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Introduction to Axiomatic Geometry

Text for Ohio University 2016 -2017 Fall Semester MATH 3110 College Geometry

(all material by Mark Barsamian)

1. Axiom Systems ...................................................................................................................5

1.1. Introduction to Axiom Systems ...............................................................................5
1.2. Properties of Axiom Systems I: Consistency and Independence...........................15
1.3. Properties of Axiom Systems II: Completeness ....................................................20
1.4. Exercises for Chapter 1 ..........................................................................................23

2. Axiomatic Geometries .....................................................................................................27

2.1. Introduction and Basic Examples ..........................................................................27
2.2. Fano’s Geometry and Young’s Geometry .............................................................30
2.3. Incidence Geometry ...............................................................................................35
2.4. Advanced Topic: Duality .......................................................................................45
2.5. Exercises For Chapter 2 .........................................................................................50

3. Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance ......................................55

3.1. Neutral Geometry Axioms and First Six Theorems ..............................................55
3.2. The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Drawings ............................57
3.3. The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Analytic Geometry .............59
3.4. The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Neutral Geometry ...............62
3.5. Diagram of Relationship Between Coordinate Functions & Distance Functions..65
3.6. Two Basic Properties of the Distance Function in Neutral Geometry...................68
3.7. Ruler Placement in Drawings ................................................................................69
3.8. Ruler Placement in Analytic Geometry .................................................................75
3.9. Ruler Placement in Neutral Geometry ...................................................................81
3.10. Distance and Rulers in High School Geometry Books ..........................................85
3.11. Exercises for Chapter 3 ..........................................................................................88

4. Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance .................91
4.1. Betweenness ...........................................................................................................91
4.2. Segments, Rays, Angles, Triangles........................................................................96
4.3. Segment Congruence .............................................................................................98
4.4. Segment Midpoints ..............................................................................................104
4.5. Exercises for Chapter 4 ........................................................................................108
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5. Neutral Geometry III: The Separation Axiom ............................................................111

5.1. Introduction to The Separation Axiom and Half-Planes......................................111
5.2. Theorems about lines intersecting triangles .........................................................115
5.3. Interiors of angles and triangles ...........................................................................117
5.4. Theorems about rays and lines intersecting triangle interiors .............................118
5.5. A Triangle Can’t Enclose a Ray or a Line ...........................................................122
5.6. Convex quadrilaterals ..........................................................................................123
5.7. Plane Separation in High School Geometry Books .............................................126
5.8. Exercises for Chapter 5 ........................................................................................127

6. Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement ......................................129

6.1. The Angle Measurement Axiom ..........................................................................129
6.2. The Angle Construction Axiom ...........................................................................132
6.3. The Angle Measure Addition Axiom ..................................................................133
6.4. The Linear Pair Theorem .....................................................................................135
6.5. A digression about terminology ...........................................................................139
6.6. Right Angles and Perpendicular Lines ................................................................140
6.7. Angle Congruence ...............................................................................................144
6.8. Exercises for Chapter 6 ........................................................................................145

7. Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence .......................................149

7.1. The Concept of Triangle Congruence ..................................................................149
7.2. Theorems about Congruences in Triangles..........................................................155
7.3. Theorems about Bigger and Smaller Parts of Triangles ......................................162
7.4. Advanced Topic: Properties of the Distance Function ........................................166
7.5. More About Perpendicular Lines .........................................................................170
7.6. A Final Look at Triangle Congruence in Neutral Geometry ...............................174
7.7. Parallel lines in Neutral Geometry.......................................................................177
7.8. Exercises for Chapter 7 ........................................................................................181

8. Neutral Geometry VI: Circles.......................................................................................187

8.1. Theorems about Lines Intersecting Circles..........................................................187
8.2. A Digression: Two Theorems About Triangles ...................................................191
8.3. Theorems About Chords ......................................................................................192
8.4. A Digression: Two Theorems About Angle Bisectors ........................................193
8.5. Theorems About Tangent Lines and Inscribed Circles........................................195
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8.6. Exercises for Chapter 8 ........................................................................................197

9. Euclidean Geometry I: Triangles .................................................................................201

9.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................201
9.2. Parallel Lines and Alternate Interior Angles in Euclidean Geometry .................203
9.3. Angles of Triangles in Euclidean Geometry ........................................................204
9.4. In Euclidean Geometry, every triangle can be circumscribed .............................206
9.5. Parallelograms in Euclidean Geometry ...............................................................207
9.6. The triangle midsegment theorem and altitude concurrence ...............................209
9.7. Advanced Topic: Equally-spaced parallel lines and median concurrence...........212
9.8. Exercises for Chapter 9 ........................................................................................214

10. Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity ...............................................................................217

10.1. Parallel Projections ..............................................................................................217
10.2. Similarity..............................................................................................................222
10.3. Applications of Similarity ....................................................................................229
10.4. Exercises for Chapter 10 ......................................................................................231

11. Euclidean Geometry III: Area ......................................................................................235

11.1. Triangular Regions, Polygons, and Polygonal Regions.......................................235
11.2. The Area of a Polygonal Region ..........................................................................242
11.3. Using Area to Prove the Pythagorean Theorem ..................................................243
11.4. Areas of Similar Polygons ...................................................................................245
11.5. Area in High School Geometry Books ................................................................248
11.6. Exercises for Chapter 11 ......................................................................................250

12. Euclidean Geometry IV: Circles...................................................................................255

12.1. Circular Arcs ........................................................................................................255
12.2. Angle Measure of an Arc .....................................................................................259
12.3. The Measure of Angles Related to the Measures of Arcs that they Intercept .....262
12.4. Cyclic Quadrilaterals ...........................................................................................268
12.5. The Intersecting Secants Theorem .......................................................................271
12.6. Exercises for Chapter 12 ......................................................................................274

13. Euclidean Geometry VI: Advanced Theorems about Triangles ...............................279

13.1. Seven Theorems ...................................................................................................279
13.2. Exercises for Chapter 13 ......................................................................................282
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14. The Circumference and Area of Circles ......................................................................283

14.1. Defining the Circumference and Area of a Circle ...............................................283
14.2. Estimating the Value of the Circumference and Area of a Circle .......................286
14.3. Introducing 𝑷𝒊......................................................................................................287
14.4. Approximations for 𝑷𝒊.........................................................................................290
14.5. Arc Length ...........................................................................................................293
14.6. Area of Regions Bounded by Arcs and Line Segments .......................................293
14.7. Exercises for Chapter 14 ......................................................................................295

15. Maps, Transformations, Isometries .............................................................................297

15.1. Functions ..............................................................................................................297
15.2. Inverse Functions .................................................................................................300
15.3. Maps of the Plane.................................................................................................304
15.4. Transformations of the Plane ...............................................................................305
15.5. Review of Binary Operations and Groups ...........................................................306
15.6. The Set of Transformations of the Plane is a Group ............................................310
15.7. Isometries of the Plane .........................................................................................312
15.8. The set of isometries of the plane is a group .......................................................316
15.9. Some More Properties of Isometries....................................................................317
15.10. Exercises ..............................................................................................................322

16. Appendix 1: List of Definitions .....................................................................................325

17. Appendix 2: List of Theorems ......................................................................................349

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1.Axiom Systems
1.1. Introduction to Axiom Systems
1.1.1. Looking Back at Earlier Proofs Courses
In earlier courses involving proofs, you studied conditional statements—statements of the form

If Statement A is true then Statement B is true.

You saw that the proof of such a conditional statement has the following form:

Proof:
(1) Statement A is true. (given)
(2) Some statement (with some justification provided)
(3) Some statement (with some justification provided)
(4) Some statement (with some justification provided)
(5) Statement B is true. (with some justification provided)
End of Proof

For example, you proved the following conditional statement about integers:

If 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛2 is odd.

Proof:
(1) Suppose that 𝑛 is an odd integer.
(2) There exists some integer 𝑘 such that 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 (by statement (1) and the definition of
odd)
(3) 𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = (2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1) = 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1 = 2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) + 1 (arithmetic)
(4) (2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) is an integer (because the set of integers is closed under addition and
multiplication). Call this integer 𝑚. So, 𝑛 = 2𝑚 + 1 where 𝑚 is an integer.
(5) 𝑛2 is odd. (by statement (4) and the definition of odd)
End of Proof

In this proof, the only assumption is the given Statement A. The proof does not prove that
Statement A is true; it only proves that if statement A is true, then statement B is also true.

But in most of your proofs in those earlier courses, certainly in all of the proofs involving basic
number theory, there were actually unstated assumptions in addition to the explicitly given
Statement A. The proof above relies on some unstated assumptions about the basic properties of
integers. These basic properties of integers are not statements that can be proven. Rather, they
are statements that are assumed to be true. Statements such as

The set of integers is closed under addition and multiplication

or
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 6

There is a special number called 1 with the following properties

1) 1 is not equal to 0.
2) For all integers 𝑛, 𝑛 ⋅ 1 = 𝑛.

It may seem silly that we are even discussing the above statements. They are so obviously true,
and we’ve known that they are true since grade school math. We never think about the
statements, even though we do integer arithmetic all the time.

Well, the statements can not in fact be proven true (or false). We can’t imagine what we would
do if they were false, though: all of the math we’ve used since grade school would be out the
window. So we just assume that all the basic properties of the integers are true and we go from
there. But to be totally honest about all the given information in the Theorem about odd numbers,
we would need to write the theorem and its proof something like this:

Theorem: If all of the axioms of the integers are true [they would have to be listed
explicitly here] and 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛2 is also odd.

Proof:
(1) Suppose that all of the axioms of the integers are true [they would have to be listed
explicitly here] and that 𝑛 is an odd integer.
(2) There exists some integer 𝑘 such that 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 (by statement (1) and the definition of
odd)
(3) 𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = (2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1) = 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1 = 2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) + 1 (arithmetic)
(4) (2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) is an integer (because the set of integers is closed under addition and
multiplication)
(5) 𝑛2 is odd. (by statement (4) and the definition of odd)
End of Proof

But in your earlier courses about proofs, the emphasis was on learning how to build a proof. That
is, you would have been concerned with steps 2 through 5 of the above proof. Since we all know
how to work with the integers without having to refer to their underlying axioms, the axioms
were not mentioned.

1.1.2. Looking Forward

Having studied in earlier courses the building of proofs of basic number theory theorems, a
setting where the underlying axioms could go unmentioned, you will study in this book the
building of proofs of theorems about geometry. In geometry, the underlying axioms are not
obvious and cannot go unmentioned. In fact, this book will largely be about the axioms,
themselves. We will start by studying very simple axioms systems, in order to learn how one
builds proofs based on an explicit axiom system and to learn some of the basic terminology of
axiom systems. Then, we will turn our attention to developing an axiom system to describe
Euclidean geometry.

1.1.3. Definition of Axiom System

We will use the term axiom system to mean a finite list of statements that are assumed to be true.
The individual statements are the axioms. The word postulate is often used instead of axiom. In
this book, axioms will be labeled with numbers enclosed in angle brackets: <1>, <2>, etc.
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Example 1 of an axiom system

<1> Elvis is dead.
<2> Chocolate is the best flavor of ice cream.
<3> 5 = 7.

Notice that the first statement is one that most people are used to thinking of as true. The second
sentence is clearly a statement, but one would not have much luck trying to find general
agreement as to whether it is true or false. But if we list it as an axiom, we are assuming it is true.

The third statement seems to be problematic. If we insist that the normal rules of arithmetic must
hold, then this statement could not possibly be true. There are two important issues here. The
first is that if we are going to insist that the normal rules of arithmetic must hold, then that means
our axiom system is actually larger than just the three statements listed: the axiom system would
also include the axioms for arithmetic. The second issue is that if we do assume that the normal
rules of arithmetic must hold, and yet we insist on putting this statement on the list of axioms,
then we have a “bad” axiom system in the sense that its statements contradict each other. We will
return to this when we discuss consistency of axiom systems.

So the idea is that regardless of whether or not we are used to thinking of some statement as true
or false, when we put the statement on a list of axioms we are simply assuming that the statement
is true.

With that in mind, we could create a slightly different axiom system by modifying our first
example.

Example 2 of an axiom system

<1> Elvis is alive.
<2> Chocolate is the best flavor of ice cream.
<3> 5 = 7.

The statements of an axiom system are used in conjunction with the rules of inference to prove
theorems. Used this way, the axioms are actually part of the hypotheses of each theorem proved.
For example, suppose that we were using the axiom system from Example 2, and we were
somehow able to use the rules of inference to prove the following theorem from the axioms.

Theorem: If Bob is Blue then Ann is Red.

Then what we really would have proven is the following statement:

Theorem: If ((Elvis is alive) and (Chocolate is the best flavor of ice cream) and (5 = 7) and
(Bob is Blue)) then Ann is Red.

1.1.4. Primitive Relations and Primitive Terms

As you can see from the examples in the previous section, axiom systems may be comprised of
statements that we are used to thinking of as true, or statements that we are used to thinking of as
false, or some mixture of the two. More interestingly, an axiom system can be made up of
statements whose truth we have no way of assessing. The easiest way to get such an axiom
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 8

system is to build statements using words whose meaning has not been defined. In this course,
we will be doing this in two ways.

1.1.5. Primitive Relations

The first way of building statements whose meaning is undefined is to use nouns whose meaning
is known in conjunction with transitive verbs whose meaning is not known. For instance,
consider the following sentence about two integers.

“5 is related to 7.”

This is a sentence with the noun 5 as the subject, the noun 7 as the direct object, and the words
“is related to” as the transitive verb. We have no idea what this sentence might mean, because
the phrase “is related to” is undefined. That is, the transitive verb is undefined.

Transitive verbs in the written language have a counterpart in the mathematical language: they
correspond to mathematical relations. The undefined phrase “is related to” in the previous
paragraph is an example of an undefined relation on the set of integers. In the context of axiom
systems, an undefined relation is sometimes called a primitive relation. When one presents an
axiom system that contains primitive relations—that is, undefined transitive verbs—it is
important to introduce those primitive relations before listing the axioms. Here is an example of
an axiom system consisting of sentences built using primitive relations in the manner described
above.

Axiom System: Axiom System #1

Primitive Relations: relation on the set of integers spoken “x is related to y”
Axioms: <1> 5 is related to 7
<2> 5 is related to 8
<3> For all integers 𝑥 and 𝑦, if 𝑥 is related to 𝑦, then 𝑦 is related to 𝑥.
<4> For all integers 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧, if 𝑥 is related to 𝑦 and 𝑦 is related to 𝑧,
then 𝑥 is related to 𝑧.

We can easily abbreviate the presentation of this axiom system by using the symbols and
terminology of mathematical relations:

 The set of integers is denoted by the symbol ℤ. (This kind of font is often called “double-
struck” or “blackboard bold”. That is, the symbol ℤ is a double-struck Z, or a blackboard-
bold Z.)
 The undefined relation is denoted by the symbol ℛ. (script R)
 The relation ℛ is a relation on the set of integers. From your previous study of relations,
you should have learned that this means simply that ℛ is a subset: ℛ ⊂ ℤ × ℤ. Because
the relation ℛ is undefined, we don’t know what that subset is.
 The symbol 5ℛ7 is used as an abbreviation for the sentence “5 is related to 7”, which
means that the ordered pair (5,7) is an element of the subset ℛ. That is, (5,7) ∈ ℛ.
 More generally, the symbol 𝑥ℛ𝑦 is used as an abbreviation for “x is related to y”.
 A relation on a set is said to be symmetric if it has the following property:

For all elements a and b in the set, if a is related to b, then b is related to a.

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We see that axiom <3> is simply saying that relation ℛ is symmetric.

 A relation on a set is said to be transitive if it has the following property:

For all elements a, b, and c in the set, if a is related to b, and b is related to c, then a is
related to c.

We see that axiom <4> is simply saying that relation ℛ is transitive.

Using the symbols and terminology described above, the abbreviated version of Axiom System
#1 is as follows.

Axiom System: Axiom System #1, abbreviated version

Primitive Relations: relation ℛ on the set ℤ, spoken “x is related to y”
Axioms: <1> 5ℛ7
<2> 5ℛ8
<3> relation ℛ is symmetric
<4> relation ℛ is transitive

Observe that each of the axioms is a statement whose truth we have no way of assessing, because
the relation ℛ is undefined. But we can prove the following theorem.

Theorem for axiom system #1: 7 is related to 8.

Proof
(1) 7 is related to 5 (by axioms <1> and <3>)
(2) 7 is related to 8 (by statement (1) and axioms <2> and <4>)
End of proof

As mentioned in the previous section, the axioms could be stated explicitly as part of the
statement of the theorem. (Then we would not really need to state the axiom system separately.)

Theorem: If ((ℛ is a relation on ℤ) and ( 5ℛ7 ) and ( 5ℛ8 ) and (ℛ is symmetric) and (ℛ is
transitive), then 7ℛ8 .

1.1.6. Primitive Terms

The second way of building statements whose meaning is undefined is to use not only undefined
transitive verbs, but also undefined nouns. A straightforward way to do this is to introduce sets A
and B whose elements are undefined. For instance, let 𝐴 be the set of akes and 𝐵 be the set of
bems, where ake and bem are undefined nouns. Introduce the following sentence: “the ake is
related to the bem”. Note that this is a sentence with the undefined noun ake as the subject, the
words “is related to” as the transitive verb, and the undefined noun bem as the direct object. Of
course we have no idea what this sentence might mean, because the nouns ake and bem are
undefined. But we now have the following building blocks that can be used to build sentences.
 the undefined noun: 𝑎𝑘𝑒
 the undefined noun: 𝑏𝑒𝑚
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 10

 the undefined sentence: The 𝑎𝑘𝑒 is related to the 𝑏𝑒𝑚.

Since we don’t know the meaning of the sentence “The 𝑎𝑘𝑒 is related to the 𝑏𝑒𝑚”, we have
effectively introduced an undefined relation from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵. We could call this undefined
relation ℛ. Using the standard notation for relations, we could write ℛ ⊂ 𝐴 × 𝐵. The sentence
“The 𝑎𝑘𝑒 is related to the 𝑏𝑒𝑚” would be denoted by the symbol 𝑎𝑘𝑒ℛ𝑏𝑒𝑚 . and would mean that
the ordered pair(𝑎𝑘𝑒, 𝑏𝑒𝑚) is an element of the subset ℛ. That is, (𝑎𝑘𝑒, 𝑏𝑒𝑚) ∈ ℛ.

In the context of axiom systems, an undefined noun is sometimes called an undefined term, or a
primitive term, or an undefined object, or a primitive object. In presentations of axiom systems
that contain primitive terms, the primitive terms are customarily listed along with the primitive
relations, before the axioms. Here is an example of an axiom system consisting of sentences built
using primitive terms and primitive relations in the manner described above.

Axiom System: Axiom System #2

Primitive Terms: ake, bem
Primitive Relations: relation from A the set of all akes to B the set of all bems, spoken “The ake
is related to the bem”.
Axioms: <1> There are four akes. These may be denoted ake1, ake2, ake3, ake4.
<2> For any two distinct akes, there is exactly one bem that both akes are
related to.
<3> For any bem, there are exactly two akes that are related to the bem.

As with Axiom System #1, each of these axioms in Axiom System #2 is a statement whose truth
we have no way of assessing, because the words ake and bem are undefined and the relation is
undefined. But we can prove the following theorem.

Theorem #1 for Axiom System #2: There are exactly 6 bems.

Proof
Part 1: Show that there must be at least 6 bems.
(1) By axiom <1>, there are four akes. Therefore, it is possible to build six unique
sets of two akes. Those six sets are {ake1, ake2}, {ake1, ake3}, {ake1, ake4},
{ake2, ake3 }, {ake2, ake4}, {ake3, ake4}.
(2) Consider the set {ake1, ake2}. Axiom <2> tells us that there must be a bem that
both of these akes are related to. Call it bem1.
(3) Now consider the set {ake1, ake3}. Axiom <2> tells us that there must be a
bem that both of these akes are related to. Axiom <3> tells us that it cannot be
bem1, because there are already two akes that are related to bem1. So there
must be a new bem that ake1 and ake3 are both related to. Call it bem2.
(4) Proceeding this way, we see that there must be at least 6 bems, one for each of
the sets of two akes listed above.

Part 2: Show that there cannot be more than 6 bems. (indirect proof)
(5) Suppose that there is a 7th bem, called bem7. (assumption for indirect proof)
(6) By axiom <3>, there must be exactly two akes that are related to bem7. Let
those two akes be denoted akej and akek, where j ≠ k. From Part 1 of this
proof, we know that these two akes are also both related to one of the bems
 page 11

numbered bem1, bem2, …, bem6. So there are two bems that akej and akek are
both related to.
(7) Statement (6) contradicts Axiom <2>. Therefore, our assumption in statement
(5) was incorrect. There cannot be a 7th bem.
End of proof

As with the theorem that we proved in the previous section for Axiom System #1, we note that
the theorem just presented could be written with all of the primitive terms, primitive relations,
and axioms put into the hypothesis. The resulting theorem statement would be quite long.

Theorem: If Blah Blah Blah then there are exactly 6 bems.

In the exercises, you will prove the following:

Theorem #2 for Axiom System #2: For every ake, there are exactly three bems that the
ake is related to.

Digression to Discuss Proof Structure

Before going further, it is worthwhile to pause and consider the structure of the proofs of Axiom
System #2 Theorems #1 and #2.

Note that Theorem #1 is an existential statement: it states that something exists. In order to prove
the theorem, one must use the axioms. Now consider the three axioms of Axiom System #2.
Notice that axioms <2> and <3> say something about objects existing, but only in situations
where some other prerequisite objects are already known to exist. Those axioms are of no use to
us until after we have proven that those other prerequisite objects do exist. Only axiom <1> says
simply that something exists, with no prerequisites. So we have no choice but to start the proof
of Theorem #1 by using axiom <1>. Look back at the proof of Theorem #1, and observe that it
does start by using axiom <1>.

Now note that Theorem #2 starts with the words “For every ake...”. A statement that begins this
way is called a universal statement. It claims that each ake in the set of all akes has the stated
property. (In this case, the property is that there are exactly three bems that the ake is related to.)
The set of all akes could be considered a sort of universal set in this situation, with Theorem #2
making a claim about every ake in that universal set. Hence, the name universal statement.

It is important to keep in mind that the universal statement of Theorem #2 does not claim that
any akes exist. It only makes a claim about an ake that is already known to exist: an ake that is
given. So a proof of Theorem #2 must start with a sentence introducing a given ake. The given
ake is known to have only the attributes mentioned before the comma in the “for every...” phrase.
In the statement of Theorem #2, the phrase simply says “For every ake,...”. That is, the given
ake is not known to have any other attributes beyond merely exiting. So The start of the proof
would look like this:

Start of proof of Theorem #2

(1) Suppose that an ake is given. (Notice that no other attributes are mentioned.)
(2)
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 12

(The goal of the proof will be to prove that the given ake does in fact have another attribute, he
property is that there are exactly three bems that the ake is related to)

Let me reiterate that one does not begin the proof of Theorem #2 by proving that an ake exists.
Even though Axiom System #2 does have an axiom that states that four akes exist, the statement
of Theorem #2 does not claim that any akes exist. Theorem #2 only makes a claim about a given
ake, and so the proof of Theorem #2 must start with the introduction of a given ake.

More generally, in the proof of a universal statement, one must start the proof by stating that a
generic object is given. A generic object is an object or objects that have only the attributes
mentioned right after the words “for all” and before the comma in the theorem statement. The
given objects are known to have those attributes, but are not known to have any other. (The
object of the proof is to prove that the given objects do have some other attributes as well.)

End of Digression to Discuss Proof Structure

Our examples of axiom systems with undefined terms and undefined relations seem rather
absurd, because their axioms are meaningless. What purpose could such abstract collections of
nonsense sentences possibly serve? Well, the idea is that we will use such abstract axiom
systems to represent actual situations that are not so abstract. Then for any abstract theorem that
we have been able to prove about the abstract axiom system, there will be a corresponding true
statement that can be made about the actual situation that the axiom system is supposed to
represent.

This begs the question: why study the axiom system at all, if the end goal is to be able to prove
statements that are about some actual situation? Why not just study the actual situation and prove
the statements in that context? The answer to that is twofold. First, a given abstract axiom system
can be recycled, used to represent many different actual situations. By simply proving theorems
once, in the context of the axiom system, the theorems don’t need to be reproved in each actual
context. Second, and more important, by proving theorems in the context of the abstract axiom
system, we draw attention to the fact that the theorems are true by the simple fact of the axioms
and the rules of logic, and nothing else. This will be very important to keep in mind when
studying axiomatic geometry.

1.1.7. Interpretations and Models

As mentioned above, an axiom system with undefined terms and undefined relations is often
used to represent an actual situation. This idea of representation is made more precise in the
following definition. You’ll notice that the representing sort of gets turned around: we think of
the actual situation as a representation of the axiom system.

Definition 1 Interpretation of an axiom system

Suppose that an axiom system consists of the following four things
 an undefined object of one type, and a set 𝐴 containing all of the objects of that type
 an undefined object of another type, and a set 𝐵 containing all of the objects of that type
 an undefined relation ℛ from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵
 a list of axioms involving the primitive objects and the relation
 page 13

An interpretation of the axiom systems is the following three things

 a designation of an actual set 𝐴′ that will play the role of set 𝐴
 a designation of an actual set 𝐵′ that will play the role of set 𝐵
 a designation of an actual relation ℛ′ from 𝐴′ to 𝐵′ that will play the role of the relation ℛ

As examples, for Axiom System #2 from the previous section we will investigate three different
interpretations invented by Alice, Bob, and Carol. Recall Axiom System #2 included the
following things
 an undefined term ake and a set A containing all the akes
 an undefined term bem and a set B containing all the bems
 a primitive relation ℛ from set A to set B
 a list of three axioms involving these undefined terms and the undefined relation

Alice’s interpretation of Axiom System #2.

 Let 𝐴′ be the set of dots in the picture at right.
 Let 𝐵′ be the set of segments in the picture at right.
 Let relation ℛ′ from 𝐴′ to 𝐵′ be defined by saying that the words
“the ake is related to the segment” mean “the dot touches the
segment”.

Bob’s interpretation of Axiom System #2.

 Let 𝐴′ be the set of dots in the picture at right.
 Let 𝐵′ be the set of segments in the picture at right.
 Let relation ℛ′ from 𝐴′ to 𝐵′ be defined by saying that the words
“the dot is related to the segment” mean “the dot touches the
segment”.
Carol’s interpretation of Axiom System #2.
 Let 𝐴′ be the set whose elements are the letters 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, and 𝑦. That is, 𝐴′ = {𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦}.
 Let 𝐵 ′ be the set whose elements are the sets {𝑣, 𝑤}, {𝑣, 𝑥}, {𝑣, 𝑦}, {𝑤, 𝑥}, {𝑤, 𝑦}, and
{𝑥, 𝑦}. That is, 𝐵 ′ = {{𝑣, 𝑤}, {𝑣, 𝑥}, {𝑣, 𝑦}, {𝑤, 𝑥}, {𝑤, 𝑦}, {𝑥, 𝑦}}.
 Let relation ℛ′ from 𝐴′ to 𝐵′ be defined by saying that the words “the letter is related to
the set” mean “the letter is an element of the set”.

Notice that Alice and Bob have slightly different interepretations of the axiom system. Is one
better than the other? It turns out that we will consider one to be much better than the other. The
criterion that we will use is to consider what happens when we translate the Axioms into
statements about dots and segments. Using a find & replace feature in a word processor, we can
simply replace every occurrence of 𝑎𝑘𝑒 with 𝑑𝑜𝑡, every occurrence of 𝑏𝑒𝑚 with 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, and
every occurrence of is related to with touches. Here are the resulting three statements.

Statements:
1.There are four dots. These may be denoted dot1, dot2, dot3, dot4.
2. For any two distinct dots, there is exactly one line that both dots touch.
3. For any line, there are exactly two dots that touch the line.
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 14

We see that in Bob’s interpretation, all three of these statements are true. In Alice’s interpretation
the first and third statements are true, but the second statement is false.

What about Carol’s interpretation? We should consider what happens when we translate the
Axioms into statements about letters and sets. We can simply replace every occurrence of ake
with letter, every occurrence of bem with set, and every occurrence of is related to with is an
element of.

Statements:
1. There are four letters. These may be denoted letter1, letter2, letter3, letter4.
2. For any two distinct letters, there is exactly one set that both letters are elements of.
3. For any set, there are exactly two letters that are elements of the set.

We see that in Carol’s interpretation, the translations of the three axioms are three statements that
are all true.

Let’s formalize these ideas with a definition.

Definition 2 successful interpretation of an axiom system; model of an axiom system

To say that an interpretation of an axiom system is successful means that when the
undefined terms and undefined relations in the axioms are replaced with the
corresponding terms and relations of the interpretation, the resulting statements are all
true. A model of an axiom system is an interpretation that is successful.

So we would say that Bob’s and Carol’s interpretations are successful: they are models. Alice’s
interpretation is unsuccessful: it is not a model.

Notice also that Bob’s and Carol’s models are essentially the same in the following sense: one
could describe a correspondence between the objects and relations of Bob’s model and the
objects and relations of Carol’s model in a way that all corresponding relationships are
preserved. Here is one such correspondence.

objects in Bob’s model  objects in Carol’s model

the lower left dot  the letter v
the lower right dot  the letter w
the upper right dot  the letter x
the upper left dot  the letter y
the segment on the bottom  the set {𝑣, 𝑤}
the segment that goes from lower left to upper right  the set {𝑣, 𝑥}
the segment on the left side  the set {𝑣, 𝑦}
the segment on the right side  the set {𝑤, 𝑥}
the segment that goes from upper left to lower right  the set {𝑤, 𝑦}
the segment across the top  the set {𝑥, 𝑦}
relation in Bob’s model  relation in Carol’s model
the dot touches the segment  the letter is an element of the set
 page 15

What did I mean above by the phrase “...in a way that all corresponding relationships are
preserved...”? Notice that the following statement is true in Bob’s model.

The lower right dot touches the segment on the right side.

If we use the correspondence to translate the terms and relations from Bob’s model into terms
and relations from Carol’s model, that statement becomes the following statement.

The letter 𝑤 is an element of the set {𝑤, 𝑥}.

This statement is true in Carol’s model. In a similar way, any true statement about relationships
between dots and segments in Bob’s model will translate into a true statement about relationships
between letters and sets in Carol’s model.

The notion of two models being essentially the same, in the sense described above, is formalized
in the following definition.

Definition 3 isomorphic models of an axiom system

Two models of an axiom system are said to be isomorphic if it is possible to describe a
correspondence between the objects and relations of one model and the objects and
relations of the other model in a way that all corresponding relationships are preserved.

It should be noted that it will not always be the case that two models for a given axiom system
are isomorphic. We will return to this in the next section, when we discuss completeness.

But before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section.
The exercises are found in Section 1.4 on page 23.

1.2. Properties of Axiom Systems I: Consistency and

Independence
In this section, we will discuss three important properties that an axiom system may or may not
have. They are consistency, completeness, and independence.

1.2.1. Consistency
We will use the following definition of consistency.

Definition 4 consistent axiom system

An axiom system is said to be consistent if it is possible for all of the axioms to be true.
The axiom system is said to be inconsistent if it is not possible for all of the axioms to be
true.

We will be interested in determining if a given axiom system is consistent or inconsistent. It is

worthwhile to think now about how one would prove that an axiom system is consistent, or how
one would prove that an axiom system is inconsistent.
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 16

Suppose that one suspects that an axiom system is consistent and wants to prove that it is
consistent. One proves that an axiom system is consistent by producing a model for the axiom
system. For Axiom System #2, we have two models—Bob’s and Carol’s—so the axiom system
is definitely consistent.

Suppose that one suspects that an axiom system is inconsistent and wants to prove that it is
inconsistent. One would be trying to prove that something is not possible. It is not obvious how
that would be done. The key is found in the Rule of Inference called the Contradiction Rule.

Digression to Consider Different Versions of the Contradiction Rule

We will consider the different versions of the Contradiction Rule. We will number the versions,
so that we can more easily refer to them later. The Contradiction Rule is presented in lists of
Rules of Inference in the following basic form:

~𝑝 → 𝑐
Contradiction Rule Version 1 (Basic Form)
∴𝑝

In this rule, the symbol c stands for a contradiction—a statement that is always false. This rule is
used in the following way. To prove that statement p is true using the method of contradiction,
one starts by assuming that statement p was false. One then shows that it is possible to reach a
contradiction. Therefore, the statement p must be true.

Suppose we replace the statement 𝑝 with the statement ~𝑞. Then the contradiction rule becomes

~(~𝑞) → 𝑐
Contradiction Rule Version 2
∴ (~𝑞)

In other words,

𝑞→𝑐
Contradiction Rule Version 2
∴ ~𝑞

This version of the rule states that if one can demonstrate that statement 𝑞 leads to a
contradiction, then statement 𝑞 must be false.

There are other versions of this rule as well. Consider what happens if we use a statement 𝑞 of
the form 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡1 ∧ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡2 .

(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡1 ∧ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡2 ) → 𝑐
Contradiction Rule Version 3
∴ ~(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡1 ∧ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡2 )

If we apply DeMorgan’s law to the conclusion of this version of the rule, we obtain

(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡1 ∧ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡2 ) → 𝑐
Contradiction Rule Contradiction Rule Version 3
∴ ~𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡1 ∨ ~𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡2
 page 17

This version of the rule says if one can demonstrate that an assumption that 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡1 and
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡2 are both true leads to a contradiction, then at least one of the statements must be
false.

Finally, consider what happens if we use a whole list of statements.

(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡1 ∧ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡2 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑘 ) → 𝑐

Contradiction Rule Version 4
∴ ~𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡1 ∨ ~𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡2 ∨ ⋯ ∨ ~𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑘

This version of the rule states that if one can demonstrate that an assumption that a whole list of
statements is true leads to a contradiction, then at least one of the statements must be false.

End of Digression to Consider Different Versions of the Contradiction Rule

Now return to the notion of an inconsistent axiom system. Recall in an inconsistent axiom
system, it is impossible for all of the axioms to be true. In other words, at least one of the axioms
must be false. We see that the Contradiction Rule Version 4 could be used to prove that an axiom
system is inconsistent. That is, if one can demonstrate that an assumption that a whole list of
axioms is true leads to a contradiction, then at least one of the axioms must be false.

We can create an example of an inconsistent axiom system by messing up Axiom system #2. We
mess it up by appending a fourth axiom in a certain way.

Axiom System: Axiom System #3, an example of an inconsistent axiom system

Primitive Terms: ake, bem
Primitive Relations: relation from A the set of all akes to B the set of all bems, spoken “The ake
is related to the bem”.
Axioms: <1> There are four akes. These may be denoted ake1, ake2, ake3, ake4.
<2> For any two distinct akes, there is exactly one bem that both akes are
related to.
<3> For any bem, there are exactly two akes that are related to the bem.
<4> There is exactly one bem.

Using Axiom System #3, we can prove the following two theorems.

Theorem 1 for Axiom System #3: There are exactly 6 bems.

The proof is the exact same proof that was used to prove the identical theorem for
axiom system #2. The proof only uses the first three axioms.

But the statement of Theorem #1 contradicts Axiom <4>! We have demonstrated that an
assumption that the four axioms from Axiom System #3 are true leads to a contradiction.
Therefore, at least one of the axioms must be false. In other words, Axiom System #3 is
inconsistent.

Note that it is tempting to say that it must be axiom <4> that is false, because there was nothing
wrong with the first three axioms before we threw in the fourth one. But in fact, there is not
really anything wrong with the fourth axiom in particular. For example, if one discards axiom
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 18

<3>, then it turns out that the remaining list of axioms is perfectly consistent. Here is such an
axiom system, with the axioms re-numbered. (You are asked to prove that this axiom system is
consistent in Exercise [7] at the end of the chapter.)

Axiom System: Axiom System #4, an example of a consistent axiom system

Primitive Terms: ake, bem
Primitive Relations: relation from A the set of all akes to B the set of all bems, spoken “The ake
is related to the bem”.
Axioms: <1> There are four akes. These may be denoted ake1, ake2, ake3, ake4.
<2> For any two distinct akes, there is exactly one bem that both akes are
related to.
<3> There is exactly one bem.

So the problem with Axiom system #3 is not with any one particular axiom. Rather, the problem
is with the whole set of four axioms.

Before going on to read the next subsection, you should do the exercises for the current
subsection. The exercises are found in Section 1.4 on page 23.

1.2.2. Independence
An axiom system that is not consistent could be thought of as one in which the axioms don’t
agree; an axiom system that is consistent could be thought of as one in which there is no
disagreement. In this sort of informal language, we could say that the idea of independence of an
axiom system has to do with whether or not there is any redundancy in the list of axioms. The
following definitions will make this precise.

Definition 5 dependent and independent axioms

An axiom is said to be dependent if it is possible to prove that the axiom is true as a
consequence of the other axioms. An axiom is said to be independent if it is not possible
to prove that it is true as a consequence of the other axioms.

We will be interested in determining if a given axiom is dependent or independent. It is

worthwhile to think now about how one would prove that an axiom is dependent, or how one
would prove that an axiom is independent.

Suppose that one suspects that a given axiom is dependent and wants to prove that it is
dependent. To do that, one proves that the statement of the axiom must be true with a proof that
uses only the other axioms. That is, one stops assuming that the given axiom is a true statement
and downgrades it to just an ordinary statement that might be true or false. If it is possible to
prove the statement is true using a proof that uses only the other axioms, then the given axiom is
dependent.

For an example of a dependent axiom, consider the following list of axioms that was constructed
by appending an additional axiom to the list of axioms for Axiom System #2.

Axiom System: Axiom System #5, containing a dependent axiom

Primitive Terms: ake, bem
 page 19

Primitive Relations: relation from A the set of all akes to B the set of all bems, spoken “The ake
is related to the bem”.
Axioms: <1> There are four akes. These may be denoted ake1, ake2, ake3, ake4.
<2> For any two distinct akes, there is exactly one bem that both akes are
related to.
<3> For any bem, there are exactly two akes that are related to the bem.
<4> There are exactly six bems.

We recognize the first three axioms. They are the axioms from Axiom System #2. And we also
recognize the statement of axiom <4>. It is the same statement as Theorem #1 for Axiom System
#2. In other words, it can be proven that axiom <4> is true as a consequence of the first three
axioms. So Axiom <4> is not independent; it is dependent.

Now suppose that one suspects that a given axiom is independent and wants to prove that it is
independent. To do that, one stops assuming that the statement of the given axiom is true, and
downgrades it to just an ordinary statement that might be true or false. One must produce two
interpretations:
(1) One interpretation in which the statements of all of the other axioms are true and the
statement of the given axiom is true. (That is, the statements of all the axioms are true.)
(2) A second interpretation, in which the statements of all of the other axioms are true and the
statement of the given axiom is false.

For an example of an independent axiom, consider axiom <3> from Axiom System #2. (Refer to
Axiom System #2 in Section 1.1.6 on page 9.) Axiom <3> is an independent axiom. To prove
that it is independent, we stop assuming that the statement of axiom <3> is true, and downgrade
it to just an ordinary statement that might be true or false.

Now consider two interpretations for Axiom System #2

Bob’s interpretation of Axiom System #2.

 Let 𝐴′ be the set of dots in the picture at right.
 Let 𝐵′ be the set of segments in the picture at right.
 Let relation ℛ′ from 𝐴′ to 𝐵′ be defined by saying that the
words “the dot is related to the segment” mean “the dot
touches the segment”.
Dan’s interpretation of Axiom System #2.
 Let 𝐴′ be the set of dots in the picture at right.
 Let 𝐵′ be the set of segments in the picture at right.
 Let relation ℛ′ from 𝐴′ to 𝐵′ be defined by saying that the
words “the dot is related to the segment” mean “the dot
touches the segment”.

Consider the translation of the statement of axiom <3> into the language of the models:
 For any 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 there are exactly two dots that touch the segment.
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 20

We see that in Bob’s interpretation of Axiom System #2, the statement of axiom <3> is true,
while in Dan’s interpretation of Axiom System #2, the statement of axiom <3> is false. So based
on these two examples, we can say that in Axiom System #2, axiom <3> is independent.

The following definition is self-explanatory.

Definition 6 independent axiom system

An axiom system is said to be independent if all of its axioms are independent. An axiom
system is said to be not independent if one or more of its axioms are not independent.

To prove that an axiom system is independent, one must prove that each one of its axioms is
independent. That means that for each of the axioms, one must go through a process similar to
the one that we went through above for Axiom <3> from Axiom System #2. This can be a huge
task.

On the other hand, to prove that an axiom system is not independent, one need only prove that
one of its axioms is not independent.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current subsection.
The exercises are found in Section 1.4 on page 23.

1.3. Properties of Axiom Systems II: Completeness

1.3.1. Completeness
Recall that in Section 1.1.7, we found that Bob’s and Carol’s models of Axiom System #2 were
isomorphic models. It turns out that any two models for that axiom system are isomorphic. Such
a claim can be rather hard—or impossible—to prove, but it is a very important claim. It
essentially says that the axioms really “nail down” every aspect of the behavior of any model.
This is the idea of completeness.

Definition 7 complete axiom system

An axiom system is said to be complete if any two models of the axiom system are
isomorphic. An axiom system is said to be not complete if there exist two models that are
not isomorphic.

It is natural to wonder why the word complete is used to describe this property. One might think
of it this way. If an axiom system is complete, then it is like a complete set of specifications for a
corresponding model. All models for the axiom system are essentially the same: they are
isomorphic. If an axiom system is not complete, then one does not have a complete set of
specifications for a corresponding model. The specifications are insufficient, some details are not
nailed down. As a result, there can be models that differ from each other: models that are not
isomorphic.

For an example, consider the following new Axiom System #6.

Axiom System: Axiom System #6

Primitive Terms: ake, bem
 page 21

Primitive Relations: relation from A the set of all akes to B the set of all bems, spoken “The ake
is related to the bem”.
Axioms: <1> There are four akes. These may be denoted ake1, ake2, ake3, ake4.
<2> For any two distinct akes, there is exactly one bem that both akes are
related to.

