation

Bromine has disproportionated.

(d) 3NaBrO 2NaBr + NaBrO3

+1;+1;2 +1;1 +1;+5;2
Reduction

Oxidation

Bromine has disproportionated.

(e) 2H2O2 2H2O + O2

+1;1 +1;2 0
Reduction

Oxidation

Oxygen has disproportionated.

Test for Reducing Agents

To test for a reducing agent, a coloured oxidizing agent is used. The coloured
oxidizing agent used are oxidized potassium permanganate and acidified potassium
dichromate. Acidified potassium permanganate changes from purple to colourless
when it reacts with a reducing agent. The permanganate is reduced to manganese II
in the process.

MnO 4 + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O
Purple Colourless

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Acidified potassium dichromate changes from orange to green when reacted with a
reducing agent. The dichromate is reduced to chromium III in the process.
2
Cr2O 7 (aq) + 14H+ (aq) + 6e 2Cr3+ (aq) + 7H2O
Orange Green

Describe the test of a reducing agent.

1. (a) Test reagent: Acidified potassium permanganate.

(b) Result: Potassium permanganate changes from purple to colourless.

2. (a) Test reagent: Purple potassium permanganate.

(b) Result: Potassium permanganate is decolourised.

Half Ionic Equations

Half ionic equations are equations which show the oxidation and reduction
processes of a redox reaction separately. Oxidation is the loss of electrons and
reductions is the gain of electrons. Therefore, when writing a half ionic equation for
oxidation, the electrons should appear on the right hand side (products side). When
writing the half ionic equation for the reduction process, the electrons should appear
on the left hand side i.e. on the reactants side.

The number of electrons in the two half ionic equations should be balanced
simultaneously because the electrons lost by the oxidation process are equal to the
electrons gained by the reduction process.

Examples

Write half ionic equations for each of the following redox reactions.

(a) Ca (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Ca + 2H+ 2Cl Ca + 2Cl + H2

Ca + 2H+ Ca + H2
0 1 2 0

Oxidation
Reduction

Half ionic oxidation equation

Ca Ca2+ + 2e

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Half ionic reduction equation

2H+ + 2e H2

2 2
(b) 2S2O 3 (aq) + I2 (s) S4O 6 (aq) + 2I (aq)
2,2 0 1

Oxidation

Reduction

Half ionic oxidation equation

2 2
2S2O 3 S4O6 + 2e

Half ionic reduction equation

I2 + 2e 2I

(c) 2Mg + O2 2MgO

0 0 +2 2

Reduction
Oxidation

Half ionic oxidation equation

(Mg Mg2+ + 2e)2 2Mg 2Mg2+ + 4e

Half ionic reduction equation

O2 + 4e 2O2

(d) 2H2 + O2 2H2O

0 0 +1 2
Oxidation

Reduction

Half ionic oxidation equation

(H2 2H+ + 2e)2 2H2 4H+ + 4e

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Energetics (Thermo Chemistry)

Energetics is the study of the energy changes that take place between the reacting
chemicals and the surroundings. This energy is usually in form of heat (thermal
energy) hence the title thermo chemistry.

When chemical reactions are taking place, heat energy is either absorbed from the
surroundings or given to the surroundings. Chemical reactions that absorb energy
from the surroundings are called endothermic reactions and those that give out
(evolve) heat energy to the surroundings are called exothermic reactions.

Exothermic Reactions

An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction which gives out heat energy to the
surroundings.

When an exothermic reaction is taking place, there is an increase in temperature and

the container in which the reaction is taking place becomes warm or hot. The
enthalpy change (energy change, H) for exothermic reactions is negative. This is
because the reactants are at a higher energy level than the products. The formula
used for enthalpy change from an energy level is

Enthalpy change = sum of the energy of a sum of the energy of

H = HproductsHreactants

Examples of Exothermic Reactions

1. Combustion Reactions

Combustion is the burning of a substance in air or oxygen. During combustion

a lot of heat energy is given out. Example of combustion reactions are:

(a) 2H2 + O2 2H2O + energy

(b) CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + energy
(c) 2Mg + O2 2MgO + energy

2. Neutralisation Reactions

Neutralisation is the chemical reaction between an acid and alkali to form a

salt and water. Examples of neutralisation reactions are:

(a) CH3COOH + KOH CH3COOK + H2O + energy

(b) C2H5COOH + NH4OH C2H5COONH4 + H2O + energy
(c) H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O + energy

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3. Bond Formation

Bond formation is exothermic because for two or more elements or atoms to

join together energy is given out. Examples of bond formation are:

(a) H2 + Cl2 2HCl + energy

(b) 2Mg + O2 2MgO + energy
(c) N2 + 3H2 2NH3 + energy

Energy Level Diagrams (Energy Profile Diagrams)

An energy diagram is a diagrammatic representation of a chemical reaction

showing the energy levels of the reactants and the products.

(a) For Exothermic Reactions

The reactants are at a higher energy level than the products. The
difference in the energy levels between the products and the reactants is
called the enthalpy change (H).

The energy level diagram for exothermic reactions which do not require
activation energy is as shown below. These are spontaneous reactions.

Reactants

Energy evolved (H)

Energy

Products

Reaction activity

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For exothermic reactions that require activation energy for them to take
place, the energy level diagram is as shown below.

Activation energy

Reactants

Energy
Energy evolved (H)

Products

Reaction activity

(b) For Endothermic Reactions

In an endothermic reaction, the reactants are at a lower energy level than

the products.

The energy diagram for an endothermic reaction that does not require
activation energy is as shown below.

Products

Energy Energy absorbed (H)

Reactants

Reaction activity

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For an endothermic reaction that requires activation energy for it to occur,

the energy level diagram is as shown below.

Activation energy

Products
Energy

Energy absorbed (H)

Reactants

Reaction activity

Determination of Enthalpy (Energy) Change (H) in Chemical Reactions

To determine the enthalpy change of a reaction, the change in temperature should

be known. A calorimeter is used for determining the change in temperature. There
are two types of calorimeters used in the laboratory.

(a) Bomb Calorimeter

(b) Coffee cup calorimeter

A calorimeter is made in such a way that it measures heat gain or loss. A bomb
calorimeter is used for the measurement of more accurate heat changes in a
reaction. It is however, very expensive. A coffee cup calorimeter consists of two
polystyrene cups, one placed inside the other with a lid made of polystyrene.
Polystyrene is a very good insulator of heat, so heat gains or losses are minimised.
Each calorimeter has a thermometer and a stirrer.

The enthalpy change of a reaction is determined by using the formula:

Energy ( Heat)
Enthalpy change 
Moles of subs tan ces

E H
H  or H 
n n

The energy absorbed or given out is calculated by using the formula:

Energy = mass of substance x specific heat capacity x change in temperature

E  mcT or H  mcT

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Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of
1 kg of a substance by 1 K.

The units of specific heat capacity are kJ/kgK or J/gK or J/goC. For chemical
reactions that occur in solutions, two assumptions are made.

1. The specific heat capacity of the solution is equal to that of water i.e.
4 180 J/kgK (4 200 J/kgK) or 4.18 J/gK (4.2 J/goC).

2. The density of the solution is equal to the density of water i.e. 1000 kg/m 3 or
1.0 g/cm3.

Enthalpy Change of Neutralisation

Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water. A
neutralisation reaction is an exothermic reaction i.e. heat energy is given out to the
surrounding. Enthalpy change of neutralisation is the energy given out when one
mole of water is formed when an acid and a base react together.

H+ (aq) + OH (aq) H2O (l)

Procedure

1. Calculate the total volume of the reacting substances by adding the volume of
the acid and the base.

2. Calculate the mass of the reacting substances by multiplying the total volume
with the density.

m  v

3. Calculate the energy given out. Use the average initial temperature of the
reacting substances.

E  mcT

4. Calculate the number of moles of the limiting reactant.

5. Calculate the enthalpy change of the reaction.

E
H 
n

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Examples

1. 50 cm3 of 1.0 M HCl at a temperature of 25oC was added in a coffee cup

calorimeter. 50 cm3 of 1.0 M NaOH at a temperature of 25oC was quickly
added to the acid in the calorimeter. The mixture was stirred and the
maximum temperature recorded was 35oC. Calculate the enthalpy change of
neutralisation of hydrochloric acid.

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

Solution

Initial volume = 50 cm3 + 50 cm3 = 100 cm3

m  v
= 1.0 g/cm3 x 100 cm3
m  100 g

25o C  25o C
Average initial temperature   25o C
2

T  35o C  25o C  10o C

E  mcT
 100 g  4.2 J / g o C  10o C
E  4 200 J

n  cv
 1.0 mols / dm3  0.05 dm3
 0.05 mols
E 4 200 J
H  
n 0.05 mols

 84 000 J / mols   84 kJ / mol

2. 60 cm3 of 1.0 m HNO3 at a temperature of 27oC was placed in coffee cup

calorimeter. 50 cm3 of 1.0 M KOH at a temperature of 26oC was quickly added
and the mixture was stirred. The highest temperature recorded was 32 oC.
Calculate the enthalpy change of the reaction.

HNO3 + KOH KNO3 + H2O

Solution

m  v

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= 1.0 g/cm3 x 110 cm3

m  110 g

27 o C  26o C
Average initial temperature   26.5 o C
2
T  32o C  26.5 o C  3.5 o C
E  mcT
 110 g  4.2 J / g o C  5.5 o C
E  2 541J

n HNO3  cv n HNO3  cv
 1.0 mols / dm3  0.06 dm3  1.0 mols / dm3  0.05 dm3
 0.06 mols  0.05 mols

KNO3 : KOH
1 : 1
0.06 : n
n = 0.06 mols of KOH required.

KOH is one limiting reactant

E 2 541 J
H  
n 0.05 mols

  50 820 J / mols   50.82 kJ / mol

Enthalpy Change of Combustion

Enthalpy change of combustion is the enthalpy change when one mole of a

substance is completely burnt in oxygen. Examples of combustion reaction
representing enthalpy change of combustion are

(a) H2 + 1
2 O2 H2O H C [H2 (g)]
(b) C2H6 + 7
2 O2 2CO2 + 3H2O H C (C2H6)
(c) C8H18 + 25
2 O2 8CO2 + 9H2O H C (C8H18)

Procedure in determining the enthalpy change of combustion

Step 1: Pour a measured volume of water in a glass beaker.

Step 2: Measure the initial temperature of water.

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Step 3: Place a liquid fuel in a spirit (fuel) burner and measure the initial mass
of
both the fuel and the burner.

Step 4: Measure the mass of the spirit burner together with the fuel remaining
in
it.

Step 5: Measure the final temperature of the water.

Step 6: Calculate the heat energy using the formula.

E  mcT
Or
H  mcT where, m is the mass of water
c is the specific heat capacity of water

Step 7: Calculate the number of moles of the fuel that was burnt.

Step 8: Calculate the enthalpy change of combustion using the formula

E H
H  or H 
n n

The arrangement of the apparatus used to determine the enthalpy change of a liquid
fuel in a laboratory is as shown below.

Thermometer

Glass beaker

Water
Wire gauge
Draught
Tripod stand

Spirit burner
Examples

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1. A grade 12 learner carried out an experiment to determine the enthalpy

change of combustion of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) in a school laboratory. The
following data was obtained:

(a) Volume of water = 100 cm3

(b) Initial temperature of water = 27oC.
(c) Final temperature of water = 38oC
(d) Initial mass of burner plus ethanol = 300 g
(e) Final mass of burner plus ethanol = 297.7 g

Calculate the enthalpy change of combustion of ethanol in kilojoules per mole.