You’ll recognize that Axiom System #6 is just Axiom System #2 without the third axiom.

Recall that in the previous Section 1.2.2, we discussed two interpretations of Axiom System #2:
Bob’s interpretation and Dan’s interpretation. In both of those interpretations, the statements of
axiom <1> and <2> were true. But we observed that in Bob’s interpretation, the statement of
axiom <3> was true, while in Dan’s interpretation, the statement of axiom <3> was false. This
demonstrated that axiom <3> of Axiom System #2 is an independent axiom. Notice that it also
demonstrated that Bob’s interpretation is a model of Axiom System #2, while Dan’s
interpretation is not a model of Axiom system #2.

Now consider Bob’s and Dan’s interpretations as being interpretations of Axiom System #6.
Observe that for both interpretations, the statements of axioms <1> and <2> are true. From this
we conclude that both Bob’s and Dan’s interpretations are models of Axiom System #6.

Now observe that these two models of Axiom System #6 are not isomorphic. (There are others as
well.) To see why, note that in Bob’s model, there are six segments, but in Dan’s model, there is
only one segment. To prove that two models are isomorphic, one must demonstrate a one-to-one
correspondence between the objects of one model and the objects of the other model. (And one
must demonstrate some other stuff, as well.) It would be impossible to come up with a one-to-
one correspondence between the objects of Bob’s model and the objects of Dan’s model, because
the two models do not have the same number of objects!

The discussion of Bob’s and Dan’s models for axiom system #6 can be generalized to the extent
that it is possible to formulate an alternate wording of the definition of a complete axiom system.
Remember that axiom system #6 has two axioms. Consider a feature that distinguished Bob’s
model from Dan’s model. One obvious feature is the number of segments. As observed above, in
Bob’s model, there are six segments, but in Dan’s model, there is only one segment. Now
consider the following statement:

Statement S: There are exactly six bems.

This Statement S is an additional independent statement for axiom system #6. By that, I mean
that it is not one of the axioms for Axiom System #6, and there is a model for axiom system #6
in which Statement S is true (Bob’s model) and there is a model for axiom system #6 in which
Statement S is false (Dan’s model). The fact that an additonal independent statement can be
written regarding the number of line segments indicates that axiom system #6 does not
sufficiently specify the number of line segments. That is, axiom system #6 is incomplete.

More generally, if it is possible to write an additional independent statement regarding the

primitive terms and relations in an axiom system, then the axiom system is not complete (and
vice-versa). Thus, an alternate way of wording the definition of a complete axiom system is as
follows:
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 22

Definition 8 Alternate definition of a complete axiom system

An axiom system is said to be not complete if it is possible to write an additonal
independent statement regarding the primitive terms and relations. (An additional
independent statement is a statement S that is not one of the axioms and such that there is a
model for the axiom system in which Statement S is true and there is also a model for the
axiom system in which Statement S is false.) An axiom system is said to be complete if it is
not possible to write such an additional independent statement.

We have discussed the fact that Statement S “there are exactly six bems” is an additional
independent statement for Axiom System #6, because the statement is not an axiom and it cannot
be proven true on the basis of the axioms. If we wanted to, we could construct a new axiom
system #7 by appending an axiom to Axiom System #6 in the following manner.

Axiom System: Axiom System #7 (Axiom System #6 with an added axiom)

Primitive Terms: ake, bem
Primitive Relations: relation from A the set of all akes to B the set of all bems, spoken “The ake
is related to the bem”.
Axioms: <1> There are four akes. These may be denoted ake1, ake2, ake3, ake4.
<2> For any two distinct akes, there is exactly one bem that both akes are
related to.
<3> There are exactly six bems.

Of course, Bob’s successful interpretation for Axiom System #6 would be a successful

interpretation for Axiom System #7, as well. That is, Bob’s interpretation is a model for Axiom
System #6 and also for Axiom System #7. But Dan’s successful interpretation for Axiom
System #6 would not be a successful interpretation for Axiom System #7. That is, Dan’s
interpretation is a model for Axiom System #6, but not for Axiom System #7.

Keep in mind, that we could have appended a different axiom to Axiom System #6.

Axiom System: Axiom System #8 (Axiom System #6 with a different axiom added)
Primitive Terms: ake, bem
Primitive Relations: relation from A the set of all akes to B the set of all bems, spoken “The ake
is related to the bem”.
Axioms: <1> There are four akes. These may be denoted ake1, ake2, ake3, ake4.
<2> For any two distinct akes, there is exactly one bem that both akes are
related to.
<3> There is exactly one bem.
We see that Dan’s interpretation is a model for Axiom Systems #6 and #8. On the other hand,
Bob’s interpretation is a model for Axiom System #6 but not for Axiom System #8.

Before going on to read the next subsection, you should do the exercises for the current
subsection. The exercises are found in Section 1.4 on page 23.
 page 23

1.3.2. Don’t Use Models to Prove Theorems

Recall Axiom System #6, presented in the previous Section 1.3.1 on page 20. Now consider the
following “theorem” and “proof”.

Theorem: In Axiom System #6, there are exactly six bems.

Proof:
(1) Here is a model of Axiom System #6. We see that there are
exactly six lines.
End of Proof

The proof seems reasonable enough, doesn’t it? But wait a minute. That picture above is just one
model of Axiom System #6. It is Bob’s model. Remember that we also studied Dan’s Model of
Axiom System #6: In Dan’s model, there is only one line. So the
statement of the theorem is not even a true statement for Axiom System #6.

There are two lessons to be learned here:

(1) Don’t use a model of an axiom system to prove a statement about an axiom system. It is
possible that the statement is true in the particular model that you have in mind, but is not
true in general for the axiom system.
(2) Even if you know that a statement about an axiom system is in fact a valid theorem, you
still cannot use a particular model to prove the statement. You have to use the axioms.

1.4. Exercises for Chapter 1

Exercises for Section 1.1 Introduction to Axiom Systems

The first two exercises are about Axiom System #1. That axiom system was introduced in
Section 1.1.5 and has an undefined relation.

[1] Which of the following interpretations of Axiom System #1 is successful? That is, which of
these interpretations is a model of Axiom System #1? Explain.
(a) Interpret the words “𝑥 is related to 𝑦” to mean “𝑥𝑦 > 0”.
(b) Interpret the words “𝑥 is related to 𝑦” to mean “𝑥𝑦 ≠ 0”.
(c) Interpret the words “𝑥 is related to 𝑦” to mean “𝑥 and 𝑦 are both even or are both
odd”.
Hint: One of the three is unsuccessful. The other two are successful. That is, they are models.

[2] Consider the two models of Axiom System #1 that you found in exercise [1]. For each model,
determine whether the statement “1 is related to -1” is true or false.

[3] (This exercise is about Axiom System #2. That axiom system was introduced in Section 1.1.6
and has undefined terms and an undefined relation.)
Prove Theorem #2 for Axiom System #2.
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 24

Theorem #2 for Axiom System #2: For every ake, there are exactly three bems that the
ake is related to.

Hint: In Part 1 of your proof, show that there must be at least three bems. In Part 2 of your proof,
show that there cannot be more than three bems. Also be sure to review the Digression to
Discuss Proof Structure at the end of Section 1.1.6. It specifically mentions the structure that
you will need for your proof.

Exercises for Section 1.2.1 Consistency

Exercises [4], [5] and [6] are about Axiom System #1. That axiom system was introduced in
Section 1.1.5 and has an undefined relation.)

[4] Is Axiom System #1 consistent? (Hint: Consider your answer to exercise [1].)

[5] Make up an example of a consistent axiom system that includes the axioms of Axiom System
#1 plus one more axiom.

[6] Make up an example of an inconsistent axiom system that includes the axioms of Axiom
System #1 plus one more axiom.

[7] (This exercise is about Axiom System #4. That axiom system was introduced in Section
1.2.1) Prove that Axiom System #4 is consistent by demonstrating a model. (Hint: Produce a
successful interpretation involving a picture of dots and segments.)

Exercises for Section 1.2.2 Independence

Exercises [8] - [11] explore Axiom System #2, which was introduced in Section 1.1.6 on page 9.

[8] The goal is to prove that in Axiom System #2, Axiom <1> is independent. To do this, you
must do two things:
(1) Produce an interpretation for Axiom System #2 in which the statements of Axioms <2>
and <3> are true and the statement of Axiom <1> is true. (That is, the statements of all
three axioms are true.)
(2) Produce an interpretation for Axiom System #2 in which the statements of Axioms <2>
and <3> are true and the statement of Axiom <1> is false.

[9] The goal is to prove that in Axiom System #2, Axiom <2> is independent. To do this, you
must do two things:
(1) Produce an interpretation for Axiom System #2 in which the statements of all three
axioms are true. (Hey, you already did this in question [8]!)
(2) Produce an interpretation for Axiom System #2 in which the statements of Axioms <1>
and <3> are true and the statement of Axiom <2> is false.

[10] The goal is to prove that in Axiom System #2, Axiom <3> is independent. To do this, you
must do two things:
(1) Produce an interpretation for Axiom System #2 in which the statements of all three
axioms are true. (Hey, you already did this in question [8]!)
 page 25

(2) Produce an interpretation for Axiom System #2 in which the statements of Axioms <1>
and <2> are true and the statement of Axiom <3> is false.

[11] Is axiom system #2 independent? Explain.

Exercises for Section 1.3.1 Completeness

Exercises [12], [13], [14] are about Axiom System #1. That axiom system was introduced in
Section 1.1.5 and has an undefined relation.

[12] For Axiom System #1, is the statement “1 is related to -1” an independent statement?
Explain. (Hint: Consider your answer to exercise [2].)

[13] Based on your answer to exercise [12], is Axiom System #1 complete? Explain.

[14] Make up an example of a statement involving the terms and relations of Axiom System #1
such that the statement is not independent.

Review Exercise for Chapter 1

The Review Exercises for Chapter 1 explore the following new Axiom System #9.

Axiom System: Axiom System #9

Primitive Terms: ake, bem
Primitive Relations: relation from A the set of all akes to B the set of all bems, spoken “The ake
is related to the bem”.
Axioms: <1> There are four akes. These may be denoted ake1, ake2, ake3, ake4.
<2> For any two distinct akes, there is exactly one bem that both akes are
related to.
<3> For any bem, there are at least two akes that are related to the bem.
<4> For any bem, there is at least one ake that is not related to the bem.

[15] Produce a model for Axiom System #9 that that uses dots and segments to correspond to
akes and bems, and that uses the words “the dot touches the segment” to correspond to the words
“the ake is related to the bem”. That is, draw a picture that works. (Hint: See if one of the
models for Axiom System #2 will work.)

[16] Is Axiom System #9 consistent? Explain.

[17] Again using dots and segments to correspond to akes and bems, and again using the words
“the dot touches the segment” to correspond to the words “the ake is related to the bem”,
produce a model for Axiom System #9 that is not isomorphic to the model that you produced in
exercise [15]. Hint: start by drawing one line segment that has 3 dots touching it. Then add to
your drawing whatever dots and segments are necessary to make the drawing satisfy the axioms.

[18] Consider the two models of Axiom System #9 that you found in exercises [15] and [17], and
consider the statement S: “There exist exactly six bems.” Statement S is a statement about the
undefined terms of Axiom System #9.
Chapter 1 Axiom Systems page 26

(a) Is Statement S true or false for the model that you found in exercise [15]?
(b) Is Statement S true or false for the model that you found in exercise [17]?
(c) Is Statement S an independent statement for Axiom System #9? (Hint: Consider your
answers to parts (a) and (b).)
(d) Is Axiom System #9 complete? Explain. (Hint: Consider your answer to part (c).)

[19] The goal is to prove that in Axiom System #9, Axiom <1> is independent. In question [15],
you produced an interpretation involving dots and segments in which the statements of all four
axioms are true. (That is, you produced an interpretation that is a model.) Therefore, all you need
to do is produce an interpretation for which the statements of Axioms <2>, <3>, and <4> are true
and but the statement of Axiom <1> is false. Use dots and segments.

[20] The goal is to prove that in Axiom System #9, Axiom <2> is independent. In question [15],
you produced an interpretation involving dots and segments in which the statements of all four
axioms are true. (That is, you produced an interpretation that is a model.) Therefore, all you need
to do is produce an interpretation for which the statements of Axioms <1>, <3>, and <4> are true
and but the statement of Axiom <2> is false. Use dots and segments.

[21] The goal is to prove that in Axiom System #9, Axiom <3> is independent. In question [15],
you produced an interpretation involving dots and segments in which the statements of all four
axioms are true. (That is, you produced an interpretation that is a model.) Therefore, all you need
to do is produce an interpretation for which the statements of Axioms <1>, <2>, and <4> are true
and but the statement of Axiom <3> is false. Use dots and segments.

[22] The goal is to prove that in Axiom System #9, Axiom <4> is independent. In question [15],
you produced an interpretation involving dots and segments in which the statements of all four
axioms are true. (That is, you produced an interpretation that is a model.) Therefore, all you need
to do is produce an interpretation for which the statements of Axioms <1>, <2>, and <3> are true
and but the statement of Axiom <4> is false. Use dots and segments.

[23] Is axiom system #9 independent? Explain.

 page 27

2.Axiomatic Geometries
2.1. Introduction and Basic Examples
For the remainder of the course, we will be studying axiomatic geometry. Before starting that
study, we should be sure and understand the difference between analytic geometry and axiomatic
geometry.

2.1.1. What is an analytic geometry?

Very roughly speaking, an analytic geometry consists of two things:
 a set of points that is represented in some way by real numbers
 a means of measuring the distance between two points
For example, in plane Euclidean analytic geometry, a point is represented by a pair (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 .
That is, a point is an ordered pair of real numbers. The distance between points 𝑃 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and
𝑄 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is obtained by the fomula 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 . In three
dimensional Euclidean analytic geometry, one adds a 𝑧 coordinate.

In analytic geometry, objects are described as sets of points that satisfy certain equations. A line
is the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦) that satisfy an equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐; a circle is the set
of all points that satisfy an equation of the form (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2, etc. Every aspect of
the behavior of analytic geometric objects is completely dictated by rules about solutions of
equations. For example, any two lines either don’t intersect, or they intersect exactly once, or
they are the same line; there are no other possibilities. That this is true is simply a fact about
simultaneous solutions of a pair of linear equations in two variables:
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐
{
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑓
You will see that in axiomatic geometry, objects are defined in a very different way, and their
behavior is governed in a very different manner.

2.1.2. What is an axiomatic geometry?

Very roughly speaking, an axiomatic geometry is an axiom system with the following primitive
(undefined) things.

Primitive Objects: point, line

Primitive Relation: relation from the set of all points to the set of all lines, spoken the point
lies on the line

Remark: It is not a very confident definition that begins with the words “…roughly speaking…”.
But in fact, one will not find general agreement about what constitutes an axiomatic geometry.
My description above will work for our purposes.

You’ll notice, of course, that the axiom system above is essentially the same sort of axiom
system that we discussed in Chapter 1. The only difference is that we stick to the particular
convention of using undefined objects called point and line, and an undefined relation spoken the
point is on the line. It is natural to wonder why we bothered with the meaningless terms ake and
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 28

bem, when we could have used the more helpful terms point and line. The reason for starting
with the meaningless terms was to stress the idea that the primitive terms are always
meaningless; they are not supposed to be helpful. When studying axiomatic geometry, it will be
very important to keep in mind that even though you may think that you know what a point and a
line are, you really don’t. The words are as meaningless as ake and bem. On the other hand,
when studying a model of an axiomatic geometry, we will know the meaning of the objects and
relations, but we will be careful to always give those objects and relations names other than point
and line. For instance, we used the names dot and segment in our models that involved drawings.
The word dot refers to an actual drawn spot on the page or chalkboard; it will be our
interpretation of the word point, which is an undefined term.

Because the objects and relations in axiomatic geometry are undefined things, their behavior will
be undefined as well, unless we somehow dictate that behavior. That is the role of the axioms.
Every aspect of the behavior of axiomatic geometric objects must be dictated by the axioms. For
example, if we want lines to have the property that two lines either don’t intersect, or they
intersect exactly once, or they are the same line, then that will have to be specified in the axioms.
We will return to the notion of what makes axiomatic points and lines behave the way we
“normally” expect points and lines to behave in Section 2.3, when we study incidence geometry..

2.1.3. A Finite Geometry with Four Points

A finite axiomatic geometry is one that has a finite number of points. Our first example has four
points.

Axiom System: Four-Point Geometry

Primitive Objects: point, line
Primitive Relations: relation from the set of all points to the set of all lines, spoken “The point
lies on the line”.
Axioms: <1> There are four points. These may be denoted P1, P2, P3, P4.
<2> For any two distinct points, there is exactly one line that both points
lie on.
<3> For any line, there exist exactly two points that lie on the line.

Notice that the Four-Point Geometry is the same as Axiom System #2, presented in Section
1.1.6. The differences are minor, just choices of names. In Axiom System #2, the primitive
terms are ake and bem; in the Four-Point Geometry, the primitive terms are point and line. In
Axiom System #2, the primitive relation is spoken “the ake is related to the bem”; In the Four-
Point Geometry, the primitive relation is spoken “the point lies on the line”. Following are two
theorems of Four-Point Geometry.

Four-Point Geometry Theorem #1: There are exactly six lines.

You will prove this Theorem in the exercises.

Four-Point Geometry Theorem #2: For every point, there are exactly three lines that the
point lies on.
You will prove this Theorem in the exercises.
 page 29

2.1.4. Terminology: Defined Relations

In Chapter 1, you learned that axiom systems can include primitive—that is, undefined—objects
and relations. Typically, there will also be objects and relations that are defined in terms of the
primitive objects and relations. Here are five new definitions of relations and properties. Each is
defined in terms of the primitive objects, primitive relations, and previous definitions.

Definition 9 passes through

 words: Line L passes through point P.
 meaning: Point P lies on line L.

The definition above is introduced simply so that sentences about points and lines don’t have to
always sound the same. For example, we now have two different ways to express Four-Point
Geometry Axiom <2>:

 Original wording: For any two distinct points, there is exactly one line that both points lie
on.
 Alternate wording: For any two distinct points, there is exactly one line that passes
through both.

The next two definitions are self-explanatory.

Definition 10 intersecting lines

 words: Line L intersects line M.
 meaning: There exists a point (at least one point) that lies on both lines.

Definition 11 parallel lines

 words: Line L is parallel to line M.
 symbol: L||M.
 meaning: Line L does not intersect line M. That is, there is no point that lies on both lines.

It is important to notice what the definition of parallel lines does not say. It does not say that
parallel lines are lines that have the same slope. That’s good, because we don’t have a notion of
slope for line in axiomatic geometry, at least not yet. (It would be in analytic geometry, not
axiomatic geometry, that one might define parallel lines to be lines that have the same slope.)

It’s also worth noting that we have essentially introduced three new relations. The words “Line L
passes through point P” indicate a relation from the set of all lines to the set of all points. The
words “Line L intersects line M” indicate a relation on the set of all lines. Similarly, the words
“Line L is parallel to line M” indicate another relation on the set of all lines. These relations are
not primitive relations, because they have an actual meaning. Those meanings are given by the
above definitions, and those definitions refer to primitive terms and relations and to previously
defined words. This kind of relation is a defined relation.

Here are two additional definitions, also straightforward.

Definition 12 collinear points

 words: The set of points {P1, P2, … , Pk} is collinear.
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 30

 meaning: There exists a line L that passes through all the points.

Definition 13 concurrent lines

 words: The set of lines {L1, L2, … , Lk} is concurrent.
 meaning: There exists a point P that lies on all the lines.

It’s worth noting that these two definitions are not relations as we have been discussing relations
so far. Rather, they are simply statements that may or may not be true for a particular set of
points or a particular set of lines. That is, they are properties that a set of points or a set of lines
may or may not have.

It is customary to not list the definitions when presenting the axiom system. This is
understandable, because often there are many definitions, and to list them all would be very
cumbersome. But it is unfortunate that the definitions are not listed, because it makes them seem
less important than the other components of an axiom system, and because the reader often does
not remember the definitions and must go looking for them.

2.1.5. Recurring Questions about Parallels

In our study of axiomatic geometry, we will often be interested in the following two questions:

(1) Do parallel lines exist?

(2) Given a line L and a point P that does not lie on L, how many lines exist that pass through
P and are parallel to L?

The questions are first raised in the current chapter, in discussions of finite geometries. But they
will come up throughout the course.

But before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section.
The exercises are found in Section 2.5 on page 50.

2.2. Fano’s Geometry and Young’s Geometry

2.2.1. Fano’s Axiom Sytem and Six Theorems
Let’s return to finite geometries. A more complicated finite geometry is the following.

Axiom System: Fano’s Geometry

Primitive Objects: point, line
Primitive Relations: The point lies on the line.
Axioms: <F1> There exists at least one line.
<F2> For every line, there exist exactly three points that lie on the line.
<F3> For every line, there exists a point that does not lie on the line. (at
least one point)
<F4> For any two points, there is exactly one line that both points lie on.
<F5> For any two lines, there exists a point that lies on both lines. (at least
one point)

We will study the following six theorems of Fano’s Geometry:

 page 31

Fano’s Geometry Theorem #1: There exists at least one point.

Fano’s Geometry Theorem #2: For any two lines, there is exactly one point that lies on
both lines.
Fano’s Geometry Theorem #3: There exist exactly seven points.
Fano’s Geometry Theorem #4: Every point lies on exactly three lines.
Fano’s Geometry Theorem #5: There does not exist a point that lies on all the lines.
Fano’s Geometry Theorem #6: There exist exactly seven lines.

The proofs of the first two theorems of Fano’s Geometry are very basic, and are assigned to you
in the exercises at the end of this chapter.

In the upcoming subsections 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 and 2.2.4, we will study proofs of Fano’s Geometry
Theorems #3, #4, and #5. But the proof of Fano’s Theorem #6 will wait until a later subsection
2.4.2 (Fano’s Sixth Theorem and Self-Duality, which start on page 47).

2.2.2. Proof of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #3

The third theorem of Fano’s Geometry is easy to state but somewhat tricky to prove.

Fano’s Geometry Theorem #3: There exist exactly seven points.

Remark about Proof Structure: Notice that Fano’s Theorem #3 is an existential statement: It
states that something exists. Now consider the five axioms of Fano’s Geometry. Notice that
axioms <F2>, <F3>, <F4>, and <F5> say something about objects existing, but only in situations
where some other prerequisite objects are already known to exist. Those axioms are of no use to
us until after we have proven that those other prerequisite objects do exist. Only axiom <F1>
says simply that something exists, with no prerequisites. So the proof of Fano’s Theorem #3
must start by using axiom <F1>.

Here is a proof of Fano’s Theorem #3, with no justifications. In a class drill, you will be asked to
provide justifications.

Proof of Fano’s Theorem #3

Part 1: Show that there must be at least seven points.

Introduce Line L1 and points A, B, C, D.
(1) There exists a line. (Justify.) We can call it L1. (Make a drawing.)
(2) There are exactly three points on L1. (Justify.) We can call them A, B, C. (Make a new
drawing.)
(3) There must be a point that does not lie on L1. (Justify.) We can call it D. (Make a new
drawing.)
Introduce Line L2 and point E.
(4) There must be a line that both A and D lie on. (Justify.)
(5) The line that both A and D lie on cannot be L1. (Justify.) So it must be a new line. We can
call it L2. (Make a new drawing.)
(6) There must be a third point that lies on L2. (Justify.)
(7) The third point on L2 cannot be B or C. (Justify.) So it must be a new point. We can call
it E. (Make a new drawing.)
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 32

Introduce Line L3 and point F.

(8) There must be a line that both B and D lie on. (Justify.)
(9) The line that both B and D lie on cannot be L1 or L2. (Justify.) So it must be a new line.
We can call it L3. (Make a new drawing.)
(10) There must be a third point that lies on L3. (Justify.)
(11) The third point on L3 cannot be A, C, or E. (Justify.) So it must be a new point. We can
call it F. (Make a new drawing.)
Introduce Line L4 and point G.
(12) There must be a line that both C and D lie on. (Justify.)
(13) The line that both C and D lie on cannot be L1 or L2 or L3. (Justify.) So it must be a new
line. We can call it L4. (Make a new drawing.)
(14) There must be a third point that lies on L4. (Justify.)
(15) The third point on L4 cannot be A, B, E, or F. (Justify.) So it must be a new point. We
can call it G. (Make a new drawing.)

Part 2: Show that there cannot be an eighth point. (Indirect Proof using the Method of
Contradiction)
(16) Suppose there is an eighth point. (Justify.) Call it H.
(17) There must be a line that both A and H lie on. (Justify.)
(18) The line that both A and H lie on cannot be L1 or L2 or L3 or L4. (Justify.) So it must be a
new line. We can call it L5.
(19) There must be a third point that lies on L5. (Justify.)
(20) Line L5 must intersect each of the lines L1 and L2 and L3 and L4. (Justify.)
(21) The third point on L5 must be D. (Justify. Be sure to explain clearly)
(22) So points A, D, H lie on L5.
(23) We have reached a contradiction. (explain the contradiction) Therefore, our
assumption in step (16) was wrong. There cannot be an eighth point.
End of proof

2.2.3. Proof of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #4

The fourth theorem of Fano’s geometry is easy to state:

Fano’s Geometry Theorem #4: Every point lies on exactly three lines.

The proof is somewhat easier than the proof of the third theorem. The proof is given below
without justifications. In the exercises, you will be asked to provide justifications.

Remark About Proof Structure: Note that Fano’s Theorem #4 starts with the words “Every
point ...”. So the theorem is a universal statement. It is important to keep in mind that the
universal statement of Theorem #4 does not claim that any points exist. It only makes a claim
about a point that is already known to exist: a point that is given, in other words. So a proof of
Theorem #4 must start with a sentence introducing a generic, given point. The start of the proof
would look something like this:

Start of proof of Fano’s Theorem #4

(1) Suppose that a point is given.
(2)
 page 33

Let me reiterate that one does not begin the proof of Fano’s Theorem #4 by proving that a point
exists, because the statement of Theorem #4 does not claim that any points exist. Theorem #4
only makes a claim about a given point, and so the proof of Theorem #4 must start with the
introduction of a given point.

(And remember that more generally, in the proof of a universal statement, one starts the proof by
stating that a generic object is given. A generic object is an object or objects that have only the
properties mentioned right after the words “for all” in the theorem statement. The given objects
are known to have those properties, but are not known to have any other properties. The object of
the proof is to prove that the given objects do in fact have some other properties as well.)

Here, then, is the proof of Fano’s Theorem #4.

Proof of Fano’s Theorem #4

(1) Suppose that P is a point in Fano’s geometry.
Part 1: Show that there must be at least three lines that the given point lies on
Introduce Line L1.
(2) There exist exactly seven points in Fano’s geometry. (Justify.) So we can call the given
point P1. There are six remaining points.
(3) Choose one of the six remaining points. Call it P2. There are five remaining points.
(4) There must be a line that both P1 and P2 lie on. (Justify.) We can call it L1.
(5) There must be a third point on L1. (Justify.) Call the third point P3. So points P1, P2, P3
lie on line L1. There are four remaining points.
Introduce Line L2.
(6) Pick one of the four remaining points. Call it P4. There are now three remaining points.
(7) There must be a line that both P1 and P4 lie on. (Justify.)
(8) The line that both P1 and P4 lie on cannot be L1. (Justify.) So it must be a new line. Call it
L2.
(9) There must be a third point that lies on L2. (Justify.)
(10) The third point on L2 cannot be P2 or P3. (Justify.) So it must be one of the three
remaining points. Call the third point P5. So points P1, P4, P5 lie on line L2. There are
two remaining points.
Introduce Line L3.
(11) Pick one of the two remaining points. Call it P6. There is now one remaining point.
(12) There must be a line that both P1 and P6 lie on. (Justify.)
(13) The line that both P1 and P6 lie on cannot be L1 or L2. (Justify.) So it must be a new line.
Call it L3.
(14) There must be a third point that lies on L3. (Justify.)
(15) The third point on L3 cannot be P2 or P3 or P4 or P5. (Justify.) So it must be the last
remaining point. Call the third point P7. So points P1, P6, P7 lie on line L3.
Part 2: Show that there cannot be an a fourth line that the given point lies on.
(16) Suppose there is a fourth line that the given point P1 lies on. (Justify.) Call it L4.
(17) There must be another point on line L4. (Justify.) Call it Q.
(18) Point Q must be either P2 or P3 or P4 or P5 or P6 or P7. (Justify.)
(19) Points P1 and Q both lie on L4, and they also both lie on one of the lines L1 or L2 or L3.
(20) We have reached a contradiction. (explain the contradiction) Therefore, our
assumption in step (16) was wrong. There cannot be a fourth line.
End of proof
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 34

2.2.4. Proof of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #5

Here is the fifth theorem for Fano’s Geometry, and a proof with justifications included.

Fano’s Geometry Theorem #5: There does not exist a point that lies on all the lines.

Proof of Fano’s Theorem #5 (Indirect Proof using the Method of Contradiction)

(1) Suppose that there does exist a point that lies on all of the lines of the geometry. Call it
P1. (assumption)
(2) There exist exactly six other points. (by Theorem #3)
(3) The given point P1 lies on exactly three lines (by Theorem #4)
(4) Using the notation from the above proof of Theorem #4, we can label the six other points
and the three lines as follows:
Points P1, P2, P3 lie on line L1.
Points P1, P4, P5 lie on line L2.
Points P1, P6, P7 lie on line L3.
These are the only lines in the geometry (by step (3) and by our assumption in step (1))
(5) Point P2 lies on only one line. (by step (4))
(6) Statement (5) contradicts Theorem #4. So our assumption in step (1) was wrong. It cannot
be true that there exists a point that lies on all of the lines of the geometry.
End of proof

2.2.5. Models for Fano’s Geometry

Here are two successful interpretations of Fano’s Geometry. That is, here are two models.

Letters and Sets Model of Fano’s Geometry

 Interpret points to be the the letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹, 𝐺.
 Interpret lines as sets {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶}, {𝐴, 𝐷, 𝐸}, {𝐴, 𝐹, 𝐺}, {𝐵, 𝐷, 𝐹}, {𝐵, 𝐸, 𝐺}, {𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐺}, {𝐶, 𝐸, 𝐹}.
 Interpret the words “the point lies on the line” to mean “the letter is an element of the set”.
Dots and Segments Model of Fano’s Geometry.
 Interpret points to be dots in the picture at right.
 Interpret lines to be segments in the picture at right. (The
dotted segment is curved.)
 Interpret the words “the point lies on the line” to mean “the
dot touches the segment”.
.

2.2.6. Young’s Geometry

By changing just the fifth axiom in Fano’s Geometry, we obtain Young’s Geometry

Axiom System: Young’s Geometry

Primitive Objects: point, line
Primitive Relations: relation from the set of all points to the set of all lines, spoken the point
lies on the line
Axioms: <Y1> There exists at least one line.
<Y2> For every line, there exist exactly three points that lie on the line.
 page 35

<Y3> For every line, there exists a point that does not lie on the line. (at
least one point)
<Y4> For any two points, there is exactly one line that both points lie on.
<Y5> For each line L, and for each point P that does not lie on L, there
exists exactly one line M that passes through P and is parallel to L.
We will not study any theorems of Young’s Geometry, but I want you to be aware that it exists
and to see a model for it. And even though we won’t study any theorems about it, Young’s
Geometry can help our understanding of Fano’s Geometry. Here is a model.

Letters and Sets Model of Young’s Geometry

 Interpret points to be the the letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹, 𝐺, 𝐻, 𝐼.
 Interpret lines to be the sets {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶}, {𝐴, 𝐷, 𝐺}, {𝐴, 𝐸, 𝐻}, {𝐴, 𝐹, 𝐼}, {𝐵, 𝐷, 𝐻}, {𝐵, 𝐸, 𝐼},
{𝐵, 𝐹, 𝐺}, {𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐼}, {𝐶, 𝐸, 𝐺}, {𝐶, 𝐹, 𝐻}, {𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹}, {𝐺, 𝐻, 𝐼},.
Interpret words “the point lies on the line” to mean “the letter is an element of the set”.

But before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section.
The exercises are found in Section 2.5 on page 50.

2.3. Incidence Geometry

2.3.1. Incidence Relations and Axioms of Incidence
You will notice that in each of the finite geometries that we have encountered so far, the axioms
can be classified into two types.
One type of axiom is just about the primitive objects. Here are two examples.
 Four-Point Geometry Axiom <1>: There exist exactly four points.
 Fano’s Axiom <F1>: There exists at least one line.
A second type of axiom is about the behavior of the primitive relation. Here are two examples.
 Four-Point Geometry Axiom <2>. For any two distinct points, there is exactly one line
that both points lie on.
 Fano’s Axiom <F3>: For every line, there exists a point that does not lie on the line. (at
least one point)
In some older books on axiomatic geometry, the primitive relation was written “the line is
incident upon the point”. Such a primitive relation could be referred to as the incidence relation.
Axioms such as the two above that described the behavior of the incidence relation were called
axioms of incidence. Even though most books no longer use the words “…is incident upon…”
for the primitive relation, it is still fairly common for any axioms that describe the behavior of
the primitive relation to be referred to as axioms of incidence. This can be confusing.

2.3.2. The Axiom System for Incidence Geometry

To add to the confusion, the following axiom system is usually called Incidence Geometry.

Axiom System: Incidence Geometry

Primitive Objects: point, line
Primitive Relations: relation from the set of all points to the set of all lines, spoken the point
lies on the line
Axioms: <I1> There exist two distinct points. (at least two)
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 36

<I2> For every pair of distinct points, there exists exactly one line that
both points lie on.
<I3> For every line, there exists a point that does not lie on the line. (at
least one)
<I4> For every line, there exist two points that do lie on the line. (at least
two)

We will study the following five theorems of Incidence Geometry:

Incidence Geometry Theorem #1: In Incidence Geometry, if L and M are distinct lines that
intersect, then they intersect in only one point.
Incidence Geometry Theorem #2: In Incidence Geometry, there exist three points that are
not collinear.
Incidence Geometry Theorem #3: In Incidence Geometry, there exist three lines that are not
concurrent
Incidence Geometry Theorem #4: In Incidence Geometry, for every point P, there exists a
line L that does not pass through P.
Incidence Geometry Theorem #5: In Incidence Geometry, for every point P, there exist at
least two lines that pass through P.

Notice that the axioms for Incidence Geometry are less specific than any axiom system that we
have seen so far. The precise number of points is not even specified. Even so, notice that axioms
<I2>, <I3>, and <I4> do guarantee that the primitive points and lines in Incidence Geometry will
have some of the “normal” behavior that we associate with points and lines in analytic geometry,
or in drawings that we have made since grade school.

For instance, we are used to the fact that two lines can either be parallel, or intersect once, or be
the same line. That is, distinct lines that are not parallel can only intersect once. It was mentioned
in Section 2.1.1 that in analytic geometry, lines behave this way as a consequence of behavior of
solutions of systems of linear equations. In Section 2.1.2, it was mentioned that in axiomatic
geometry, every aspect of the behavior of points and lines will need to be specified by the
axioms. The axioms of Incidence Geometry do in fact guarantee that lines have the particular
behavior we are discussing. Notice that Incidence Geometry Theorem #1 articulates this fact.

2.3.3. Proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #1

Observe that Theorem #1 is a conditional statement.

Incidence Geometry Theorem #1: In Incidence Geometry, if L and M are distinct lines that
intersect, then they intersect in only one point.

The most common structure for the proof of a conditional statement is a sort of frame, with the
entire hypothesis of the theorem written in statement (1) of the proof, as a given statement, and
with the entire conclusion of the theorem written in the final statement of the proof, with some
justification. For Incidence Geometry Theorem #1, such a frame would look like this:

Proof
(1) In Incidence Geometry, suppose that 𝐿 and 𝑀 are distinct lines that intersect. (given)
 page 37

*
* (some steps here)
*
(*) Conclude that lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 only intersect in one point. (some justification)
End of Proof

The steps in the middle must somehow bridge the gap between the first, given, statement and the
final statement.

Here is a proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #1 with all of the steps shown but without
justificiations. (Notice the frame, the proof structure.) You will be asked to provide the
justifications and identify the contradicton in an exercise.

Proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem 1.

(1) In Incidence Geometry, suppose that 𝐿 and 𝑀 are distinct lines that intersect. (Justify.)
(2) Since lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 intersect, there must be at least one point that both lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 pass
through (by definition of intersect). We can call one such point 𝑃.
(3) Assume that there is more than one point that that both lines pass through. (Justify.) Then
there is a second point, that we can call 𝑄.
(4) Observe that there are two lines that pass through points 𝑃 and 𝑄.
(5) We have reached a contradiction. (Identify the contradiction.) So our assumption in (3)
was wrong. There cannot be more than one point that that both lines pass through.
(6) Conclude that lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 only intersect in one point. (by (1), (2), and (5))
End of Proof

2.3.4. Proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #2

Observe that Theorem #2 is an existential statement.

Incidence Geometry Theorem #2: In Incidence Geometry, there exist three points that are
not collinear.

Now consider the four axioms of Incidence Geometry. Notice that axioms <I2>, <I3>, and <I4>
say something about objects existing, but only in situations where some other prerequisite
objects are already known to exist. Those axioms cannot be used until it has been proven that
those other prerequisite objects do exist. Also notice that Incidence Geometry Theorem #1 does
not give us the existence of any objects. (Thereom #1 only tells us something about the situation
where we already know that two distinct, intersecting lines exist.) Only axiom <I1> says simply
that something exists, with no prerequisites. So the proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #2
must start by using axiom <I1>.

Here is a proof of the theorem with all of the steps shown but without justificiations. You will be
asked to provide the justifications in an exercise.

Proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #2.

(1) In Incidence Geometry, two distinct points exist. (Justify.) Call them 𝑃 and 𝑄.
(2) A line exists that passes through 𝑃 and 𝑄. (Justify.) Call the line 𝐿.
(3) There exists a point that does not lie on 𝐿. (Justify.) Call the point 𝑅.
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 38

(4) We already know (by statement (3)) line 𝐿 does not pass through all three points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅.
But suppose that some other line 𝑀 does pass through all three points. (assumption)
(5) Observe that points 𝑃 and 𝑄 both lie on line 𝐿 and also both lie on line 𝑀.
(6) Statement (5) contradicts something. (Explain the contradiction.) Conclude that our
assumption in step (4) was wrong. That is, there cannot be a line 𝑀 that passes through
all three points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅. Conclude that the points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are non-collinear.
End of Proof

2.3.5. Proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #3

Observe that Theorem #3 is an existential statement.

Incidence Geometry Theorem #3: In Incidence Geometry, there exist three lines that are not
concurrent.

Keep in mind that to prove this theorem, we can use any of the four Incidence Geometry axioms
and also the first two Incidence Geometry Theorems. Of those six statements, only axiom <I1>
and Theorem #2 say that some objects exist, with no prerequisites. So our proof of Theorem #3
must start by using either axiom <I1> or Theorem #2.

Here is a proof of the theorem with all of the steps shown but without justificiations. You will be
asked to provide the justifications in an exercise.

Proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #3

Part I: Introduce three lines 𝑳, 𝑴, 𝑵.
(1) There exist three non-collinear points. (Justify.) Call them 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶.
(2) There exists a unique line that passes through points 𝐴 and 𝐵. (Justify.) Call it 𝐿.
(3) Line 𝐿 does not pass through point 𝐶. (Justify.)
(4) Similarly, there exists a line 𝑀 that passes through 𝐵 and 𝐶 and does not pass through 𝐴,
and a line 𝑁 that passes through 𝐶 and 𝐴 and does not pass through 𝐵.
Part II: Show that lines 𝑳, 𝑴, 𝑵 are not concurrent.
(5) Suppose that lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑁 are concurrent. That is, suppose that there exists a point that all
three lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑁 pass through. (Justify.)
(6) Any point that all three lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑁 pass through cannot be point 𝐴, 𝐵, or 𝐶. (Justify.)
So the point that all three lines pass through must be a new point that we can call point 𝐷.
(7) There are two lines that pass through points 𝐴 and 𝐷. (Justify.)
(8) We have reached a contradiction. (Explain the contradiction.) So our assumption in (5)
was wrong. Lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑁 must be non-concurrent.
End of Proof

2.3.6. Proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #4

Observe that Theorem #4 is a universal statement.

Incidence Geometry Theorem #4: In Incidence Geometry, for every point P, there exists a
line L that does not pass through P.

As we have discussed before in this book, a direct proof of such a universal statement would
have to use the following form, starting with the statement that a generic object is given:
 page 39

Direct Proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #4

(1) In Incidence Geometry, suppose that a point 𝑃 is given.
*
* (Some steps here, including introduction of a line called 𝐿, with the existence of 𝐿
justified somehow by the axioms and prior theorems of Incidence Geometry)
*
(*) Conclude that line 𝐿 does not pass through 𝑃.
End of Proof

But it is possible to write a very simple indirect proof of Theorem #4, using the method of
contradiction. In order to do that, we will need to know how to write the negation of the
statement of the theorem. Hopefully, you have studied the negation of quantified logical
statements in a previous course. Here is a review (or a crash course, if you have not previously
studied the topic).

Digression to Discuss the Negation of Quantified Logical Statements

We will call the statement of the theorem Statement S.

S: “For every point 𝑃, there exists a line 𝐿 that does not pass through 𝑃.”

This statement can be abbreviated, using logical symbols:

S abbreviated: “∀ point 𝑃, (∃ line 𝐿 such that (𝐿 does not pass through 𝑃)).”

The negation of statement 𝑆 can formed most easily by simply parking the words “It is not true
that...” in front. In symbols, one can simply park the negation symbol, “~”, in front.

~S: “It is not true that for every point 𝑃, there exists a line 𝐿 that does not pass through 𝑃.”
~S abbreviated: “~(∀ point 𝑃, (∃ line 𝐿 such that (𝐿 does not pass through 𝑃))).”