Include the sign of the enthalpy change.

c  4.2 J / g o C
m
 
v

m    v
 1 g / cm 3  100 cm 3
 100 g

E  mcT
 100 g  4.2 J / g o C  (38o C  27 o C )
 4 620 J
Mass of ethanol burner  300 g  297.7 g
 2.3 g

Molar mass of ethanol

C: 2 x 12 = 24
H: 6x1 = 6
O: 1 x 16 = 16
46 g/mol

m 2.3 g
n 
mm 46 g / mol

 0.05 mol

E  4 620 J
H C  
n 0.05 mol

  92 400 J / mol

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  92. 4 kJ / mol

2. The temperature of 250 cm3of water initially at 30oC rose by 12oC when it was
heated by octane fuel in a spirit burner. The mass of octane (C 8H18) burnt was
4.6 g. Calculate the enthalpy change of combustion of octane in kJ/mol.

mv
 1 g / cm 3  250 cm 3
 250 g

E  mcT
 250 g  4.2 J / g o C  12o C
 12 600 J

4.6 g of C8H18 reacted.

m 4 .6 g
n 
mm 114 g / mol

 0.0404mols of C8 H 18 reacted

E 12 600 J
H C  
n 0.0404 mols

  311 881 J / mol

  311. 88 kJ / mol

Bond Energies (Bond Enthalpy)

Bond energy is the energy absorbed when one mole of a covalent bond is broken or
the energy given out when one mole of a covalent bond is formed. Bond energies
are determined per substance is in gaseous state. The enthalpy change of reactions
obtained using bond enthalpies are not very accurate because some substances
involved in reactions may be in other states such as liquids, solids and aqueous.
However, bond energies can be used for determining whether the reaction is
endothermic or exothermic.

The bond enthalpies used in the calculations are mean (average) bond enthalpies
obtained from different compounds. The value of the bond energy shows the
strength of the bond. The table below shows the common mean bond energies used
in chemistry.

Bond Bond Enthalpy (kJ/mol)

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CH 412
HH 436
CC 348
Cl  Cl 242
OH 463
Cl  H 431
NH 388
O O 496
C O 743
N N 945
C C 838
C  Br 209
C C 598
CO 358
H  Br 360
Br  Br 193
CF 463
C  Cl 330

Bond breakage is endothermic and bond formation is exothermic. Therefore, the

sum of the bond energies for the reactants is assigned a positive sign because these
bonds are broken during a reaction. The sum of the bond energies for the products is
assigned a negative sign because these bonds are formed during reaction. The
enthalpy change (H) of a reaction is obtained by adding the sum of the bond
energies of the reactants and the sum of the bond energies for the products.

Examples

Using the mean bond enthalpies in the table above, calculate the enthalpy change of
the following reactions. For each reaction indicate whether exothermic or
endothermic and sketch the energy profile diagram

H H
I I
(a) 2 H  C  C  H + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O
I I
H H

Reactants Products

C  H: 12 x 412 = 4 944 C O: 8 x 743 = 5 944

C  C: 2 x 348 = 696 H  O: 12 x 463 = 5 556
O O: 7 x 496 = 3 472  11 500 kJ
+ 9 112 kJ

H = 9 112 kJ + ( 11 500 kJ)

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=  2 388 kJ

Exothermic because H is negative.

2C2H6 + 7O2

H =  2 388 kJ
Energy

4CO2 + 6H2O

Reaction activity

EA = 9 112 kJ

2C2H6 + 7O2

Energy
H =  2 388 kJ

4CO2 + 6H2O

Reaction activity

(b) 3H2 + N2 2NH3

Reactants Products

H  H: 3 x 436 = 1 308 N  H: 6 x 388 =  2 328 kJ

N N: 2 x 945 = 945
+2 253 kJ

H = 2 253 kJ + ( 2 328 kJ)

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=  75 kJ

The reaction is exothermic.

EA = 2 253 kJ

3H2 + N2

H =  75 kJ
Energy
2NH3

Reaction activity

(c) H2 + Cl2 2HCl

Reactants Products

H  H: 1 x 436 = 436 H Cl: 2 x 431 =  862 kJ

Cl  Cl: 1 x 242 =242
+678 kJ

H = 678 kJ + ( 862 kJ)

=  184 kJ

The reaction is exothermic.

EA = 678 kJ

H2 + Cl2

H =  184 kJ
Energy
2HCl

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Reaction activity

H H H H
I I
(d) C C + Cl2 HCCH
I I
H H Cl Cl

Reactants Products

C  H: 4 x 412 = 1 648 C  H: 4 x 412 = 1 648

C C: 1 x 598 = 598 C  Cl: 2 x 330 = 660
Cl  Cl: 1 x 242 = 242 C  C: 1 x 348 = 348
2 488 kJ  2 656 kJ

H = 2 488 kJ + ( 2 656 kJ)

=  168 kJ

The reaction is exothermic.

EA = 2 488 kJ

C2H4Cl2

H =  168 kJ
Energy
C2H4Cl2

Reaction activity

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Sources of Energy

There are five major sources of energy. These are

(a) Water
(b) Sun
(c) Hot rocks
(d) Chemicals
(e) Wind

Water (Renewable)

Fast running water can be used to generate electrical energy. For of energy is called
Hydro Electricity. The water collected in a dam and allowed to flow through a steep
slope. The fast running water turns the turbines which are connected to a generator.
The burning of the turbines rotates the magnet in a generator. The movement
(turning) of the turbines of the magnet between the coils of wire generates electrical
energy.

DAM
POWER
N S STATION

TURBINES
GENERATORS
ELECTRICAL
POLE
Solar Energy (Renewable)

This is the energy that comes from the sun. When you want harness the heat and
light energy from the sun, you need to panelled. In the solar panel are four cells
(photo cells). Their job is to convert light and heat into electrical energy. The solar
panels trap the heat and light from the sun and convert it into electrical energy. The
solar panels must be positioned in a place that is free from obstructions such as tall
buildings and tall trees.

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Geothermal Energy (Renewable)

This is heat from the earth. It is the energy that comes from the hot rocks under the
earth when water is heated by these hot rocks. Steam with high pressure is released
which is used to rotate turbines and in turn produces electrical energy.