Notice that although the sentence ~S presented above is the negation of S and it was easy to
create, the form in which it is presented is not very helpful. When dealing with the negations of
logical statements, it is generally more helpful to rewrite the statements in a form where the
negation symbol appears as far to the right as possible. We will rewrite statement ~S in steps,
with the negation symbol moving one notch to the right in each step.

When we move the negation symbol to the right in statement ~S, we will have to change the
wording of the quantifiers. Here are the rules:
 When the symbol ~ moves to the right across a universal quantifier, the quantifier
changes to an existential quantifier. That is, we make the following replacement
o Replace a statement of this form: “~∀𝑥, predicate”
o with this form: “∃𝑥 such that ~predicate”.
 When the symbol ~ moves to the right across an existential quantifier, the quantifier
changes to a universal quantifier. That is, we make the following replacement
o Replace a statement of this form this: “~∃𝑥 such that predicate”
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 40

o with this: “∀𝑥, ~predicate”.

Those instructions are awfully vague, but after a couple of examples, hopefully you will find that
the instructions are helpful enough. Let’s rewrite statement ~S in steps, moving the negation
symbol ~ one notch to the right in each step. It is easies to work with the abbreviated form of the
statement first. For reference, I will show the original form of the negation first:

The original form of the negation

~S: “It is not true that for every point 𝑃, there exists a line 𝐿 that does not pass through 𝑃.”
~S abbreviated: “~(∀ point 𝑃, (∃ line 𝐿 such that (𝐿 does not pass through 𝑃))).”

Step one: move the ~symbol one notch to the right. The result is
~S abbreviated: “∃ point 𝑃 such that ~(∃ line 𝐿 such that (𝐿 does not pass through 𝑃)).”
~S: “There exists a point 𝑃 such that it is not true that there exists a line 𝐿 such that 𝐿 does
not pass through 𝑃.”

Step two: move the ~symbol another notch to the right. The result is
~S abbreviated: “∃ point 𝑃 such that for ∀ line 𝐿, ~(𝐿 does not pass through 𝑃).”
~S: “There exists a point 𝑃 such that for every line 𝐿, it is not true that 𝐿 does not pass
through 𝑃.”

At this point, the negation symbol ~ is sitting in front of a phrase that is easy to negate. That is,
we can simply rewrite the statements as follows.

Step three: rewrite the statement. The result is

~S abbreviated: “∃ point 𝑃 such that for ∀ line 𝐿, 𝐿 passes through 𝑃).”
~S: “There exists a point 𝑃 such that for every line 𝐿, 𝐿 passes through 𝑃.”

This version of the negation of ~S is much easier to understand than the original.

End of Digression to Discuss the Negation of Quantified Logical Statements

Now that we know how the negation of statement S looks, we are ready to write a proof of
Incidence Geometry Theorem #4 using the Method of Contradiction.

Proof Incidence Geometry Theorem #4 (Indirect Proof by Method of Contradiction)

(1) In Incidence Geometry, assume that the statement of Theorem #4 is false. That is,
suppose that there exists a point 𝑃 such that for every line 𝐿, 𝐿 passes through 𝑃.
(2) The set of all lines is concurrent. (by (1) and the definition of concurrent lines)
(3) Statement (2) contradicts Incidence Geometry Theorem #3, which says that there exist
three lines that are not concurrent. Therefore our assumption in step (1) was wrong.
Conclude that the statement of Theorem #4 is true.
End of Proof

2.3.7. Proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #5

The first thing to notice about our final Incidence Geometry Theorem is that it is a universal
statement.
 page 41

Incidence Geometry Theorem #5: In Incidence Geometry, for every point P, there exist at
least two lines that pass through P.

Therefore, the proof must start with the introduction of a generic given point 𝑃. That is, the given
point 𝑃 is known to have only the attributes mentioned immediately after the “for every”
statement and before the comma. In the statement of Theorem #5, nothing else is said about point
𝑃 before the comma. That is, the point 𝑃 is not known to have any attributes at all, other than
merely existing. (It will be the goal of the proof to show that 𝑃 does in fact have some other
attirbutes, namely that there exist two lines that pass through it.) So the proof of Theorem #5 will
have to have the following form:

Proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #5

(1) In Incidence Geometry, suppose that a point 𝑃 is given.
*
* (Some steps here.)
*
(*) Conclude that there exist at least two lines that pass through 𝑃.
End of Proof

That settles the outer frame of the proof. The inner steps of the proof will use the method of
Proof by Division into Cases. We should review how that works.

Digression to Discuss the Method of Proof by Division into Cases

The Rule of Proof by Division into Cases is presented in lists of Rules of Inference in the
following basic form:

𝑝∨𝑞
𝑝→𝑟
Rule of Proof by Division into Cases (simplest form, with two cases)
𝑞→𝑟
∴𝑟

The statement of the rule is just four lines, but when the rule is used in a proof, the first three
lines may correspond to whole sections of the proof. It is important to highlight the appearance
of the first three lines in the proof, whether they appear as single lines or as a section. And it is
important to make the statement of the fourth line of the rule (the conclusion) very clear.

In the proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #5, the use of the Rule of Proof by Division into
Cases will be spread out. Here is a table that shows how the lines in the rule correspond to the
lines or sections in the proof.

Line in
Corresponding Statements or Sections in the Proof of Theorem #5
the Rule
(3) There are two possibilities:
𝑝∨𝑞  Either 𝑃 is one of the three points from statement (2)
 or 𝑃 is not one of the three points from statement (2).
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 42

Case 1
(4) Suppose that 𝑃 is one of the three points from statement (2).
(5)
𝑝→𝑟
(6)
(7)
(8) Therefore there are at least two distinct lines through 𝑃 in this case.
Case 2
(9) Suppose that 𝑃 is not one of the three points from statement (2).
𝑞→𝑟 (10)
(11)
(12) Therefore there are at least two distinct lines through 𝑃 in this case.
Conclusion
∴𝑟
(13) Conclude that in either case, there exist at least two distinct lines through 𝑃..

End of Digression to discuss the Method of Proof by Division into Cases

Now that we have discussed the Method of Proof by Division into Cases, the full proof of
Theorem #5 should be easier to understand. Here is the theorem and its full proof. You will be
asked to justify some of the statements in the proof in a homework exercise.

Incidence Geometry Theorem #5: In Incidence Geometry, for every point P, there exist at
least two lines that pass through P.

Proof
(1) In Incidence Geometry, suppose that a point 𝑃 is given.
(2) There exist three non-collinear points. (Justify.)
(3) There are two possibilities:
 Either 𝑃 is one of the three points from statement (2)
 or 𝑃 is not one of the three points from statement (2)
Case 1
(4) Suppose that 𝑃 is one of the three points from statement (2). Then let the other two points
from statement (2) be named 𝐵 and 𝐶. So the three non-collinear points are 𝑃, 𝐵, 𝐶.
(5) There exists a line through points 𝑃 and 𝐵. (Justify.) Call it ⃡𝑃𝐵.
(6) There exists a line through points 𝑃 and 𝐶. (Justify.) Call it ⃡𝑃𝐶 .
(7) Lines ⃡𝑃𝐵 and ⃡𝑃𝐶 are not the same line. (Justify.)
(8) Therefore there are at least two distinct lines through 𝑃 in this case
Case 2
(9) Suppose that 𝑃 is not one of the three points from statement (2). Then let the three points
from statement (2) be named 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶.
(10) Lines ⃡𝑃𝐴, ⃡𝑃𝐵 , ⃡𝑃𝐶 exist. (Justify.)
(11) Notice that is possible that two of the symbols in statement (10) could in fact represent
the same line. For example, even though points 𝑃, 𝐴, 𝐵 are distinct points, it could be that
they are collinear. If that were the case, then the symbols ⃡𝑃𝐴 and ⃡𝑃𝐵 would represent the
same line. But regardless of whether or not 𝑃 is collinear with certain pairs of the points
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, we know that the three symbols ⃡𝑃𝐴, ⃡𝑃𝐵 , ⃡𝑃𝐶 cannot all three represent the same
line. (Justify. That is, explain how we know that the symbols ⃡𝑷𝑨, ⃡𝑷𝑩, ⃡𝑷𝑪 cannot all
 page 43

three represent the same line.) That is, the three symbols ⃡𝑃𝐴, ⃡𝑃𝐵 , ⃡𝑃𝐶 represent at least
two distinct lines, and possibly three.
(12) Therefore there are at least two distinct lines through 𝑃 in this case
Conclusion
(13) Conclude that in either case, there exist at least two distinct lines through 𝑃.
End of Proof

2.3.8. Summaryof Proofs of Incidence Geometry Theorems

In our proofs of the five Incidence Geometry theorems, we discussed a number of basic concepts
of proof structure:
 We discussed the simplest “frame” structure for the proof of a conditional statement a
statement of the form If A then B). (in the proof of Theorem #1)
 We discussed the fact that in the proof of an existence statement, one must start the proof
with a statement about something existing, and go from there (in the proofs of Theorems
#2 and #3)
 We used the method of proof by contradiction (in the proofs of Theorems #1 and #4), and
discussed the importance of knowing how to form the negations of quantified logical
statements when proving by method of contradiction (in the proof of Theorem #4)
 We discussed the fact that in the proof of a universal statement, one must start the proof
by stating that a generic object is given. (In the discussions of Theorems #4 and #5)
 We used the method of proof by division into cases (in the proof of Theorem #5).
These proof structure concepts are crucial to learning how to read and write proofs. We will
revisit them throughout the book.

2.3.9. Models of Incidence Geometry; Abstract versus Concrete Models;

Relative versus Absolute Consistency
It is interesting to consider the question of whether or not the Axiom System for Incidence
Geometry is Consistent. That is, whether or not it is possible to find a model. Remember that a
model is a successful interpretation. Let’s try using Four-Point Geometry as an interpretation.
(Recall that Four-Point Geometry was introduced in Section 2.1.3 on page 28.

objects in Incidence Geometry  objects in the Four-Point Geometry

points  points
lines  lines
relation in Incidence Geometry  relation in Four-Point Geometry
the point lies on the line  the point lies on the line

To determine whether or not the interpretation is successful, we use the interpretation to translate
the axioms of Incidence Geometry into statements in Four-Point Geometry and then consider
whether or not the resulting statements are true in Four-Point Geometry.

Incidence Geometry axioms  statements in Four-Point Geometry True?

true because of
<I1> There exist two Statement 1: There exist two distinct Four-Point

distinct points. (at least two) points. (at least two) Geometry Axiom
<1>
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 44

<I2> For every pair of true because of

Statement 2: For every pair of
distinct points, there exists Four-Point
 distinct points, there exists exactly
exactly one line that both Geometry Axiom
one line that both points lie on.
points lie on. <2>
true because of
<I3> For every line, there Statement 3: For every line, there
Four Point
exists a point that does not  exists a point that does not lie on the
Geometry Axioms
lie on the line. (at least one) line. (at least one)
<3> and <1>
true because of
<I4> For every line, there Statement 3: For every line, there
Four-Point
exist two points that do lie  exist two points that do lie on the
Geometry Axiom
on the line. (at least two) line. (at least two)
<3>

The table above demonstrates that Four-Point Geometry can provide a successful interpretation
of Incidence Geometry. That is, Four-Point Geometry can be a model of Incidence Geometry.
This demonstrates that Incidence Geometry is consistent. Sort of…

The concept of consistency seemed to be about demonstrating that the words of the axiom
system could be interpreted as actual, concrete things. It is a little unsatisfying that we have only
demonstrated that the words of Incidence Geometry can be interpreted as other words from
another axiom system. That’s a little bit like paying back an I.O.U. with another I.O.U. It would
be more satisfying if we had an interpretation involving actual, concrete things. Here’s one that
uses a picture:

objects in Incidence Geometry  objects in the picture at right

points  dots
lines  line segments
relation in Incidence Geometry  relation in the picture at right
the point lies on the line  the dot touches the line segment

To determine whether or not the interpretation is successful, we use the interpretation to translate
the axioms of Incidence Geometry into statements about the picture, and then consider whether
or not the resulting statements about the picture are true.

axioms of Incidence Geometry  statements about the picture True?

<I1> There exist two distinct points. Statement 1: There exist two distinct dots.
 true
(at least two) (at least two)
<I2> For every pair of distinct Statement 2: For every pair of distinct
points, there exists exactly one line  dots, there exists exactly one line segment true
that both points lie on. that both dots touch.
<I3> For every line, there exists a Statement 3: For every line, segment there
point that does not lie on the line. (at  exists a dot that does not touch the line true
least one) segment. (at least one)
<I4> For every line, there exist two Statement 4: For every line segment, there
points that do lie on the line. (at  exist two dots that touch the line segment. true
least two) (at least two)
 page 45

The table above demonstrates that the picture with four dots and six line segments can provide a
successful interpretation of Incidence Geometry. That is, the picture with four dots and six line
segments can be a model of Incidence Geometry. This demonstrates that Incidence Geometry is
consistent.

There is terminology that applies to the above discussion

Definition 14 Abstract Model, Concrete Model, Relative Consistency, Absolute Consistency

 An abstract model of an axiom system is a model that is, itself, another axiom system.
 A concrete model of an axiom system is a model that uses actual objects and relations.
 An axiom system is called relatively consistent if an abstract model has been
demonstrated.
 An axiom system is called absolutely consistent if a concrete model has been
demonstrated.

The Four-Point Geometry is an example of an abstract model for Incidence Geometry. The
picture with four dots and six line segments is an example of a concrete model.

It is possible for an axiom system to be both relatively consistent and absolutely consistent. The
fact that Four-Point Geometry is a model for Incidence Geometry merely proves that Incidence
Geometry is Relatively Consistent. But we can also say that Incidence Geometry is absolutely
consistent because of the model involving the picture with four dots.

In the exercises, you will prove that Fano’s Geometry and Young’s Geometry are also models of
incidence geometry. Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the
current section. The exercises are found in Section 2.5 on page 50.

2.4. Advanced Topic: Duality

2.4.1. The Four-Line Geometry and Duality
Look back at the Four-Point Geometry, presented in Section 2.1.3. Using the find & replace
feature in a word processor, we can make the following replacements in the axiom system to
create a new axiom system.
 Replace every occurrence of point in the original with line in the new axiom system.
 Replace every occurrence of line in the original with point in the new axiom system.
 Replace every occurrence of lies on in the original with passes through in the new.

The resulting Axiom System is as follows:

Axiom System: Four-Line Geometry

Primitive Objects: line, point
Primitive Relations: relation from the set of all lines to the set of all points, spoken “The line
passes through the point”.
Axioms: <1> There are four lines. These may be denoted line1, line2, line3, line4.
<2> For any two distinct lines, there is exactly one point that both lines
pass through.
<3> For any point, there are exactly two lines that pass through the point.
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 46

Remember that there were two theorems in Four-Point Geometry.

Four-Point Geometry Theorem #1: There are exactly six lines.
Four-Point Geometry Theorem #2: For every point, there are exactly three lines that the
point lies on.

Realize that we can use the same find & replace operations to change the wording of the
statements of those two theorems. We obtain two new statements.

New Statement #1: There are exactly six points.

New Statement #2: For every line, there exist exactly three points that the line passes
through.

Are these new statements true in Four-Line Geometry? That is, can they be proven using a proof
that refers to the axioms of Four-Line Geometry? Well, remember that the new statements are
translations of statements that are theorems in the Four-Point Geometry. We can use the same
find & replace operations to change the wording of the proofs of the Four-Point Theorems, and
the result will be new proofs of the corresponding Four-Line Theorems. In other words, the
theorems of Four-Point Geometry translate into valid theorems in Four-Line Geometry:

Four-Line Geometry Theorem #1: There are exactly six points.

Four-Line Geometry Theorem #2: For every line, there exist exactly three points that the
line passes through.

Here are two successful interpretations of Four-Line Geometry. That is, here are two models.

Segments and Dots Model of the Four-Line Geometry.

 Interpret lines to be segments in the picture at right.
 Interpret points to be dots in the picture at right.
 Interpret the words “the line passes through the point” to
mean “the segment touches the dot”.

Sets and Letters Model of the Four-Line Geometry

 Interpret lines to be the sets {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶}, {𝐴, 𝐷, 𝐸}, {𝐵, 𝐸, 𝐹}, and {𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐹}.
 Interpret points to be the the letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, and 𝐹.
 Interpret the words “the line passes through the point” to mean “the set contains the
letter”.

What we have just done is very significant: we were able to describe a new axiomatic geometry
and state a valid theorems about it without having to do any new work to prove the theorems.
The only work involved was that we had to be very clear about the translation that we used. The
translation that we used is often useful when studying axiomatic geometry. The underlying
concept is called duality and is described in the following definition.

Definition 15 the concept of duality and the dual of an axiomatic geometry

 page 47

Given any axiomatic geometry with primitive objects point and line, primitive relation
“the point lies on the line”, and defined relation “the line passes through the point”, one
can obtain a new axiomatic geometry by making the following replacements.

 Replace every occurrence of point in the original with line in the new axiom system.
 Replace every occurrence of line in the original with point in the new axiom system.
 Replace every occurrence of lies on in the original with passes through in the new.
 Replace every occurrence of passes through in the original with lies on in the new.

The resulting new axiomatic geometry is called the dual of the original geometry. The
dual geometry will have primitive objects line and point, primitive relation “the line
passes through the point”, and defined relation “the point lies on the line.” Any theorem
of the original axiom system can be translated as well, and the result will be a valid
theorem of the new dual axiom system.

We will use the concept of duality occasionally throughout this course. Note that in general, the
dual of an axiomic geometry is different from the original axiomatic geometry. For example, the
Four-Point Geometry has four points and six lines, while its dual, the Four-Line Geometry, has
four lines and six points. The two geometries are not the same.

2.4.2. Fano’s Sixth Theorem and Self-Duality

In the previous section, we presented the Four-Line Geometry as the dual of the Four-Point
Geometry. We discussed the fact that the proven theorems of the Four-Point Geometry could be
recycled in the sense that they could be translated into theorems of the Four-Line Geometry.
Because we had already proved the Four-Point Geometry Theorems, we did not need to prove
the Four Line Geometry theorems. Or rather, we could prove them by simply pointing out the
dual nature of the two geometries. Duality is a sophisticated concept, and you might wonder if it
might have been simpler to just skip the introduction of duality and just prove the Four-Line
Geometry theorems from scratch. You would be right about that: the Four-Line Geometry
theorems could have been proven with short proofs that did not mention duality.

But the point of duality is that there are situations where one can avoid a very long proof by
using duality. In this section, we will apply the principle of duality to prove the sixth theorem for
Fano’s Geometry. The theorem is very easy to state.

Fano’s Geometry Theorem #6: There exist exactly seven lines.

But the proof of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #6 is hard. It would be good to approach the proof in
a smart way. I will discuss two approaches that could be called the “hedgehog” and the “fox”
approaches. The ancient Greek poet Archilochus wrote “…the fox knows many little things, but
the hedgehog knows one big thing…”. In a famous essay, the 20th-century philosopher Isaiah
Berlin expanded upon this idea to divide writers and thinkers into two categories: hedgehogs,
who view the world through the lens of a single defining idea, and foxes who draw on a wide
variety of experiences and for whom the world cannot be boiled down to a single idea. (Thanks,
Wikipedia!)
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 48

In math, it is good to be at times a hedgehog and at other times a fox. The first time I saw Fano’s
Theorem #6, I proved it like a hedgehog, using the same approach that worked in my proofs of
Fano’s Theorems #3 and #4. Here’s an outline of my proof.

Hedgehog’s Proof of Fano’s Theorem #6: There exist exactly seven lines
Part 1 Show that at least seven lines exist.
Introduce Line L1.
Introduce Line L2.
Introduce Line L3.
Introduce Line L4.
Introduce Line L5.
Introduce Line L6.
Introduce Line L7.
Part 2 Show that there cannot be an eighth line.

It was somewhat comforting to know that the same approach that worked in proving Fano’s
Theorem #3 and #4 would work to prove Fano’s Theorem #6. But the resulting proof was 48
steps long. Let’s think like a fox, and see if we can shorten that proof somehow. Or maybe
eliminate the proof altogether…

Recall the concept of duality, from Definition 15 on page 46. Consider the dual of Fano’s
Geometry. Remember that we obtain the dual by doing word substitions according to Definition
15. For clarity, I will number the resulting dual axioms with the prefix DF.

Axiom System: The dual of Fano’s Geometry

Primitive Objects: line, point
Primitive Relations: The line passes through the point.
Axioms: <DF1> There exists at least one point.
<DF2> Exactly three lines pass through each point.
<DF3> There does not exist a point that all the lines of the geometry pass
through.
<DF4> For any two lines, there is exactly one point that both lines pass
through.
<DF5> For any two points, there is at least one line that passes through
both points.

The same word substitutions give us the following list of theorems in the Dual of Fano’s
Geometry. (

Dual of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #1: There exists at least one line.
Dual of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #2: For any two points, there is exactly one line that
passes through both points.
Dual of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #3: There exist exactly seven lines.
Dual of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #4: Every line passes through exactly three points.
Dual of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #5: There does not exist a line that passes through all
the points of the geometry.
 page 49

By the principle of Duality, we know that the five theorems are valid theorems in the Dual of
Fano’s Geometry. Think for a minute what that means. It means that the Dual of Fano’s
Theorems #1 through #5 can be proven using proofs based on the Dual of Fano’s Axioms, that
is, statements <DF1> through <DF5>. (We don’t have to write down those proofs, because we
know that they are simply translations of the proofs of Fano’s Theorems #1 through #5.) If we
assume that statements <DF1> through <DF5> are true statements (make them axioms) then the
Dual of Fano’s Theorems #1 through #5 are also true statements.

But what if we were in a situation where statements <DF1> through <DF5> are known to be true,
so that we didn’t have to assume that they were true? Well, in that situation, we would know that
the Dual of Fano’s Theorems #1 through #5 are also true statements, because the same proofs
mentioned above would still work.

With that in mind, let’s consider the truth of statements <DF1> through <DF5> in Fano’s
Geometry.

Statement <DF1>: There exists at least one point.

This statement is true in Fano’s Geometry because of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #1: There
exists at least one point.

Statement <DF2>: Exactly three lines pass through each point.

This statement is true in Fano’s Geometry because of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #4: Every point
lies on exactly three lines.

Statement <DF3>: There does not exist a point that all the lines of the geometry pass
through.
This statement is true in Fano’s Geometry because of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #5: There does
not exist a point that lies on all the lines.

Statement <DF4>: For any two lines, there is exactly one point that both lines pass through.
This statement is true in Fano’s Geometry because of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #2: For any
two lines, there is exactly one point that lies on both lines.

Statement <DF5>: For any two points, there is at least one line that passes through both
points.
This statement is true in Fano’s Geometry because of Fano’s Geometry Axiom <F4> For any
two points, there is exactly one line that both points lie on.

We see that statements <DF1> through <DF5> are true in Fano’s Geometry. Therefore, we know
that in Fano’s Geometry, the Dual of Fano’s Theorems #1 through #5 are also true statements. In
particular, the Dual of Fano’s Theorem #3 is true. This theorem says that there exist exactly
seven lines. But that statement is also the claim of Fano’s Theorem #6. So we have proven
Fano’s Theorem #6 without having to write down a new proof of it. That is foxy.

It would be good to summarize what we did in an outline.

Fox’s Proof of Fano’s Theorem #6: There exist exactly seven lines.
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 50

Part 1: Write down the statements of the five axioms for the Dual of Fano’s
Geometry. These are denoted <DF1>, <DF2>, … , <DF5>.
Part 2: Demonstrate that statements <DF1>, <DF2>, … , <DF5> are actually true in
Fano’s Geometry, by referring to Fano’s Theorems #1, #4, #5, #2, and Fano’s
Axiom <F4>.
Part 3: Point out that by the principal of duality, the Dual of Fano’s Theorems #1
through #5 are automatically true in Fano’s Geometry.
Part 4: (Conclusion) Point out that the Dual of Fano’s Theorem #3 says that there
exist exactly seven lines.
End of Proof

It might seem that Fox’s proof is actually longer—its development has taken two full pages—
and more conceptually difficult than Hedgehog’s proof. But after encountering a few examples
that make use of the principle of duality, you will find that it will not seem so difficult, and that it
can significantly shorten and clarify proofs.

Note that the key to Fox’s proof of Fano’s Theorem #6 was the fact that all of the statements of
the axioms for the Dual of Fano’s Geometry are true statements in Fano’s Geometry, itself.
There is a name for this: we say that Fano’s Geometry is self-dual.

Definition 16 self-dual geometry

An axiomatic geometry is said to be self-dual if the statements of the dual axioms are true
statements in the original geometry.

It is important to remember that most geometries are not self-dual. For example, in 2.1.3, we
studied the Four-Point Geometry. Four Point Geometry Theorem #2 says that there are exactly
six lines. In Section 2.4.1 on page 45 we studied the dual geometry, called the Four-Line
Geometry. Four-Line Geometry Axiom <1> says that there are exactly four lines. This axiom of
Four-Line Geometry is not a true statement in Four-Point Geometry. So Four-Point Geometry is
not self-dual.

2.5. Exercises For Chapter 2

Exercises for Section 2.1 Introduction and Basic Examples

Exercises [1] - [5] are about Four-Point Geometry, introduced in Section 2.1.3.

In the reading, it was pointed out that Four-Point Geometry is basically just Axiom System #2
from Section 1.1.6, but with some of the wording changed. All proofs of statements about Axiom
System #2 can be recycled, with their wording changed, into proofs of corresponding statements
about the Four-Point Geometry. In exercises [1] - [3], you will do some of this recycling.

[1] Prove Four-Point Geometry Theorem #1. (Hint: translate the proof of Theorem #1 of Axiom
System #2 that is presented in the text.)

[2] Prove Four-Point Geometry Theorem #2. (Hint: translate the proof of Theorem #2 of Axiom
System #2 that you produced in Section 1.4 Exercise [3].)
 page 51

[3] Are the Four-Point Geometry axioms independent? Explain. (Hint: Study Section 1.4
Exercises [8] - [11].)

The remaining two exercises about Four-Point Geometry are not adaptations of facts presented in
our discussion of Axiom System #2. They are new.

[4] Prove that in the Four-Point Geometry, parallel lines exist. (In Section 2.1.5, you were
introduced to two recurring questions about parallel lines in axiomatic geometry. This is one of
the questions.)

[5] In the Four-Point Geometry, given a line L and a point P that does not lie on L, how many
lines exist that pass through P and are parallel to L? Explain. (This is the other recurring question
about parallel lines in axiomatic geometry.)

Exercises for Section 2.2 Fano’s Geometry and Young’s Geometry

Exercises [6] - [12] are about Fano’s Geometry, introduced in Section 2.2.1 on page 30.

[6] Prove Fano’s Geometry Theorem #1. (presented in Section 2.2.1, on page 30.)

[7] Prove Fano’s Geometry Theorem #2. (presented in Section 2.2.1, on page 30.) Hint: Your
proof should be very much like your proof in exercise [16] of Section 1.4. That is, use one of the
axioms to state that any two lines intersect. Then assume that the lines intersect more than once,
and show that you reach a contradiction.

[8] Justify the steps in the proof of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #3. (presented in Section 2.2.2)

[9] Justify the steps in the proof of Fano’s Geometry Theorem #4. (presented in Section 2.2.3)

[10] In Fano’s Geometry, do parallel lines exist?

[11] In Fano’s Geometry, given a line L and a point P that does not lie on L, how many lines
exist that pass through P and are parallel to L?

[12] Prove that Fano’s axioms are independent. Hint: It is fairly easy to prove that axioms <F1>
through <F4> are independent. Proving that axiom <F5> is independent can seem daunting. You
must come up with an interpretation in which the statements of axioms <F1>, <F2>, <F3>, <F4>
are true, but the statement of axiom <F5> is false. My advice is that you postpone this part of the
question until you read about Young’s Geometry. And you might want to do this problem at the
same time that you do exercise [13].

Exercises [13] - [16] explore Young’s Geometry, introduced in Section 2.2.6 on page 34.

[13] Are Young’s axioms consistent? Explain.

[14] Prove that Young’s axioms are independent. Hint: See exercises [12] and [13].

[15] Are there parallel lines in Young’s Geometry? Explain.

Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 52

[16] In Young’s Geometry, given a line L and a point P that does not lie on L, how many lines
exist that pass through P and are parallel to L? Explain.

Exercises for Section 2.3 Incidence Geometry

[17] Justify the steps in the proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #1. (presented in Section 2.3.3
on page 36.)

[18] Justify the steps in the proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #2. (presented in Section 2.3.4
on page 37.)

[19] Justify the steps in the proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #3. (presented in Section 2.3.5
on page 38.)

[20] Justify the steps in the proof of Incidence Geometry Theorem #5. (presented in Section 2.3.7
on page 40.)

[21] Prove that Fano’s Geometry (presented in Section 2.2.1) is a model of Incidence Geometry.
Is it a concrete model or an abstract model? Explain.

[22] Prove that Young’s Geometry (presented in Section 2.2.6) is a model of Incidence
Geometry. Hint: The proof that works for [16] should also work for this problem. Is it a concrete
model or an abstract model? Explain.
[23] Prove Incidence Geometry Theorem #1, which was presented in Section 2.3.3 on page 36.

[24] Prove Incidence Geometry Theorem #2, which was presented in Section 2.3.4 on page 37.

[25] Prove Incidence Geometry Theorem #3, which was presented in Section 2.3.5 on page 38.

[26] Prove Incidence Geometry Theorem #4, which was presented in Section 2.3.6 on page 38.

[27] Prove Incidence Geometry Theorem #5, which was presented in Section 2.3.7 on page 40.

[28] Explain why each of the pictures below could not be an incidence geometry.

picture (a) picture (b) picture (c) picture (d)

.
Exercises for Section 2.4 Advanced Topic: Duality

Here is a new axiom system, along with a theorem that we won’t prove, but will assume as true:

Axiom System: Five-Point Geometry

Primitive Objects: point, line
 page 53

Primitive Relations: relation from the set of all points to the set of all lines, spoken “The point
lies on the line”.
Axioms: <1> There are five points. These may be denoted P1, P2, P3, P4, P5.
<2> For any two distinct points, there is exactly one line that both points
lie on.
<3> For any line, there exist exactly two points that lie on the line.
Five-Point Geometry Theorem #1: There are exactly ten lines.

[29] Write down the axiom system for the Dual of Five-Point Geometry.

[30] How many points exist in the Dual of Five-Point Geometry? Explain.

Review Exercise for Chapters 1 and 2

[31] (A) The goal is to make up a new geometry that is consistent but not complete. I have
provided the primitive terms and and relations. You provide the list of axioms.

Axiom System: Example of a Geometry that is Consistent but not Complete

Primitive Objects: point, line
Primitive Relations: “The point lies on the line”.
Axioms: You make up the list of axioms.

(B) Explain how you know that the geometry is consistent.

(C) Explain how you know that the geometry is not complete.
Chapter 2 Axiomatic Geometries page 54

.
 page 55

3.Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of

Incidence and Distance
We want an axiom system to prescribe the behavior of points and lines in a way that accurately
represents the “straight line” drawings that we have been making throughout our lives.
Remember, though, that in the language of axiom systems we turn the idea of representation
around and say that we want the “straight line” interpretation to be a model of our axiom system.
And because our “straight line” drawings and the usual Analytic Geometry of the 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane
behave the same way, we would expect that the usual Analytic Geometry would also be a model.
But we want those to be the only models of our axiom system. Or rather, we want any other
models of the axiom system to be isomorphic to the Analytic Geometry Model. That is, we
would like our axiom system to be complete.

our goal: Complete

Axiom
System
model model

Straight Ordinary Analytic

Line Geometry of
isomorphic
Drawings the 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane
.

3.1. Neutral Geometry Axioms and First Six Theorems

In Chapters 3 through 8,we will study an axiom system called Neutral Geometry. It has ten
axioms, and we will see that it captures much of the behavior that we are used to seeing in our
straight-line drawings and in Analytic Geometry of the 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane. However, later in the
course, we will discuss the fact that the axiom system for Neutral Geometry is incomplete. An
eleventh axiom will be added to make the axiom system complete, and the resulting axiom
system will be called Euclidean Geometry. But that is far in the future. For now, we will study
Neutral Geometry. Here is the definition.

Definition 17 The Axiom System for Neutral Geometry

Primitive Objects: point, line
Primitive Relation: the point lies on the line
Axioms of Incidence and Distance
<N1> There exist two distinct points. (at least two)
<N2> For every pair of distinct points, there exists exactly one line that both points
lie on.
<N3> For every line, there exists a point that does not lie on the line. (at least one)
<N4> (The Distance Axiom) There exists a function 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ, called the
Distance Function on the Set of Points.
<N5> (The Ruler Axiom) Every line has a coordinate function.
Axiom of Separation
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 56

<N6> (The Plane Separation Axiom) For every line 𝐿, there are two associated sets
called half-planes, denoted 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 , with the following three properties:
(i) The three sets 𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 form a partition of the set of all points.
(ii) Each of the half-planes is convex.
(iii) If point 𝑃 is in 𝐻1 and point 𝑄 is in 𝐻2 , then segment 𝑃𝑄̅̅̅̅ intersects line 𝐿.
Axioms of Angle measurement
<N7> (Angle Measurement Axiom) There exists a function 𝑚: 𝒜 → (0,180), called
the Angle Measurement Function.
<N8> (Angle Construction Axiom) Let 𝐴𝐵 be a ray on the edge of the half-plane 𝐻.
For every number 𝑟 between 0 and 180, there is exactly one ray 𝐴𝑃 with point
𝑃 in 𝐻 such that 𝑚(∠𝑃𝐴𝐵) = 𝑟.
<N9> (Angle Measure Addition Axiom) If 𝐷 is a point in the interior of ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶, then
𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐴𝐶).
Axiom of Triangle Congruence
<N10> (SAS Axiom) If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of
two triangles, and two sides and the included angle of the first triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of the second triangle, then all the
remaining corresponding parts are congruent as well, so the correspondence is a
congruence and the triangles are congruent.

In this chapter, we will study only the first five axioms, the so-called Axioms of Incidence and
Distance. Notice that we have seen Axioms <N1>, <N2>, and <N3> in previous axiom systems.
In particular, all three of those axioms were included in the axiom system called Incidence
Geometry that we studied in Section 2.3.2, The Axiom System for Incidence Geometry,
beginning on page 35. In that section, you saw the presentation of Incidence Geometry Theorems
#1 through #5, which could be proven using just those three axoms. It is convenient, then, to use
those five theorems as the first five theorems of our new Neutral Geometry. That is, those first
five theorems use only the first three Neutral Geometry axioms, and you have already seen a
discussion of the proofs of the theorems, back in Section 2.3.2. Here are the theorems, presented
now as theorems of Neutral Geometry:

Theorem 1 In Neutral Geometry, if 𝐿 and 𝑀 are distinct lines that intersect, then they
intersect in only one point.

Theorem 2 In Neutral Geometry, there exist three non-collinear points.

Theorem 3 In Neutral Geometry, there exist three lines that are not concurrent.

Theorem 4 In Neutral Geometry, for every point 𝑃, there exists a line that does not pass
through 𝑃.

Theorem 5 In Neutral Geometry, for every point 𝑃, there exist at least two lines that pass
through 𝑃.

Notice the theorem numbering. This is the beginning of a sequence of theorems that ends with
Theorem 160 in Chapter 14.
 page 57

There is Some Subtlety in the Issue of a Line 𝑳 Through Points 𝑷 and 𝑸.

Consider the following question: Given any points 𝑃 and 𝑄, is there a line that passes through 𝑃
and 𝑄, and is it unique? This seems like an easy question. Axiom <N2> clearly states “Given any
two distinct points, there is exactly one line that both points lie on.” But notice that the axiom
includes the qualifier two distinct points, and my question did not include that qualifier.

Certainly, if it is known that points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are distinct, then Axiom <N2> guarantees that there
exists exactly one line that both points lie on. But what if points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are not distinct? That is,
what if point 𝑄 is actually the same point as point 𝑃? In this case, is there a line that passes
through 𝑃, and is it unique? Well, Theorem 5 (on page 56) says that there are at least two lines
that pass through point 𝑃. So there definitely is a line through point 𝑃, and it definitely is not
unique.

So in any situation where it is known that points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are distinct, it makes sense to talk of
the unique line that passes through points 𝑃 and 𝑄. Here is a symbol that we can use for that:

Definition 18 the unique line passing through two distinct points

words: line 𝑃, 𝑄
symbol: 𝑃𝑄⃡
usage: 𝑃 and 𝑄 are distinct points
meaning: the unique line that passes through both 𝑃 and 𝑄. (The existence and uniqueness of
such a line is guaranteed by Axiom <N2>.)

In any situation where it is not known if points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are distinct, it is okay to talk of a line
that passes through points 𝑃 and 𝑄, but one must not assume that such a line is unique, and one
must not assume that such a line is guaranteed by Axiom <N2>. If it turns out that points 𝑃 and
𝑄 are distinct, then the existence of the line is guaranteed by Axiom <N2> and the line is unique;
If it turns out that points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are not distinct, then the existence of the line is guaranteed by
Theorem 5, not by Axiom <N2>, and the line is definitely not unique.

The previous paragraph is summarized in the following theorem.

Theorem 6 In Neutral Geometry, given any points 𝑃 and 𝑄 that are not known to be distinct,
there exists at least one line that passes through 𝑃 and 𝑄.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 3.11 on page 88.

3.2. The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in

Drawings
In the finite geometries that we have studied so far, there has been no mention of distance. In this
book, we are studying Abstract Neutral and Euclidean Geometry. (In Chapters 3 through 8, we
study Abstract Neutral Geometry. Our study of Euclidean Geometry begins in Chapter 9.) I have
said that our axiomatic geometry is to be an abstract version of the “straight-line” drawings that
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 58

we have been making all of our lives. In those drawings, we are able to measure distance. So, our
axiomatic geometry must include some axioms or theorems that specify how that is done.

Before we study the axioms about distance in Neutral Geometry (a study that begins in Section
3.4, The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Neutral Geometry), it will be helpful to
consider what we do when we measure distance in drawings. In the current section, we will study
that process of measuring distance in drawings and to try to describe the process with some
precision.
Consider the drawn line 𝐿 shown below.
𝐿

In the next drawing, below, I have put a ruler alongside the line. The ruler can be used to assign a
real number to each point on the line. That is, when placed alongside the line, the ruler can be
thought of as a function with domain the set of points on line 𝐿 and codomain the set of real
numbers. Such a function is called a coordinate function. We could give this coordinate function
the name 𝑓. In symbols, 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ.
𝐿

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
coordinate function 𝑓

To see this coordinate function 𝑓 in action, consider the three drawn points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 shown on line
𝐿 in the drawing below.
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐿

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
coordinate function 𝑓

If we use the three drawn points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 as input to the function 𝑓, the resulting outputs are three
real numbers, called the coordinates of the three points.

 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐴 is the real number 𝑓(𝐴) = −2.

 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐵 is the real number 𝑓(𝐵) = 3.
 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐶 is the real number 𝑓(𝐶) = 7.6.

Notice that we have had to do some abstract thinking when making these measurements. For
one, the drawn point 𝐴 is off the end of the ruler. We had to imagine the ruler extending beyond
what is shown. Also, the point 𝐶 lies between two marks on the ruler. We had to imagine
subdivisions on the ruler. So there is a certain amount of abstraction in our use of ordinary
drawing tools.

What about measuring distance? Using the technique that we have used since grade school, we
would say that the distance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is 5, while the distance between 𝐶 and 𝐵 is 4.6. A
precise description of how we got these numbers is as follows
 page 59

 The distance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is |𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = |(−2) − 3| = |−5| = 5.

 The distance between 𝐶 and 𝐵 is |𝑓(𝐶) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = |(7.6) − 3| = |4.6| = 4.6.

So it seems that in drawings we can simply define the distance between two points as follows.

To find the distance between drawn points 𝐴 and 𝐵:

 Put a ruler alongside the line 𝐿 that passes through points 𝐴 and 𝐵.
 The placement of the ruler alongside the line gives us a coordinate function 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ.
The coordinates of points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are the real numbers 𝑓(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵).
 The distance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 is defined to be the real number |𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)|.

The process just described for measuring distance between drawn points can be thought of as a
function. The input to the function is a pair of drawn points. The output of the function is the real
number called the distance between the points. We could call this function the distance function
for drawn points.

In this section, we studied the process of measuring distance in drawings, describing the process
using function terminology. The overall process was given the name distance function. But the
process involved a couple of steps. Two of those steps were to place a ruler alongside the line
and read numbers from the ruler. That part of process was given the name coordinate function.
In the next section, we will study the process of measuring distance in Analytic Euclidean
Geometry. We will see the familiar distance function for Analytic Geometry. In addition, we will
see that it is possible to define coordinate functions for Analytic Geometry.

3.3. The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in

Analytic Geometry
In Analytic Euclidean Geometry, points are ordered pairs of real numbers (𝑥, 𝑦). The set of all
points is the set of all ordered pairs or real numbers, denoted by the symbol ℝ × ℝ or by the
more abbreviated symbol ℝ2 .

In Analytic Euclidean Geometry, lines are sets of points that satisfy line equations. That is,
equations of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are real number constants. For example, a line 𝐿
could be described as follows.

𝐿 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5}

In Analytic Euclidean Geometry, the distance function is the function 𝑑: ℝ2 × ℝ2 → ℝ defined

by the following equation

𝑑((𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )) = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

The concepts of points, lines, and the distance function in Analytic Geometry are not new to you.
But you have probably never seen something called a coordinate function in Analytic Geometry.
That is mainly because your prior school work in Analytic Geometry has not needed coordinate
functions. We won’t need them in this book, either, but we will study them so that you can see
that they exist and behave in a way analogous to the coordinate functions that we introduced for
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 60

drawings. We will consider two lines called 𝐿 and 𝑀, and will see the introduction of coordinate
functions for those lines.

Let 𝐿 be the line described as follows.

𝐿 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 3}

Line 𝐿 is horizontal, parallel to the x-axis but 3 units above the x-axis. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be the two
points 𝐴 = (7,3) and 𝐵 = (5,3). Both points are on line 𝐿.
𝑦
𝐵 𝐴
𝐿
(5,3) (7,3)

𝑥
Observe that the distance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is

𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝑑((7,3), (5,3)) = √(5 − 7)2 + (3 − 3)2 = √(−2)2 + (0)2 = 2

Define the function 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ by the equation

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥

Using points 𝐴 and 𝐵 as inputs to the function 𝑓, we obtain the following outputs.

 When point 𝐴 is the input, the output is the real number 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑓(7,3) = 7.
 When point B is the input, the output is the real number 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑓(5,3) = 5.

Also observe that

|𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = |7 − 5| = |2| = 2

so the equation
|𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵)

is satisfied. The equation tells us that the real number |𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| is equal to the distance
between points 𝐴 and 𝐵.The fact that this equation is satified is what qualifies 𝑓 to be called a
coordinate function for line 𝐿. (Recall that in the previous section, when discussing rulers and
distance in drawings, we observed that in drawings the real number |𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| is equal to
the distance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵. So the relationship between coordinate functions and
distance in Analytic Geometry is the same as the relationship between coordinate functions and
distance in drawings.)

We can rewrite the two sentences above about inputs and outputs, using instead the terminology
of coordinate functions and coordinates. We can say that using the coordinate function 𝑓, we
obtain the following coordinates for points 𝐴 and 𝐵.
 page 61

 The coordinate of point 𝐴 is the real number 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑓(7,3) = 7.

 The coordinate of point 𝐵 is the real number 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑓(5,3) = 5.

Now consider the slanting line 𝑀 described as follows.

𝑀 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4}

That is, 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 4. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be the two points 𝐴 = (7, −3) and 𝐵 = (5, −1) on line 𝑀.
𝑦

𝑥
(5, −1) 𝐵

𝐴
(7, −3)
𝑀
Observe that the distance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is

2
𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝑑((7, −3), (5, −1)) = √(5 − 7)2 + (−1 − (−3)) = √(−2)2 + (2)2 = √8 = 2√2

Suppose that we define a function 𝑓: 𝑀 → ℝ by the equation

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥

This function 𝑓 looks just like the function 𝑓 that was a coordinate function for line 𝐿. Let’s
investigate to see if the function 𝑓 could be a coordinate function for line 𝑀. Using points 𝐴 and
𝐵 as inputs to the function 𝑓, we obtain the following outputs.

 When point 𝐴 is the input, the output is the real real number 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑓(7, −3) = 7.
 When point 𝐵 is the input, the output is the real real number 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑓(5, −1) = 5.

Observe that
|𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = |7 − 5| = |2| = 2

So the equation
|𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵)

is not satisfied! For this reason, we say that 𝑓 is not qualified to be called a coordinate function
for line 𝑀.

It is useful to examine what was wrong with our function 𝑓 above. Notice the following values:
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 62

𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 2√2
|𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = 2

The two values are off by a factor of √2. That gives us an idea for how we might change the
definition of function 𝑓 in order to make it qualify to be called a coordinate function. We can
define a new function 𝑓: 𝑁 → ℝ by the equation
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥√2
Using points 𝐴 and 𝐵 as inputs to the new function 𝑓, we obtain the following outputs.

 When point 𝐴 is the input, the output is the real real number 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑓(7, −3) = 7√2.
 When point 𝐵 is the input, the output is the real real number 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑓(5, −1) = 5√2.

Observe that
|𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = |7√2 − 5√2| = |2√2| = 2√2

So the equation
|𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵)

is satisfied. In other words, this new function 𝑓 is qualified to be called a coordinate function for
line 𝑀.

As we did for earlier, we can rewrite the two sentences above about inputs and outputs, using
instead the terminology of coordinate functions and coordinates. We can say that using the
coordinate function 𝑓, we obtain the following coordinates for points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

 The coordinate of point 𝐴 is the real number 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑓(7,3) = 7√2.

 The coordinate of point 𝐵 is the real number 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑓(5,3) = 5√2.

In a homework exercise, you will be asked to determine which functions could be coordinate
functions for a given line. And you will be asked to come up with a coordinate function of your
own.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 3.11 on page 88.

3.4. The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in

Neutral Geometry
Now we will return to our study of Abstract Neutral Geometry. We will no longer be thinking of
points as dots in a drawing or as ordered pairs of numbers, and we will no longer be thinking of
lines as something that we draw with a ruler or as sets of ordered pairs of numbers. We will go
back to having points and lines being primitive, undefined objects whose properties are specified
by the axioms. And the distance function will not be the concrete function given by the equation
involving the square root. We will not know a formula for the distance function. All we will
know about it is that it has certain properties that we will prove in theorems
 page 63

We will see that distance and coordinate functions in Neutral Geometry mimic the essential
features of distance and coordinate functions in drawings and in Analytic Geometry.

The simplest way to ensure that it is possible to measure distance in an axiomatic geometry is to
just include an axiom stating that a “distance function” exists. That is, indeed, the approach that
is taken in our axiom system for Neutral Geometry. However, there are details to be worked out.

To begin with, we need to be clear about what it is that we are measuring the distance between.
We want to measure the distance between two points. In order to describe the process, it is
helpful to have a symbol for the set of all points.

Definition 19 The set of all abstract points is denoted by the symbol 𝒫 and is called the plane.

With the above definition of the symbol 𝒫 and with our knowledge of standard function notation
from previous courses, we are now ready to understand the wording of Axiom <N4>.

<N4> (The Distance Axiom) There exists a function 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ, called the

Distance Function on the Set of Points.

The function notation 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ tells us that the symbol 𝑑 stands for a function with domain
the set 𝒫 × 𝒫 of ordered pairs of points. That is, the input to the function will be a pair of the
form (𝑃, 𝑄), where 𝑃 ∈ 𝒫 and 𝑄 ∈ 𝒫 are points. The function notation also tells us that the
codomain is the set of real numbers. That is, when a pair of points (𝑃, 𝑄) is used as input to the
function, the resulting output is a real number, denoted by the symbol 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄). The real number
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) is called the distance between points 𝑃 and 𝑄.

Because the distance between two points is mentioned so often, most books adopt an abbreviated
symbol for it.

Definition 20 abbreviated symbol for the distance between two points

abbreviated symbol: 𝑃𝑄
meaning: the distance between points 𝑃 and 𝑄, that is, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄)

We will not use this notation in the current chapter, but we will use it in coming chapters.

What are the properties of the Distance Function on the Set of Points, the function 𝑑? In
Mathematics, the term distance function is usually used for a particular kind of function, one that
is known (or assumed) to possess certain particular properties. In this book, the Distance Axiom
<N4> tells us nothing about the properties of the Distance Function on the Set of Points. The
axiom merely tells us that the function exists. Later in the book, theorems will be presented that
describe the properties of the function. (The first of those theorems will show up in Section 3.6
Two Basic Properties of the Distance Function in Neutral Geometry, which starts on page 68.)

Now on to Coordinate Functions in Neutral Geometry.

As mentioned above, axiom <N4> merely states that a function 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ exists and is
called the Distance Function on the Set of Points. The axiom does not specify how the function 𝑑
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 64

behaves. We need another axiom to give more specifics about the behavior and use of the
function 𝑑. We would like the axiom to specify that the abstract distance can be measured in a
manner a lot like the way that we measure distance in drawings. In drawings, we measure the
distance between two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 by putting a ruler alongside the two points. The ruler is
used to assign a number to each point. The absolute value of the difference of the two numbers is
the distance between the two points. (That process was described in Section 3.2, The Distance
Function and Coordinate Functions in Drawings) In order to capture this behavior in an axiom,
we will use the concept of a coordinate function.

Definition 21 Coordinate Function

Words: 𝑓 is a coordinate function on line 𝐿.
Meaning: 𝑓 is a function with domain 𝐿 and codomain ℝ (that is, 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ) that has the
following properties:
(1) 𝑓 is a one-to-one correspondence. That is, 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto.
(2) 𝑓 “agrees with” the distance function 𝑑 in the following way:
For all points 𝑃,𝑄 on line 𝐿, the equation |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) is true.
Additional Terminology: In standard function notation, the symbol 𝑓(𝑃) denotes the output
of the coordinate function 𝑓 when the point 𝑃 is used as input. Note that 𝑓(𝑃) is a real
number. The number 𝑓(𝑃) is called the coordinate of point 𝑃 on line 𝐿.
Additional Notation: Because a coordinate function is tied to a particular line, it might be a
good idea to have a notation for the coordinate function that indicates which line the
coordinate function is tied to. We could write 𝑓𝐿 for a coordinate function on line 𝐿. With
that notation, the symbol 𝑓𝐿 (𝑃) would denote the coordinate of point 𝑃 on line 𝐿. But
although it might be clearer, we do not use the symbol 𝑓𝐿 . We just use the symbol 𝑓.

With the above definition of Coordinate Function, we are now ready to understand the wording
of Axiom <N5>.

<N5> (The Ruler Axiom) Every line has a coordinate function.

Coordinate functions will play a role in our abstract geometry that is analogous to the roles
played by rulers in drawings (That role was described in Section 3.2, The Distance Function and
Coordinate Functions in Drawings) and by coordinate functions in Analytic Geometry (That role
was described in Section 3.3, The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Analytic
Geometry). The analogy will be explored more in coming sections. But before going on to that,
we should point out that simply knowing that each line has a coordinate function tells us
something very important about the set of points on a line.

Theorem 7 about how many points are on lines in Neutral Geometry

In Neutral Geometry, given any line 𝐿, the set of points that lie on 𝐿 is an infinite set. More
precisely, the set of points that lie on 𝐿 can be put in one-to-one correspondence with the set
of real numbers ℝ. (In the terminology of sets, we would say that the set of points on line 𝐿
has the same cardinality as the set of real numbers ℝ.)

This theorem is worth discussing a bit. First, contrast what the theorem says with what we knew
about lines in some of our previous geometries in Chapter 2.
 page 65

 Four Point Geometry

o Four Point Axiom <3> For any line, there exist exactly two points that lie on the line.
 Four Line Geometry
o Four-Line Geometry Theorem #2: For every line, there exist exactly three points that
the line passes through.
 Fano’s Geometry
o Fano’s Axiom <F2> For every line, there exist exactly three points that lie on the line.
 Young’s Geometry
o Young’s Axiom <Y2> For every line, there exist exactly three points that lie on the
line.
 Incidence Geometry
o Incidence Axiom <I4> For every line, there exist two points that lie on the line (at
least two points)

We see that most of the geometries that we studied in Chapter 2 had lines with only a finite
number of points lying on them. Incidence Geometry is the only geometry that we studied in
Chapter 2 that might have lines with an infinite set of points lying on them. But that was not a
requirement. That is, we saw examples of Incidence Geometries that had lines with only a finite
number of points.

Also notice that Theorem 7 (about how many points are on lines in Neutral Geometry), found on
page 64, is very different from Neutral Axiom <N2>. That axiom says that given any two
distinct points, there is exactly one line that both points lie on. The axiom does not say that given
any line, there are exactly two points that lie on it. We see that the second statement is not even
true. That is, Theorem 7 tells us that in Neutral Geometry, given any line, the set of points that
lie on it is an infinite set.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 3.11 on page 88.

3.5. Diagram of Relationship Between Coordinate

Functions & Distance Functions
In Section 3.4 (The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Neutral Geometry), which
started on page 62, we discussed the function 𝑑 called the Distance Function on the Set of Points.
This is a function that takes as input a pair of points and produces as output a real number called
the distance between the points. It is illuminating to think about a different distance function on a
different set, the set of real numbers, ℝ.

We are all familiar with the idea that to find the distance between two numbers on the number
line, one takes the absolute value of their difference. That is, the distance between 𝑥 and 𝑦 is
|𝑥 − 𝑦|. We want to describe this using the terminology and notation of functions. That is, we
would like to say that the calculation |𝑥 − 𝑦| describes the working of some function.

We will call the function a “distance function”, but we must be careful because we already
discussed something called a distance function when we were discussing the Distance Axiom
<N4>. The distance function in our current discussion is not the same one as the one mentioned
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 66

in axiom <N4>. The distance function mentioned in axiom <N4> measures the distance between
two points and is called the Distance Function on the Set of Points. Our current distance function
measures the distance between real numbers, so we will call it the Distance Function on the Set
of Real Numbers and will denote it by the symbol 𝑑ℝ .

The domain of the Distance Function on the Set of Points, the function 𝑑, is the set 𝒫 × 𝒫 of
ordered pairs of points. In the current discussion, we are measuring the distance between two real
numbers, so the domain of the Distance Function on the Set of Real Numbers, the function 𝑑ℝ ,
will be the set ℝ × ℝ of ordered pairs of real numbers.

Given any two real numbers, the distance between them is a real number. In the terminology of
functions, we say that the codomain of the Distance Function on the Set of Real Numbers, the
function 𝑑ℝ , is the set of Real Numbers, ℝ.

Using the terminology and symbols of the preceeding discussion, we are ready to state a
definition.

Definition 22 Distance Function on the set of Real Numbers

Words: The Distance Function on the Set of Real Numbers
Meaning: The function 𝑑ℝ : ℝ × ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑑ℝ (𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦|.

For examples of the use of the Distance Function on the Set of Real Numbers, consider the
following calculations.
𝑑ℝ (5,7) = |5 − 7| = |−2| = 2
𝑑ℝ (7,5) = |7 − 5| = |2| = 2
𝑑ℝ (5,5) = |5 − 5| = |0| = 0
𝑑ℝ (−5, −7) = |(−5) − (−7)| = |2| = 2

Having introduced the Distance Function on the Set of Real Numbers, the function 𝑑ℝ , we now
will use the function 𝑑ℝ to shed new light on the Distance Function on the Set of Points, the
function 𝑑.

Observe that given points 𝑃 and 𝑄, there are two different processes that can be used to produce
a real number.

Process #1:
Feed the pair of points (𝑃, 𝑄) into the Distance Function on the Set of Points, the function 𝑑,
to get a real number, denoted 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) called the distance between 𝑃 and 𝑄. This process
could be illustrated with an arrow diagram:
(𝑃, 𝑄) 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄)
𝑑
𝒫×𝒫 ℝ
The bottom half of the diagram, we have seen before. It is the arrow diagram that tells us that
the symbol 𝑑 represents a function with domain 𝒫 × 𝒫 and codomain ℝ. The top part of the
diagram has been added. It shows what happens to an actual pair of points.

Process #2: (This is a two-step process.)

 page 67

First Step: Let 𝐿 be a line passing through points 𝑃 and 𝑄 and let 𝑓 be a coordinate function
for line 𝐿. Feed point 𝑃 into 𝑓 to get a real number 𝑓(𝑃), and feed point 𝑄 into 𝑓 to get a
real number 𝑓(𝑄). This gives us a pair of real numbers, (𝑓(𝑃), 𝑓(𝑄)).
Second Step: Feed the pair of real numbers (𝑓(𝑃), 𝑓(𝑄)) into the Distance Function on the
Set of Real Numbers, the function 𝑑ℝ , to get a real number, denoted 𝑑ℝ (𝑓(𝑃), 𝑓(𝑄)). We
know exactly how the Distance Function on the Set of Real Numbers works. The real
number 𝑑ℝ (𝑓(𝑃), 𝑓(𝑄)) is just |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)|.

The two-step process can be illustrated with a two-step arrow diagram:

(𝑃, 𝑄) (𝑓(𝑃), 𝑓(𝑄)) |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)|
𝑓×𝑓 𝑑ℝ
𝒫×𝒫 ℝ×ℝ ℝ

So we have two different processes that can be used to turn a pair of points into a single real
number. An obvious question is this: do the two processes give the same result? That is, for any
points 𝑃 and 𝑄 and a coordinate function 𝑓 on a line 𝐿 passing through 𝑃 and 𝑄, does 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄)
equal |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)|? Well, the fact that 𝑓 is a coordinate function guarantees that the two
results will always match.
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)|
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 #1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 #2

The fact that these two processes always yield the same result can be illustrated by combining
the two arrow diagrams into a single, larger diagram. In order to improve readability, we will
bend the diagram for process #2. The resulting diagram is
𝑓×𝑓
𝒫×𝒫 ℝ×ℝ
= 𝑑ℝ
𝑑
ℝ
In the diagram, we see that there are two different routes to get from a pair of points (that is, an
element of 𝒫 × 𝒫) to the set of real numbers, ℝ. The slanting arrow is Process #1. The two-step
path that goes straight across and then straight down is Process #2. The circled equal sign in the
middle of the diagram indicates that these two paths always yield the same result. In diagram
jargon, we say that the diagram commutes.

We can superimpose on the diagram some additional symbols that show what happens to an
actual pair of points.
(𝑃, 𝑄) (𝑓(𝑃), 𝑓(𝑄))
𝑓×𝑓
𝒫×𝒫 ℝ×ℝ
= 𝑑ℝ
𝑑

ℝ |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)|
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄)
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 68

The two diagrams above may seem rather strange to you, but these sorts of diagrams are very
common in higher-level math. Remember that the two diagrams are merely illustrations of what
it means when we say that a function 𝑓 is a coordinate function. They illustrate the relationship
between a coordinate function 𝑓 and the distance function 𝑑.

3.6. Two Basic Properties of the Distance Function in

Neutral Geometry
As mentioned in Section 3.4 (The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Neutral
Geometry), which started on page 62,the Distance Axiom <N4> tells us that the Distance
Function on the Set of Points, the function 𝑑, exists, but the axiom does not tell us anything
about the properties of that function. All of the facts that we want to state about the properties of
the Distance Function on the Set of Points will have to be proven in theorems. Most of those
theorems will be stated and proven in the current chapter, using proofs that rely on the important
relationship between the Distance Function and Coordinate Functions. That relationship was
introduced in the definition of Coordinate Function (Definition 21 on page 64) and was
illustrated in diagrams in the previous section.

For all points 𝑃,𝑄 on line 𝐿, the equation |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) is true.

In this section, we will prove that 𝑑 has two important properties.

The first property of 𝑑 that we will prove is the property of being positive definite.

Theorem 8 The Distance Function on the Set of Points, the function 𝑑, is Positive Definite.
For all points 𝑃 and 𝑄, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) ≥ 0, and 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 0 if and only if 𝑃 = 𝑄. That is, if
and only if 𝑃 and 𝑄 are actually the same point.
Proof
(1) Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be any two points, not necessarily distinct.
(2) Let 𝐿 be a line passing through 𝑃 and 𝑄. (The existence of such a line is guaranteed by
Theorem 6 (In Neutral Geometry, given any points 𝑃 and 𝑄 that are not known to be
distinct, there exists at least one line that passes through 𝑃 and 𝑄.) found on page 57.)
(3) Let 𝑓 be a coordinate function for line 𝐿. (A coordinate function exists by axiom <N5>.)
(4) By the definition of Coordinate Function (Definition 21 on page 64), we know that
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)|. This tells us that 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) ≥ 0.
(5) Suppose that 𝑃 and 𝑄 are actually the same point. Then their coordinates 𝑓(𝑃) and 𝑓(𝑄)
will be the same real number, so 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| = 0.
(6) Now suppose that 𝑃 and 𝑄 are not the same point. Because coordinate functions are one-to-
one, the coordinates 𝑓(𝑃) and 𝑓(𝑄) will not be the same real number. So the difference
|𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| will not be zero. Therefore, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| ≠ 0.
(7) The previous two steps tell us that 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 0 if and only if 𝑃 = 𝑄.
End of proof

The second property of 𝑑 that we will prove is the property of being symmetric.

Theorem 9 The Distance Function on the Set of Points, the function 𝑑, is Symmetric.
For all points 𝑃 and 𝑄, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑃).
 page 69

Proof
Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be any two points. Let 𝐿 be a line passing through 𝑃 and 𝑄, and let 𝑓 be a
coordinate function for line 𝐿.
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| (𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒚)
= |𝑓(𝑄) − 𝑓(𝑃)|
= 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑃) (𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒚)
End of proof

The two properties of the Neutral Geometry distance function that we have studied in this
section--the fact that the distance function is positive definite and symmetric--are properties that
will be important to us in future proofs, but they are both properties that you have probably never
thought about or used when measuring distance in drawings or in Analytic Geometry.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 3.11 on page 88.

3.7. Ruler Placement in Drawings

As mentioned in Section 3.4, coordinate functions in Neutral Geometry are defined in a way that
seems to mimic the role played by rulers and coordinate functions in drawings. But in that
section, we did not explore the behavior of coordinate functions very much. In the next few
sections, we will study the concept of ruler placement in drawings, in Analytic Geometry, and in
Neutral Geometry. Although you have probably not used the name ruler placement before, the
term does describe things that you have certainly done when using a ruler to measure things.

To be more precise, in this section we will study three behaviors of rulers in drawings: Ruler
Sliding, Ruler Flipping, and Ruler Placement. In Section 3.8 (Ruler Placement in Analytic
Geometry, starting on page 75) and in Section 3.9 (Ruler Placement in Neutral Geometry,
starting on page 81), we will see that there are analogs of Ruler Sliding, Ruler Flipping, and
Ruler Placement in Analytic Geometry and in Neutral Geometry, as well.

First Behavior of Rulers in Drawings: Ruler Sliding

The first behavior of rulers in drawings that we will consider is that of sliding the ruler along the
line. In Section 3.2 (The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Drawings, starting on
page 57), we put a ruler alongside a drawn line 𝐿. The placement of the ruler alongside the line
gave us a coordinate function that we called 𝑓, In symbols, we wrote 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ. To see this
coordinate function 𝑓 in action, we considered the three drawn points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 shown on line 𝐿 in
the drawing below.
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐿

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
coordinate function 𝑓

If we use the three drawn points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 as input to the function 𝑓, the resulting outputs are three
real numbers, called the coordinates of the three points.
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 70

 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐴 is the real number 𝑓(𝐴) = −2.

 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐵 is the real number 𝑓(𝐵) = 3.
 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐶 is the real number 𝑓(𝐶) = 7.6.

Consider what happens if we use the same ruler that we used above, but slide it three units to the
left. (“Right” is the direction of increasing numbers; “left” is the direction of decreasing
numbers.) The result is a new coordinate function that we can call 𝑔. In symbols, 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ.
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐿

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
coordinate function 𝑔

If we use the three points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 as input to the coordinate function 𝑔, the resulting outputs are
three real numbers listed below.

 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐴 is the real number 𝑔(𝐴) = 1.

 The coordinate of point 𝐵 is the real number 𝑔(𝐵) = 6.
 The coordinate of point 𝐶 is the real number 𝑔(𝐶) = 10.6.

Using the coordinate function 𝑔, we find that the distance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is 5 and the distance
between 𝐶 and B is 4.6. So the distances between the points are unchanged. Good.

Notice that for any point 𝑃 on line 𝐿, the coordinate obtained using coordinate function 𝑔 is
always going to be 3 greater than the coordinate obtained using coordinate function 𝑓. That is,

𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) + 3

More generally, if we slide ruler along line 𝐿 by some amount, we will obtain a new coordinate
function that we could call coordinate function 𝑔, and the coordinates produced by the two
coordinate functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 would be related by the equation

𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐

where 𝑐 is a real number constant that will depend on how far the ruler was slid. (And which way
it was slid! If we slide the ruler to the right, then the constant 𝑐 will be a negative number.)

We could also think of this the other way around in the following sense: Suppose we are given a
real number −7. Is there a way to place the ruler so that it will provide a coordinate function 𝑔
with the property that for any point 𝑃 on line 𝐿,

𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) + (−7) = 𝑓(𝑃) − 7?

Of course there is. To place the ruler for coordinate function 𝑔, one should slide the ruler 7 units
to the right of the spot that it was in for coordinate function 𝑓.

More generally, given any real number 𝑐, the equation

 page 71

𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐

describes a new coordinate function that can be achieved by sliding the ruler that produced
coordinate function 𝑓 to some new spot alongside line 𝐿.

Let’s take a moment to briefly look ahead at something found in Section 3.9 (Ruler Placement in
Neutral Geometry). The Theorem 10 claim (A) on page 81 says.

Suppose that 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ is a coordinate function for a line 𝐿.

(A) (Ruler Sliding) If 𝑐 is a real number constant and 𝑔 is the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by
𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐, then 𝑔 is also a coordinate function for line 𝐿.

We see that Theorem 10 claim (A) is simply telling us that our abstract coordinate functions will
exhibit behavior analogous to the sliding behavior of drawn rulers discussed above.

Second Behavior of Rulers in Drawings: Ruler Flipping

The second behavior of rulers in drawings that we will consider is that of flipping the ruler.We
start by reviewing the placement of the ruler that gave us coordinate function 𝑓.
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐿

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
coordinate function 𝑓

If we use the three drawn points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 as input to the function 𝑓, the resulting outputs are three
real numbers, called the coordinates of the three points.
 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐴 is the real number 𝑓(𝐴) = −2.
 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐵 is the real number 𝑓(𝐵) = 3.
 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐶 is the real number 𝑓(𝐶) = 7.6.

Now flip the ruler around, keeping the zero in the same spot on the line, so that the numbers go
to the left. (My drawing program won’t let me flip the characters upside down.) This placement
gives us a new coordinate function, one that we can call 𝑔.

coordinate function 𝑔
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
𝐵 𝐶 𝐿
𝐴
If we use the three drawn points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 as input to the function 𝑔, the resulting outputs are three
real numbers, called the coordinates of the three points.

 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐴 is the real number 𝑔(𝐴) = 2.

 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐵 is the real number 𝑔(𝐵) = −3.
 The coordinate of drawn point 𝐶 is the real number 𝑔(𝐶) = −7.6.
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 72

Notice that for any point 𝑃 on line 𝐿, the coordinate obtained using coordinate function 𝑔 is
always going to the negative of the coordinate obtained using coordinate function 𝑓. That is,

𝑔(𝑃) = −𝑓(𝑃)

Let’s again take a moment to briefly look ahead at something found in Section 3.9 (Ruler
Placement in Neutral Geometry). The Theorem 10 claim (B) on page 81 says.

Suppose that 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ is a coordinate function for a line 𝐿.

(B) (Ruler Flipping) If 𝑐 is a real number constant and 𝑔 is the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by
𝑔(𝑃) = −𝑓(𝑃), then 𝑔 is also a coordinate function for line 𝐿.

We see that Theorem 10 claim (B) is simply telling us that our abstract coordinate functions will
exhibit behavior analogous to the flipping behavior of drawn rulers discussed above.

Combining Sliding and Flipping: Ruler Placement in Drawings

The third behavior of rulers in drawings that we will consider is that of ruler placement. That
name may sound vague and unhelpful, but the name refers to the following simple idea. Given
two drawn points in a drawing, it is often useful to put the end of a ruler on one of the points, and
have the numbers on the ruler go in the direction of the other point. That is, given points 𝐴 and 𝐵
on a line, we often want the ruler placed so that the resulting coordinate function has two
properties:

 the coordinate of point 𝐴 is zero

 the coordinate of point 𝐵 is positive

With an actual ruler and a drawing, we can simply put the ruler on the drawing in the right way.
But it will be helpful to describe the process of getting the ruler into the correct position in a
more abstract way, so that we may see that the process generalizes to the abstract coordinate
functions of Neutral Geometry. We can get the ruler into the right position by a combination of
sliding and flipping.

Suppose that we are given points 𝐴 and 𝐵 lying on some line 𝐿. Put a ruler alongside line 𝐿.
Placed alongside the line like this, the ruler gives us a coordinate function for line 𝐿. We can call
the coordinate function 𝑓. A drawn example is shown below.
𝐵 𝐴 𝐿

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
coordinate function 𝑓

Notice that in our drawn example,

𝑓(𝐴) = 2
𝑓(𝐵) = −3
 page 73

So coordinate function 𝑓 does not have either of the properties that we desire.

Now we will move the ruler to obtain a coordinate function that does have our desired properties.
It will be done in two steps.

Step 1: Ruler Sliding

Let 𝑐 be the real number defined by 𝑐 = 𝑓(𝐴). That is, 𝑐 is the real number coordinate of point 𝐴
using coordinate function 𝑓 on line 𝐿. In our drawn example, 𝑐 = 𝑓(𝐴) = 2. Move the ruler 𝑐
units to the right along line 𝐿. (“Right” is the direction of increasing numbers on the ruler. Also
note that if the number 𝑐 is negative, then “moving the ruler 𝑐 units to the right” will actually
mean that the ruler gets moved to the left. For example, if 𝑐 = −7, then moving the ruler 𝑐 = −7
units to the right will mean that the ruler actually gets moved 7 units to the left.) This new
placement of the ruler gives us a new coordinate function for line 𝐿. We can call the new
coordinate function 𝑔. The result of doing this in our drawn example is shown below, where we
have moved the ruler 2 units to the right.
𝐵 𝐴 𝐿

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
coordinate function 𝑔

Notice that in our drawn example,

𝑔(𝐴) = 0
𝑔(𝐵) = −5

So coordinate function 𝑔 in our drawn example has the first property that we desire, but not the
second property.

This behavior of the coordinate function 𝑔 can be described abstractly. Because the ruler was
moved 𝑐 units to the right, the coordinates produced by functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 will be related by the
equation

𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑐

In this equation, the letter 𝑃 represents an arbitrary point on line 𝐿. Observe that we know that
the value of the constant 𝑐 is just 𝑐 = 𝑓(𝐴). So the coordinates produced by functions 𝑓 and 𝑔
will be related by the equation

𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝐴)

Again, the letter 𝑃 represents an arbitrary point on line 𝐿. Notice what happens when we let 𝑃 =
𝐴.

𝑔(𝐴) = 𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐴) = 0

Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 74

That is, the new coordinate function 𝑔 has the special property that it assigns a coordinate of zero
to point 𝐴. Observe that in our above drawing, 𝑔(𝐴) = 0.

Step 2: Ruler Flipping

Remember that we are interested in describing abstractly how to place the ruler so that it has two
properties

 the coordinate of point 𝐴 is zero

 the coordinate of point 𝐵 is positive.

In our drawn example, the coordinate function 𝑔 has the first property, but not the second. We
can fix this by simply flipping the ruler over so that the zero end remains at point 𝐴 but the
positive numbers go in the direction of point 𝐵. The resulting placement of the ruler gives us a
new coordinate function, one that we can call ℎ. A picture is shown below.
𝐵 𝐴 𝐿

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
coordinate function ℎ

Notice that in our drawn example,

ℎ(𝐴) = 0
ℎ(𝐵) = 5

So coordinate function ℎ in our drawn example has both properties that we desire.

This behavior of the coordinate function ℎ can be described abstractly. Because the ruler was
flipped so that its zero remained at the same point but the numbers went the other direction, the
coordinates produced by functions 𝑔 and h will be related by the equation

ℎ(𝑃) = −𝑔(𝑃)
In this equation, the letter 𝑃 represents an arbitrary point on line 𝐿.

Conclusion

It is helpful to reiterate what we have done. Given points 𝐴 and 𝐵 on a line, we wanted a ruler
placed so that the resulting coordinate function has two properties:

 the coordinate of point 𝐴 is zero

 the coordinate of point 𝐵 is positive

We saw that using a two step process of Ruler Sliding and Ruler Flipping, a ruler could be
placed in the correct position.
 page 75

Let’s again take a moment to briefly look ahead at something found in Section 3.9 (Ruler
Placement in Neutral Geometry). The Theorem 11 (Ruler Placement Theorem) on page 81 says.

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are distinct points on some line 𝐿, then there exists a coordinate function ℎ for
line 𝐿 such that ℎ(𝐴) = 0 and ℎ(𝐵) is positive.

We see that Theorem 11 is simply telling us that our abstract coordinate functions will exhibit
behavior analogous to the ruler placement behavior of drawn rulers discussed above.

3.8. Ruler Placement in Analytic Geometry

In Section 3.3 The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Analytic Geometry (starting
on page 59), we saw the introduction of coordinate functions for two lines called 𝐿 and 𝑀. In this
section, we will revisit those coordinate functions and obtain additional, new coordinate function
for lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 by modifying those old coordinate functions. We will see how the
modifications of the coordinate functions could be thought of as Ruler Sliding, Ruler Flipping,
and Ruler Placement for coordinate functions in Analytic Geometry.

3.8.1. Examples involving the line 𝑳.

Our first example in Section 3.3 The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Analytic
Geometry (starting on page 59) involved the line 𝐿 defined as follows.

𝐿 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 3}

This is a horizontal line, parallel to the x-axis but 3 units above the x-axis. Points 𝐴 = (7,3) and
𝐵 = (5,3) are on line 𝐿.
𝑦
𝐵 𝐴
𝐿
(5,3) (7,3)

In this section, we will be interested in finding a coordinate function for line 𝐿 that has the
following two properties:

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is zero.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is positive.

In Section 3.3 we saw the introduction of a coordinate function for line 𝐿. The coordinate
function was the function 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by the equation
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥

Recall that using the function 𝑓, we obtain the following coordinates for points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is the real number 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑓(7,3) = 7.

Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 76

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is the real number 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑓(5,3) = 5.

We see that using the coordinate function 𝑓,

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is not zero.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is positive.

So coordinate function 𝑓 does not have the two properties that we want. But it turns out that we
can modify coordinate function 𝑓 to obtain a new coordinate function that does have the two
properties that we want. The modification will be done in two steps.

Modification Step 1: Ruler Sliding

Define a new function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ is by the equation

𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 7 = 𝑥 − 7

Notice that the function 𝑔 is obtained by adding a constant −7 to the function 𝑓.

Using points 𝐴 and 𝐵 as inputs to the function 𝑔, we obtain the following outputs.

 When point 𝐴 is the input, the output is the real number 𝑔(𝐴) = 𝑔(7,3) = 0.
 When point B is the input, the output is the real number 𝑔(𝐵) = 𝑔(5,3) = −2.

Also observe that

|𝑔(𝐴) − 𝑔(𝐵)| = |0 − (−2)| = |2| = 2

so the equation
|𝑔(𝐴) − 𝑔(𝐵)| = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵)

is satisfied. The fact that this equation is satified is what qualifies 𝑔 to be called a coordinate
function for line 𝐿. We can rewrite the two sentences above about inputs and outputs, using
instead the terminology of coordinate functions and coordinates. We can say that using the
coordinate function 𝑔, we obtain the following coordinates for points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

 The coordinate of point 𝐴 is the real number 𝑔(𝐴) = 𝑔(7,3) = 0.

 The coordinate of point 𝐵 is the real number 𝑔(𝐵) = 𝑔(5,3) = −2.

Observe that using coordinate function 𝑔,

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is zero.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is negative.

So coordinate function 𝑔 has the first of the two properties that we want, but it does not have the
second property.
 page 77

Realize that the mathematical operation of adding a constant −7 to the function 𝑓 corresponds to
sliding the ruler for 𝑓 seven units along the line 𝐿. The resulting new ruler--the new coordinate
function--is named 𝑔. So we see that the operation of sliding a ruler along a line in a drawing has
an analog in the world of Analytic Geometry: it corresponds to adding a constant to a coordinate
function to get a new coordinate function.

Modification Step 2: Ruler Flipping

Define a new function ℎ: 𝐿 → ℝ by the equation

ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = −(𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑓(𝐴)) = −(𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 7) = 7 − 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 7 − 𝑥

Notice that the function ℎ is obtained by multiplying the function 𝑔 by −1.

Using points 𝐴 and 𝐵 as inputs to the function ℎ, we obtain the following outputs.

 When point 𝐴 is the input, the output is the real number ℎ(𝐴) = ℎ(7,3) = 0.
 When point B is the input, the output is the real number ℎ(𝐵) = ℎ(5,3) = 2.

Also observe that

|ℎ(𝐴) − ℎ(𝐵)| = |0 − 2| = |−2| = 2

so the equation
|ℎ(𝐴) − ℎ(𝐵)| = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵)

is satisfied. The fact that this equation is satified is what qualifies ℎ to be called a coordinate
function for line 𝐿. We can rewrite the two sentences above about inputs and outputs, using
instead the terminology of coordinate functions and coordinates. We can say that using the
coordinate function ℎ, we obtain the following coordinates for points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

 The coordinate of point 𝐴 is the real number ℎ(𝐴) = ℎ(7,3) = 0.

 The coordinate of point 𝐵 is the real number ℎ(𝐵) = ℎ(5,3) = 2.

Observe that using coordinate function ℎ,

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is zero.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is positive.

So coordinate function ℎ has both of the two properties that we want.

Realize that the mathematical operation of multiplying the function 𝑔 by −1 corresponds to

flipping the ruler for 𝑔. The resulting new ruler--the new coordinate function--is named ℎ. So we
see that the operation of flipping a ruler in a drawing has an analog in the world of Analytic
Geometry: it corresponds to multiplying a coordinate function by −1 to get a new coordinate
function.

Conclusion: Ruler Placement in Analytic Geometry

Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 78

In this subsection, we started with a line 𝐿. We wanted a coordinate function for line L that
would have the following two properties:
 The coordinate of 𝐴 is zero.
 The coordinate of 𝐵 is positive.

We started with a coordinate function 𝑓 that did not have these properties. Then we modified 𝑓
in two steps. In Step 1, we obtained a new coordinated function 𝑔 by adding a real number
constant to 𝑓. This was analogous to Ruler Sliding in a drawing. In Step 2, we obtained a new
coordinate function ℎ by multiplying 𝑔 by the number −1. This was analogous to Ruler Flipping
in a drawing. We observed that the function ℎ had both of the properties that we wanted. So the
two step modification was analagous to Ruler Placement in a drawing.

3.8.2. Examples involving the line 𝑴.

Our second example in Section 3.3 The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Analytic
Geometry (starting on page 59) involved the slanting line 𝑀 defined as follows.

𝑀 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4}

That is, 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 4. Points 𝐴 = (7, −3) and 𝐵 = (5, −1) are on on line 𝑀.
𝑦

𝑥
(5, −1) 𝐵

𝐴
(7, −3)
𝑀
As we did above for line 𝐿, we will be interested in finding a coordinate function for line 𝑀 that
has the following two properties:

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is zero.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is positive.

In Section 3.3 we saw the introduction of a coordinate function for line 𝑀. The coordinate
function was the function 𝑓: 𝑀 → ℝ defined by the equation
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥√2

Recall that using the function 𝑓, we obtain the following coordinates for points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is the real number 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑓(7,3) = 7√2.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is the real number 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑓(5,3) = 5√2.
 page 79

We see that using the coordinate function 𝑓,

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is not zero.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is positive.

So coordinate function 𝑓 does not have the two properties that we want. But again, it turns out
that we can modify coordinate function 𝑓 to obtain a new coordinate function that does have the
two properties that we want. Again, the modification will be done in two steps.

Modification Step 1: Ruler Sliding

Define a new function 𝑔: 𝑀 → ℝ is by the equation

𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 7√2 = 𝑥√2 − 7√2

Notice that the function 𝑔 is obtained by adding a constant −7√2 to the function 𝑓.

Using points 𝐴 and 𝐵 as inputs to the function 𝑔, we obtain the following outputs.

 When point 𝐴 is the input, the output is the real number 𝑔(𝐴) = 𝑔(7,3) = 0.
 When point B is the input, the output is the real number 𝑔(𝐵) = 𝑔(5,3) = −2√2.

Also observe that

|𝑔(𝐴) − 𝑔(𝐵)| = |0 − (−2√2)| = |2√2| = 2√2

so the equation
|𝑔(𝐴) − 𝑔(𝐵)| = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵)

is satisfied. The fact that this equation is satified is what qualifies 𝑔 to be called a coordinate
function for line 𝑀. We can rewrite the two sentences above about inputs and outputs, using
instead the terminology of coordinate functions and coordinates. We can say that using the
coordinate function 𝑔, we obtain the following coordinates for points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

 The coordinate of point 𝐴 is the real number 𝑔(𝐴) = 𝑔(7,3) = 0.

 The coordinate of point 𝐵 is the real number 𝑔(𝐵) = 𝑔(5,3) = −2√2.

Observe that using coordinate function 𝑔,

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is zero.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is negative.

So coordinate function 𝑔 has the first of the two properties that we want, but it does not have the
second property.
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 80

Realize that the mathematical operation of adding a constant −7√2 to the function 𝑓 corresponds
to sliding the ruler for 𝑓 a distance of 7√2 units along the line 𝑀. The resulting new ruler--the
new coordinate function--is named 𝑔. Again we see that the operation of sliding a ruler along a
line in a drawing has an analog in the world of Analytic Geometry: it corresponds to adding a
constant to a coordinate function to get a new coordinate function.

Modification Step 2: Ruler Flipping

Define a new function ℎ: 𝑀 → ℝ by the equation

ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦)
= −(𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑓(𝐴))
= −(𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 7√2)
= 7√2 − 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
= 7√2 − 𝑥√2

Notice that the function ℎ is obtained by multiplying the function 𝑔 by −1.

Using points 𝐴 and 𝐵 as inputs to the function ℎ, we obtain the following outputs.

 When point 𝐴 is the input, the output is the real number ℎ(𝐴) = ℎ(7,3) = 0.
 When point B is the input, the output is the real number ℎ(𝐵) = ℎ(5,3) = 2√2.

Also observe that

|ℎ(𝐴) − ℎ(𝐵)| = |0 − 2√2| = |−2√2| = 2√2

so the equation
|ℎ(𝐴) − ℎ(𝐵)| = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵)

is satisfied. The fact that this equation is satified is what qualifies ℎ to be called a coordinate
function for line 𝐿. We can rewrite the two sentences above about inputs and outputs, using
instead the terminology of coordinate functions and coordinates. We can say that using the
coordinate function ℎ, we obtain the following coordinates for points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

 The coordinate of point 𝐴 is the real number ℎ(𝐴) = ℎ(7,3) = 0.

 The coordinate of point 𝐵 is the real number ℎ(𝐵) = ℎ(5,3) = 2√2.

Observe that using coordinate function ℎ,

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is zero.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is positive.

So coordinate function ℎ has both of the two properties that we want.

Realize that the mathematical operation of multiplying the function 𝑔 by −1 corresponds to

flipping the ruler for 𝑔. The resulting new ruler--the new coordinate function--is named ℎ. Again
 page 81

we see that the operation of flipping a ruler in a drawing has an analog in the world of Analytic
Geometry: it corresponds to multiplying a coordinate function by −1 to get a new coordinate
function.