Chemicals (Non-renewable)

Chemicals have to be burnt to produce energy. Examples of such is coal, natural

gases (methane). Other chemicals such as radioactive atoms undergo nuclear
fission. Nuclear fission occurs when the unstable nuclear of a radioactive isotope
splits up, forming smaller atoms and producing a large amount of energy as a result.

Electrochemistry

Electrolysis

Electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound in molten (liquid) or aqueous

(solution) state by passing on electric current through it.

Compounds that conduct an electric current when in molten or aqueous state are
called electrolytes.

(a) Strong Electrolytes

A strong electrolyte is an electrolyte which ionises or decomposes completely

into its ions. Strong electrolytes are very good conductors of electricity.

(b) Weak Electrolytes

A weak electrolyte is an electrolyte that does not ionise completely when

current is passed through them. Weak electrolytes are not very good
conductors of electricity. Examples of weak electrolytes are

(i) Salts or organic acids

(ii) Ammonium hydroxide
(iii) Weak acids e.t.c.

Terms Used in Electrolysis

1. Electrodes

Electrodes are terminals of a battery through which electrons turn or enter the
electrolyte. There are two types of electrodes.

(a) Anode

24
 25

An anode is an electrode where oxidation takes place. Oxidation is the

loss of electrons.

(b) Cathode

A cathode is an electrode where reduction takes place. Reduction is the

gain of electrons.

2. Ions

Ions are charged substances. There are two types of ions.

(a) Anions

An anion is a negatively charged ions. They are called anion because they
migrate to the anode during electrolysis.

(b) Cations

Cations are positively charged ions. They are called cations because they
migrate to the cathode during electrolysis.

3. Half Ionic Equation

These are equations that show the oxidation and reduction process in a redox
reaction separately.

Electrolysis of Molten Lead (II) Bromide

Illustrations

Diagram 1 Bulb (off)

Battery
Closed
switch

Solid Lead
II Bromide

25
 26

Electrodes

Diagram 2 Diagram 3

Closed Closed
switch switch

Molten Lead
II Bromide

Globule of
Lead metal
Heat
Heat

Diagram 4 Bulb (off)

Closed
switch

Solid Lead
II Bromide

In diagram 1, the electrodes are dipped into powdered lead (II) bromide. When the
switch is closed, the bulb does not light up. When a source of heat is introduced, the
lead (II) bromide solid starts melting and the bulb lights up. As more lead (II) bromide

26
 27

melts, the brightness of the light in the bulb increases because more ions are
available to conduct electricity. This is illustrated in diagram 2.

In diagram 3, a ball like solid is observed collecting at the bottom of the cathode.
This is lead metal being deposited when the lead ions undergo reduction. The trough
or beaker is tilted to prevent a short circuit.

When the source of heat is removed the lead (II) bromide starts solidifying and the
brightness of the light in the bulb starts reducing until it goes off when all the lead (II)
bromide turns into solid.

In conclusion, for a salt to conduct electricity, the ions must be mobile. The more the
number of ions, the brighter the light produced by the bulb.

The Chemistry of the Reaction

The ions in molten lead (II) bromide migrate to their respective electrodes.

(a) At the Anode

The bromide ions (Br) migrate to the anode where they are oxidized to
bromine vapour.

2Br Br2 + 2e

A reddish brown colour accumulates around the anode due to the above
reaction.

(b) At the Cathode

The lead (II) ions (Pb2+) migrate to the cathode where they are reduced to
lead metal.

Pb2+ + 2e Pb

The diagram below shows the movement of ions during the reaction. A ball
like solid accumulates at a bottom of the cathode, this is due to the solid lead
(II) depositing itself down there.

Pb2+ Pb2+ Pb2+ Br


Br 
Cathode Anode
Pb2+ Pb2+ Br  Br 
27
 28

Br 
2+
Pb2+ Br 
2+
Pb Pb Br 
Pb2+ Pb2+ Br  Br  Br 
Pb2+ Br Br  Molten Lead
II Bromide

Globule of
TheLead
Overall Reaction
metal

PbBr2 Pb + Br2

Electrolysis of Aqueous Substances

When substances are dissolved in water, the discharge of ions at the electrodes is
done selectively or preferentially. The discharge of the ions present in solution
depends on three factors:

(a) the position of the ions in the electrochemical series

(b) the nature of the electrodes
(c) the concentration of the electrolytes

(a) The Position of Ions in the Electrochemical Series

Cations Anions

Li+ F
K+ SO 2
4

Na+ NO 3
Ca2+ Cl
Mg2+ Br
Al3+ I
Zn2+ OH
Fe2+
Pb2+ Ease
of
H+ discharge
Cu2+ increases

Ag+
Au+

28
 29

The ions at the bottom of the electrochemical series are preferentially

discharged to those above them. This is because there discharge require the
least amount of energy. For example, if silver nitrate is dissolved in water, the

ions present in solution are Ag+, H+, NO 3 and OH. The silver and the
hydroxide ions are selectively discharged because they are lower in the
electrochemical series.

(b) The Nature of the Electrodes

There are two types of electrodes used in electrolysis.

(i) Inert Electrodes

When inert electrodes are used, the discharge of ions depends on the
position of the ions and the concentration of the electrolyte. There are
three types of electrodes used in electrolysis. These are

- Platinum (Pt)
- Graphite (C)
- Nickel (Ni)

(ii) Active Electrodes

Any other electrode which is not graphite, platinum or nickel is an

active electrode. When an active electrode is used as an anode, the
electrode ionises (anode ionisation), produces positive ions in solution.
An active anode is used up in the process and has to be replaced
regularly.

When an active cathode is used, the ions discharged are those with
minimal difference in energy or no difference at all.

(c) The Concentration of the Electrolyte

When an electrolyte is concentrated, its negatively charged ion (anion) is

selectively discharged regardless of its position in the electrochemical series.
The other ions present in solution are discharged depending on the other two
factors i.e.

(i) the position of the ions in the electrochemical series

(ii) the nature of the electrode

Examples

29
 30

1. Sodium chloride solution acid electrolysed using graphite anode and platinum
cathode.

(a) Write the formulae of all the ions in solution.