Conclusion: Ruler Placement in Analytic Geometry

In this subsection we, we started with a line 𝑀. We wanted a coordinate function for line 𝑀 that
would have the following two properties:
 The coordinate of 𝐴 is zero.
 The coordinate of 𝐵 is positive.

We started with a coordinate function 𝑓 that did not have these properties. Then we modified 𝑓
in two steps. In Step 1, we obtained a new coordinated function 𝑔 by adding a real number
constant to 𝑓. This was analogous to Ruler Sliding in a drawing. In Step 2, we obtained a new
coordinate function ℎ by multiplying 𝑔 by the number −1. This was analogous to Ruler Flipping
in a drawing. We observed that the function ℎ had both of the properties that we wanted. So the
two step modification was analagous to Ruler Placement in a drawing.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 3.11 on page 88.

3.9. Ruler Placement in Neutral Geometry

Having studied Ruler Sliding, Ruler Flipping, and Ruler Placement in both drawings and
Analytic Geometry, we are ready to see how the abstract version of each of those three behaviors
is manifest in Neutral Geometry. Notice that the Neutral Geometry axioms do not say anything
about Ruler Sliding, Ruler Flipping, or Ruler Placement. We will have to prove in theorems that
the three behaviors do, in fact, occur in Neutral Geometry.

Here is the first theorem about ruler behavior in Neutral Geometry. It has to do with Ruler
Sliding and Ruler Flipping.

Theorem 10 (Ruler Sliding and Ruler Flipping) Lemma about obtaining a new coordinate
function from a given one
Suppose that 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ is a coordinate function for a line 𝐿.
(A) (Ruler Sliding) If 𝑐 is a real number constant and 𝑔 is the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by
𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐, then 𝑔 is also a coordinate function for line 𝐿.
(B) (Ruler Flipping) If 𝑔 is the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑃) = −𝑓(𝑃), then 𝑔 is also a
coordinate function for line 𝐿.

A digression to discuss proof structure

Before embarking on the proof, it is worthwhile to discuss the proof structure. We will consider
the structure of the proof of Statement (A) and then I will present the proof. A similar structure
will be needed for the proof of Statement (B), which you will prove as an exercise.

Since Statement (A) is a conditional statement, step (1) of the proof will of course be simply a
statement of the hypothesis of Statement (A), and the final step of the proof will be a statement
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 82

of the conclusion of Statement (A), with some justification provided. Look ahead to the proof
provided below and confirm that it does indeed begin and end in this way.

Now, working backwards from the end of the proof, let’s think about how the final statement of
the proof will need to be justified. The final statement of the proof says that some function 𝑔 is a
coordinate function for some line 𝐿. But coordinate function is a defined term. The only way to
prove that some function is a coordinate function is to prove that the function does indeed have
all of the characteristics described in the definition of coordinate function. For reference, here is
part of that definition.

Definition 21: Coordinate Function (page 64)

Words: 𝑓 is a coordinate function on line 𝐿.
Meaning: 𝑓 is a function with domain 𝐿 and codomain ℝ (that is, 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ) that has the
following properties:
(1) 𝑓 is a one-to-one correspondence. That is, 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto.
(2) 𝑓 “agrees with” the distance function 𝑑 in the following way:
For all points 𝑃,𝑄 on line 𝐿, the equation |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) is true.

If we want to prove that 𝑔 is a coordinate function for line 𝐿, we will need to prove that 𝑔 does
have all the characteristics listed above. That means we will need to prove four things:

1. Prove that 𝒈 is a function with domain 𝑳 and codomain ℝ (that is, 𝒈: 𝑳 → ℝ). Notice
that 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ is already stated as part of the description of 𝑔 in Statement (A), as if it
were already known to be a fact. How is it already known? Well, the proof of the fact
is so easy that once you see the proof in this remark, you will understand why the
proof of the fact is omitted in the real proof.
To prove that 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ is true, we would need to prove that 𝑔 will
accept any given point on line 𝐿 as input, and will produce exactly
one real number as output. So suppose that 𝑃 is some given point on
line 𝐿. Then 𝑓(𝑃) is a real number, by the fact that 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ is true
since 𝑓 is known to be a coordinate function. Then 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐 is also
a real number. But 𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐. That means that 𝑔(𝑃) does in
fact represent a real number. So 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ is true.
So the proof that 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ is so easy that the fact is stated without proof, as part of
Statement (A).

2. Prove that 𝒈 is one-to-one. Recall that to say that a function is one-to-one means that if
two inputs cause two outputs that are equal, then the two inputs must have also been
equal as well. In our situation, we must prove that if 𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑔(𝑄), then 𝑃 = 𝑄.

3. Prove that 𝒈 is onto. Recall that to say that a function is onto means that for any desired
output in the codomain, there exists an input in the domain that will cause the
function to give that desired output. In our situation, we must prove that for any real
number y, there exists some point 𝑃 on line 𝐿 such that𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑦.

4. Prove that 𝒈 “agrees with” the distance function 𝒅 in the following way:
For all points 𝑃, 𝑄 on line 𝐿, the equation |𝑔(𝑃) − 𝑔(𝑄)| = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) is true.
 page 83

If you look ahead to the proof of Statement (A), you will see that the proof is organized into
three sections, corresponding to items 2, 3, and 4 on the above list.

End of digression

Here, then, is the proof of Theorem 10 Statement (A):

Proof that Statement (A) is true

(1) Suppose that 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ is a coordinate function for a line 𝐿. And suppose that 𝑐 is a real
number constant, and that 𝑔 is the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐.
Prove that the function 𝒈 is one-to-one.
(2) Suppose that 𝑃, 𝑄 are points on line 𝐿 such that 𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑔(𝑄).
(3) Then 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐 = 𝑓(𝑄) + 𝑐. (by definition of how function 𝑔 works.)
(4) Then 𝑓(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑄). (by arithmetic)
(5) Then 𝑃 = 𝑄. (by statement 4 and the fact that function 𝑓 is known to be one-to-one
because 𝑓 is known to be a coordinate function.)
(6) Conclude that function 𝑔 is one-to-one. (by steps (2), (5) and the definition of one-to-one)
Prove that the function 𝒈 is onto.
(7) Suppose that a real number 𝑦 is given. (This is our desired output from the function 𝑔.)
(8) Observe that 𝑦 − 𝑐 is also a real number. Consider this new real number as a desired
output for the function 𝑓. Because function 𝑓 is known to be a coordinate function, we
know that 𝑓 is onto. That is, there exists an input in the domain that will cause the
function 𝑓 to give the desired output of 𝑦 − 𝑐. In other words, there exists some point 𝑃
on line 𝐿 such that 𝑓(𝑃) = 𝑦 − 𝑐.
(9) Now consider what happens when we use the point 𝑃 as input to the function 𝑔. The
corresponding output is 𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑐 = (𝑦 − 𝑐) + 𝑐 = 𝑦. In other words, there
exists some point 𝑃 on line 𝐿 such that 𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑦.
(10) Conclude that function 𝑔 is onto. (by steps (7), (9) and the definition of onto)
Prove that the function 𝒈 “agrees with” the distance function 𝒅.
(11) For any two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 on line 𝐿, we have
|𝑔(𝑃) − 𝑔(𝑄)| = |(𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐) − (𝑓(𝑄) + 𝑐)|
= |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)|
= 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄)
Conclusion
(12) Conclude that 𝑔 is a coordinate function for line 𝐿. (by steps (6) (10), (11), and the
definition of Coordinate Function (Definition 21).
End of proof that Statement (A) is true

As mentioned above, you will be asked to prove Theorem 10 Statement (B) as an exercise.

Here is the second theorem about ruler behavior in Neutral Geometry. It has to do with Ruler
Placement.

Theorem 11 Ruler Placement Theorem

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are distinct points on some line 𝐿, then there exists a coordinate function ℎ for
line 𝐿 such that ℎ(𝐴) = 0 and ℎ(𝐵) is positive.
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 84

Proof

Part 1: Find a coordinate function with the correct behavior at 𝑨.

(1) Suppose that 𝐴 and 𝐵 are distinct points on some line 𝐿.
(2) There exists a coordinate function 𝑓 for line 𝐿. (Justify.)
(3) Let 𝑐 be the real number defined by 𝑐 = 𝑓(𝐴). That is, 𝑐 is the real number coordinate of
point 𝐴 using coordinate function 𝑓 on line 𝐿.
(4) Let 𝑔 be the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑐.
(5) The function 𝑔 is also a coordinate function for line 𝐿. (Justify.)
(6) Observe that 𝑔(𝐴) = 𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑐 = 𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐴) = 0.

Part 2: Find a coordinate function with the correct behavior at both 𝑨 and 𝑩.
(7) We know that 𝑔(𝐵 ) ≠ 0 (Justify.). Therefore, 𝑔(𝐵 ) will be either positive or negative.
Case 1: Suppose that 𝒈(𝑩) is positive.
(8) If 𝑔(𝐵) is positive, then we can just let ℎ be coordinate function 𝑔. Then ℎ is a coordinate
function for line 𝐿 such that ℎ(𝐴) = 0 and ℎ(𝐵) is positive.
Case 2: Suppose that 𝒈(𝑩) is negative.
(9) If 𝑔(𝐵) is negative, then let ℎ be the function ℎ: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by ℎ(𝑃) = −𝑔(𝑃).
(10) The function ℎ is also a coordinate function for line 𝐿. (Justify.)
(11) Observe that ℎ(𝐴) = −𝑔(𝐴) = −0 = 0.
(12) Also observe that ℎ(𝐵) = −𝑔(𝐵) = −𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
(13) So ℎ is a coordinate function for line 𝐿 such that ℎ(𝐴) = 0 and ℎ(𝐵) is positive.
Conclusion of Cases
(14) We see that in either case, it is possible to define a coordinate function ℎ for line 𝐿 such
that ℎ(𝐴) = 0 and ℎ(𝐵) is positive.
End of proof

Here, it is worthwhile to pause for a moment and consider the significance of the proofs of
Theorem 10 and Theorem 11.

Back in Section 3.7 (Ruler Placement in Drawings, which began on page 69), the notions of
Ruler Sliding, Ruler Flipping, and Ruler Placement in drawings were very concrete. They are
actual things that you do with real rulers. Then in Section 3.8 (Ruler Placement in Analytic
Geometry, which began on page 75), you saw analogous notions of Ruler Sliding, Ruler
Flipping, and Ruler Placement in Analytic Geometry. You worked with actual equations, and the
distance function and coordinate functions were given by actual formulas, whose inputs involved
numbers and whose outputs were numbers. Ruler Sliding, Ruler Flipping, and Ruler Placement
were described by actual formulas.

Now you have seen that there are notions of Ruler Sliding, Ruler Flipping, and Ruler Placement
in Neutral Geometry, as well. But in Neutral Geometry, the distance function is not given by a
formula, and coordinate functions are not given by a formula. Indeed, there is no way that they
could be given by formulas, because the inputs to the functions are points, which in Neutral
Geometry are undefined objects. So in the proofs of Theorem 10 and Theorem 11, the distance
function 𝑑 and the coordinate functions 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ are abstract, not given by formulas. The notions
of Ruler Sliding, Ruler Flipping, and Ruler Placement are described in terms of actual
mathematical operations done to these abstract functions. The theorems were proved by referring
 page 85

to the definition of an abstract coordinate function and by careful use of the definitions of one-to-
one functions and onto functions.

3.10. Distance and Rulers in High School Geometry Books

Many High School Geometry books use a set of axioms called the SMSG (School Mathematics
Study Group) axioms. Here are the first four SMSG axioms. (The word postulate is used instead
of the word axiom.)

SMSG Postulate 1: Given any two distinct points there is exactly one line that contains
them.
SMSG Postulate 2: (Distance Postulate) To every pair of distinct points there corresponds a
unique positive number. This number is called the distance between the two points.
SMSG Postulate 3: (Ruler Postulate) The points of a line can be placed in a correspondence
with the real numbers such that:
 To every point of the line there corresponds exactly one real number.
 To every real number there corresponds exactly one point of the line.
 The distance between two distinct points is the absolute value of the difference of
the corresponding real numbers.
SMSG Postulate 4: (Ruler Placement Postulate) Given two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 of a line, the
coordinate system can be chosen in such a way that the coordinate of 𝑃 is zero and the
coordinate of 𝑄 is positive.

Distance in the SMSG Axioms

Compare the SMSG Postulate 2 (the Distance Postulate) to our Neutral Geomtry axiom about
distance:
<N4> (The Distance Axiom) There exists a function 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ, called the
Distance Function on the Set of Points.

There is one obvious difference in the two axioms: Our distance axiom <N4> uses the
terminology of functions, while the SMSG distance postulate does not. Why not? Well, the
terminology of functions, and the symbols used as an abbreviation for that terminology, are
something that is typically taught in a 2nd- or 3rd-year college course. So a high school book
cannot use notation such as 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ.

But there is another, more important, difference between the two axioms. The SMSG postulates
only talk about the distance between two points that are known to be distinct, while our Neutral
Geometry Axioms talk about the distance between any two points, not necessarily distinct. If you
consider what our neutral geometry axioms tell us about how our neutral geometry distance
function 𝑑 behaves, you will see that if points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are actually the same point, then
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 0. (Can you explain why?) But if you consider what the SMSG postulates tell us
about distance between points in their geometry, if points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are actually the same point,
then the distance 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) is undefined.

You might think that this discussion is silly, that everybody knows that if points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are
actually the same point, then 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 0, even if the SMSG axioms don’t say so. But the point
is we don’t know it unless the axioms say that it is true (or we prove it in a theorem). So in our
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 86

Neutral Geometry, we can say that if points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are actually the same point, then 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) =
0, while in the SMSG geometry, we cannot say that.

You might wonder if it really matters whether or not our distance function is capable of
measuring the distance 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) if points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are actually the same point. Well, it is indeed
useful to be able to do that. And in the definition of a distance function conventionally used in
mathematics, points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are allowed to be the same point.

One more note: Notice that in the distance formula from Analytic Geometry (the formula
involving the square root), points 𝑃 and 𝑄 can be the same point. If they are, then 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 0.

Coordinates in the SMSG Axioms

Compare what the SMSG Axioms say about coordinates to what our Neutral Geometry Axioms
and Definitions say about coordinates:

From the SMSG Axioms:

SMSG Postulate 3: (Ruler Postulate) The points of a line can be placed in a correspondence
with the real numbers such that:
 To every point of the line there corresponds exactly one real number.
 To every real number there corresponds exactly one point of the line.
 The distance between two distinct points is the absolute value of the difference of
the corresponding real numbers.

From our Neutral Geometry Axioms and Definitions, we have a definition and an axiom:

Definition 21 Coordinate Function

Words: 𝑓 is a coordinate function on line 𝐿.
Meaning: 𝑓 is a function with domain 𝐿 and codomain ℝ (that is, 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ) that has the
following properties:
(1) 𝑓 is a one-to-one correspondence. That is, 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto.
(2) 𝑓 “agrees with” the distance function 𝑑 in the following way:
For all points 𝑃,𝑄 on line 𝐿, the equation |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) is true.
Additional Terminology: In standard function notation, the symbol 𝑓(𝑃) denotes the output
of the coordinate function 𝑓 when the point 𝑃 is used as input. Note that 𝑓(𝑃) is a real
number. The number 𝑓(𝑃) is called the coordinate of point 𝑃 on line 𝐿.
Additional Notation: Because a coordinate function is tied to a particular line, it might be a
good idea to have a notation for the coordinate function that indicates which line the
coordinate function is tied to. We could write 𝑓𝐿 for a coordinate function on line 𝐿. With
that notation, the symbol 𝑓𝐿 (𝑃) would denote the coordinate of point 𝑃 on line 𝐿. But
although it might be clearer, we do not use the symbol 𝑓𝐿 . We just use the symbol 𝑓.

<N5> (The Ruler Axiom) Every line has a coordinate function.

Notice that the main difference is that our Neutral Geometry uses the terminology and notation
of functions, while the SMSG axioms do not. But again notice that when the SMSG Postulate
 page 87

describes the relationship between the coordinates of two points on a line and the distance
between those two points, the points are required to be two distinct points. No such requirement
is made in our Neutral Geometry.

Ruler Placement in the SMSG Axioms

Finally, notice that Ruler Placement behavior is guaranteed in both the SMSG geometry and in
our Neutral Geometry, but in different ways:

From the SMSG Geometry:

SMSG Postulate 4: (Ruler Placement Postulate) Given two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 of a line, the
coordinate system can be chosen in such a way that the coordinate of 𝑃 is zero and
the coordinate of 𝑄 is positive.

From our Neutral Geometry:

Theorem 11 Ruler Placement Theorem

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are distinct points on some line 𝐿, then there exists a coordinate
function ℎ for line 𝐿 such that ℎ(𝐴) = 0 and ℎ(𝐵) is positive.

You see that the SMSG Axioms include a Postulate that guarantees Ruler Placement behavior,
while in our Neutral Geometry, Ruler Placement behavior is proven as a theorem.

Remember that if an axiom that can be proven true (or false) as a consequence of the other
axioms, then that axiom is not an independent axiom. We see that the SMSG Axioms includes an
axiom (SMSG Postulate 4, the Ruler Placement Postulate) that is not independent. So the set of
SMSG Axioms is not an independent axiom system.

An obvious question is, why include an axiom that is not independent? Why not just leave it off
the axiom list and prove it as a theorem, as we have?

For an answer to that question, consider what was involved in our proof of Neutral Geometry
Theorem 11, the Ruler Placement Theorem. In Section 3.9 (Ruler Placement in Neutral
Geometry, which starts on page 81), we first proved Theorem 10 (Ruler Sliding and Ruler
Flipping). The statement of that theorem used function terminology and notation. Remember that
high school students don’t know that terminology. If we were to try to reword the statement of
the theorem for a high school audience, without using function terminology and notation, we
would find that the statement would become much more cumbersome. And the proof of the
theorem is densly-written, using both function notation and absolute value notation. That proof is
simply above the level of a high school course. Similarly, our proof of Neutral Geometry
Theorem 11, the Ruler Placement Theorem, also made extensive use of function terminology and
notation. Again, the proof is above the level of a high school course.

So our list of ten Neutral Geometry axioms is shorter than the list of SMSG axioms, and our list
of axioms is independent. But a trade-off is that in our course, we have to prove some difficult
theorems.
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 88

3.11. Exercises for Chapter 3

Exercises for Section 3.1 Neutral Geometry Axioms and First Six Theorems

[1] How are points defined in Neutral Geometry?

[2] How are lines defined in Neutral Geometry?

[3] In Neutral Geometry, what does it mean to say that “the point lies on the line”?

[4] After graduation, you land a job hosting the show “Geometry Today” on National Public
Radio. Somebody calls in to complain about Axiom <N2>. He says that lines in Neutral
Geometry should not be limited to containing only two points, because clearly lines in drawings
contain more than two points. How do you respond?

[5] What do the Neutral Geometry axioms say about parallel lines?

[6] Prove Neutral Geometry Theorem 1 (In Neutral Geometry, if 𝐿 and 𝑀 are distinct lines that
intersect, then they intersect in only one point.), which was presented on page 55.

[7] Prove Neutral GeometryTheorem 2 (In Neutral Geometry, there exist three non-collinear
points.), which was presented on page 55.

[8] Prove Neutral GeometryTheorem 3 (In Neutral Geometry, there exist three lines that are not
concurrent.), which was presented on page 55.

[9] Prove Neutral GeometryTheorem 4 (In Neutral Geometry, for every point 𝑃, there exists a
line that does not pass through 𝑃.), which was presented on page 55.

[10] Prove Neutral GeometryTheorem 5 (In Neutral Geometry, for every point 𝑃, there exist at
least two lines that pass through 𝑃.), which was presented on page 55.

Exercises for Section 3.3 The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Analytic
Geometry

[11] Let 𝐿 be the line described as the set 𝐿 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3}. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be the
two points 𝐴 = (7,10) and 𝐵 = (5,8). Both points are on line 𝐿.
(A) Find 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵).
(B) Define the function 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ by the equation 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥.
(i) Find 𝑓(𝐴).
(ii) Find 𝑓(𝐵).
(iii) Find |𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)|.
(iv) Is the equation |𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) true?
(v) Could 𝑓 be a coordinate function for line 𝐿? Explain.
(C) Define the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ by the equation 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥√2.
(i) Find 𝑔(𝐴).
(ii) Find 𝑔(𝐵).
(iii) Find |𝑔(𝐴) − 𝑔(𝐵)|.
 page 89

(iv) Is the equation |𝑔(𝐴) − 𝑔(𝐵)| = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) true?

(v) Could 𝑔 be a coordinate function for line 𝐿? Explain.

Exercises for Section 3.4 The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Neutral
Geometry

[12] In Section 3.3, The Distance Function and Coordinate Functions in Analytic Geometry,
which started on page 59, we discussed the familiar distance function
𝑑((𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )) = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
That was familiar and not too hard. Why can’t we just define distance that way in Neutral
Geometry? Why were we never given any formula for the Neutral Geometry distance function?

[13] Prove Neutral GeometryTheorem 7 (about how many points are on lines in Neutral
Geometry), which was presented on page 64.

Exercises for Section 3.6 Two Basic Properties of the Distance Function in Neutral
Geometry

[14] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 9 (The Distance Function on the Set of Points, the
function 𝑑, is Symmetric.), which was presented on page 68.

Exercises for Section 3.8 Ruler Placement in Analytic Geometry

[15] Let 𝐿 be the line described as the set 𝐿 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3}. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be the
two points 𝐴 = (7,10) and 𝐵 = (5,8). Both points are on line 𝐿. Find a coordinate function ℎ for
line 𝐿 such that when using the coordinate function ℎ,

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is zero. That is, ℎ(𝐴) = 0.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is positive. That is, ℎ(𝐵) is positive.

[16] Let 𝑀 be the vertical line described as the set 𝑀 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 3}. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵
be the two points 𝐴 = (3,10) and 𝐵 = (3,8). Both points are on line 𝑀. Find a coordinate
function ℎ for line 𝑀 such that when using the coordinate function ℎ,

 The coordinate of 𝐴 is zero. That is, ℎ(𝐴) = 0.

 The coordinate of 𝐵 is positive. That is, ℎ(𝐵) is positive.

Exercises for Section 3.9 Ruler Placement in Neutral Geometry

[17] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 10A (Ruler Sliding), which was presented on page
81.

[18] Prove Theorem 10B (Ruler Flipping), which was presented on page 81.

[19] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 11 (Ruler Placement Theorem), which was
presented on page 83.
Chapter 3 Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 90

Exercises for Section 3.10 Distance and Rulers in High School Geometry Books

[20] In the reading, we discussed that the SMSG Axioms do not use function terminology or
function notation, and that there is at least one SMSG Axiom (SMSG Postulate 4, the Ruler
Placement Postulate) the appears in our Neutral Geometry as a theorem (our Neutral Geometry
Theorem 11, the Ruler Placement Theorem). Consider our Neutral Geometry Theorem 10:

Theorem 10: (Ruler Sliding and Ruler Flipping) Lemma about obtaining a new coordinate
function from a given one
Suppose that 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ is a coordinate function for a line 𝐿.
(A) (Ruler Sliding) If 𝑐 is a real number constant, and 𝑔 is the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ defined
by 𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐, then 𝑔 is also a coordinate function for line 𝐿.
(B) (Ruler Flipping) If 𝑔 is the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑃) = −𝑓(𝑃), then 𝑔 is
also a coordinate function for line 𝐿.

Suppose that you wanted to include the statement of our Neutral Geometry Theorem 10 as a
Postulate to be included in the list of SMSG Axioms, to be used by high school students. Try
rewriting the statement Neutral Geometry Theorem 10 in the style of the other SMSG postulates.
That is, rewrite it without using function terminology or function notation.

.
 page 91

4.Neutral Geometry II: More about the

Axioms of Incidence and Distance
4.1. Betweenness
In the previous chapter, we focused on understanding the idea of the distance function and
coordinate functions. The discussion and the theorems were mostly about examining the
behavior of the distance function and coordinate functions (or rulers) in drawings and in Analytic
Geometry, and then proving (in Theorem 10 (Ruler Sliding and Ruler Flipping) and Theorem 11
(Ruler Placement Theorem)) that the abstract distance function and abstract coordinate functions
in Neutral Geometry behave in the same way.

Now we turn our attention to another concept from the world of drawings: the notion of
betweenness. We will see that there is an analogous notion of betweenness in Neutral Geometry.

The notion of betweenness is an important one in geometry. Given three distinct points lying on
a line in a drawing, we are all familiar with the simple idea that one of the points is “between”
the other two. We expect that our axiomatic geometry will have the same behavior. But
remember that if we want our axiomatic geometry to have a certain behavior, we need to specify
that behavior in the axioms, or prove in a theorem that the axiom system does have the behavior.
In our axiom system, it turns out that we do not need to include any axioms specifically about
betweenness. Rather, we can define precisely what we mean by betweenness, and then prove in
theorems that our abstract geometry will in fact have the betweenness behavior that we expect.

Many of the theorems in this chapter have proofs that are rather tedious and involve a level of
detail slightly above what is really needed for a Junior-level course in Axiomatic Geometry. The
proofs are included for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students.

4.1.1. Betweenness of Real Numbers

We start by defining betweenness for real numbers and observing some facts about it. We do this
for two reasons: (1) it introduces us to some of the terminology and symbols commonly used in
discussions about betweenness and (2) it will turn out that the definition betweenness of points
and theorems about betweenness of points will make use of the facts of betweenness for real
numbers. Here is our first definition.

Definition 23 betweenness for real numbers

words: “𝑦 is between 𝑥 and 𝑧”, where 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 are real numbers.
symbol: 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧, where 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 are real numbers
meaning: 𝑥 < 𝑦 < 𝑧 or 𝑧 < 𝑦 < 𝑥.
additional symbol: the symbol 𝑤 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧 means 𝑤 < 𝑥 < 𝑦 < 𝑧 or 𝑧 < 𝑦 < 𝑥 < 𝑤, etc.
The following theorem states some facts about betweenness for real numbers. Its claims are
simple and mostly follow from the definition of betweenness and from the axioms for the real
numbers. In this book, we won’t bother proving things that are really just consequences of the
axioms for the real numbers. So we will accept this theorem without proof.
Chapter 4 Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 92

Theorem 12 facts about betweenness for real numbers

(A) If 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧 then 𝑧 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥.
(B) If 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are three distinct real numbers, then exactly one is between the other two.
(C) Any four distinct real numbers can be named in an order 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 so that 𝑤 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧.
(D) If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are distinct real numbers, then
(D.1) There exists a real number 𝑐 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑐 ∗ 𝑏.
(D.2) There exists a real number 𝑑 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑

The fact about real numbers proven in the next theorem does not play much of a role in
computations involving real numbers. But the fact is useful in a future proof, so we state and
prove the fact here. In other words, the following theorem could be called a Lemma. The proof is
included for readers interested in advanced topics, and for graduate students.

Theorem 13 Betweenness of real numbers is related to the distances between them.

Claim: For distinct real numbers 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, the following are equivalent
(A) 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧
(B) |𝑥 − 𝑧| = |𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧|. That is, 𝑑ℝ (𝑥, 𝑧) = 𝑑ℝ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑ℝ (𝑦, 𝑧).

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
Part I: Show that (A)  (B)
(1) Suppose that real numbers 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 have the property 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧.
(2) Either 𝑥 < 𝑦 < 𝑧 or 𝑧 < 𝑦 < 𝑥.
Case 1: 𝒛 < 𝑦 < 𝑥
(3) If 𝑧 < 𝑦 < 𝑥, then
|𝑥 − 𝑧| = 𝑥 − 𝑧 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
= 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 (𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘)
= |𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧| (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
Case 2: 𝒙 < 𝑦 < 𝑧
(4) If 𝑥 < 𝑦 < 𝑧, then
|𝑥 − 𝑧| = |𝑧 − 𝑥|
= 𝑧 − 𝑥 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
= 𝑧 − 𝑦 + 𝑦 − 𝑥 (𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘)
= |𝑧 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑥| (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
= |𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧|
Conclusion of cases
(5) We see that in either case, |𝑥 − 𝑧| = |𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧| is true, so statement (2) is true.
End of proof of Part I.

Part II: Show that ~(A)  ~(B)

(1) Suppose that Statement (A) is false. That is, suppose that real numbers 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 do not
have the property 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧.
(2) Either 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑧 or 𝑥 ∗ 𝑧 ∗ 𝑦. (Justify.)
Case 1: 𝒚 ∗ 𝒙 ∗ 𝒛
(3) If 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑧 then |𝑦 − 𝑧| = |𝑦 − 𝑥| + |𝑥 − 𝑧| by result of Proof Part I with letters
changed.
(4) Subtracting, we find that
|𝑥 − 𝑧| = −|𝑦 − 𝑥| + |𝑦 − 𝑧|
 page 93

= −|𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧|
= |𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧| − 2|𝑥 − 𝑦|
We see that |𝑥 − 𝑧| does not equal |𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧| because there is an additional term
−2|𝑥 − 𝑦|. (We know that this additional term is nonzero because 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦.) Therefore,
statement (B) is false.
Case 2: 𝒙 ∗ 𝒛 ∗ 𝒚
(5) If 𝑥 ∗ 𝑧 ∗ 𝑦 then |𝑥 − 𝑦| = |𝑥 − 𝑧| + |𝑧 − 𝑦| by result of Proof Part I with letters
changed.
(6) Subtracting, we find that
|𝑥 − 𝑧| = |𝑥 − 𝑦| − |𝑧 − 𝑦|
= |𝑥 − 𝑦| − |𝑦 − 𝑧|
= |𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧| − 2|𝑦 − 𝑧|
We see that |𝑥 − 𝑧| does not equal |𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧| because there is an additional term
−2|𝑦 − 𝑧|. (We know that this additional term is nonzero because 𝑦 ≠ 𝑧.) Therefore,
statement (B) is false.
Conclusion of Cases
(7) In either case, we see that Statement (B) is false.
End of proof of part II

4.1.2. Betweenness of Points

In the previous section, we established some of the terminology of betweenness for real numbers,
and stated some of the facts about the behavior of betweenness for real numbers. In the current
section, we will develop the notion of betweenness of points. As mentioned above, we will find
that the notion of betweenness of points and theorems about betweenness of points make
frequent use of the facts about betweenness of real numbers.

The first theorem of the section is really just a Lemma that will make it possible to define
betweenness of points in a simple way. The proof is included for readers interested in advanced
topics, and for graduate students.

Theorem 14 Lemma about betweenness of coordinates of three points on a line

If 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are three distinct points on a line 𝐿, and 𝑓 is a coordinate function on line 𝐿, and
the betweenness expression 𝑓(𝑃) ∗ 𝑓(𝑄) ∗ 𝑓(𝑅) is true, then for any coordinate function
𝑔 on line 𝐿, the expression 𝑔(𝑃) ∗ 𝑔(𝑄) ∗ 𝑔(𝑅) will be true.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(1) Suppose that 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are three distinct points on a line 𝐿, and 𝑓 is a coordinate function on
line 𝐿, and 𝑓(𝑃) ∗ 𝑓(𝑄) ∗ 𝑓(𝑅), and that 𝑔 is a coordinate function on line 𝐿.
(2) Observe that
|𝑔(𝑃) − 𝑔(𝑅)| = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) (𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒚)
= |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑅)| (𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒚)
= |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| + |𝑓(𝑄) − 𝑓(𝑅)| (𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒚)
= 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) (𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒚)
= |𝑔(𝑃) − 𝑔(𝑄)| + |𝑔(𝑄) − 𝑔(𝑅)| (𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒚)
(3) Therefore, by Theorem 13, we know that 𝑔(𝑃) ∗ 𝑔(𝑄) ∗ 𝑔(𝑅).
End of proof
Chapter 4 Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 94

We see that for distinct points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 lying on a line 𝐿, the betweenness properties of the real
number coordinates of the three points does not depend on which coordinate function we use on
line 𝐿. Because of this fact, we are able to make the following definition of betweenness for
points.

Definition 24 betweenness of points

words: “𝑄 is between 𝑃 and 𝑅”, where 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are points.
symbol: 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅, where 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are points.
meaning: Points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are collinear, lying on some line 𝐿, and there is a coordinate
function 𝑓 for line 𝐿 such that the real number coordinate for 𝑄 is between the real
number coordinates of 𝑃 and 𝑅. That is, 𝑓(𝑃) ∗ 𝑓(𝑄) ∗ 𝑓(𝑅).
remark: By Theorem 14, we know that it does not matter which coordinate function is used
on line 𝐿. The betweenness property of the coordinates of the three points will be the
same regardless of the coordinate function used.
additional symbol: The symbol 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑆 means 𝑓(𝑃) ∗ 𝑓(𝑄) ∗ 𝑓(𝑅) ∗ 𝑓(𝑆), etc.

In Theorem 12 (facts about betweenness for real numbers) on page 92, we saw a number of
obvious properties of betweenness for real numbers. The following theorem states that there are
entirely analogous properties of betweenness for points on a line. Because of the way that we
defined betweenness for points on a line in terms of betweenness of their real number
coordinates, the proof of this theorem will be easy and will make use of the facts about
betweenness of real numbers listed in Theorem 12.

Theorem 15 Properties of Betweenness for Points

(A) If 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 then 𝑅 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑃.
(B) For any three distinct collinear points, exactly one is between the other two.
(C) Any four distinct collinear points can be named in an order 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, 𝑆 such that 𝑃 ∗
𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑆.
(D) If 𝑃 and 𝑅 are distinct points, then
(D.1) There exists a point 𝑄 such that 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅.
(D.2) There exists a point 𝑆 such that 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑆.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
Proof of Statement (A)
(1) Suppose that 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅.
(2) Points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are collinear, lying on some line 𝐿, and there is a coordinate function 𝑓 for
line 𝐿 such that 𝑓(𝑃) ∗ 𝑓(𝑄) ∗ 𝑓(𝑅). (Justify.)
(3) 𝑓(𝑅) ∗ 𝑓(𝑄) ∗ 𝑓(𝑃). (Justify.)
(4) 𝑅 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑃. (Justify.)
End of proof of Statement (A)

Proof of Statement (B)

(1) Suppose that 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are distinct, collinear points, lying on some line 𝐿.
(2) There is a coordinate function 𝑓 for line 𝐿. (Justify.) This coordinate function gives us real
number coordinates 𝑓(𝑃) and 𝑓(𝑄) and 𝑓(𝑅) for the three points.
(3) The three real numbers 𝑓(𝑃) and 𝑓(𝑄) and 𝑓(𝑅) are distinct. (Justify.)
 page 95

(4) Exactly one of the three real numbers 𝑓(𝑃) and 𝑓(𝑄) and 𝑓(𝑅) is between the other two
(Justify.)
(5) Exactly one of the points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 lies between the other two. (Justify.)
End of proof of Statement (B)

Proof of Statement (C)

(1) Suppose that four distinct, collinear points are given, lying on some line 𝐿.
(2) There is a coordinate function 𝑓 for line 𝐿. (Justify.) This coordinate function gives us real
number coordinates for the four points.
(3) The four real number coordinates are distinct. (Justify.)
(4) The four real number coordinates can be named in increasing order, 𝑝 < 𝑞 < 𝑟 < 𝑠. With
this naming, we can say that the four real numbers have the betweenness property 𝑝 ∗ 𝑞 ∗
𝑟 ∗ 𝑠.
(5) Let 𝑃 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑝) and 𝑄 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑞) and 𝑅 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑟) and 𝑆 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑠).
(6) Then 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑆. (Justify.)
End of proof of Statement (C)

The Proof of Statement (D) is left to the reader

In Theorem 13 (Betweenness of real numbers is related to the distances between them.), found
on page 92, we saw that betweenness of real numbers is related to the distances between them.
The following theorem states an analogous relationship for betweenness of points. Expect that
the proof of this theorem will make use of Theorem 13. The proof is included for readers
interested in advanced topics, and for graduate students.

Theorem 16 Betweenness of points on a line is related to the distances between them.

Claim: For distinct collinear points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, the following are equivalent
(A) 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅
(B) 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅).

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
Part I: Show that (A)  (B)
(1) Suppose that Statement (A) is true. That is, suppose that collinear points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 have the
property 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅.
(2) The three points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 lie on some line 𝐿, and there is a coordinate function 𝑓 for line 𝐿
such that 𝑓(𝑃) ∗ 𝑓(𝑄) ∗ 𝑓(𝑅). (Justify.)
(3) |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑅)| = |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| + |𝑓(𝑄) − 𝑓(𝑅)| (Justify.)
(4) 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) (Justify.) So Statement (B) is true.
End of proof of Part I

Part II: Show that ~(A)  ~(B): This part of the proof is left to the reader.

4.1.3. A Lemma about Distances Between Three Distinct, Collinear Points

A new fact about the function 𝑑 will be useful in the proof of Theorem 65 (The Distance
Function Triangle Inequality for Neutral Geometry), found in Section 7.4 on page 167. The new
useful fact can be proven using only the axioms and theorems that we have studied so far, so we
Chapter 4 Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 96

will prove the fact here and return to it when we get to Theorem 65. Because the fact is only used
once in the rest of the book, we will call it a Lemma.

To understand the statement of the Lemma, suppose that 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are distinct collinear points. If
𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅, then Theorem 16 tells us that 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅). What if 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 is not
true? The answer is the statement of the Lemma. The proof is included for readers interested in
advanced topics and for graduate students.

Theorem 17 Lemma about distances between three distinct, collinear points.

If 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are distinct collinear points such that 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 is not true,
then the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) < 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(1) Suppose that 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are distinct, collinear points and that 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 is not true.
(2) There are two possibilities: Either 𝑄 ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅 is true or 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑄 is true. (by Theorem 15)

Case (i) 𝑸 ∗ 𝑷 ∗ 𝑹 is true.

(3) If 𝑄 ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅 is true, then Theorem 16 tells us that 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) = 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑃) + 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅). In this
case, we can subtract to obtain the equation 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) = 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) − 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑃). We can
manipulate this equation in the following way:
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) = 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) − 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑃)
= −𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅)
= 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) − 2𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄)
< 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 2𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)

Case (ii) 𝑷 ∗ 𝑹 ∗ 𝑸 is true.

(4) If 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑄 is true then an argument like the one in Step (3) would show that the
inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) < 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true.

Conclusion of Cases
(5)We see that in either case, the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) < 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true.
End of Proof

4.1.4. Conclusion
In this section, we discussed the notion of betweenness for real numbers. We found that collinear
points have analogous betweenness behavior. The existence of coordinate functions for lines was
the underlying reason for the analogous behavior. In the next section, we will find that
coordinate functions can play a key role in definitions of some new geometric objects.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 4.5 on page 108.

4.2. Segments, Rays, Angles, Triangles

Our first two new definitions are for segments and rays. Notice the use of coordinate functions in
the definitions.

Definition 25 segment, ray

 page 97

words and symbols: “segment 𝐴, 𝐵”, denoted ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 , and “ray 𝐴, 𝐵”, denoted 𝐴𝐵
usage: 𝐴 and 𝐵 are distinct points.
meaning: Let 𝑓 be a coordinate function for line 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ with the property that 𝑓(𝐴) = 0 and 𝑓(𝐵)
is positive. (The existence of such a coordinate function is guaranteed by Theorem
11 (Ruler Placement Theorem).)
 Segment 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ is the set 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ = {𝑃 ∈ 𝐴𝐵⃡ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑃) ≤ 𝑓(𝐵)}.
 Ray 𝐴𝐵 is the set 𝐴𝐵 = {𝑃 ∈ ⃡𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑃)}.
additional terminology:
 Points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are called the endpoints of segment 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅.
 Point 𝐴 is called the endpoint of ray 𝐴𝐵 .
 The length of a segment is defined to be the distance between the endpoints. That is,
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐴𝐵̅̅̅̅ ) = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵). As mentioned in Definition 20, many books use the symbol
𝐴𝐵 to denote 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵). Thus we have the following choice of notations:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ) = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝐴𝐵

In drawings, it is obvious that a segment ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐵 is a subset of ray 𝐴𝐵 . The same is true in our
Axiomatic Geometry. We will need to use that fact frequently in this book, and so we should
state it as a theorem. It is so easy to prove that it should be called a corollary of the definitions.

Theorem 18 (Corollary) Segment ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 is a subset of ray 𝐴𝐵 .

Proof
(1) Suppose that point 𝑃 is an element of segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 . (We must show that 𝑃 is also an
element of ray 𝐴𝐵 .)
(2) 𝐴 and 𝐵 are distinct points. (Justify.)
⃡ such that 𝑓(𝐴) = 0 and 𝑓(𝐵) is positive.
(3) There exists a coordinate function 𝑓 for line 𝐴𝐵
(Justify.)
(4) The inequality 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑃) ≤ 𝑓(𝐵) is true. (Justify.)
(5) So the inequality 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑃) is true. (Justify.)
(6) So point 𝑃 is an element of ray 𝐴𝐵 . (Justify.)
End of Proof

A simple but important fact about rays has to do with the notation.

Theorem 19 about the use of different second points in the symbol for a ray.
If 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶 is any point of 𝐴𝐵 that is not 𝐴, then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 .

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
The proof is left to the reader as an exercise.

The next three definitions make use of segments and rays.

Definition 26 Opposite rays are rays of the form 𝐵𝐴 and 𝐵𝐶 where 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶.

Definition 27 angle
words: “angle 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶”
Chapter 4 Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 98

symbol: ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶
usage: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points.
meaning: Angle 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 is defined to be the following set: ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐶
additional terminology: Point 𝐵 is called the vertex of the angle. Rays 𝐵𝐴 and 𝐵𝐶 are each
called a side of the angle.

Definition 28 triangle
words: “triangle 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶”
symbol: Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶
usage: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points.
meaning: Triangle 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 is defined to be the following set: Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ∪ 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ ∪ 𝐶𝐴
̅̅̅̅
additional terminology: Points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are each called a vertex of the triangle. Segments ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
and 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐶𝐴 are each called a side of the triangle.

Notice that the definitions of angle and triangle make no mention of any sort of “interior” of
those objects. We will formulate a notion of interior for angles and triangles in the next chapter.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 4.5 on page 108.

4.3. Segment Congruence

In drawings, we have a notion of whether or not segments are the “same size”. We determine
whether or not two segments are the same size by measuring their lengths. In this chapter, we
have introduced a notion of segment length into our abstract Neutral Geometry, so it will be easy
to also introduce a notion of “same size” for segments. The term that we will use is congruent.

Definition 29 segment congruence

Two line segments are said to be congruent if they have the same length. The symbol ≅ is
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐶𝐷
used to indicate this. For example 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ means 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ) = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅ ). Of course,
this can also be denoted 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) or 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷.

It is fruitful to discuss the properties of segment congruence using the terminology of relations.
For that, we should first review some of that terminology.

First, we will review the basic notation for a relation.

Suppose that we are given a relation ℛ on some set 𝐴. When 𝑥 and 𝑦 are elements of the set 𝐴
(that is, when 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴), the symbol 𝑥ℛ𝑦 is read as a sentence “x is related to y”.

For example, let 𝐴 be the set of integers, and define ℛ to be the less than relation. That is, define
the symbol 𝑥ℛ𝑦 to mean 𝑥 < 𝑦. Then the symbol 5ℛ7 would mean “5 < 7”, which is a true
sentence. On the other hand, the symbol 7ℛ5 would mean “7 < 5”, which is a false sentence. In
general, the sentence 𝑥ℛ𝑦 may be true or false. Writing down the sentence, either in words or in
symbols, does not imply that the sentence is true.
 page 99

Notice that segment congruence is a relation on the set of line segments. That is, the symbol ≅
gets put in between two other symbols that represent line segments, and the resulting sentence
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐶𝐷
may be true or it may be false. For in the example, for the drawing below, the sentence 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
is true, but the sentence 𝐴𝐵 ≅ 𝐸𝐹 is false.
D

A B C E F

Now that we have reviewed the basic notation for relations, we can discuss three important
properties that general relations may or may not have. The are the reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive properties.

Definition 30 reflexive property

words: Relation ℛ is reflexive.
usage: ℛ is a relation on some set 𝐴.
meaning: Element of set 𝐴 is related to itself.
abbreviated version: For every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, the sentence 𝑥 ℛ𝑥 is true.
More concise abbreviaton: ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥ℛ𝑥

Definition 31 symmetric property

words: Relation ℛ is symmetric.
usage: ℛ is a relation on some set 𝐴.
meaning: If 𝑥 is related to 𝑦, then 𝑦 is related to 𝑥.
abbreviated version: For every 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑥ℛ𝑦 is true then 𝑦ℛ𝑥 is also true.
More concise abbreviaton: ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥ℛ𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦ℛ𝑥

Definition 32 transitive property

words: Relation ℛ is transitive.
usage: ℛ is a relation on some set 𝐴.
meaning: If 𝑥 is related to 𝑦 and 𝑦 is related to 𝑧, then 𝑥 is related to 𝑧.
abbreviated: For every 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑥ℛ𝑦 is true and 𝑦ℛ𝑧 is true, then 𝑥 ℛ𝑧 is also true.
More concise abbreviaton: ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥ℛ𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦ℛ𝑧 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥ℛ𝑧

Consider some familiar mathematical relations in light of these definitions.

For example, the “less than” relation, denoted by the symbol “<” is not reflexive and not
symmetric, but it is transitive.

On the other hand, the “less than or equal to” relation, denoted by the symbol “≤” is reflexive, is
not symmetric, and is transitive.

There is a special name for a relation that has all three of the above properties.

Definition 33 equivalence relation

words: Relation ℛ is an equivalence relation.
Chapter 4 Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 100

usage: ℛ is a relation on some set 𝐴.

meaning: ℛ is reflexive and symmetric and transitive.

Now that we have reviewed the terminology of relations, we are ready to understanding the
wording of the following theorem.

Theorem 20 Segment congruence is an equivalence relation.

It is worthwhile to discuss the proof of Theorem 20 in some detail, because there are a few
similar theorems later in the book. You will be asked to prove those theorems on your own.

Proof of Theorem 20

Part 1: Prove that segment congruence is reflexive.

Segment congruence is a relation on the set of all line segments. To prove that the relation has
the reflexive property, we must prove that the relation of segment congruence satisfies the
definition of the reflexive property.

The reflexive property is the following sentence:

For every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, the sentence 𝑥ℛ𝑥 is true.

But in our case, the relation ℛ is the relation of segment congruence, and the set 𝐴 is the set of
all line segments. That is, we would rewrite the reflexive property as follows:

For every line segment ̅̅̅̅

𝐶𝐷, the sentence ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 is true.

Observe that this sentence is a universal statement about line segments. Recall what we have
discussed about proof structure for universal statements: we must start the proof by introducing a
given generic line segment, and we must end the proof by saying that the segment is congruent to
itself.

Proof Structure for Part 1:

̅̅̅̅ is given.
(1) Suppose a line segment 𝐶𝐷

(some steps here)

̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐶𝐷
(*) Conclude that the sentence 𝐶𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ is true. (We will need to justify this.)
End of proof for Part 1

Now our job is to figure out how to fill in the missing details of this proof. In general, many
mathematical proofs involve some sort of “leap”, some sort of inspiration. That can be very
intimidating. You might look at the proof structure above and have no idea how to proceed
forward from statement (1). But that is not surprising, because statement (1) does not really give
you any clue as to how to proceed. The key is to look ahead to the final step, and try to work
backwards from there.
 page 101

The final statement says that ̅̅̅̅

𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷. We need to justify that statement. Keep in mind that the
statement of segment congruence is a defined statement (See Definition 29 of segment
congruence on page 98.) The statement ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 really just means that 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷). So
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
if we want to prove that 𝐶𝐷 ≅ 𝐶𝐷, we have only one way to do it: we must first prove that
𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) and then use Definition 29 to say that 𝐶𝐷̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅. Thus we have narrowed the
gap in our proof structure. Our proof now looks like this:

Proof Structure for Part 1:

(1) Suppose a line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 is given.

(some steps here)

(*) The sentence 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) is true. (We will need to justify this.)
(*) Conclude that the sentence ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 is true. (By the previous statement and
Definition 29 of line segment congruence.)
End of proof for Part 1

Now keep in mind that the distance between points 𝐶 and 𝐷 is a real number. We know that
every real number is equal to itself, by the reflexive property of real number equality. That gives
us a way to justify the sentence 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷). But we also need to have first introduced the
real number that we are talking about. That is, we need to state how we know that the real
number 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) even exists. For this, we can use an axiom.

It turns out that we are now ready to completely fill the gap in our proof structure. Our final
proof looks like this:

Proof for Part 1:

̅̅̅̅ is given.
(1) Suppose a line segment 𝐶𝐷
(2) The real number 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) exists. (by axiom <N4>)
(3) 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷). (By (2) and the reflexive property of real number equality.)
(4) Conclude that ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷. (By the (3) and Definition 29 of line segment congruence.)
End of proof for Part 1

A quick summary of our approach in writing the Proof for Part 1 will help us in the rest of the
proof.
 We began by translating the statement of the reflexive property (from the definition) into
a statement about segment congruence.
 We observed that the statement to be proven was a universal statement about line
segments. That gave us the idea of a “frame” for the proof, the first and last statements of
the proof.
 We noted that the final statement of the proof needed to be justified. Since the final
statement used a defined expression—segment congruence—we knew that the only way
to justify it would be to use the definition of segment congruence. That gave us the
justification for the final statement and also indicated what would need to be the next-to-
final statement.
Chapter 4 Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 102

 Our goal was to prove the reflexive property of segment congruence. A key statement
turned out to be statement (3), which was justified by the reflexive property of real
number equality. This makes sense, because segment congruence was defined in terms of
equality of lengths, which are real numbers.

We will find that a similar approach will work in the Proof for Part 2. In particular, we will find
that a key step the proof of the symmetry property of segment congruence will use the symmetry
property of real number equality.

Part 2: Prove that segment congruence is symmetric.

We will follow the approach that we used in the Proof of Part 1.

Translate the statement of the symmetric property into a statement about segment
congruence.

The symmetric property is the following sentence:

For every 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑥 ℛ𝑦 is true then 𝑦ℛ𝑥 is also true.

But in our case, the relation ℛ is the relation of segment congruence, and the set 𝐴 is the set of
all line segments. That is, we would rewrite the symmetric property as follows:

For every pair of line segments ̅̅̅̅ 𝐸𝐹 , if ̅̅̅̅

𝐶𝐷, ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅ 𝐸𝐹 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 then ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷.

Determine the “frame” for the proof.

Observe that this sentence is a universal statement about line segments. Recall what we have
discussed about proof structure for universal statements: we must start the proof by introducing a
pair of given generic line segments ̅̅̅̅ 𝐸𝐹 that are known to have the property ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷, ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 , and
we must end the proof by saying that 𝐸𝐹 ̅̅̅̅ .
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐶𝐷

Proof Structure for Part 2:

(1) Suppose line segments ̅̅̅̅ 𝐸𝐹 are given and that ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷, ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 .

(some steps here)

𝐸𝐹 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
(*) Conclude that the sentence ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷 is true. (We will need to justify this.)
End of proof for Part 2

Work backward from the final statement.

̅̅̅̅ . We need to justify that statement. As we did in the Proof

̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐶𝐷
The final statement says that 𝐸𝐹
of Part 1, we note that the statement of segment congruence is a defined statement (See
Definition 29 of segment congruence on page 98.) The statement 𝐸𝐹 ̅̅̅̅ really just means that
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑑(𝐸, 𝐹) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷). So if we want to prove that 𝐸𝐹 ≅ 𝐶𝐷 , we have only one way to do it: We
 page 103

̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐶𝐷
must first prove that 𝑑(𝐸, 𝐹) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) and then use Definition 29 to say that 𝐶𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ . Thus
we have narrowed the gap in our proof structure. Our proof now looks like this:

Proof Structure for Part 2:

̅̅̅̅ , 𝐸𝐹
(1) Suppose line segments 𝐶𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐸𝐹
̅̅̅̅ are given and that 𝐶𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ .

(some steps here)

(*) The sentence 𝑑(𝐸, 𝐹) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) is true. (We will need to justify this.)
𝐸𝐹 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
(*) Conclude that the sentence ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷 is true. (By the previous statement and
Definition 29 of line segment congruence.)
End of Proof for Part 2

Something New in the Proof for Part 2: Work forward from the first statement.

So far in our building of the Proof for Part 2, we have followed the same steps that we followed
when building our Proof for Part 1, and we have succeeded in narrowing the gap in the proof.
But at this point, the Proof for Part 2 becomes more complicated than the Proof for Part 1.

Look back two paragraphs at our discussion of the final statement of the proof. We observed that
𝐸𝐹 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
the final statement of the proof was ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷, and that this statement used a defined term
(segment congruence). The only way to justify that statement was by using the definition line
segment congruence (Definition 29). That gave us an idea for how to work backwards from the
final statement of the proof.

̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐸𝐹
Now consider the first statement of the proof. It says that 𝐶𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ . This statement uses a
defined term (segment congruence). The only thing that we can do with the information that the
segments are congruent is to use the definition of segment congruence to translate the
information into a different form. This gives us an idea of how to work forward from statement
(1). Our proof now looks like this:

Proof Structure for Part 2:

(1) Suppose line segments ̅̅̅̅ 𝐸𝐹 are given and that ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷, ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 .
(2) The sentence 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) = 𝑑(𝐸, 𝐹) is true. (By statement (1) and Definition 29 of line
segment congruence.)

(some steps here)

(*) The sentence 𝑑(𝐸, 𝐹) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) is true. (We will need to justify this.)
̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
(*) Conclude that the sentence 𝐸𝐹 𝐶𝐷 is true. (By the previous statement and
Definition 29 of line segment congruence.)
End of proof for Part 2

Finishing touches

So far, we have narrowed the gap in our proof substantially simply by observing things that we
have no choice about. That is, we had no choice about the “frame” of the proof: the frame was
Chapter 4 Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 104

dictated by the fact that the statement to be proven was a universal statement. And we had no
choice about how to work backwards from the final statement: since the final statement was a
statement involving a defined term (segment congruence), we had no choice but to work
backwards using the definition of that term. Similarly, we had no choice about how to work
forwards from the first statement.

But how do we close the gap? How do we make the jump from the statement 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) = 𝑑(𝐸, 𝐹)
to the statement 𝑑(𝐸, 𝐹) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷)? That’s easy: the two symbols 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) and 𝑑(𝐸, 𝐹) represent
real numbers. If we wanted to, we could rename them 𝑥 and 𝑦. If we know that 𝑥 = 𝑦, then we
also automatically know that 𝑦 = 𝑥 by the symmetric property of real number equality. So we
are ready to close the gap and finish our Proof of Part 2. The final proof looks like this:

Proof Structure for Part 2:

(1) Suppose line segments ̅̅̅̅ 𝐸𝐹 are given and that ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷, ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 .
(2) 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) = 𝑑(𝐸, 𝐹) (By (1) and Definition 29 of line segment congruence.)
(3) 𝑑(𝐸, 𝐹) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) is true. (By (2) and the symmetric property of real number
equality.)
𝐸𝐹 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
(4) Conclude that the sentence ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷 is true. (By (3)and Definition 29 of line segment
congruence.)
End of proof for Part 2

Notice that goal was to prove the symmetric property of segment congruence. A key statement
turned out to be statement (3), which was justified by the symmetric property of real number
equality. This makes sense, because segment congruence was defined in terms of equality of
lengths, which are real numbers. And it is exactly the same thing that happened in our proof of
the reflexive property of segment congruence.

In the exercises, you will be asked to prove the transitive property of segment congruence. You
will find the the same approach that we used in the proofs of the reflexive and symmetric
properties will work for the proof of the transitive property.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 4.5 on page 108.

4.4. Segment Midpoints

In drawings, the midpoint of a line segment is a point that is on the segment and that is
equidistant from the endpoints of the segment. We are comfortable with the idea that in
drawings, every segment has exactly one midpoint. We would like to be able to define the
midpoint of an abstract line segment in an analogous way, and to know that each abstract line
segment has exactly one midpoint. It is easy enough to make a definition of a midpoint of an
abstract line segment. But we will need a couple of theorems to state that every line segment has
exactly one midpoint. We start with the definition:

Definition 34 midpoint of a segment

Words: 𝑀 is a midpoint of Segment 𝐴, 𝐵.
Meaning: 𝑀 lies on ⃡𝐴𝐵 and 𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵.
 page 105

Now we need a theorem stating that every line segment has exactly one midpoint. Surprisingly,
that will take a bit of work. It is helpful to start by thinking about how we actually find the
midpoint of a segment in a drawing: We use a ruler to find the point whose ruler marking is
midway between the ruler markings of the endpoints of the segment. Our abstract Neutral
Geometry allows us to do the same sort of thing with a coordinate function on a line. This next
theorem makes the process precise and proves that it does indeed find a midpoint. The proof is
included for readers interested in advanced topics, and for graduate students.

Theorem 21 About a point whose coordinate is the average of the coordinates of the endpoints.
Given ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 , and Point 𝐶 on line ⃡𝐴𝐵 , and any coordinate function 𝑓 for line ⃡𝐴𝐵 , the
following are equivalent:
(i) The coordinate of point 𝐶 is the average of the coordinates of points 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝑓(𝐴)+𝑓(𝐵)
That is, 𝑓(𝐶) = .
2
(ii) Point 𝐶 is a midpoint of segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 . That is, 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐵.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(1) Suppose that ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 and Point 𝐶 on line ⃡𝐴𝐵 , and a coordinate function 𝑓 for line ⃡𝐴𝐵 are given.

Part I:Show that (i)  (ii).

𝑓(𝐴)+𝑓(𝐵)
(2) Suppose that Statement (i) is true. That is, suppose that 𝑓(𝐶) = .
2
(3) Observe that
𝑓(𝐴) + 𝑓(𝐵) 𝑓(𝐵) − 𝑓(𝐴)
𝑑(𝐶, 𝐴) = |𝑓(𝐶) − 𝑓(𝐴)| = | − 𝑓(𝐴)| = | |
2 2
and that
𝑓(𝐴) + 𝑓(𝐵) 𝑓(𝐴) − 𝑓(𝐵) 𝑓(𝐵) − 𝑓(𝐴)
𝑑(𝐶, 𝐵) = |𝑓(𝐶) − 𝑓(𝐵)| = | − 𝑓(𝐵)| = | |=| |.
2 2 2
That is, 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐵. So statement (ii) is true.
End of Part I

Part II:Show that (ii)  (i).

(4) Suppose that Statement (ii) is true. That is, suppose that 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐵.
(5) It must be true that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐵. (If 𝐶 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵, then Theorem 16 (Betweenness of points on a
line is related to the distances between them.) would tell us that
𝑑(𝐶, 𝐵) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐴) + 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵)
But this combined with the fact that 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐴) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐵) would imply that 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 0. This
is impossible. Similarly, we can show that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 is also impossible.)
(6) Therefore, we can use Theorem 16 to say that
𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶) + 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐵)
= 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶) + 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐴) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐵))
= 2𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶)
𝑑(𝐴,𝐵)
and hence 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶) = 2 .
(7) We also know that 𝑓(𝐴) ∗ 𝑓(𝐶) ∗ 𝑓(𝐵). (Justify.)
(8) Either 𝑓(𝐴) < 𝑓(𝐶) < 𝑓(𝐵) or 𝑓(𝐵) < 𝑓(𝐶) < 𝑓(𝐴). (Justify.)
Case I: 𝒇(𝑨) < 𝑓(𝑪) < 𝑓(𝑩)
(9) Suppose that 𝑓(𝐴) < 𝑓(𝐶) < 𝑓(𝐵).
Chapter 4 Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 106

(10) Then
𝑓(𝐶) = 𝑓(𝐶) − 𝑓(𝐴) + 𝑓(𝐴) (𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘)
= |𝑓(𝐶) − 𝑓(𝐴)| + 𝑓(𝐴) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓(𝐶) − 𝑓(𝐴) 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
= 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶) + 𝑓(𝐴) (𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦)
𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵)
= + 𝑓(𝐴) (𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦)
2
|𝑓(𝐵) − 𝑓(𝐴)|
= + 𝑓(𝐴) (𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦)
2
𝑓(𝐵) − 𝑓(𝐴)
= + 𝑓(𝐴) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓(𝐵) − 𝑓(𝐴) 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
2
𝑓(𝐵) + 𝑓(𝐴)
=
2
so statement (i) is true.
Case II: 𝒇(𝑩) < 𝑓(𝑪) < 𝑓(𝑨)
(11) Suppose that 𝑓(𝐵) < 𝑓(𝐶) < 𝑓(𝐴). Observe that these inequalities look just like the
inequalities in step (9), but with the 𝐴 and 𝐵 symbols interchanged. We could build a string
of equations here by interchanging the 𝐴 and 𝐵 symbols in step (10) and the result would
𝑓(𝐵)+𝑓(𝐴)
be the equation 𝑓(𝐶) = . So statement (i) is true.
2
Conclusion of Cases
(12) We see that statement (i) is true in either case.
End of Part II and End of Proof

The previous theorem has an immediate corollary that tells us that if a point has a coordinate that
is the average of the coordinates of the endpoints when using a particular coordinate function,
then the same thing will be true when using any other coordinate function. The proof is included
for readers interested in advanced topics, and for graduate students.

Theorem 22 Corollary of Theorem 21.

Given ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 , and Point 𝐶 on line ⃡𝐴𝐵 , and any coordinate functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 for line ⃡𝐴𝐵 , the
following are equivalent:
𝑓(𝐴)+𝑓(𝐵)
(i) 𝑓(𝐶) = .
2
𝑔(𝐴)+𝑔(𝐵)
(ii) 𝑔(𝐶) = 2
.
Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
The proof is left to the reader.

We are now able to state a theorem about the existence and uniqueness of midpoints. The proof
is included for readers interested in advanced topics, and for graduate students.

Theorem 23 Every segment has exactly one midpoint.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(1) Suppose segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 is given.
Existence of a midpoint
⃡ . (Justify.)
(2) There exists a coordinate function 𝑓 for line 𝐴𝐵
𝑓(𝐴)+𝑓(𝐵)
(3) There exists a point 𝑀 with coordinate 𝑓(𝑀) = . (Justify.)
2
 page 107

̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.)
(4) 𝑀 is a midpoint of segment 𝐴𝐵
Uniqueness of the midpoint.
̅̅̅̅.
(5) Suppose that point 𝑀 and 𝑁 are midpoints of segment 𝐴𝐵

(*) some missing steps

(#) Therefore, points 𝑀 and 𝑁 must be the same point. (Justify.)

End of proof

We have just seen that the idea of the existence of a unique midpoint—a very simple concept in a
drawing—was a little tricky to nail down in our axiomatic geometry. The following theorem
expresses another fact that is fairly simple to understand, but whose proof is fairly detailed. The
proof is included for readers interested in advanced topics, and for graduate students.

Theorem 24 Congruent Segment Construction Theorem.

Given a segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 and a ray 𝐶𝐷, there exists exactly one point 𝐸 on ray 𝐶𝐷 such that
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐸 ≅ 𝐴𝐵 .

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(1) There exists a coordinate function for line ⃡𝐶𝐷 such that 𝑓(𝐶) = 0 and 𝑓(𝐷) is positive.
(Justify.)
Show that such a point 𝑬 exists.
(2) Let 𝐸 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵)). That is, 𝐸 is the point on line ⃡𝐶𝐷 whose coordinate 𝑓(𝐸) is the real
number 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵).
(3) Then 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐸) = |𝑓(𝐸) − 𝑓(𝐶)| = |𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) − 0| = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵). (Justify.) This tells us that
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐴𝐵
𝐶𝐸 ̅̅̅̅ .
Show that the point 𝑬 is unique.
(4) Suppose that 𝐸′ is a point on ray 𝐶𝐷 such that ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐸′ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 . (we will show that 𝐸′ must be 𝐸.)

(*) some missing steps

(#) Point 𝐸′ must be 𝐸. (Justify.)

End of Proof

The final two theorems of the section are simple to understand and to prove. Their proofs are left
to you as exercises.

Theorem 25 Congruent Segment Addition Theorem.

𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
If 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐴′ ∗ 𝐵 ′ ∗ 𝐶′ and ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅ then ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵′𝐶′
𝐴′𝐵′ and 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶 ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴′𝐶′.

Theorem 26 Congruent Segment Subtraction Theorem.

̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
If 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐴′ ∗ 𝐵 ′ ∗ 𝐶′ and 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴′𝐵′ and 𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅̅̅.
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵′𝐶′
𝐴′𝐶′ then 𝐵𝐶

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 4.5 on page 108.
Chapter 4 Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 108

4.5. Exercises for Chapter 4

Exercises for Section 4.1 Betweenness

[1] Suppose 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶. Need 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 be distinct points? Explain.

[2] (Advanced) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 14 (Lemma about betweenness of
coordinates of three points on a line) which was presented on page 93.

[3] (Advanced) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 15 (Properties of Betweenness for
Points) Statements (A), (B), (C) which was presented on page 94. Write your own proof of
Statement (D).

[4] (Advanced) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 16 (Betweenness of points on a line is
related to the distances between them.) Part I which was presented on page 95. Write your own
proof Part II.

Exercises for Section 4.2 Segments, Rays, Angles, Triangles

̅̅̅̅ is a subset of ray 𝐴𝐵 .),

[5] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 18 ((Corollary) Segment 𝐴𝐵
which was presented on page 97.

[6] (Advanced) Prove Theorem 19 (about the use of different second points in the symbol for a
ray.), which was presented on page 97.

[7] Refer to the definition of angle. (Definition 27 on page 97.) In the three figures below, the
object in figure (1) consists of just the points inside, the object in figure (2) consists of just the
rays, and the object in figure (3) consists of the rays and the points inside. Which figure is a valid
illustration of an angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶? Explain.

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴
figure (1) figure (2) figure (3)

[8] Jack says that ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is the negative of ∠𝐶𝐵𝐴. Zack insists that ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∠𝐶𝐵𝐴 are the
same thing. Who is right, Jack or Zack? Explain.

[9] Does either of the figures below depict a valid angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶? Explain why or why not.

𝐶 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐴
figure (1) figure (2)

[10] Refer to the definition of triangle. (Definition 28 on page 98.) In the three figures below, the
object in figure (1) consists of just the points inside, the object in figure (2) consists of just the
 page 109

segments, and the object in figure (3) consists of the segments and the points inside. Which
figure is a valid illustration of an triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶? Explain.
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴
figure (1) figure (2) figure (3)
[11] Jack says that the symbols Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐵𝐴𝐶 mean different things. Zack insists that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶
and Δ𝐵𝐴𝐶 mean the same thing. Who is right, Jack or Zack? Explain.

Exercises for Section 4.3 Segment Congruence

[12] In the reading, you explored part of the proof of Theorem 20 (Segment congruence is an
equivalence relation.), presented on page 100. You saw detailed discussions of Proof Part 1
(segment congruence is reflexive) and Proof Part 2 (segment congruence is symmetric). Write
your own proof of Part 3: segment congruence is transitive.

[13] Recall that in our axiomatic geometry, parallel lines are defined to be lines that do not
intersect. (Definition 11, found on page 29) Using the terminology of relations, we could think of
“parallel” as a relation on the set of all lines. Is the parallel relation an equivalence relation?
Explain.

[14] How are parallel lines usually defined in analytic geometry? Is the usual parallel relation
from analytic geometry an equivalence relation? Explain.

Exercise for Section 4.4 Segment Midpoints

[15] (Advanced) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 21 (About a point whose coordinate is
the average of the coordinates of the endpoints.), which was presented on page 105.

[16] (Advanced) Prove Theorem 22 (Corollary of Theorem 21.), which was presented on p. 106.

[17] (Advanced) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 23 (Every segment has exactly one
midpoint.), which was presented on page 106. Write the missing steps.

[18] (Advanced) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 24 (Congruent Segment Construction
Theorem.), which was presented on page 107. Write the missing steps.

[19] Prove Theorem 25 (Congruent Segment Addition Theorem.), which was presented on p.
107.

[20] Prove Theorem 26 (Congruent Segment Subtraction Theorem.), presented on page 107.
Chapter 4 Neutral Geometry II: More about the Axioms of Incidence and Distance page 110

.
 page 111

5.Neutral Geometry III: The Separation

Axiom
5.1. Introduction to The Separation Axiom and Half-Planes
In the previous chapter, we saw that the Neutral Geometry Axioms of Incidence and Distance
ensured that there is a notion of distance in our abstract geometry that agrees with our notions
about distance in drawings. In the current chapter, we will discuss other kinds of behavior of
drawings and show how the Neutral Geometry axioms ensure that our abstract geometry will
exhibit the same behaviors. Here are five examples of familiar behavior of drawings:

Example #1: Consider the way a drawn line 𝐿 “splits” the plane of a 𝐿
drawing. Notice three things:
(1) Any point must be either on line 𝐿 or on one side of it or the
other.
(2) If two points are on the same side of line 𝐿, then the segment
connecting those two points also lies on the same side of 𝐿 and
does not intersect 𝐿.
(3) If two points are on opposite sides of line 𝐿, then the segment
connecting those two points will intersect line 𝐿.
Example #2: In a drawing, any line that intersects a side of a triangle at
a point that is not a vertex must also intersect at least one of the
opposite sides.

Example #3: Drawn triangles have an “inside” and an “outside”. inside

outside
Example #4: In a drawing, any ray drawn from a vertex into the inside
of a triangle must hit the opposite side of the triangle somewhere and
go out.
Example #5: In a drawing, a triangle cannot enclose a ray. The endpoint
and part of the ray may fit inside the triangle, but the ray must poke out
somewhere.

It turns out that in the list of axioms for Neutral Geometry, a single new axiom will ensure that
our axiomatic geometry will have these same behaviors and many others. That axiom is called
the Plane Separation Axiom.

<N6> (The Plane Separation Axiom) For every line 𝐿, there are two associated sets called half-
planes, denoted 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 , with the following properties:
(i) The three sets 𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 form a partition of the set of all points.
(ii) Each of the half-planes is convex.
(iii) If point 𝑃 is in 𝐻1 and point 𝑄 is in 𝐻2 , then segment 𝑃𝑄̅̅̅̅ intersects line 𝐿.
Chapter 5 Neutral Geometry III: The Separation Axiom page 112

This axiom describes the behavior that we observed in the first example, above. But the wording
of the axiom doesn’t quite match the wording of the observation. To understand the wording of
the axiom, we will need to review a bit of set terminology.
For example, what about behavior (1) in Example #1 above?

(1) Any point must be either on line 𝐿 or on one side of it or the other.

There is no statement in Axiom <N6> that is worded this way. But consider property (i) in
Axiom <N6>:

(i) The three sets 𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 form a partition of the set of all points.

Remember that the set of all points is denoted by the symbol 𝒫. To say that the three sets
𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 form a partition of the set of all points means that the union 𝐿 ∪ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 = 𝒫 and also
that the three sets 𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 are mutually disjoint. In other words, every point 𝑃 lies in exactly
one of the sets 𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 . So we see that property (i) in Axiom <N6> guarantees that our
axiomatic geometry will have behavior analogous to behavior (1) in Example #1 above.

Now consider behavior (2) in Example #1 above:

(2) If two points are on the same side of line 𝐿, then the segment connecting those two points
also lies on the same side of 𝐿 and does not intersect 𝐿.

There is no statement in Axiom <N6> that is worded this way. But consider property (ii) in
Axiom <N6>:

(ii) Each of the half-planes is convex.

The word convex appears in Axiom <N6>, but not in our observation about drawings. The
definition is probably familiar to you:

Definition 35 convex set

 Without names: A set is said to be convex if for any two distinct points that are elements
of the set, the segment that has those two points as endpoints is a subset of the set.
 With names: Set 𝑆 is said to be convex if for any two distinct points 𝑃, 𝑄 ∈ 𝑆, the
segment 𝑃𝑄̅̅̅̅ ⊂ 𝑆.

The fact that each of the half-planes is convex tells us that if two points 𝑃, 𝑄 lie in one of the
half-planes, then segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 will be contained in that half plane. The fact that the sets 𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2
̅̅̅̅ will not intersect line 𝐿. So we see that
are mutually disjoint then tells us that segment 𝑃𝑄
properties (1) and (ii) in Axiom <N6> guarantee that our axiomatic geometry will have behavior
analogous to behavior (2) in Example #1 above.

Finally, consider behavior (3) in Example #1 above:

(3) If two points are on opposite sides of line 𝐿, then the segment connecting those two points
will intersect line 𝐿.
 page 113

Property (iii) in Axiom <N6> seems to be about the same sort of behavior. It says,
̅̅̅̅ intersects line 𝐿.
(iii) If point 𝑃 is in 𝐻1 and point 𝑄 is in 𝐻2 , then segment 𝑃𝑄
But notice that the wording of the observation about the drawn example is a bit different from
the wording of the axiom. The observation about drawings mentions points being on the “same
side” or on “opposite sides”, while the Axiom mentions the idea of a point being in one half-
plane or the other. This difference can be bridged by defining the terms of same-side and
opposite side. I will also introduce the term edge of a half-plane.

Definition 36 same side, opposite side, edge of a half-plane.

Two points are said to lie on the same side of a given line if they are both elements of the
same half-plane created by that line. The two points are said to lie on opposite sides of the
line if one point is an element of one half-plane and the other point is an element of the other.
The line itself is called the edge of the half-plane.

With the definition of the terminology of same side and opposite side, we see that property (iii)
in Axiom <N6> guarantees that our axiomatic geometry will have behavior analogous to
behavior (3) in Example #1 above.

Throughout the rest of the course, we will frequently use axiom <N6> in proofs to justify
statements that say that two particular points are on the same side of some line, or on different
sides of some line, or that some line segment connecting two points does not intersect some line,
or that it does intersect some line. In those situations, it will be useful to observe that the
statements <N6>(ii) and <N6>(iii) can be written as conditional statements and that those
conditional statements have contrapositive statements that are logically equivalent to the original
statements.

Here is Axiom <N6>(ii) restated in conditional form, along with the contrapositive.

<N6> (ii) If points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are in the same half plane,

̅̅̅̅ does not intersect line 𝐿.
then segment 𝑃𝑄
<N6> (ii) (contrapositive) If segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 does intersect line 𝐿 (at a point between 𝑃 and 𝑄),
then points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are in different half planes.

Here is Axiom <N6>(iii) restated in conditional form, along with the contrapositive.

<N6>(iii) If points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are in different half planes,

then segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 intersects line 𝐿 (at a point between 𝑃 and 𝑄).
̅̅̅̅ does not intersect line 𝐿,
<N6>(iii) (contrapositive) If segment 𝑃𝑄
then points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are in the same half plane.

Digression about using Conditional Statements and their Contrapositives

A digression about using conditional statements and their contrapositives. Suppose that two
axioms are stated in the form of conditional statements, as follows.
Chapter 5 Neutral Geometry III: The Separation Axiom page 114

 Axiom <100>: If the dog is blue, then the car is red.

 Axiom <101>: If the car is red, then the bear is hungry.

The contrapositives of these two axioms would be the following statements:

 Axiom <100> (contrapositive): If the car is not red, then the dog is not blue.
 Axiom <101> (contrapositive): If the bear is not hungry, then the car is not red.

Remember that the contrapositive statements are logically equivalent to the original statements.

Suppose that we wanted to prove that the car is red. Then clearly, we would use Axiom <100>.
Our strategy would be to first prove somehow that the dog is blue, and then use Axiom <100> to
say that the car is red. Note that we would not use Axiom <101> to prove that the car is red.
Axiom <101> tells us something about the situation where we already know that the car is red.
(It tells us that in this situation, the bear is hungry.)

Now, suppose that we wanted to prove that the car was not red. It is important to realize that
Axiom <100> does not help us in this case! If we want to prove that the car is not red, then we
need to use Axiom <101> (contrapositive). Our strategy would be to first prove somehow that
the bear is not hungry, and then use Axiom <101> (contrapositive) to say that the car is not red.

This discussion is relevant to your use of Neutral Geometry Axiom <N6> (ii) and <N6> (iii) in
proofs. For instance, suppose that you want to prove that two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are in the same half
plane of some line 𝐿. You should not use Axiom <N6> (ii). That axiom says something about the
situation where you already know that points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are in the same half plane. (It says that in
that situation, segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 does not intersect line 𝐿. Rather, you should use Axiom <N6> (iii)
(contrapositive). Your strategy should be to prove somehow that segment 𝑃𝑄 ̅̅̅̅ does not intersect
line 𝐿, and then use Axiom <N6> (iii) (contrapositive) to say that points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are in the same
half plane.

End of Digression about using Conditional Statements and their Contrapositives

In the remaining sections of this chapter, we will see how the Separation Axiom <N6> ensures
that our abstract geometry will have behavior like that observed in Examples #2 through #5
above. Before going on, though, it is worthwhile to study one simple-sounding theorem that is
just about half-planes. You will justify the steps and make drawings in a class drill.

Theorem 27 Given any line, each of its half-planes contains at least three non-collinear points.

Proof
(1) Given any line, call it 𝐿1 . (Make a drawing.)
Introduce points 𝑨 and 𝑩.
(2) There exist two distinct points on 𝐿1 . (Justify.) Call them 𝐴 and 𝐵. (Make a new
drawing.)

Part I: Introduce Half-Plane 𝑯𝑪 and show that it contains three non-collinear points.
 page 115

(3) There exists a point not on 𝐿1 . (Justify.) Call it 𝐶. (Make a new drawing.)
(4) Point 𝐶 lies in one of the two half-planes determined by line 𝐿1 . (Justify.) Call it 𝐻𝐶 .
(Make a new drawing.)
Introduce line 𝑳𝟐 .
(5) There exists a unique line passing through 𝐴 and 𝐶. (Justify.)
(6) The line passing through 𝐴 and 𝐶 is not 𝐿1 . (Justify.) So it must be new. Call it 𝐿2 .
(Make a new drawing.)
Introduce line 𝑳𝟑 .
(7) There exists a unique line passing through 𝐵 and 𝐶. (Justify.)
(8) The line passing through 𝐵 and 𝐶 is not 𝐿1 or 𝐿2 . (Justify.) So it must be new. Call it 𝐿3 .
(Make a new drawing.)
Introduce point 𝑫.
(9) There exists a point such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡. (Justify.)
(10) This point cannot be the same as any of our previous three points. (Justify.) So it must
be a new point. Call it 𝐷. So 𝐴 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐷. (Make a new drawing.)
(11) Point 𝐷 is in half-plane 𝐻𝐶 . (Justify.)
Introduce point 𝑬.
(12) There exists a point such that 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡. (Justify.)
(13) This must be a new point. (Justify.) Call it 𝐸. So 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐸. (Make a new drawing.)
(14) Point 𝐸 is in half-plane 𝐻𝐶 . (Justify.)
Conclusion of Part I:
(15) Points 𝐶 and 𝐷 and 𝐸 are non-collinear. (Justify.)

Part II: Introduce Half-Plane 𝑯𝑭 and show that it contains three non-collinear points.
Introduce point 𝑭.
(16) There exists a point such that 𝐶 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡. (Justify.)
(17) This must be a new point. (Justify.) Call it 𝐹. So 𝐶 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐹. (Make a new drawing.)
(18) Point 𝐹 is not in half-plane 𝐻𝐶 . (Justify.). Let 𝐻𝐹 be the half-plane containing 𝐹.
Introduce point 𝑮.
(19) There exists a point such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡. (Justify.)
(20) This must be a new point. (Justify.) Call it 𝐺. So 𝐴 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐺. (Make a new drawing.)
(21) Point 𝐺 is in half-plane 𝐻𝐹 . (Justify.)
Introduce point 𝑯.
(22) There exists a point such that 𝐶 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡. (Justify.)
(23) This must be a new point. (Justify.) Call it 𝐻. So 𝐶 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐻. (Make a new drawing.)
(24) Point 𝐻 is in half-plane 𝐻𝐹 . (Justify.)
Conclusion of Part II:
(25) Points 𝐹 and 𝐺 and 𝐻 are non-collinear. (Justify.)
End of Proof

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 5.8 on page 127.

5.2. Theorems about lines intersecting triangles

The only geometric objects that we know about so far are points, lines, rays, segments, angles,
and triangles. To more fully understand the significance of Separation Axiom <N6>, we will in
the next four sections of this book explore what the Separation Axiom tells us about the
Chapter 5 Neutral Geometry III: The Separation Axiom page 116

relationships between those objects. In this section we will study two theorems about lines
intersecting triangles.

Recall Example #2 of the previous section:

Example #2: In a drawing, any line that intersects a side of a triangle at
a point that is not a vertex must also intersect at least one of the opposite
sides.

The first of the two theorems that we will study in this section is known as Pasch’s Theorem. It
shows that abstract triangles and lines in our axiomatic geometry will have the same kind of
behavior that Example #2 observes in drawings. You will justify the steps in a class drill.

Theorem 28 (Pasch’s Theorem) about a line intersecting a side of a triangle between vertices
If a line intersects the side of a triangle at a point between vertices, then the line also
intersects the triangle at another point that lies on at least one of the other two sides.
Proof
(1) Suppose that line 𝐿 intersects side ̅̅̅̅𝐴𝐵 of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 at a point 𝐷 such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵.
(2) Points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are on opposite sides of line 𝐿. (Justify.) Let 𝐻𝐴 and 𝐻𝐵 be their
respective half-planes.
(3) Exactly one of the following statements is true. (Justify.)
(i) 𝐶 lies on 𝐿. (Make a drawing for case (i).)
(ii) 𝐶 is in 𝐻𝐴 . (Make a drawing for case (ii).)
(iii) 𝐶 is in 𝐻𝐵 . (Make a drawing for case (iii).)
Case (i)
(4) If 𝐶 lies on 𝐿, then 𝐿 intersects both ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ at point 𝐶. (Justify.)
𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶
Case (ii)
(5) If 𝐶 is in 𝐻𝐴 , then points 𝐵 and 𝐶 lie on opposite sides of 𝐿. (Justify.)
̅̅̅̅ at a point between 𝐵 and 𝐶. (Justify.)
(6) In this case, 𝐿 will intersect 𝐵𝐶
Case (iii)
(7) If 𝐶 is in 𝐻𝐵 , then points 𝐴 and 𝐶 lie on opposite sides of 𝐿. (Justify.)
(8) In this case, 𝐿 will intersect ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 at a point between 𝐴 and 𝐶. (Justify.)
Conclusion of cases
(9) In every case, we see that 𝐿 intersects ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ or both.
𝐴𝐶 or 𝐵𝐶
End of Proof

The second of the two theorems that we will study in this section is about about a line
intersecting two sides of a triangle. You will prove it in an exercise.

Theorem 29 about a line intersecting two sides of a triangle between vertices

If a line intersects two sides of a triangle at points that are not vertices, then the line cannot
intersect the third side.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 5.8 on page 127.
 page 117

5.3. Interiors of angles and triangles

In the previous section, we studied two theorems that showed how the Separation Axiom <N6>
could dictate some of the behavior of lines intersecting triangles.

Recall our discussion of familiar behavior of drawings in Section 5.1. Our third example was:

Example #3: Drawn triangles have an “inside” and an “outside”. inside

outside

In the current section, we will introduce the concept of the interiors and exteriors of abstract
angles and triangles in our axiomatic geometry.

Here are the definitions of angle interior and triangle interior.

Definition 37 Angle Interior

Words: The interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Symbol: 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶)
Meaning: The set of all points 𝐷 that satisfy both of the following conditions.
Points 𝐷 and 𝐴 are on the same side of line 𝐵𝐶 ⃡ .
Points 𝐷 and 𝐶 are on the same side of line 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ .
Meaning abbreviated in symbols: 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐻𝐴𝐵 ⃡ (𝐶) ∩ 𝐻𝐵𝐶
⃡ (𝐴)

Drawing:
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
= ∩

𝐵 𝐵 𝐴
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐻⃡𝐴𝐵 (𝐶) ∩ 𝐻⃡𝐵𝐶 (𝐴)

Related term: The exterior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is defined to be the set of points that do not lie on the
angle or in its interior.

Note that since it is the intersection of convex sets, an angle interior is a convex set.