(b) Describe what happens at the electrodes and write the half ionic
equations.
(c) Write the overall reaction.
(d) Describe the pH change during the reaction.

Answers

(a) From NaCl : Na+ Cl

From H2O : H+ OH

(b) At the anode

Both chloride and hydroxide ions migrate to the anode where the hydroxide
ions are selectively discharged because they are lower in the electrochemical
series. This is because they need less energy to be discharged.

4OH 2H2O + O2 + 4e

Bubbles of oxygen gas are produced at the anode.

At the cathode

Both sodium and hydrogen ions migrate to the cathode where the hydrogen
ions are preferentially discharged because they are lower in the
electrochemical series.

(2H+ + 2e H2) x 2

4H+ + 4e 2H2

Bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced at the cathode.

(c) Overall reaction

2H2O  2H2 + O2

When sodium chloride solution is electrolysed using inert electrodes two

moles (two volumes) of hydrogen gas are collected at the cathode and one
mole (one volume) of oxygen gas is collected at the anode.

30
 31

(d) The pH remains the same because the hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are
removed from the solution.

2. Concentrated aqueous sodium chloride and electrolysed using carbon

electrodes.

(a) Describe what happens at the electrodes and write the half-ionic
equations.
(b) Write the overall equation of the reaction.
(c) Describe the change in pH of the solution during electrolysis.
(d) Describe the identity test of the substances collected at the electrodes.

Answers

(a) From NaCl : Na+ Cl

From H2O : H+ OH

At the anode

Both chloride and hydroxide ions migrate to the anode where the chloride ions
are selectively discharged because the electrolyte is concentrated.

2Cl Cl2 + 2e

Bubbles of a yellowish green gas will be observed at the anode.

At the cathode

Both sodium ions and hydrogen ions migrate to the cathode where the
hydrogen ions are preferentially discharged because they are lower in the
electrochemical series.

2H+ + 2e H2

(b) 2NaCl + 2H2O  H2 + Cl2 + 2NaOH

(c) The pH increases because an alkaline substance (NaOH) is formed

(d) At the anode

Hold damp blue litmus paper on the mouth of the test tube that contains the
gas (chlorine) it will thereafter turn red then white.

At the cathode

31
 32

Bring a burning flame into contact with the gas by placing it on the mouth of
the test tube containing the gas. The burning flame will be put out with a pop
sound.

The Nature of the Electrodes

There are two types of electrodes used in electrolysis.

(i) Inert Electrodes

When inert electrodes are used, the discharge of ions depends on the
position of the ions and the concentration of the electrolyte. There are
three types of electrodes used in electrolysis. These are

- Platinum (Pt)
- Graphite (C)
- Nickel (Ni)

(ii) Active Electrodes

Any other electrode which is not graphite, platinum or nickel is an active

electrode. When an active electrode is used as an anode, the electrode
ionises (anode ionisation) produces positive ions in solution. An active
anode is used up in the process and has to be replaced regularly.

When an active cathode is used, the ions discharged are those with
minimal difference in energy or no difference at all.

(d) The Concentration of the Electrolyte

When an electrolyte is concentrated, its negatively charged ion (anion) is

selectively discharged regardless of its position in the electrochemical series.
The other ions present in solution are discharged depending on the other two
factors i.e.

(i) the position of the ions in the electrochemical series

32
 33

(ii) the nature of the electrode

Examples

1. Sodium solution was electrolysed using graphite anode and platinum cathode.

(a) Write the formulae of all the ions in solution.

(b) Describe what happens at the electrodes and write the half ionic
equations.

(c) Write the overall reaction.

(d) Describe the pH change during the reaction.

Answers

(a) From NaCl : Na+ Cl

From H2O : H+ OH

(b) At the anode

Both chloride and hydroxide ions migrate to the anode where the hydroxide
ions are selectively discharged because they are lower in the electrochemical
series. This is because they need less energy to be discharged.

4OH 2H2O + O2 + 4e

Bubbles of oxygen gas are produced at the anode.

At the cathode

Both sodium and hydrogen ions migrate to the cathode where the hydrogen
ions are preferentially discharged because they are lower in the
electrochemical series.

(2H+ + 2e H2) x 2

4H+ + 4e 2H2

Bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced at the cathode.

(c) Overall reaction

2H2O  2H2 + O2

33
 34

When sodium chloride solution is electrolysed using inert electrodes two

moles (two volumes) of hydrogen gas are collected at the cathode and one
mole (one volume) of oxygen gas is collected at the anode.

(d) The pH remains the same because the hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are
removed from the solution.

2. Concentrated aqueous sodium chloride was electrolysed using carbon

electrodes.

(a) Describe what happens at the electrodes and write the half ionic
equations.

(b) Write the overall equation of the reaction.

(c) Describe the change in pH of the solution during electrolysis.

(d) Describe the identity test of the substances collected at the electrode.

Answers

(a) From NaCl : Na+ Cl

From H2O : H+ OH

At the anode

Both chloride and hydroxide ions migrate to the anode where the chloride ions
are selectively discharged because the electrolyte is concentrated.

2Cl Cl2 + 2e

Bubbles of a yellowish green gas will be observed at the anode.

At the cathode

Both sodium ions and hydrogen ions migrate to the cathode where the
hydrogen ions are preferentially discharged because they are lower in the
electrochemical series.

2H+ + 2e H2

(b) 2NaCl + 2H2O  H2 + Cl2 + 2NaOH

(c) The pH increases because an alkaline substance (NaOH) is formed.

34
 35

(d) At the anode

Hold damp blue litmus paper on the mouth of the test tube that contains the
gas (chlorine) it with thereafter turn red then white.

At the cathode

Bring a burning flame into content with the gas by placing it on the mouth of
the test tube containing the gas. The burning flame will be put out with a pop
sound.

Electrolysis of Copper (II) Sulphate Solution

1. Using Graphite Electrodes

(a) Describe what happens at the anode and write the half ionic equation.

(b) Describe what happens at the cathode and write the half ionic equation.

(c) Write the overall equation of the reaction taking place in the electrolytic
cell.

(d) Describe what happens to the colour change and the pH if the solution in
the electrolytic cell.

Answers
2
From CuSO4 : Cu2+ SO 4

From H2O: H+ OH

(a) Both sulphate and hydroxide ions migrate to the anode where OH in
hydroxide ions are preferentially discharged.

4OH 2H2O + O2 + 4e

(b) Both copper (II) and hydrogen ions migrate to the cathode where copper (II)
ions are preferentially discharged.

(Cu2+ + 2e Cu) x 2

2Cu2+ + 4e 2Cu

(c) 2CuSO4 + 2H2O  2Cu + O2 + 2H2SO4

(d) The solution decolourises i.e. it changes from blue to colourless. The pH
reduced because sulphuric acid is produced.

35
 36

2. Using copper anode and copper cathode.

(a) Describe what happens at the anode and write the half ionic equation.

(b) Describe what happens at the cathode and write the half ionic equation.

(c) Describe what happens to the colour change and the pH of the solution in
the electrolytic cell.

(d) Illustrate the process that occurred.

Answers
2
From CuSO4 : Cu2+ SO 4

From H2O: H+ OH

(a) The copper anode ionises or dissolves in the electrolyte producing copper (II)
ions

Cu  Cu2+ + 2e

The size and mass of the copper anode decreases (reduces).

(b) Both copper (II) ions and hydrogen ions migrate to the cathode where the
copper (II) ions are selectively discharged. The copper metal deposit itself
onto the copper cathode. Therefore, the copper cathode increases in size and
mass.

Cu2+ + 2e Cu

(c) The solution will remain blue. This is because the amount of copper (II) ions
being discharged is equal to the number of copper (II) ions being produced.

(d)

36
 37

Copper Copper
anode cathode

Electrolysis of Concentrated Sodium Chloride (Brine) Using Graphite Anode

and Mercury Cathode

Ions present in solution are

(a) From NaCl : Na+ Cl

From H2O : H+ OH

At the anode

Both the chloride and hydroxide ions migrate to the anode where the chloride
ions are selectively discharged. The is because the electrolyte is highly
concentrated.

2Cl Cl2 + 2e

yellowish-green
gas

At the cathode

Both sodium ions and hydrogen ions migrate to the mercury cathode where
sodium ions combined with mercury to form an unstable called sodium
amalgam.

37
 38

Na+ + Hg + e Na/Hg

2Na+ + 2Hg + 2e 2Na/Hg

Sodium amalgam dissolves in water to form sodium hydroxide solution,

hydrogen gas and mercury.

2Na/Hg + 2H2O  2Hg + 2NaOH + H2

The electrolysis of concentrated NaCl using mercury cathode is used for

manufacture of sodium hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen.

Application of Electrolysis

1. The manufacture of sodium hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen.

2. Electroplating.
3. Metal purification (metal refining).
4. Extraction of metal.
5. Electrotyping.

Electroplating

Electroplating is a process of coating one metal with another using

electrolysis.

During electroplating;

(a) The object to be electroplated should be at the cathode.

(b) The metal to be used for electroplating should be the anode.

(c) The electrolyte must contain the same metallic ions as the anode. When
the switch is closed, the anode ionises and the ions produced migrate to
the cathode (object) and the metal uniformly deposited onto the object.

Examples

(a) Illustrate how an aluminium spoon can be electroplated with silver metal.
Write the half ionic equations at the electrodes.

(b) Illustrate how an aluminium ring can be coated with gold. Write the half ionic
equations at the electrodes.

Answers

38
 39

(a) (b)
Closed
switch

 Aluminium Gold Aluminium ring

Silver metal Ag+ NO 3
spoon (Cathode) (Anode) (Cathode)
(Anode) Ag+ 
NO 3
Gold nitrate
Solution of
silver nitrate
(AgNO3) Au  Au+ + e Au+ + e Au
Ag  Ag+ + e
Ag+ + e Ag

Purification of Metals

When metals are extracted from their ores by chemical reduction, they contain a
number of impurities. Some of these metals such as copper, zinc, lead e.t.c are
purified electrolytic. The metal to be purified (impure metal) is placed at the anode as
an electrode. The cathode is made of a pure thin strip of the metal being purified.
The electrolyte must contain the same metallic ions as the impure metal (anode).

When the switch is close, the anode ionises and impurities fall off to the bottom. A
collection of these impurities is called anode sludge. The pure metal ions produced
migrate to the cathode and are discharged. The pure metal atoms deposit
themselves onto the cathode causing the cathode to increase in mass and size.
Copper cathodes (zinc cathode) are therefore purified copper or zinc metals.

Impure Pure metal

metal

Electrolyte

Anode sludge

Write the names of the electrodes and electrolytes used in the purification of

(a) Zinc metal

(b) Copper metal

Include the half ionic equations in your answers.

Extraction of Metals

39
 40

Metals are extracted or obtained from minerals called ores. An ore is a rock that
contains metal compounds. There are two methods used for metal extraction

(a) Electrolytic reduction

(b) Chemical reduction

All metal can be extracted by the electrolytic method, but it is a very expensive
method. Not all metals can be extracted by chemical reduction. The more reactive
metals such as sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium e.t.c cannot be extracted by
chemical reduction because the ionic bonds in their ores are too strong to be broken
by a reducing agent. An electrolytic method is used for such metals.

Extraction of Aluminium

Aluminium is extracted from molten bauxite ore (Al2O3) using electrolysis. When the
bauxite ore is dug from underground, the external impurities such as sand and clay
are washed off. The waste ore is purified by reacting it with an excess of
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution. The resultant sodium aluminate is heated to
obtain pure aluminium oxide. Pure aluminium oxide has a very high melting
temperature (melting point is greater than 1 000oC). To lower the high melting point,
aluminium oxide is mixed with cryolite (sodium aluminium hexafluoride: Na 3AlF6).
The mixture has a melting point of about 900oC.