Definition 38 Triangle Interior

Words: The interior of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Symbol: 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶)
Meaning: The set of all points 𝐷 that satisfy all three of the following conditions.
Points 𝐷 and 𝐴 are on the same side of line 𝐵𝐶 ⃡ .
Points 𝐷 and 𝐵 are on the same side of line 𝐶𝐴 ⃡ .
Points 𝐷 and 𝐶 are on the same side of line 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ .
Meaning abbreviated in symbols: 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐻⃡𝐴𝐵 (𝐶) ∩ 𝐻⃡𝐵𝐶 (𝐴) ∩ 𝐻⃡𝐶𝐴 (𝐵).
Chapter 5 Neutral Geometry III: The Separation Axiom page 118

Drawing:
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
= ∩ ∩
𝐴
𝐵 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) = ⃡ (𝐶)
𝐻𝐴𝐵 ∩ ⃡ (𝐴)
𝐻𝐵𝐶 ∩ ⃡ (𝐵)
𝐻𝐶𝐴
Related term: The exterior of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is defined to be the set of points that do not lie on the
triangle or in its interior.

Note that a triangle interior is a convex set. Also note that we can write

⃡ (𝐶) ∩ 𝐻𝐵𝐶
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐻𝐴𝐵 ⃡ (𝐴) ∩ 𝐻𝐶𝐴
⃡ (𝐵)
= (𝐻⃡𝐴𝐵 (𝐶) ∩ 𝐻⃡𝐵𝐶 (𝐴)) ∩ (𝐻⃡𝐵𝐶 (𝐴) ∩ 𝐻⃡𝐶𝐴 (𝐵)) ∩ (𝐻⃡𝐶𝐴 (𝐵) ∩ 𝐻⃡𝐴𝐵 (𝐶))
= 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(∠𝐵) ∩ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(∠𝐶) ∩ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(∠𝐴)

So the interior of a triangle is equal to the intersection of the interiors of its three angles.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 5.8 on page 127.

5.4. Theorems about rays and lines intersecting triangle

interiors
Returning again to our discussion of familiar behavior of drawings in Section 5.1, recall that our
fourth example was:

Example #4: In a drawing, any ray drawn from a vertex into the inside
of a triangle must hit the opposite side of the triangle somewhere and
go out.

In the current section, we will prove that in our axiomatic geometry, abstract rays and triangles
behave the same way. The theorem, called the Crossbar Theorem, is a very difficult theorem to
prove; we will need six preliminary theorems before we get to it! We start with a fairly simple
theorem about rays that have an endpoint on a line but do not lie on the line. The proof is
surprisingly tedious. Even so, I include the proof here and include the justification of its steps as
an exercise, because studying its steps will provide a good review of a variety of concepts.

Theorem 30 about a ray with an endpoint on a line

If a ray has its endpoint on a line but does not lie in the line,
then all points of the ray except the endpoint are on the same side of the line.

Proof
 page 119

(1) Let 𝐴𝐵 be a ray such that 𝐴 lies on a line 𝐿 and 𝐵 does not lie on 𝐿, and let 𝐶 be any point
of 𝐴𝐵 that is not 𝐴. (Make a drawing.) (Our goal is to prove that point 𝐶 lies on the
same side of line 𝐿 as point 𝐵.)
Introduce a special coordinate function and consider coordinates.
(2) Let 𝑀 be line ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
(3) The only intersection of lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 is point 𝐴. (Justify.)
(4) There exists a coordinate function ℎ for line 𝑀 such that ℎ(𝐴) = 0 and ℎ(𝐵) is positive.
(Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(5) Using coordinate function ℎ, the coordinate of point 𝐶 is positive. That is ℎ(𝐶) is
positive. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
Show that line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑪𝑩 does not intersect line 𝑳.
(6) Let 𝐷 be any point on line segment 𝐵𝐶̅̅̅̅ . (Make a new drawing.) Observe that point D
lies on line 𝑀.
(7) Using coordinate function ℎ, the coordinate of point 𝐷 is positive. That is ℎ(𝐷) is
positive. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(8) Point 𝐷 is not point 𝐴. (Justify.)
̅̅̅̅ does not intersect
(9) Point 𝐷 does not lie on line 𝐿. (Justify.) Therefore, line segment 𝐵𝐶
line 𝐿.
Conclusion
(10) Conclude that points 𝐵 and 𝐶 are in the same half-plane of line 𝐿. (Justify.) That is,
point 𝐶 lies on the same side of line 𝐿 as point 𝐵.
End of Proof

The preceeding theorem has two corollaries. (The word corollary has more than one usage in
mathematics. I use the word here to mean a theorem whose proof is a simple application of some
other theorem, with no other tricks.) You will be asked to prove both of them in exercises.

Theorem 31 (Corollary of Theorem 30) about a ray with its endpoint on an angle vertex
If a ray has its endpoint on an angle vertex and passes through a point in the angle interior,
then every point of the ray except the endpoint lies in the angle interior.

Theorem 32 (Corollary of Theorem 30.) about a segment that has an endpoint on a line
If a segment that has an endpoint on a line but does not lie in the line,
then all points of the segment except that endpoint are on the same side of the line.

Here is a corollary of Theorem 32. You will be asked to prove it in an exercise.

Theorem 33 (Corollary of Theorem 32.) Points on a side of a triangle are in the interior of the
opposite angle.
If a point lies on the side of a triangle and is not one of the endpoints of that side,
then the point is in the interior of the opposite angle.

The next theorem is not so interesting in its own right, but it gets used occasionally throughout
the rest of the book in proofs of other theorems. Because of this, I call it a Lemma. Its name will
help you remember what the Lemma says, by reminding you of the picture.
Chapter 5 Neutral Geometry III: The Separation Axiom page 120

𝐷
Theorem 34 The Z Lemma 𝐵
If points 𝐶 and 𝐷 lie on opposite sides of line ⃡𝐴𝐵 ,
then ray 𝐴𝐶 does not intersect ray 𝐵𝐷.
𝐶
𝐴
Proof
(1) Suppose that points 𝐶 and 𝐷 lie on opposite sides of line ⃡𝐴𝐵 . Let 𝐻𝐶 and 𝐻𝐷 be their
respective half-planes.
⃡ . (We cannot refer to line 𝐴𝐵
(2) Points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are distinct points on line 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ unless points 𝐴
and 𝐵 are distinct.)
(3) Every point of ray 𝐴𝐶 except endpoint 𝐴 lies in half-plane 𝐻𝐶 . (Justify.)
(4) Every point of ray 𝐵𝐷 except endpoint 𝐵 lies in half-plane 𝐻𝐷 . (Justify.)
(5) Ray 𝐴𝐶 does not intersect ray 𝐵𝐷. (by (2), (3), (4) and the fact that the three sets ⃡𝐴𝐵 and
𝐻𝐶 and 𝐻𝐷 are mutually disjoint.)
End of Proof

Here, finally, is the Crossbar Theorem. Remember that it will prove that abstract triangles and
rays have the sort of behavior that Example #4 described for drawings:

Example #4: In a drawing, any ray drawn from a vertex into the inside
of a triangle must hit the opposite side of the triangle somewhere and
go out.

You will see that the proof relies on Pasch’s Theorem (Theorem 28) and on repeated applications
of the Z Lemma (Theorem 34).

Theorem 35 The Crossbar Theorem

If point 𝐷 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, then 𝐵𝐷 intersects ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 at a point between 𝐴 and 𝐶.

Proof 𝐶

(1) Suppose that point 𝐷 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.

𝐷
𝐵 𝐴
Introduce a point 𝑬 that will allow us to use Pasch’s Theorem.

(2) There exists a point 𝐸 such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 (by 𝐶

Theorem 15). Observe that line 𝐵𝐷⃡ intersects side
̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐴 of Δ𝐸𝐴𝐶 at point 𝐵 such that 𝐸 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐴.
⃡ intersects Δ𝐸𝐴𝐶 at one other point. (by
(3) Line 𝐵𝐷 𝐸 𝐷
(2) and Pasch’s Theorem (Theorem 28)) 𝐵 𝐴

(4) The second point of intersection of line ⃡𝐵𝐷 and triangle Δ𝐸𝐴𝐶 cannot be on line ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐸
(because that would violate axiom <N2>), and it cannot be point 𝐶 (because that would
 page 121

also violate axiom <N2>) so line ⃡𝐵𝐷 must intersect side either ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 or side ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐶 , but not at
one of the endpoints 𝐴, 𝐶, 𝐸.

𝐶
Introduce a point 𝑭.
(5) There exists a point 𝐹 such that 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐹 (by
Theorem 15). Observe that rays 𝐵𝐷 and 𝐵𝐹 are 𝐷
𝐸
opposite rays.
𝐵 𝐴
𝐹

Get more precise about particular rays intersecting particular segments

(6) Exactly one of the following must be true (by (4) and (5)).
(i) Ray 𝐵𝐹 intersects segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 at a point between 𝐴 and 𝐶.
(ii) Ray 𝐵𝐹 intersects segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐶 at a point between 𝐸 and 𝐶.
(iiii) Ray 𝐵𝐷 intersects segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐶 at a point between 𝐸 and 𝐶.
̅̅̅̅
(iv) Ray 𝐵𝐷 intersects segment 𝐴𝐶 at a point between 𝐴 and 𝐶.

Establish points that are on opposite sides of lines so that we can use the Z Lemma.
(7) Points 𝐶 and 𝐷 lie on the same side of line ⃡𝐴𝐵 (by (1) and definition of angle interior).
(8) Points 𝐷 and 𝐹 lie on opposite sides of line ⃡𝐴𝐵 (because line ⃡𝐴𝐵 intersects segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹
at point 𝐵 and point 𝐵 is between points 𝐷 and 𝐹, by (5)).
(9) Therefore, points 𝐶 and 𝐹 lie on opposite sides of line ⃡𝐴𝐵 (by (7) and (8)).
(10) Points 𝐶 and 𝐹 also lie on opposite sides of line ⃡𝐵𝐸 (since 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐸 are collinear by (2)).
⃡ (by (1) and definition of angle interior).
(11) Points 𝐴 and 𝐷 lie on the same side of line 𝐵𝐶
⃡ (because line 𝐵𝐶
(12) Points 𝐴 and 𝐸 lie on opposite sides of line 𝐵𝐶 ⃡ intersects segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐸
at point 𝐵 and point 𝐵 is between points 𝐴 and 𝐸, by (2)).
⃡ (by (11) and (12)).
(13) Therefore, points 𝐷 and 𝐸 lie on opposite sides of line 𝐵𝐶

Use the Z Lemma three times.

(14) Ray 𝐵𝐹 does not intersect ray 𝐴𝐶 (by the Z
𝐶
Lemma (Theorem 34) applied to line ⃡𝐴𝐵
and points 𝐶 and 𝐹 that lie on opposite sides
of it by (9))
𝐸 𝐷
(15) Therefore, ray 𝐵𝐹 does not intersect segment
̅̅̅̅ (because segment 𝐴𝐶
̅̅̅̅ is a subset of ray 𝐵 𝐴
𝐴𝐶 𝐹
𝐴𝐶 ). So statement (6i) is not true.

(16) Ray 𝐵𝐹 does not intersect ray 𝐸𝐶 (by the Z 𝐶

Lemma applied to line 𝐵𝐸 ⃡ and points 𝐶 and
𝐹 that lie on opposite sides of it by (10)) 𝐷
𝐸
(17) Therefore, ray 𝐵𝐹 does not intersect segment
̅̅̅̅ . So statement (6ii) is not true. 𝐵 𝐴
𝐸𝐶 𝐹
Chapter 5 Neutral Geometry III: The Separation Axiom page 122

𝐶
(18) Ray 𝐵𝐷 does not intersect ray 𝐶𝐸 (by the Z
Lemma applied to line 𝐵𝐶 ⃡ and points 𝐷 and
E that lie on opposite sides of it by (13)) 𝐷
𝐸
(19) Therefore, ray 𝐵𝐷 does not intersect segment
̅̅̅̅ . So statement (6iii) is not true. 𝐵 𝐴
𝐶𝐸 𝐹

Conclusion 𝐶
(20) Ray 𝐵𝐷 must intersect segment 𝐴𝐶̅̅̅̅ at a point
between 𝐴 and 𝐶 (by (6), (15), (17), (19)).
End of Proof 𝐷
𝐵 𝐴

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 5.8 on page 127.

5.5. A Triangle Can’t Enclose a Ray or a Line

Returning for the last time to our discussion of familiar behavior of drawings in Section 5.1,
recall that our fifth example was:

Example #5: In a drawing, a triangle cannot enclose a ray. The endpoint

and part of the ray may fit inside the triangle, but the ray must poke out
somewhere.

Similarly, in a drawing it is impossible to fit a line inside a triangle. The line must poke out at
two points. In this section, we will prove that abstract rays, lines, and triangles have the same
properties.

The first theorem of the section proves that a triangle cannot enclose a ray.

Theorem 36 about a ray with its endpoint in the interior of a triangle

If the endpoint of a ray lies in the interior of a triangle, then the ray intersects the triangle
exactly once.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
The proof is left to the reader.

The second theorem of the section proves that a triangle cannot enclose a line.

Theorem 37 about a line passing through a point in the interior of a triangle

If a line passes through a point in the interior of a triangle, then the line intersects the triangle
exactly twice.
Proof
(1) Suppose that line 𝐿 passes through point 𝑃 in the interior of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Make a drawing.)
 page 123

(2) There exist points 𝑄, 𝑅 on line 𝐿 such that 𝑄 ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅. (Justify. Update your drawing.)
(3) Ray 𝑃𝑄 intersects Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 exactly once. (Justify.)
(4) Ray 𝑃𝑅 intersects Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 exactly once. (Justify.)
(5) Line 𝐿 intersects Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 exactly twice. (Justify.)
End of Proof

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 5.8 on page 127.

5.6. Convex quadrilaterals

As mentioned at the start of Section 5.2 (Theorems about lines intersecting triangles) on page
115, the only geometric objects that we know about so far are points, lines, rays, segments,
angles, and triangles. In the previous four sections, we explored what the Separation Axiom
<N6> tells us about the relationships between those objects. In the current section we will
introduce a new geometric object, the quadrilateral, and explore what Axiom <N6> tells us about
the object.

Definition 39 quadrilateral
words: “quadrilateral 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷”
symbol: □𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
usage: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are distinct points, no three of which are collinear, and such that the segments
̅̅̅̅ , 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ , 𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅, 𝐷𝐴
̅̅̅̅ intersect only at their endpoints.
meaning: quadrilateral 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 is the set □𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ∪ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ∪ 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐷 ∪ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐴
additional terminology: Points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are each called a vertex of the quadrilateral.
Segments 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ and 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ and 𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅ and 𝐷𝐴
̅̅̅̅ are each called a side of the quadrilateral.
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
Segments 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐷 are each called a diagonal of the quadrilateral.

Notice that it is not simply enough that we have four distinct points, no three of which are
̅̅̅̅ , 𝐵𝐶
collinear. The requirement that the segments 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ , 𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅, 𝐷𝐴
̅̅̅̅ intersect only at their endpoints
means that we must be careful how we name the points. Here are two drawings to illustrate.
𝐷 𝐶 𝐶 𝐷

𝐵 𝐵

𝐴 𝐴
quadrilateral not a quadrilateral
The drawing on the right is not a quadrilateral because segments ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷 and 𝐵𝐶̅̅̅̅ intersect at a point
that is not an endpoint of either segment. (Don’t be fooled by the fact that the drawing does not
have a large dot at that spot. Back in Chapters 1 and 2, when we were studying finite geometries,
the only “points” in our drawings were the large dots that we intentionally drew. But now that we
are studying Neutral Geometry, our lines contain an infinite number of points, one for each real
number. So there is a point at the place where the drawn lines cross.)

In this section, we will classify quadrilaterals into one of two types. I will define the properties
that distinguish the two types precisely later. Right now, I just want to draw examples of the two
types and observe some things about the drawings. In particular, I want to observe whether
Chapter 5 Neutral Geometry III: The Separation Axiom page 124

Statements (i), (ii), and (iii) are true or false. Shown below is a table that presents examples of
the two types, along with observations about Statements (i), (ii), and (iii).

type of drawing: type I type II

𝐶 𝐷
𝐷

drawing: 𝐵
𝐵 𝐶
𝐴
𝐴
Statement (i):
False, because there is a side
All the points of any given
whose points do not all lie on the
side lie on the same side of True
same side of the line determined
the line determined by the
by the opposite side.
opposite side.
False, because the diagonal
Statement (ii):
segments do not intersect
The diagonal segments True
(although the lines containing the
intersect.
diagonal segments do intersect.)
Statement (iii): False, because there is a vertex that
Each vertex is in the interior True is not in the interior of the opposite
of the opposite angle. angle.
Notice that in our two drawings, either all three statements (i), (ii), (iii) are true or they all are
false. That is, the three statements are equivalent. The following theorem proves that in our
axiomatic geometry, quadrilaterals behave the same way.

Theorem 38 Three equivalent statements about quadrilaterals

For any quadrilateral, the following statements are equivalent:
(i) All the points of any given side lie on the same side of the line determined by the
opposite side.
(ii) The diagonal segments intersect.
(iii) Each vertex is in the interior of the opposite angle.
Proof that (i)  (ii)
(1) Suppose that for quadrilateral □𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷, statement (i) is true.
Show that point 𝑨 is in the interior of angle ∠𝑩𝑪𝑫 and use the Crossbar Theorem
(2) Points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are on the same side of line 𝐶𝐷 ⃡ . (by (1))
(3) Points 𝐴 and 𝐷 are on the same side of line 𝐶𝐵 ⃡ . (by (1))
(4) Point 𝐴 is in the interior of angle ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷. (by (2) and (3))
(5) Ray 𝐶𝐴 intersects segment 𝐵𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ at a point 𝑃 between 𝐵 and 𝐷. (by Theorem 35, The
Crossbar Theorem)
Change letters to get more results of the same sort
(6) In steps (2) – (5), make the following replacements: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝐵 → 𝐶 and 𝐶 → 𝐷 and
𝐷 → 𝐴 and 𝑃 → 𝑄. The result will be a proof that point 𝐵 is in the interior of angle
∠𝐶𝐷𝐴 and that ray 𝐷𝐵 intersects segment ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐴 at a point 𝑄 between 𝐶 and 𝐴.
Wrap-up.
 page 125

(7) Points 𝑃 and 𝑄 must be the same point. (because lines ⃡𝐴𝐶 and ⃡𝐵𝐷 can only intersect at
one point, by Theorem 1 (In Neutral Geometry, if 𝐿 and 𝑀 are distinct lines that intersect,
then they intersect in only one point.))
(8) The point 𝑃 = 𝑄 lies on both segments 𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ and 𝐵𝐷
̅̅̅̅. (by (5), (6),(7)) That is, the diagonals
intersect. Conclude that statement (ii) is true.
End of proof that (i)  (ii)

Proof that (ii)  (iii)

(1) Suppose that for quadrilateral □𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷, statement (ii) is true. That is, the diagonal
segments 𝐴𝐶̅̅̅̅ and 𝐵𝐷
̅̅̅̅ intersect at some point 𝑃.
Show that point 𝑷 lies in the interior of ∠𝑨𝑩𝑪.
(2) Point 𝑃 lies in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (by Theorem 33 ((Corollary of Theorem 32.) Points
on a side of a triangle are in the interior of the opposite angle.))
(3) All the points of ray 𝐵𝑃 except 𝐵 lie in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (by Theorem 31 ((Corollary
of Theorem 30) about a ray with its endpoint on an angle vertex))
(4) Point 𝐷 lies in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (because 𝐷 is on ray 𝐵𝑃)
Change letters to get more results of the same sort
(7) In steps (2) – (4), make the following replacements: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝐵 → 𝐶 and C→ 𝐷 and
𝐷 → 𝐴. The result will be a proof that point 𝐴 is in the interior of angle ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷.
(8) Making analogous replacements, we can prove that point 𝐶 is in the interior of angle
∠𝐷𝐴𝐵 and that point 𝐷 is in the interior of angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.
(9) Conclude that statement (iii) is true. (by (4),(7),(8))
End of proof that (ii)  (iii)
Proof that (iii)  (i)
(1) Suppose that for quadrilateral □𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷, statement (iii) is true. That is, each vertex lies in
the interior of the opposite angle.
Consider point 𝑩.
(2) Point 𝐵 lies in the interior of ∠𝐶𝐷𝐴. (by (1))
(3) Points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are on the same side of line 𝐶𝐷 ⃡ . (by (2) and definition of angle interior)
̅̅̅̅ are on the same side of line 𝐶𝐷
(4) All the points of side 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ . (by (3) and the fact that half-
planes are convex.)
(5) Points 𝐵 and 𝐶 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐷𝐴. (by (2) and definition of angle interior)
̅̅̅̅ are on the same side of line ⃡𝐷𝐴. (by (5) and the fact that half-
(6) All the points of side 𝐵𝐶
planes are convex.)
Change letters to get more results of the same sort.
(7) In steps (2) – (6), make the following replacements: 𝐴 → 𝐶 and 𝐵 → 𝐷 and C→ 𝐴 and
𝐷 → 𝐵. The result will be a proof that. All the points of side ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 are on the same side of
⃡ ̅̅̅̅
line 𝐴𝐵 and that all the points of side 𝐷𝐴 are on the same side of line 𝐵𝐶 ⃡ .
Conclusion.
(8) Conclude that all the points of any given side lie on the same side of the line determined
by the opposite side. (by (4), (6), (7)) That is, Statement (i) is true.
End of proof that (iii)  (i)

The preceeding theorem tells us that in our axiomatic geometry the three statements about
quadrilaterals are indeed equivalent. Therefore, we can use any one of the three statements as the
definition of a “Type I” quadrilateral. Most geometry books refer to this type of quadrilateral as a
Chapter 5 Neutral Geometry III: The Separation Axiom page 126

“convex quadrilateral,” so I will use that terminology. And I will use statement (i) as the
definition.

Definition 40 convex quadrilateral

A convex quadrilateral is one in which all the points of any given side lie on the same side of
the line determined by the opposite side. A quadrilateral that does not have this property is
called non-convex.

It should be remarked the definition of a convex quadrilateral does not agree with our previous
Definition 35 of a convex set. Indeed, a convex quadrilateral is not convex in the sense of that
earlier definition of the word. But this usage of the terms is standard.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 5.8 on page 127.

5.7. Plane Separation in High School Geometry Books

We were introduced to the SMSG axioms back in Section 3.10 Distance and Rulers in High
School Geometry Books (on page 85) We observed that because they were written for a high
school audience, the SMSG Postulates are written without some of the mathematical terminology
that we are using in this book. It is interesting to compare the Plane Separation Postulate in
theSMSG axiom system to our Neutral Geometry Axiom Plane Separation Axiom.

SMSG Postulate 9: (Plane Separation Postulate) Given a line and a plane containing it, the
points of the plane that do not lie on the line form two sets such that:
 each of the sets is convex
 if 𝑃 is in one set and 𝑄 is in the other, then segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 intersects the line.

<N6> (The Plane Separation Axiom) For every line 𝐿, there are two associated sets called
half-planes, denoted 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 , with the following properties:
(i) The three sets 𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 form a partition of the set of all points.
(ii) Each of the half-planes is convex.
(iii) If point 𝑃 is in 𝐻1 and point 𝑄 is in 𝐻2 , then segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 intersects line 𝐿.

Compare what the two axioms say about half-planes

 Our Neutral Geometry Axiom <N6> uses the terminology of half-planes, and has names
for the half-planes. They are given the names 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 and when they are discussed in
statements (i) and (iii), they are referred to by name
 SMSG Postulate 9 does not use the term half-plane. The first sentence of the axiom
simply says that there are “two sets”. When the axiom refers to thes sets in the next two
sentences, it can only refer to them as “one set” or “the other”.

Compare what the two axioms say about partitions.

 Our Neutral Geometry Axiom <N6> says explicitly (in statement (i)) that the three sets
𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 form a partition of the set of all points.
 SMSG Postulate 9 does not seem to say anything about a partition. But actually, if you
read the first sentence of SMSG Postulate 9 very carefully, you will realize that it does
contain the essence of a partition. That is, if a point does not lie on the line, then it
 page 127

apparently lies in one of the “two sets”. Well, actually, the SMSG postulate does not say
that the point has to lie in only one of the two sets. That is, the SMSG postulate does not
ever say that the two sets are disjoint. That is an error in the SMSG postulates.

5.8. Exercises for Chapter 5

Exercises for Section 5.1 Introduction to The Separation Axiom and Half-Planes
[1] The term half-plane is discussed in Section 5.1 which begins on page 111. Which of these
figures is the best illustration of a half-plane in Neutral Geometry? Explain.

2
figure (1) figure (2) figure (3)
𝑄 𝐿
[2] In a drawing, if two points 𝑃, 𝑄 are on the same side of line 𝐿, then
the segment connecting those two points also lies on the same side of 𝐿
and does not intersect 𝐿. What guarantees that the same sort of thing will
happen with abstract points and lines in Neutral Geometry? Explain. 𝑃

[3] Suppose that in some proof, you want to prove that two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are in the same half
plane of some line 𝐿. What should be your strategy?

[4] Suppose that in some proof, you want to prove that two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are not in the same
half plane of some line 𝐿. What should be your strategy?

[5] Illustrate and justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 27 (Given any line, each of its half-
planes contains at least three non-collinear points.) presented on page 114.

Exercises for Section 5.2 Theorems about lines intersecting triangles

[6] Illustrate and justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 28 ((Pasch’s Theorem) about a line
intersecting a side of a triangle between vertices) presented on page 116.

[7] Prove Theorem 29 (about a line intersecting two sides of a triangle between vertices)
presented on page 116.

Exercises for Section 5.3 Interiors of angles and triangles

[8] Refer to the definition of Angle Interior (Definition 37, found on page 117). Suppose that in
some proof, you want to prove that some point 𝑃 is in the interior of some angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. What
should be your strategy?

Exercises for Section 5.4 Theorems about rays and lines intersecting triangle interiors
Chapter 5 Neutral Geometry III: The Separation Axiom page 128

[9] Illustrate and justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 30 (about a ray with an endpoint on a
line) presented on page 118.

[10] Prove Theorem 31 ((Corollary of Theorem 30) about a ray with its endpoint on an angle
vertex) presented on page 119.

[11] Prove Theorem 32 ((Corollary of Theorem 30.) about a segment that has an endpoint on a
line) presented on page 119.

[12] Prove Theorem 33 ((Corollary of Theorem 32.) Points on a side of a triangle are in the
interior of the opposite angle.) presented on page 119.

[13] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 34 (The Z Lemma) presented on page 120.

Exercises for Section 5.5 A Triangle Can’t Enclose a Ray or a Line

[13] (Advanced) Prove Theorem 36 (about a ray with its endpoint in the interior of a triangle)
presented on page 122.

[14] Illustrate and justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 37 (about a line passing through a
point in the interior of a triangle) presented on page 122.

Exercises for Section 5.6 Convex quadrilaterals

[15] Illustrate the proof of Theorem 38 (Three equivalent statements about quadrilaterals)
presented on page 124.
 page 129

6.Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle

Measurement
In Chapter 3, Neutral Geometry I: The Axioms of Incidence and Distance, we saw that our
axiomatic geometry has a notion of distance that agrees with our notion of distance in drawings.
It was the Axioms of Incidence and Distance (<N1> through <N5>) that specified the pertinent
behavior.

In drawings, we measure the size of angles with a protractor. We would like to have a similar
notion in our axiomatic geometry, with analogous behavior. In the current chapter, we will be
introduced to the Axioms of Angle Measurement. These axioms will ensure that our axiomatic
geometry will have a notion of angle measure that mimics our use of a protractor to measure
angles in drawings. We will encounter no surprises there, mostly just introductions of
terminology. Then, angle congruence will be defined in terms of equality of angle measure, just
as segment congruence was defined in terms of equality of segment length in Chapter 3.

6.1. The Angle Measurement Axiom

When we measure the size of a drawn angle with a protractor, the result is a number between 0
and 180. We tack on the suffix “degrees”, as in “37 degrees”, or tack on a superscript open
circle, such as in 37° as an abbreviation for “degrees”. We want to have a notion of angle
measure in our abstract geometry, but I would like it to not include the term “degree” or the
superscript open circle,°. In order to do that, we need to consider what role the word “degrees”
plays in our angle measurements in drawings.

Consider the protractors shown in the three drawings on the next page. Each drawing shows a
few marks, but the actual protractors have more marks, as follows.

 Protractor A has equally spaced marks from 0 to 180.

 Protractor B has equally spaced marks from 0 to 200.
𝜋
 Protractor C has equally spaced marks from 0 to 𝜋 in increments of 128. (These are all
irrational numbers, and only a few of the marks are shown.) But this protractor also has a
few extra marks thrown in, at the numbers 1, 2, and 3. (These are rational numbers.)

Suppose that somebody uses one of the protractors to measure an angle and then tells you that
the angle has measure 2. Is that enough information to give you an idea of how the angle looks?
Of course not. Without knowing which protractor was used to measure the angle, you can’t
visualize the angle. Only if you are told the number and also told which protractor was used, will
the measurement be of any use. When the tag “degrees” or “gradians” or “radians” is put after a
number, it is merely indicating that the number is a measure of an angle, and the tag is indicating
which type of protractor is in use—type A or B or C.
Chapter 6 Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement page 130

90

135 45

Protractor A
2
180 0
100

150 50

Protractor B
2
200 0
𝜋
2
2
1 𝜋
3𝜋
4
4

3 Protractor C

𝜋 0
If it has been declared that all measurements of angle size in drawings are to be made with
protractors only of type A, then there would be no need to add the tag “degrees” to the
measurements. It would be known that any number that is a measure of an angle will be a
number that was obtained using a protractor of type A, the one that goes from 0 to 180.

Now consider an equivalent situation in axiomatic geometry.

 To say that the measure of an angle is 2 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 or 2° would mean that the measure of
the angle is 2 when using an angle measurement function with codomain (0,180).
 To say that the measure of an angle is 2 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 would mean that the measure of the
angle is 2 when using an angle measurement function with codomain (0,200).
 To say that the measure of an angle is 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 would mean that the measure of the
angle is 2 when using an angle measurement function with codomain (0, 𝜋).
 page 131

In this book, we will only be using one angle measurement function. Denoted by the letter 𝑚, its
codomain is the set (0,180). Because we will only be using that one angle measurement
function, we do not need to add a tag to our angle measurements. So instead of writing
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2°, we will more simply write 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2.

Note that the codomain of the angle measurement function 𝑚 is (0,180), not [0,180]. That is,
the measure of an angle will always be a real number 𝑟 such that 0 < 𝑟 < 180. What about 𝑟 =
0 and 𝑟 = 180? In drawings, if the measure of an angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is 0, 𝐵 𝐴 𝐶
it means that the angle looks like the upper drawing at right. If the
measure of an angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is 180, it means that the angle looks
like the lower drawing. In both cass, 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are collinear. In our 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
axiomatic geometry, the definition of angle includes the
requirement that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 be non-collinear. We will not have abstract angles that are analogous to
the “zero angle” or “straight angle” from our drawings. So our angle measurement function 𝑚
will never need to produce an output of 0 or 180.

Because 𝑚 is a function, we should know how to describe it in function notation. For that, we
will need a symbol for the set of all angles.

Definition 41 The set of all abstract angles is denoted by the symbol 𝒜.

Using that symbol for the set of all angles, we can specify the function 𝑚 as follows:

<N7> (Angle Measurement Axiom) There exists a function 𝑚: 𝒜 → (0,180), called the
Angle Measurement Function.

The notation indicates that 𝑚 is a function that takes as input an angle and produces as output a
real number between 0 and 180.

Even though the statement of the Angle Measurement Axiom is very simple, it is worthwhile to
illustrate the statement with a drawing and to discuss the use of the axiom. Here is a drawing that
illustrates the statement of the axiom:
Given all the objects in this picture, there exists a number 𝑟 such that
0 < 𝑟 < 180.
𝐶 𝐶
Axiom <N7> 𝑟
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵

There are a couple of very important things to observe about the statement of Axiom <N7>.
 Axiom <N7> does not give us the existence of the angle. The existence of the angle must
have already been proved before Axiom <N7> can be used.
 Axiom <N7> does not tell us anything specific about the number 𝑟 beyond the simple
fact that the number exists and has a value in the range 0 < 𝑟 < 180. No other properties
may be assumed for the number 𝑟. That means that whenever Axiom <N7> gets used in a
proof, it marks the appearance of a 𝑛𝑒𝑤 number 𝑟. The new number 𝑟 has no relation to
any number that has already appeared in the proof. Suppose, for instance, that a proof
Chapter 6 Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement page 132

step states that some angle has measure 37, or has measure equal to the measure of some
other angle. The number 37 already existed in the proof, and the measure of the other
angle already existed. Neither of those claims can be justified by Axiom <N7>. They
would have to be justified in some other way.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 6.8 on page 145.

6.2. The Angle Construction Axiom

Here is the Angle Construction Axiom. Its statement is illustrated by the drawing below.

<N8> (Angle Construction Axiom) Let 𝐴𝐵 be a ray on the edge of the half-plane 𝐻. For
every number 𝑟 between 0 and 180, there is exactly one ray 𝐴𝑃 with point 𝑃 in 𝐻
such that 𝑚(∠𝑃𝐴𝐵) = 𝑟.
Given all the objects in this picture there exists exactly one ray like this:
𝐻 𝐻
𝑃
Axiom <N8> 𝑟
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
and a number 𝑟 such that 0 < 𝑟 < 180,

It is worth noting that the axiom says that there is exactly one
ray 𝐴𝑃 . It does not say that there is exactly one point 𝑃, and 𝐻 𝑃3
that is for a good reason. There are many such points 𝑃. 𝑃2
Consider the drawing at right. Observe that 𝑃1
𝑟
𝑚(∠𝑃1 𝐴𝐵) = 𝑚(∠𝑃2 𝐴𝐵) = 𝑚(∠𝑃3 𝐴𝐵) = 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵

Notice that in the drawing, the three symbols 𝐴𝑃1 , 𝐴𝑃2 , 𝐴𝑃3 all represent the same ray. Theorem
19 (about the use of different second points in the symbol for a ray.), found on page 97, tells us
that the same thing is true in our abstract geometry. If abstract points 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 lie on abstract
ray 𝐴𝑃1 , then the three symbols 𝐴𝑃1 , 𝐴𝑃2 , 𝐴𝑃3 all represent the same abstract ray. The Angle
Construction Axiom <N8> is worded to reflect this. The abstract ray 𝐴𝑃 is unique; the abstract
point 𝑃 is not.

There are a couple of very important things to observe about the statement of Axiom <N8>.
 Axiom <N8> does not give us the existence of the half-plane 𝐻, or the ray 𝐴𝐵 on the
edge of the half-plane, or the number 𝑟. The existence of those things must have already
been proved before Axiom <N8> can be used.
 Axiom <N8> does not tell us anything specific about the ray 𝐴𝑃 beyond the simple fact
that the point 𝑃 lies somewhere in half-plane 𝐻 and that 𝑚(∠𝑃𝐴𝐵) = 𝑟. No other
properties may be assumed for the point 𝑃. That means that whenever Axiom <N8> gets
used in a proof, it marks the appearance of a 𝑛𝑒𝑤 point 𝑃. The new point 𝑃 has no
 page 133

relation to any objects (except half-plane 𝐻 and points 𝐴, 𝐵) that have already appeared in
the proof.

Another thing worth mentioning is that we can rephrase the Angle Construction Axiom using the
terminology of the properties of functions. The axiom is telling us that under certain conditions,
the angle measurement function is one-to-one and onto. To see how, recall that the symbol 𝒜
represents the set of all angles. Suppose that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points. Then points 𝐴, 𝐵
determine a unique line 𝐴𝐵⃡ , and point 𝐶 is not on this line. The symbol 𝐻𝐶 could be used to
⃡ and containing point 𝐶. Ray 𝐴𝐵 is on the edge of the
denote the half-plane created by line 𝐴𝐵
half-plane 𝐻𝐶 . We could define the symbol 𝒜𝐴𝐵,𝐻𝐶 to denote the set of all angles ∠𝐵𝐴𝑃 such
that 𝑃 ∈ 𝐻𝐶 . This is the set of all angles that have ray 𝐴𝐵 as one of their sides and have some ray
𝐴𝑃, where 𝑃 ∈ 𝐻𝐶 , as their other side. Of course, this collection of angles is a proper subset of
the set of all angles. In symbols, we could write 𝒜𝐴𝐵,𝐻𝐶 ⊊ 𝒜. We can restrict the angle
measurement function 𝑚 to the smaller set 𝒜𝐴𝐵,𝐻𝐶 . That is, we can consider using the function
𝑚 only on the angles in that set. The symbol 𝑚|𝒜𝐴𝐵,𝐻𝐶 is used to denote the angle measurement
function 𝑚 restricted to the smaller set 𝒜𝐴𝐵,𝐻𝐶 . The angle construction axiom says that this
restricted angle measurement function is both one-to-one and onto.

6.3. The Angle Measure Addition Axiom

In our drawings, we know that if a drawn point 𝐷 is in the inside of a drawn angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, then

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 + 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶

That is, if 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 = 𝑥 and 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 = 𝑦 and 𝐶 𝐷

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝑧, then 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑧. An example is shown in the
drawing at right. The angle addition axiom simply ensures that the same
thing will happen with abstract angles in our axiomatic geometry. 𝑦 𝑧
<N9> (Angle Measure Addition Axiom) If 𝐷 is a point in the interior of 𝑥
𝐵 𝐴
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, then 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶).

We should introduce some terminology for angles of the sort mentioned in Axiom <N9>.

Definition 42 adjacent angles

Two angles are said to be adjacent if they share a side but have disjoint interiors. That is, the
two angles can be written in the form ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶, where point 𝐶 is not in the interior
of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and point 𝐴 is not in the interior of ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶.

The following theorem states a small fact that is used frequently throughout the rest of the book.
But simple as the fact is to state, it is surprisingly hard to prove. The proof is included here for
readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students.

Theorem 39 about points in the interior of angles

⃡ .
Given: points 𝐶 and 𝐷 on the same side of line 𝐴𝐵
Claim: The following are equivalent:
Chapter 6 Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement page 134

(I) 𝐷 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.

(II) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) < 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶).

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
Proof that (I)  (II)
(1) Suppose that 𝐷 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Make a drawing.)
(2) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶). (by the Angle Measure Addition Axiom <N9>)
(3) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) < 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶). (because 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) is positive, by Axiom <N7>.)
End of proof that (1)  (2)

Proof that (~I)  (~II)

(4) Suppose that 𝐷 is not in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.
(5) There are two possibilities for point 𝐷. (Justify.)
⃡ .
(i) Point 𝐷 lies on line 𝐵𝐶
⃡ .
(ii) Points 𝐷 and 𝐴 lie on opposite sides of line 𝐵𝐶
⃡ .
Case (i): Point 𝑫 lies on line 𝑩𝑪
⃡ . (Make a new drawing.)
(6) Suppose that point 𝐷 lies on line 𝐵𝐶
(7) Then ray 𝐵𝐷 is the same ray as 𝐵𝐶 . (Justify.) So angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 is the same angle as ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Thus, 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶). So Statement (II) is false in this case.

Case (ii): Points 𝑫 and 𝑨 lie on opposite sides of line ⃡𝑩𝑪.

⃡ . (Make a new drawing.)
(8) Suppose that points 𝐷 and 𝐴 lie on opposite sides of line 𝐵𝐶
(9) Segment ̅̅̅̅ ⃡ at a point 𝐸 between 𝐴 and 𝐷. (Justify.)
𝐴𝐷 intersects line 𝐵𝐶
(10) Points 𝐸 and 𝐴 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐵𝐷. (Justify.)
(11) Points 𝐸 and 𝐶 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐵𝐷. (Justify.)
(12) Points 𝐴 and 𝐶 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐵𝐷. (Justify.)
(13) Point 𝐶 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷. (Justify.)
(14) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) + 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐷) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷). (Justify.)
(15) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) < 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷). (Justify.) So Statement (II) is false in this case.

Conclusion of cases
(16) We see that Statement (II) is false in either case..
End of proof that (~I)  (~II)

The idea of an angle bisector is very simple. Here’s a definition.

Definition 43 angle bisector

An angle bisector is a ray that has its endpoint at the vertex of the angle and passes through a
point in the interior of the angle, such that the two adjacent angles created have equal
measure. That is, for an angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, a bisector is a ray 𝐵𝐷 such that 𝐷 ∈ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶)
and such that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) = 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶).

The following theorem about the existence and uniqueness of angle bisectors is very important
and its statement is not surprising. The proof relies on axioms <N8> and <N9> and on the
previoius theorem about points in the interior of angles. You will justify it in a class drill. (Your
 page 135

justifications may refer to any prior theorem and use Neutral Axioms <N2> through <N9>. You
may not use Axiom <N10>.)

Theorem 40 Every angle has a unique bisector.