The mixture of aluminium oxide and cryolite is red into an electrolytic cell. The
electrolytic cell. The electrolytic cell is made of graphite cathode on the sides and
graphite anode rods on top dipped into the electrolyte (molten aluminium oxide and
molten cryolite). The temperature of the electrolytic cell is kept around 1000 oC. At
this temperature, the mixture ionises into aluminium ions (Al3+) and oxide ions (O2).

At the Cathode

The aluminium ions migrate to the cathode where they are reduced to aluminium
metal.

Al3+ + 3e Al

Aluminium settles at the bottom of the electrolytic cell in molten (liquid) state. It is
removed or collected by opening the tap at the bottom of the cell, a process known
as tapping off.

At the Anode

The oxide ions migrate to the graphite anode where they are oxidised to oxygen gas.

2O2 O2 + 4e

The oxygen gas produced react with the graphite anode rods because of the high
temperature in the electrolytic cell.

40
 41

This reaction causes the anode rods to be corroded or eaten up and should be
replaced at regular intervals.

Ore: Bauxite (Al2O3)

Purified by dissolving in NaOH (aq)

Pure Al2O3 + cryolite (Na3AlF6)

Electrolytic cell

- Graphite anode rods

- Temperature 1000oC

Al2O3: Al3+ O2

At the Cathode

Al3+ + 3e Al (s) (reduction)

At the Anode
2
2O 2  O2 + 4e (oxidation)
C + O2 CO2

The Overall Reaction

2Al2O3 4Al + 3O2

When two moles of aluminium oxide are electrolysed using graphite

electrodes, four moles of aluminium metal in molten state are collected at the
cathode and three moles of oxygen are liberated at the anode.

Graphite (carbon) anodes

(+ve)
Solid crust
(ve)

(+ve)

Graphite (carbon) insulation

lining
Cathode (ve)
Molten
(Al2O3 + Na3AlF6)

Tapping
hole Molten aluminium
41
 42

Physical Properties of Aluminium

(a) It is very shiny or lustrous.

(b) It is a good reflector of heat and light.
(c) It has high melting and boiling point.
(d) It has a very good conductor of heat and electricity.
(e) It has a relatively low density.
(f) It is malleable i.e. it can be made into different shapes.
(g) It is ductile i.e. it can be drawn into wires.
(h) It is non-toxic.
(i) It does not corrode. When aluminium is exposed to air, it forms a
protective oxide layer on its surface which prevents it from reactions with
oxides and other substances.

Uses of Aluminium

1. Used for making cooking utensils.

Properties responsible: c, d, f, h, i

2. Used for making aeroplane bodies.

Properties responsible: e, f

3. It is used for making overhead electricity cables.

Properties responsible: d, g, i

4. Used for making cooking oil and food carbons

Properties responsible: f, h, i

5. Used for making drink cans.

Properties responsible: e, g, i

6. Used for coating CDs and DVDs

Properties responsible: a, b

Quantitative Electrolysis

Quantitative electrolysis deals with the amounts of substances produced i.e.

deposited or liberated at the electrodes during electrolysis. There are two laws of
electrolysis. There are two laws of electrolysis that are used to determine the
quantities of products in an electrolytic experiment. The laws were discovered by
Michael Faraday and therefore are called Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.

First Law of Electrolysis

The first law of electrolysis states that the mass of a substance produced (deposited)
at the electrons is proportional to the electricity passed through the electrolyte.

Second Law of Electrolysis

42
 43

The second law of electrolysis states that when the same amount of electricity
(current) is passed through different electrolytes, the mass of the substances
produced at the electrodes is inversely proportional to the charge on the respective
ions.

The formulae used in electrolysis therefore are

1. Q  It
Q  ch arg e of electricity (C )
I  Current( A)
t  time (s )

ch arg e of electricity
2. Moles of electrons 
Faraday' s cons tan t
Q

F
It

F
F  96 500C / mol

ch arg e of electricity
3. Moles 
Faraday' s cons tan t  ch arg e on ion

m Q

MM ZF

Q  MM
m
Z F

Examples

1. 0.2 A of electricity was passed through an electrolytic cell containing copper

(II) sulphate solution and copper electrodes for 20 minutes.

Calculate the mass of copper deposited at the cathode.

Cu2+ + 2e Cu

It 0.1 A  1 200 s
Moles of electrons    0.002487mol
F 96 500C / mol

From the equation above

2 moles of electrons  64 g of Cu
0.002487moles  x

43
 44

0.002487moles  64 g
x
2 moles

 0.08 g of copper

Or

Q  MM
m
3 F

0.2 A  1200 s  64 g / mole


2 moles  96 500 C / mole

 0.08 g of copper

2. Dilute hydrochloric acid was electrolysed by passing 0.5 A of current through

it for 30 minutes. If inert electrodes are used, calculate the volumes of gases
liberated at the electrodes.

H+ Cl

H+ OH

At the anode

4OH 2H2O + O2 + 4e

At the Cathode

2H+ + 2e H2
4H+ + 4e 2H2

It 0.5 A  1800 s
Moles of electrons    0.009326mole of electrons
F 96 500C / mol

For Oxygen

From the equation

4 moles of electrons  24 dm3

0.009326moles of electrons  x

24 dm3  0.009326mol
x  0.056 dm3 of O2 produced
4 mol

44
 45

For Hydrogen

2 moles of electrons  24 dm3

0.009326moles of electrons  x

24 dm3  0.009326mol
x  0.112 dm3 of H 2 liberated
2 mol

Overall Equation

2H2O  2H2 + O2

3. 2A of current was passed through silver nitrate solution for 40 minutes in an

electrolytic cell used to electroplate an aluminium finger ring. Calculate the
amount of silver deposited on the ring.
F = 96 500 C/mol

AgNO3 : Ag+, NO 3

H2O : H+ , OH

At the Anode

4OH 2H2O + O2 + 4e

At the Cathode

Ag+ + e Ag
4Ag + 4e 4Ag

Q  MM
m
3 F

2 A  2400 s  108 g / mole


1 moles  96 500C / mole

 5.37 g

MM  108 g / mol
I  2A
t  40 min s  60 s / min  2400 s
z 1
F  96 500C / mol

Electrochemical Cell (Simple Cell)

45
 46

When a more reactive metal strip is dipped into a solution of a salt of a less
reactive metal, the less reactive metal is displaced e.g.
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq)  ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

The above reaction produces energy which is wasted in form of heat if the two
half ionic equations Zn (s) Zn2+ + 2e and Cu2+ + 2e Cu occur in the
same vessel. The energy released in the reaction above can be harnessed
and converted into electrical energy by separating the two half ionic
equations.

Lamp
Switch

Salt bridge

Zinc rod Copper rod

Aqueous zinc Aqueous copper (II)

sulphate sulphate

Zinc metal being more reactive than copper, ionises Zn (s)  Zn2+ + 2e.

The electrons released flow through the connecting wires lighting up the bulb.
Electrons flow from a region of higher potential (negative electrode) to a
region of lower potential (positive electrode). The ionisation of zinc metal to
zinc ions is an oxidation process therefore, the electrode in the half cell in
which zinc ionises is the anode.

The copper ions are reduced to copper metal at the cathode. The cathode is
positive because it is at a lower potential. The two half cells are connected by
a salt bridge. A salt bridge is usually made of filter paper soaked in potassium
nitrate solution. The joining together of the half cells via a salt bridge is called
a simple cell (electrochemical cell). An electrochemical cell is a device used to
generate electrical energy using chemical reactions. The electromotive force
of the cell is given by the formula

  
Ecell  Eanode  Ecathode

The standard electrode potential (E) are obtained from the electrochemical
series.

For the Zn/Cu simple cell, the electromotive force is

E  Eanode
 
 Ecathode Anode: Zn (s)  Zn2+ + 2e E = 0.76 V

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 0.76V  (0.35V ) Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e Cu E = 0.35 V

 1.11V

The amount of electrical energy produced by a simple cell depend on the

position of the substances (metals) in the electrochemical series. The more
further apart the substances are, the higher the electrical energy produced.

The Electrochemical Series

Li Li+ + e Li 3.05

Na Na+ + e Na 2.71
K K + + e  K 2.93
Ca Ca2+ + 2e Ca 2.76
Mg Mg2+ + 2e Mg 2.37
Fe Fe2+ + 2e Fe 0.44
Zn Zn2+ + 2e Zn 0.76
Pb Pb2+ + 2e Pb 0.13
Cu Cu2+ + 2e Cu 0.35
Ag Ag+ + e Ag 0.80

Exercise

The following reaction was used to make a simple cell

Mg (s) + Cu(NO3)2 (aq)  Ma(NO3)2 (aq) + Cu (s)

(a) Write the ionic equations for the reaction above.

(b) Write the half ionic equation for
i) Reduction process
ii) Oxidation process
(c) Draw the simple cell for the reaction.
(d) Calculate the electromotive force for the cell.
(e) Identify the positive and negative electrode in the simple cell drawn

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY – QUESTIONS

1. (a) Give the name of the class or family of pure chemical species that are

i) Electrical conductors in solid form

ii) Electrical conductors only in liquid form

(b) Give two differences between the two classes you have stated in (a).

2. I. Explain the following observations

a) A powder of sulphur doesn’t conduct electricity while that of iron

conducts electricity.

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b) Sucrose (sugar) doesn’t conduct electricity both in pure solid form and in
aqueous solution but potassium chloride conducts in aqueous solution
and also not in pure solid form.

II. Substance X dissolves both in Y and Z, the solution of X in Y conducts

electricity while the solution of X in Z doesn’t conduct electricity.
On the basis of this information alone, state the nature of chemical species
found in the two solutions.

3. State the formulae and names of all the free moving ions (if any) in the
following.

a) HCl (g)
b) KCl (s)
c) CuSO4 (aq)
d) Molten PbBr2
e) Brine (Conc. NaCl)

4. (a) What is meant by selection discharge of ions?

(b) State the 3 factors that determine the selective discharge of ions.

(c) The electrolysis of brine covers all the 3 factors stated in (b).
Briefly explain and point out how each factor is covered in the electrolysis
of brine.

5. No!! This is not possible!! Lamented a pupil as the pupil observed that the gas
produced at the anode was hydrogen during electrolysis of a molten
compound. Another pupil advised that there was need for lamenting because
it was possible to produce H2 at the anode. A hot argument started.

a) As an expert of chemistry give your correct perception about the

argument.
b) Justify your argument perception illustrating using an example.

6. In another exciting experiment an A-Level student shouted happily, yes, X is

an electrolyte nothing else! This was during an experiment set as shown as
he switched on.
Bulb

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a) What could have been seen by the student to induce his excitement?
b) An O-Level student was then almost beaten when she told the A-Level
that X could not be necessarily an electrolyte.

What would you tell the two students to convince them that one of them is
correct?

7. Some industrial applications of electrolysis include

 Purification (refining) of metals like copper

 Electroplating
 Extraction of metals from their ores

a) (i) Draw a well fully labelled diagram to show how copper is purified
electrically.
(ii) Show the electrode reactions during the purification process.

b) Aluminium can be extracted from its ore Al2O3 (molten) by electrolysis

i) Show the electrode reaction that produce aluminium.

ii) What mass of aluminium would be produced (deposited) at the
electrode if a current of 5A is passed through molten Al 2O3 for 3
hours 12 min?

IF = 96 500 c = 1 mol of e

c) A pupil fond of silver wishes to electroplate his copper ring with silver. He
puts up the following setup.
+ 

Silver
Copper
ring

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CuSO4 (aq)

After sometime, the pupil cried, oh No!! My ring has disappeared!!

i) Give two reasons arising from the set up why the copper ring
disappeared.
ii) Apart from the disappearing of the copper ring what other physical
changes could be SEEN by the student at the other electrode.
iii) Write an equation representing the change you have stated in (ii)

8. In an electrolytic cell connected in series involving AgNO3 (aq) and a salt of

iron in another cell the following quantities were produced.

16.2 g of silver and 2.8 of iron at their respective cathode electrodes. What is
the charge on the iron in this electrolyte?

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