Proof
(1) Suppose that angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given. (Make a drawing.)
Introduce special ray 𝑩𝑫 and show that it is a bisector of ∠𝑨𝑩𝑪.
(2) The real number 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) exists. (Justify.)
1
⃡ that contains point 𝐶.
(3) Let 𝑟 = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶). Let 𝐻𝐶 be the half-plane created by line 𝐴𝐵
2
Observe that ray 𝐵𝐴 lies on the edge of this half-plane. (Make a new drawing.)
(4) There exists a ray 𝐵𝐷 such that 𝐷 ∈ 𝐻𝐶 and 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) = 𝑟. (Justify.) (Make a new
drawing.)
(5) Point 𝐷 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (by statements (2), (3), and Theorem 39 II  I) (Make
a new drawing.)
(6) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) = 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶). (Justify. This will take 2 or 3 steps)
(7) Ray 𝐵𝐷 is a bisector of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
Show that ray 𝑩𝑫 is the only bisector of ∠𝑨𝑩𝑪.
(8) Suppose that ray 𝐵𝐸 is a bisector of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Make a new drawing.)
(9) Point 𝐸 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐸) = 𝑚(∠𝐸𝐵𝐶). (Justify.) (Make a new
drawing.)
1
(10) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐸) = 2 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶). (Justify.)
⃡ . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(11) Points 𝐸 and 𝐶 are on the same side of line 𝐴𝐵
(12) Point 𝐸 is in half-plane 𝐻𝐶 . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(13) Ray 𝐵𝐸 is the same ray as 𝐵𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
End of Proof

The above proof of Theorem 40 about the existence & uniqueness of an angle bisector depended
on Theorem 39 about points in the interior of angles. Considered as a pair, those two theorems
could be thought of as a long and difficult two-part proof of the existence & uniqueness of an
angle bisector. Having gotten through that difficult two-part proof, I will now tell you the
charming news that in the next chapter we will find that if we use the Axiom of Triangle
Congruence, <N10>, there is a much easier proof of the existence and uniqueness of the angle
bisector. Most books present only that easier proof. But it is worthwhile to study the two difficult
proofs that we just studied, for at least three reasons: (1) they show that the existence &
uniqueness of the angle bisector does not depend on the notion of triangle congruence, (2) the
proof of Theorem 40 lets us see the Axiom of Separation used in conjunction with the Axioms of
Angle Measurement and (3) seeing both the difficult proofs above and the forthcoming easier
proof will provide us motivation to always search for alternate ways of proving things.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 6.8 on page 145.

6.4. The Linear Pair Theorem

Consider the angles ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 in the drawing at right below. Points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are collinear.
Chapter 6 Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement page 136

I have superimposed a protractor on the drawing. We

see that if the protractor measure of drawn angle 180
𝐷
∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 is 𝑥
and the protractor measure of drawn angle ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 is 𝑦 𝑥
𝑦,
𝐶 𝐵 𝐴
then 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 180.
We expect an analogous thing to happen in our abstract geometry. Will it?

To answer that question, it will help to introduce the terminology of a linear pair of angles.

Definition 44 linear pair

Two angles are said to be a linear pair if they share one side, and the sides that they do not
share are opposite rays. That is, if the two angles can be written in the form ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and
∠𝐷𝐵𝐶, where 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶.

Now, what about the sum of the measures of the abstract angles in a linear pair? Notice that the
drawn linear pair in our drawing could be considered as just a special case of the drawing of
adjacent angles at the beginning of Section 6.3, on page 133. All that is special about the drawn
linear pair is the additional fact that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are collinear. One might wonder if the Angle
Addition Axiom <N9> will guarantee that abstract angles in an abstract linear pair will satisfy
the equation

𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) = 180.

The answer to this question is no, for a fairly simple reason. The Angle Addition Axiom <N9>
refers to three angles: ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷, ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. If two angles ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 form a linear pair,
then the three points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are collinear, so they will not form an angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. So the Angle
Addition Axiom does not apply in the situation where two angles ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 form a
linear pair. So if we want to know that the equation 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) = 180 is true for
angles in a linear pair, it will have to be specified in an another axiom or proven in a theorem.

It turns out that we don’t need to specify in an additional axiom that the equation is true for
angles in a linear pair, because we can prove it in a theorem.

Theorem 41 Linear Pair Theorem.

If two angles form a linear pair, then the sum of their measures is 180.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(1) Suppose that two angles form a linear pair.
(2) The angles can be labeled ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 where 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶. (Justify.) (Make a
drawing.)
(3) Let 𝑥 = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) and 𝑦 = 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶). (Update your drawing.)

Show that 𝒙 + 𝒚 cannot be less than 𝟏𝟖𝟎.

(4) Suppose that 𝑥 + 𝑦 < 180. (assumption)
(5) Let 𝑟 = 𝑥 + 𝑦.
(6) Then 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑟 < 180. (Justify.)
 page 137

(7) Let 𝐻𝐷 be the half-plane created by line ⃡𝐴𝐶 that contains point 𝐷. (Make a new drawing.)
(8) There exists a ray 𝐵𝐸 such that 𝐸 ∈ 𝐻𝐷 and 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐸) = 𝑟. (Justify.) (Make a new
drawing.)
(9) Observe that 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐵𝐸 are not the same ray (because 𝐸 does not lie on line 𝐴𝐵⃡ ).
(10) Point 𝐷 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐸. (Justify.)
(11) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐸) = 𝑟. (Justify.)
(12) Therefore, 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐸) = 𝑦. (Make a new drawing.)
(13) Ray 𝐵𝐷 intersects segment ̅̅̅̅𝐴𝐸 at a point between 𝐴 and 𝐸. (Justify.) We can label the
point of intersection 𝐹. (Make a new drawing.)
(14) Points 𝐴 and 𝐸 are on opposite sides of line ⃡𝐵𝐷. (Justify.)
(15) Points 𝐴 and 𝐶 are on opposite sides of line ⃡𝐵𝐷. (Justify)
(16) Points 𝐸 and 𝐶 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐵𝐷. (Justify.)
(17) Let 𝐻𝐶 be the half-plane created by line ⃡𝐵𝐷 that contains point 𝐶. Observe that this half-
plane also contains point 𝐸. (Make a new drawing.)
(18) Rays 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐵𝐸 have 𝐶 ∈ 𝐻𝐶 and 𝐸 ∈ 𝐻𝐶 and 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) = 𝑦 and 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐸) = 𝑦 but
they are not the same ray. (by steps (17), (3), (12), (9)) .(Make a new drawing.)
(19) Statement (18) is a contradiction. (What does it contradict?) Therefore, our assumption
in step (4) was incorrect. That is, 𝑥 + 𝑦 cannot be less than 180.

Show that 𝒙 + 𝒚 cannot be greater than 𝟏𝟖𝟎.

(20) Suppose that 𝑥 + 𝑦 > 180. (assumption) (Make a new drawing.)
(21) Then 0 < 180 − 𝑥 < 𝑦 < 180. (Justify.)
(22) Let 𝑟 = 180 − 𝑥. Then 0 < 𝑟 < 𝑦 < 180.
(23) Let 𝐻𝐶 be the half-plane created by line 𝐵𝐷 ⃡ that contains point 𝐶. (Make a new
drawing.)
(24) There exists a ray 𝐵𝐺 such that 𝐺 ∈ 𝐻𝐶 and 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐺) = 𝑟. (Justify.) (Make a new
drawing.)
(25) Point 𝐺 is in the interior of ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(26) Points 𝐺 and 𝐷 are on the same side of line 𝐵𝐶 ⃡ (which is also line ⃡𝐵𝐴). (Justify.) (Make
a new drawing.)
(27) Ray 𝐵𝐺 intersects segment 𝐶𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ at a point between 𝐶 and 𝐷. (Justify.) We can label the
point of intersection 𝐾. (Make a new drawing.)
(28) Points 𝐶 and 𝐷 are on opposite sides of line ⃡𝐵𝐺 . (Justify.)
(29) Points 𝐶 and 𝐴 are on opposite sides of line ⃡𝐵𝐺 . (Justify)
(30) Points 𝐴 and 𝐷 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐵𝐺 . (Justify.)
(31) Point 𝐷 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐺. (Justify.)
(32) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐺) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐺). (Justify.)
(33) 𝑥 + 𝑟 = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐺). (Justify.)
(34) 𝑥 + (180 − 𝑥) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐺). (Justify.)
(35) 180 = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐺). (Justify.)
(36) Statement (36) is a contradiction. (What does it contradict?) Therefore, our assumption in
step (20) was incorrect. That is, 𝑥 + 𝑦 cannot be greater than 180.
Conclusion
(37) Conclude that 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 180.
End of Proof
Chapter 6 Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement page 138

Now that you see how difficult the proof of the Linear Pair Theorem is, you can understand why
a typical high school book would simply include the statement as an axiom. We were introduced
to the SMSG axioms back in Section 3.10 Distance and Rulers in High School Geometry Books
(on page 85) Here is the SMSG axiom about linear pairs, an axiom used in many high school
books:

SMSG Postulate 14: (Supplement Postulate) If two angles form a linear pair, then they are
supplementary.

There is a converse for the Linear Pair Theorem. The converse is stated as here as a theorem but
is not proven. You will be asked to prove it in a homework exercise.

Theorem 42 Converse of the Linear Pair Theorem

If adjacent angles have measures whose sum is 180, then the angles form a linear pair.
That is, if angles ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 are adjacent and 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) = 180,
then 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
The proof is left to the reader.

The concept of a vertical pair of angles is very simple. Here is the definition.

Definition 45 vertical pair

A vertical pair is a pair of angles with the property that the sides of one angle are the opposite
rays of the sides of the other angle.

It is a shame that such a non-descriptive name has become standard for the type of angles just
described. It would make so much more sense to call them an “opposite pair”! But even with the
non-descriptive name for the angles, everybody seems to remember the following theorem about
them.

Theorem 43 Vertical Pair Theorem

If two angles form a vertical pair then they have the same measure.
Proof
(1) Suppose that two angles form a vertical pair.
(2) The angles can be labeled ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐸, where 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷 and 𝐶 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸.

Fill in the missing steps, with justifications.

(*) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐸). (Justify.)

End of Proof

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 6.8 on page 145.
 page 139

6.5. A digression about terminology

One of the difficult things about axiomatic geometry is the sheer number of definitions involved.
To some extent, this is unavoidable because there are many configurations of objects possible,
and many observations that can be made about them. If we described every configuration and
every observation using only the primitive terms (point, line, and lies on), our writing would
become so bloated that it would be unreadable. So we introduce defined objects and defined
terms to streamline our writing. But it is also a fact that there are more geometry terms in
common usage than are actually necessary in any particular version of geometry.

That last sentence is vague, so let me give an example. In this book, we have defined congruent
segments to mean segments that have the same length. Within this book, the use of the
expression congruent segments is completely unnecessary and adds a layer of notational hassle
that can only cloud our understanding. Everytime you read something like “segment 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ is
̅̅̅̅
congruent to segment 𝐶𝐷”, you have to remind yourself to perform a little internal translation
and register the true meaning of the phrase, “segments 𝐴𝐵̅̅̅̅ and 𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅ have the same length”. There
is no question that this book would be clearer if we just omitted the definition of segment
congruence and always referred to segments with the same length instead.

So why don’t we do that? Why don’t all books do that? Let me start by answering the second
question. In some axiomatic geometry books, there are no axioms about distance and coordinate
functions. Think about what that implies. If there is no distance function, one cannot define the
length of a line segment in terms of distance. If there are no coordinate functions, then one
cannot define betweenness of points in terms of their coordinates. In some such books, one finds
axioms about betweenness of points and congruence of segments, where between and congruent
are primitive, undefined terms. So the answer to the second question is that some books use
terms like congruent segments because those books are presenting a different version of
axiomatic geometry.

For example, Hilbert’s axioms for Euclidean geometry are an axiom system in which between
and congruent are primitive, undefined terms. One of his axioms is the following:

𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
Hilbert’s Congruence Axiom 3. If 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐴′ ∗ 𝐵 ′ ∗ 𝐶′ and ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵′𝐶′
𝐴′𝐵′ and 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅̅.
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐴′𝐶′
then 𝐴𝐶

That axiom uses only the primitive terms point, between, and congruent segments (abbreviated in
symbols) and the logical connectives If-then and and. There is no extra layer of definitions to be
decoded, no fat that could be trimmed to make the writing clearer.

But what about the first question? If it would clarify this book to omit the definition of segment
congruence and refer to segments with the same length instead, why not do it? The answer is that
books should use as universal a language as possible, so that the material presented one book can
be more easily compared to the material in others. For example, consider our Neutral Geometry
Theorem 25.

Theorem 25 Congruent Segment Addition Theorem.

𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
If 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐴′ ∗ 𝐵 ′ ∗ 𝐶′ and ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅ then ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵′𝐶′
𝐴′𝐵′ and 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶 ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴′𝐶′.
Chapter 6 Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement page 140

The words and symbols of our Theorem 25 exactly match the words and symbols of Hilbert’s
Congruence Axiom 3. In our book, the statement is a theorem, not an axiom, and the terms
between and congruent segments are defined terms, not primitive.
But if it is sometimes worthwhile to keep a few more definitions in use than are absolutely
necessary, it is also sometimes important to avoid certain definitions. The term supplementary
angles is one that we will not use in this book. Even so, it is important for you to know about the
term and to be aware of its uses in other books.

In the book Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries by Greenberg, the term supplementary
angles is defined the way that I define linear pair in this book. In Greenberg’s book, a theorem
proves that if two angles are supplementary, then the sum of their measures is 180.

In the book Elementary Geometry from an Advanced Standpoint by Moise, the expression linear
pair is defined in the same way that I define linear pair in this book. In Moise’s book, the
expression supplementary angles is defined to mean angles whose measures add up to 180. A
theorem proves that if two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.

In my book, I have chosen to use the term linear pair because the words have something to do
with how the angles actually look. I will avoid all use of the expression supplementary angles
because the expression is unnecessary and has inconsistent usages in the literature. If I want to
talk about angles whose measures add up to 180, I will refer to them that way, rather than using
some defined term.

Enough of this digression. Let’s move on to study some new things.

6.6. Right Angles and Perpendicular Lines

Before defining right angles, it is useful to state and prove the following theorem.

Theorem 44 about angles with measure 90

For any angle, the following two statements are equivalent.
(i) There exists another angle that forms a linear pair with the given angle and that has
the same measure.
(ii) The given angle has measure 90.
Proof
(1) Suppose that ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given.
Proof that (i)  (ii)
(2) Suppose that statement (i) is true. That is, suppose that there exists an angle ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 such
that the two angles form a linear pair and such that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐷).

(Fill in the missing steps.)

(*) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 90. That is, statement (ii) is true.

Proof that (ii)  (i)
(*) Suppose that statement (ii) is true. That is, suppose that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 90.
(*) There exists a point 𝐷 such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷. (Justify.)

(Fill in the missing steps.)

 page 141

(*) 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐷) = 90. (Justify.)

(*) Summarizing, the two angles ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 form a linear pair and have the same
measure. That is, statement (i) is true.
End of Proof

The above theorem tells us that there is something special about angles with measure 90. We
give them a special name, and we define some related terms at the same time.

Definition 46 acute angle, right angle, obtuse angle

An acute angle is an angle with measure less than 90.
A right angle is an angle with measure 90.
An obtuse angle is an angle with measure greater than 90.
In drawings, right angles are indicated by little boxes at the vertex.

right angle not a right angle

With the definition of right angle comes some the following related definitions of perpendicular
lines, segments, and rays.

Definition 47 perpendicular lines

Two lines are said to be perpendicular if there exist two rays that lie in the lines and whose
union is a right angle. The symbol 𝐿 ⊥ 𝑀 is used to denote that lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are
perpendicular.

Note that the previous definition is very terse: it does not say much about the lines and rays.
Even so, we can infer more than was said. Here are two observations.
 The two rays cannot be collinear, because collinear rays do not form an angle. Therefore,
one ray must lie in one line, and the other ray must lie in the other line, and the two lines
cannot be the same line.
 The rays must share an endpoint in order to form an angle. This tells us that the two lines
must intersect.

It will be useful to have a definition of perpendicular segments and perpendicular rays. We

should consider perpendicular drawn objects in order to get an idea of how the definition should
be worded for the corresponding abstract objects. You can certainly visualize perpendicular
lines, so I do not need to draw a picture. And if I ask you to visualize perpendicular segments, or
perpendicular rays, you will probably think of a drawing where two segments or two rays
intersect at right angles. But it is very useful to define perpendicularity for segments and rays in a
way that it does not require them to intersect. Here is the definition.

Definition 48 perpendicular lines, segments, rays

Suppose that Object 1 is a line or a segment or a ray and that Object 2 is a line or a segment
or a ray. Object 1 is said to be perpendicular to Object 2 if the line that contains Object 1 is
Chapter 6 Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement page 142

perpendicular to the line that contains Object 2 by the definition of perpendicular lines in the
previous definition. The symbol 𝐿 ⊥ 𝑀 is used to denote that objects 𝐿 and 𝑀 are
perpendicular.

Here are some pictures of perpendicular objects

perpendicular perpendicular segment

segments segments perpendicular to ray
The definition just presented essentially expanded our definition of perpendicular to include
more cases. The following theorem reminds us that at any intersection of perpendicular lines,
four perpendicular angles are formed.

Theorem 45 If two intersecting lines form a right angle, then they actually form four.

Proof
⃡ and line 𝐴𝐶
(1) Suppose two intersecting lines form a right angle. That is, line 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ have the
property that 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) = 90.
(2) There exists a point 𝐷 such that 𝐷 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 and a point 𝐸 such that 𝐸 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐶. (Justify.)

Fill in the remaining steps.

End of Proof

In the previous section, we studied Theorem 40 about the existence and uniqueness of angle
bisectors. For such a simple-sounding theorem, the proof was surprisingly difficult, and used
<N8> The Angle Construction Axiom. We will now study another simple sounding yet very
important theorem whose proof also uses Axiom <N8>. This time, the proof will not be so hard.

Theorem 46 existence and uniqueness of a line that is perpendicular to a given line through a
given point that lies on the given line
For any given line, and any given point that lies on the given line, there is exactly one
line that passes through the given point and is perpendicular to the given line.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.

Theorem 46
Proof
(1) Suppose that 𝐿 is a line and 𝑃 is a point that lies on 𝐿. (Make a drawing.)
Part 1: Show that a line exists that passes through 𝑷 and is perpendicular to 𝑳.
 page 143

(2) There exists a second point on 𝐿. (Justify.) Call the second point 𝑄. (Make a new
drawing.)
(3) There exists a point that is not on 𝐿. (Justify.) Call it 𝑅. (Make a new drawing.)
(4) Point 𝑅 lies in one of the half-planes created by line 𝐿. (Justify.) Let 𝐻𝑅 be that half-plane.
(5) There exists a ray 𝑃𝑆 such that 𝑆 ∈ 𝐻𝑅 and 𝑚(∠𝑄𝑃𝑆) = 90. (Justify.)
(6) Let 𝑀 be line ⃡𝑃𝑆. Observe that 𝑀 passes through 𝑃 and 𝑀 ⊥ 𝐿.
Part 2: Show that the line is unique.
(7) Suppose that some line 𝑁 passes through 𝑃 and that 𝑁 ⊥ 𝐿. (Make a new drawing.)
(8) There exist points 𝑇 and 𝑈 on line 𝑁 such that 𝑇 ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝑈. (Justify.)
(9) Points 𝑇 and 𝑈 lie on opposite sides of line 𝐿, so exactly one of them lies in half-plane 𝐻𝑅 .
Without loss of generality (WLOG), we may assume that it is point 𝑇 that lies in half-plane
𝐻𝑅 . (If the assumption is not true, we can simply interchange the names of points 𝑇 and 𝑈
so that the assumption is true.) (Make a new drawing.)
(10) Note that ray 𝑃𝑇 has the property that point 𝑇 lies in half-plane 𝐻𝑅 and 𝑚(∠𝑄𝑃𝑇) = 90.
(11) Ray 𝑃𝑇 must be the same as ray 𝑃𝑆. (Justify.) So point 𝑇 must lie on ray 𝑃𝑆 and hence
also on line 𝑀. Therefore, line 𝑁 is the same as line 𝑀.
End of Proof

Notice that Theorem 46 is about the existence and uniqueness of a line perpendicular to a line
through a given point that lies on a given line.

Theorem 46

The proof made use of earlier theorems that relied on axioms <N2> through <N8>.

Consider the different situation where there is a given line and a given point that does not lie on
the given line. Notice that Theorem 46 does not apply to this situation. It is natural to wonder if
there exists a unique line that passes through the given point and is perpendicular to the given
line. This question is illustrated by the drawing below.

???
It turns out that there does exist a unique line that passes through the given point and is
perpendicular to the given line, but the proof requires theorems that follow from axiom <N10>.
We will not be studying that axiom until the next chapter. So we will have to wait until the next
chapter for the theorem about the existence and uniqueness of a line perpendicular to a given line
through a given point that does not lie on the line.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 6.8 on page 145.
Chapter 6 Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement page 144

6.7. Angle Congruence

In Definition 29, segment congruence, found on page98, we defined congruent segments to be
segments that have the same length. In Section 6.5 (A digression about terminology), I pointed
out that we did not really need to use the term congruent segments: we could just as easily refer
to segments of equal length. The reason for using the term congruent segments was that it kept
the language of this book more in line with the language of other books. We will define
congruent angles in an analogous way.

Definition 49 angle congruence

Two angles are said to be congruent if they have the same measure. The symbol ≅ is used to
indicate this. For example ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹 means 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐸𝐹).

I have postponed making this definition until now, at the end of this chapter about angle
measure, because I wanted you to see that we really do not have to use the term congruent angles
in this book. Throughout this chapter, it has not been an inconvenience to refer to angles of equal
measure. But as with segment congruence, one should not feel compelled to avoid the
terminology of angle congruence. It is too widely-used to be avoided, and there are settings
where it must be used. An example of a setting would be Hilbert’s Axioms for Euclidean
Geometry, where there is no angle measurement axiom, and angle congruence is a primitive,
undefined term.

The four theorems below would be necessary if we were using an axiom system where angle
congruence is a primitive, undefined term. They are not necessary when using axiom systems
such as ours, axiom systems that have an angle measurement axiom. But some books that use
axiom systems like ours include these theorems, anyway. I include them here, and will assign
their proofs to you as exercises, so that you will be familiar with them.

Theorem 47 Angle congruence is an equivalence relation.

Theorem 48 Congruent Angle Construction Theorem

Let 𝐴𝐵 be a ray on the edge of a half-plane 𝐻. For any angle ∠𝐶𝐷𝐸, there is exactly one
ray 𝐴𝑃 with point 𝑃 in 𝐻 such that ∠𝑃𝐴𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐶𝐷𝐸.

Theorem 49 Congruent Angle Addition Theorem

If point 𝐷 lies in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 and point 𝐷′ lies in the interior of ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′, and
∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≅ ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐷′ and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐷′𝐵′𝐶′, then ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′.

Theorem 50 Congruent Angle Subtraction Theorem

If point 𝐷 lies in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 and point 𝐷′ lies in the interior of ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′, and
∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≅ ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐷′ and ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′, then ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐷′𝐵′𝐶′.

.
 page 145

6.8. Exercises for Chapter 6

Exercises for Section 6.1 The Angle Measurement Axiom

[1] Are there straight angles in our Neutral Geometry? Explain.

[2] Can an angle have measure 180 in our Neutral Geometry? Explain?
[3] Can an angle have measure 0 in our Neutral Geometry? Explain.

[4] In our Neutral Geometry, if 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 1.37, does that mean 1.37 degrees, or 1.37
gradians, or 1.37 radians? Explain.

[5] In our Neutral Geometry, why do angle measurements not get labeled as degrees, gradians, or
radians? Explain.

[6] Here is a statement and justification from a proof written by Waldo. What’s wrong with it?
(17) Angle ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹 has measure 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐸𝐹) = 90. (By Angle Measurement Axiom <N7>)

Exercises for Section 6.3 The Angle Measure Addition Axiom

[7] (advanced) Draw diagrams to illustrate and justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 39
(about points in the interior of angles) found on page 133.

[8] Draw diagrams to illustrate and justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 40 (Every angle has
a unique bisector.), found on page 135.

Exercises for Section 6.4 The Linear Pair Theorem

[9] (advanced) Draw diagrams to illustrate and justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 41
(Linear Pair Theorem.) found on page 136.

[10] Here is an idea for a short proof of Theorem 41 (Linear Pair Theorem.). It much shorter than
the proof on page 136.
Idea for a Proof of the Linear Pair Theorem
(1) Suppose that two angles form a linear pair.
(2) The angles can be labeled ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶
where 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶.
(3) Consider the angles of triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 and 𝐷
Δ𝐷𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐴𝐷𝐶 as shown in the diagram at 𝑤𝑣
right. The six letters 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 stand for the 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑢
measures of the six angles shown. 𝐶 𝐵 𝐴
(4) 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑧 = 180 (because the measures of the three angles of any triangle add up to 180).
(5) 𝑤 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 180 (for the same reason).
(6) Therefore, 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 360.
(7) But 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 + 𝑥 = 180 (because the measures of the three angles of triangle Δ𝐴𝐷𝐶 add
up to 180).
(8) Therefore, 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 180.
End of Proof
Chapter 6 Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement page 146

Is this a valid proof? Can it be used as the proof of our Theorem 41? Explain.

[11] Theorem 41 (Linear Pair Theorem.), found on page 136, states that if two angles form a
linear pair, then the sum of the measures of their angles is 180. An attempt at a proof is shown
below. For statements (2), (3), (4), either justify the statement or explain why the statement is
invalid.

Proof
(1) Suppose that two angles form a linear pair.

(2)The angles can be labeled ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 with 𝐴 ∗

𝐷
𝐵 ∗ 𝐶.
Justify or explain why the statement is invalid: _______
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________ 𝐶 𝐵 𝐴

(3) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶)

Justify or explain why the statement is invalid: _______ 𝐷
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________ 𝐶 𝐵 𝐴

(4) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 180 180

Justify or explain why the statement is invalid: _______
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________ 𝐶 𝐵 𝐴

𝑥 + 𝑦 = 180 𝐷
(5) Therefore, 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) = 180 (by
statements (3) and (4) and transitivity). 𝑦 𝑥
𝐶 𝐵 𝐴
End of Proof

[12] (advanced) Prove Theorem 42 (Converse of the Linear Pair Theorem), found on page 138.
Hint: The goal is to show that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶. Show that there exists a point 𝐸 such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸.
Show that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐸) = 180. Then find a way to show that rays 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐵𝐸 must
be the same ray. Use that to reach a conclusion.

[13] Fill in the missing steps and justifications for the proof of Theorem 43 (Vertical Pair
Theorem), on page 138. Write up the complete proof with numbered steps. Make drawings.

Exercises for Section 6.6 Right Angles and Perpendicular Lines

 page 147

[14] Fill in the missing steps and justifications for the proof of Theorem 44 (about angles with
measure 90), found on page 140. Write up the complete proof with numbered step and drawings.

[15] In the figure at right,

Points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are collinear. 𝐹 𝐷
𝐸
Ray 𝐵𝐸 bisects angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷. 𝑥
Ray 𝐵𝐹 bisects angle ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶. 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥
Prove that angle ∠𝐸𝐵𝐹 is a right angle. 𝐶 𝐵 𝐴
Hint: Let 𝑥 = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐸) = 𝑚(∠𝐸𝐵𝐷) and let 𝑦 = 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐹) = 𝑚(∠𝐹𝐵𝐶).

[16] Fill in the missing steps and justifications for the proof of Theorem 45 (If two intersecting
lines form a right angle, then they actually form four.), found on page 142. Write up the
complete proof with numbered steps. Make drawings to illustrate.

[17] Draw diagrams to illustrate and justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 46 (existence and
uniqueness of a line that is perpendicular to a given line through a given point that lies on the
given line), found on page 142.

Exercises for Section 6.7 Angle Congruence

[18] Prove Theorem 47 (Angle congruence is an equivalence relation.), found on page 144.

[19] Prove Theorem 48 (Congruent Angle Construction Theorem), found on page 144. Hints:
 Think about proof structure. All the given information should go in the first step.
 Use the angle measurement axiom to state that there is a number 𝑟 = 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐷𝐸).
 Then use the angle construction axiom.
 Then use the definition of congruence.

[20] Prove Theorem 49 (Congruent Angle Addition Theorem), found on page 144. Hints:
 Think about proof structure. All the given information should go in the first step.
 Use the angle measurement axiom to state that there are numbers that are measures of the
angles involved. (Give the numbers letter names.)
 Use the definition of congruence to tell you about some equalities among the numbers
that you have introduced
 Then use the angle measure addition axiom to find out more about the numbers.
 Then use the definition of congruence again.
Chapter 6 Neutral Geometry IV: The Axioms of Angle Measurement page 148

.
 page 149

7.Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of

Triangle Congruence
In this chapter we will be introduced to the notion of triangle congruence and to the last axiom of
Neutral Geometry. Before starting that project, it is a good idea to review the meaning of
equality of sets.

Definition 50 symbol for equality of two sets

Words: 𝑆 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑇.
Symbol: 𝑆 = 𝑇.
Usage: 𝑆 and 𝑇 are sets.
Meaning: 𝑆 and 𝑇 are the same set. That is, every element of set 𝑆 is also an element of set
𝑇, and vice-versa.

It is worthwhile to consider a few examples. Refer to the drawing below.

𝐶 𝐹
2 2
1 60 1 60
90 30 90 30
𝐴 √3 𝐵 𝐷 √3 𝐸
(1) The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 = Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶” is true because the two sets are clearly the same.

(2) The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 = Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵” is true. To see why, observe that
Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ∪ 𝐵𝐶̅̅̅̅ ∪ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐴 = ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ∪ ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐴 ∪ 𝐶𝐵 𝐴𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ∪ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 ∪ 𝐶𝐵 𝐵𝐴 = Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵
(3) The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 = Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹” is false because the sets are not the same. Point 𝐷 is in set
Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 but it is not in set Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.

In this section, we will learn about triangle congruence. We will learn that triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and
Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 in the drawing above are congruent, and we will learn that the symbol Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 is
appropriate. But that is not the same thing as saying that the triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 are
equal. We have seen that they are not equal.

7.1. The Concept of Triangle Congruence

7.1.1. Correspondences between parts of triangles
The term correspondence is used in almost any discussion of triangle congruence, and in almost
any theorem about triangle congruence, so we start our presentation of the concept of triangle
congruence by defining the term.

Definition 51 function, domain, codomain, image, machine diagram, correspondence

Symbol: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵
Spoken: “𝑓 is a function that maps 𝐴 to 𝐵.”
Usage: 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets. Set 𝐴 is called the domain and set 𝐵 is called the codomain.
Meaning: 𝑓 is a machine that takes an element of set 𝐴 as input and produces an element of
set 𝐵 as output.
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 150

More notation: If an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 is used as the input to the function , then the symbol
𝑓(𝑎) is used to denote the corresponding output. The output 𝑓(𝑎) is called the
image of 𝑎 under the map 𝑓.
Machine Diagram:

𝑎 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓
input output
Domain: Codomain:
the set 𝐴 the set 𝐵
Additional notation: If 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto (that is, if 𝑓 is a bijection), then the
symbol 𝑓: 𝐴 ↔ 𝐵 will be used. In this case, 𝑓 is called a correspondence between
the sets 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Correspondences play a key role in the concepts of triangle similarity and congruence, and they
will also play a key role in the concepts of polygon similarity and congruence, so we should do a
few examples to get more familiar with them.

Examples

(1) Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the cubing function, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 . Then 𝑓 is one-to-one and onto, so we could
say that 𝑓 is a correspondence, and we would write 𝑓: ℝ ↔ ℝ.

(2) Let 𝑆1 = {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸} and 𝑆2 = {𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑁, 𝑂, 𝑃}. Define a function 𝑓: 𝑆1 → 𝑆2 by this

picture:
𝑆1 𝑆2
𝐴 𝑓 𝐿
𝐵 𝑀
𝐶 𝑁
𝐷 𝑂
𝐸 𝑃
Then we would say that 𝑓 is a correspondence, and we would write 𝑓: 𝑆1 ↔ 𝑆2 . It would be
appropriate to replace all of the arrows in the diagram with double arrows, ↔.

(3) For the same example as above, we could display the correspondence more concisely:

𝐴↔𝑁
𝐵↔𝑃
𝐶↔𝐿
𝐷↔𝑀
𝐸↔𝑂

This takes up much less space, and is faster to write, than the picture. However, notice that this
way of displaying the correspondence still uses a lot of space.
 page 151

(4) There is an even more concise way to display the correspondence from the above example.
To understand the notation, though, we should first recall some conventions about brackets and
parentheses. When displaying sets, curly brackets are used. In sets, order is not important. For
example, 𝑆1 = {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸} = {𝐶, 𝐴, 𝐸, 𝐷, 𝐵}. When displaying an ordered list, parentheses are
used. So whereas the {𝐴, 𝐵} and {𝐵, 𝐴} are the same set, (𝐴, 𝐵) and (𝐵, 𝐴) are different ordered
pairs. With that notation in mind, we will use the symbol below to denote the function 𝑓
described in the previous examples.

(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸) ↔ (𝑁, 𝑃, 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑂)

The parentheses indicate that the order of the elements is important, and the double arrow
symbol indicates that there is a correspondence between the lists. Notice that this way of
displaying the function is not as clear as the one in the previous example, but it takes up much
less space.

Definition 52 Correspondence between vertices of two triangles

Words: “𝑓 is a correspondence between the vertices of triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.”
Meaning: 𝑓 is a one-to-one, onto function with domain {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶} and codomain {𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹}.

Examples of correspondences between the vertices of triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.

(1) (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹)
(2) (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐹, 𝐸)
(3) (𝐵, 𝐴, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹)
(4) (𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐴) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐹, 𝐸)
𝑓
Notice that the third and fourth examples are actually the same. Each 𝐴 𝐷
could be illustrated by the figure shown at right. 𝐵 𝐸
𝐶 𝐹

If a correspondence between the vertices of two triangles has been given, then there is an
automatic correspondence between any other geometric items that are defined purely in terms of
those vertices. For example, suppose that we are given the correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹)
between the vertices of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. There is a correspondence between the sides of
triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and the sides of Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹, and a correspondence between the angles of triangle
Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and the angles of Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹, since those items are defined only in terms of the vertices. For
clarity, we can display all correspondences in a vertical list.

𝐴↔𝐷
𝐵↔𝐸 given correspondence between vertices of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and vertices of Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
𝐶↔𝐹
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ↔ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸
̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 ↔ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹
̅̅̅̅ ↔ 𝐹𝐷
𝐶𝐴 ̅̅̅̅
automatic correspondence between parts of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and parts of Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ↔ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹
∠𝐵𝐶𝐴 ↔ ∠𝐸𝐹𝐷
∠𝐶𝐴𝐵 ↔ ∠𝐹𝐷𝐸
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 152

Based on the ideas of this discussion, we make the following definition.

Definition 53 corresponding parts of two triangles

Words: Corresponding parts of triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
Usage: A correspondence between the vertices of triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 has been given.
Meaning: As discussed above, if a correspondence between the vertices of triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶
and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 has been given, then there is an automatic correspondence between the
sides of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and and the sides of triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹, and also between the
angles of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and the angles of Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹, For example, if the correspondence
between vertices were (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹), then corresponding parts would be pairs
̅̅̅̅ ↔ ̅̅̅̅
such as the pair of sides 𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐸 and the pair of angles ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ↔ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹.

7.1.2. Definition of Triangle Congruence

Now that we have a clear understanding of what is meant by the phrase “corresponding parts” of
two triangles, we can make a concise definition of triangle congruence.

Definition 54 triangle congruence

To say that two triangles are congruent means that there exists a correspondence between the
vertices of the two triangles such that corresponding parts of the two triangles are congruent.
If a correspondence between vertices of two triangles has the property that corresponding
parts are congruent, then the correspondence is called a congruence. That is, the expression a
congruence refers to a particular correspondence of vertices that has the special property that
corresponding parts of the triangles are congruent.

Remark: Many students remember the sentence “Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are
congruent” from their high school geometry course. The acronym is, of course, “CPCTC”. We
see now that in this book, “CPCTC” is really a summary of the definition of triangle congruence.
That is, to say that two triangles are congruent is the same as saying that corresponding parts of
those two triangles are congruent. This is worth restating: In this book, CPCTC is not an axiom
and it is not a theorem; it is merely an acronym for the definition of triangle congruence.

An important fact about triangle congruence is stated in the following theorem. You will be
asked to prove the theorem in the exercises.

Theorem 51 triangle congruence is an equivalence relation

It is important to discuss notation at this point. It is no accident that Definition 54 above does not
include a symbol. There is no commonly-used symbol whose meaning matches the definition of
triangle congruence. This may surprise you, because you have all seen the symbol ≅ put between
triangles. But that symbol means something different, and the difference is subtle. Here is the
definition.

Definition 55 symbol for a congruence of two triangles

Symbol: Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
Meaning: The correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) of vertices is a congruence.
 page 153

You should be a little confused. There is more subtlety in the notation than you might have
realized. It is worthwhile to consider a few examples. Refer to the drawing below.
𝐶
1 1
60
2 90 30
𝐴 √3 𝐵 𝐼
2
60
2
𝐹
1
1 60 1
2 90 30 90 30
𝐷 √3 𝐸 𝐺 √3 𝐻
2
Easy examples involving Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is congruent to Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹” is true. Proof: The correspondence
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) is a congruence.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is congruent to Δ𝐷𝐹𝐸” is true. Proof: The correspondence
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) is a congruence. This is the same correspondence from the previous
example. Since there exists a correspondence that is a congruence, we say that the
triangles are congruent.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹” is true, because the correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔
(𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) is a congruence.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐹𝐸” is false, because the correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔
(𝐷, 𝐹, 𝐸) is not a congruence. Observe that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 30 while the corresponding
angle has measure 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐹𝐸) = 60.

More subtle examples involving Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.

 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is congruent to Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶” is true. Proof: The correspondence
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) is a congruence.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is congruent to Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵” is true. Proof: The correspondence
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) is a congruence. This is the same correspondence from the previous
example. Since there exists a correspondence that is a congruence, we say that the
triangles are congruent.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶” is true, because the correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) is a congruence.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵” is false, because the correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔
(𝐴, 𝐶, 𝐵) is not a congruence. Observe that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 30 while the corresponding
angle has measure 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) = 60.

Examples involving Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐺𝐻𝐼.

 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is congruent to Δ𝐺𝐻𝐼” is false. There is no way to define a
correspondence of vertices such that all corresponding parts are congruent.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐺𝐻𝐼” is false, because the correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔
̅̅̅̅ ) = 1 while the corresponding side
(𝐺, 𝐻, 𝐼) is not a congruence. Observe that 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐵𝐶
has 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐻𝐼 ̅̅̅̅) = 2.
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 154

7.1.3. The Axiom of Triangle Congruence

When comparing drawn triangles, one of the things that we can do is slide one drawn triangle on
top of another and seeing if they fit. In our drawings, we know that if enough parts of one
drawing fit on top of the corresponding parts of another drawing, then all of the other parts will
fit, as well.

This can be said more precisely. To determine whether or not two drawn triangles fit on top of
each other, one would officially have to verify that every pair of corresponding drawn line
segments fit on top of each other and also that every pair of corresponding drawn angles fit on
top of each other. That is total of six fits that must be checked. But we know that with drawings,
one does not really need to check all six fits. Certain combinations of three fits are enough. Here
are four examples of sets of three fits that will guarantee that two drawn triangles will fit
perfectly on top of each other:

(1) If two sides and the included angle of the first drawn triangle fit on top of the corresponding
parts of the second drawn triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts always fit, as well.

(2) If two angles and the included side of the first drawn triangle fit on top of the corresponding
parts of the second drawn triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts always fit, as well.

(3) If all three sides of the first drawn triangle fit on top of the corresponding parts of the second
drawn triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts always fit, as well.

(4) If two angles and some non-included side of the first drawn triangle fit on top of the
corresponding parts of the second drawn triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts
always fit, as well.

We would like our abstract line segment congruence and angle congruence and triangle
congruence to have this same sort of behavior. But if we want them to have that behavior, we
must specify it in the Neutral Geometry axioms. One might think that it would be necessary to
include four axioms, to guarantee that the four kinds of behavior that we observe in drawn
triangles will also be observed in abstract triangles. But the amazing thing is that we don’t need
to include four axioms. We can include just one axiom, about just one kind of behavior that we
want abstract triangles to have, and then prove theorems that show that triangles will also have
the other three kinds of desired behavior.

Here is the axiom that will be included, along with the three theorems that will be presented and
proven in the remainder of this chapter.

Axiom <N10> (SAS Axiom): If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of
two triangles, and two sides and the included angle of the first triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of the second triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are
congruent as well, so the correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

The ASA Congruence Theorem: In Neutral Geometry, if there is a one-to-one correspondence

between the vertices of two triangles, and two angles and the included side of one triangle
are congruent to the corresponding parts of the other triangle, then all the remaining
 page 155

corresponding parts are congruent as well, so the correspondence is a congruence and the
triangles are congruent.

The SSS Congruence Theorem: In Neutral Geometry, if there is a one-to-one correspondence

between the vertices of two triangles, and the three sides of one triangle are congruent to
the corresponding parts of the other triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are
congruent as well, so the correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

The AAS Congruence Theorem: In Neutral Geometry, if there is a one-to-one correspondence

between the vertices of two triangles, and two angles and a non-included side of one
triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of the other triangle, then all the
remaining corresponding parts are congruent as well, so the correspondence is a
congruence and the triangles are congruent.

Note that the statements of the three congruence theorems have been mentioned here just as an
introduction to the coming material. The three theorems have not yet been proven and they do
not yet have theorem numbers, so we may not yet use any of them in proofs. Soon, but not yet.

7.1.4. Digression about the names of theorems

A digression about the names of theorems. So far in this book, I have tagged each theorem with
some sort of description that I made up. I will continue that practice in the coming chapters. But
from now on, many of our theorems will have names that are widely used, and I will present
those names as well. Many of the names follow an informal convention for naming theorems:
They are often named for the situation described in their hypotheses.

For example, suppose two theorems are stated as follows.

 Theorem 1: If the dog is blue, then the car is red.

 Theorem 2: If the car is red, then the bear is hungry.

Following the naming convention, Theorem 1 would be called “The Blue Dog Theorem”, and
Theorem 2 would be called “The Red Car Theorem”.

It is important to realize that “The Red Car Theorem” could never be used to prove that a car is
red! The Red Car Theorem tells us something about the situation in which we already know that
the car is red. (The theorem tells us that in that situation, the bear is hungry.) If we do not know
that the car is red, and we want to prove that the car is red, then we will need a theorem that has
the statement “the car is red” as part of the conclusion. We see that the Blue Dog Theorem would
work. So one strategy for proving that the car is red would be to first prove somehow that the
dog is blue, and then use the Blue Dog Theorem to prove that the car is red.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 7.8 on page 181.

7.2. Theorems about Congruences in Triangles

In Section 7.1.3, we made note of four familiar behaviors of drawn triangles that we expect to
also be manifest in the abstract triangles of our axiomatic geometry. In that section, we discussed
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 156

that only one of those behaviors needed to be specified in the list of axioms (Axiom <N10>, the
SAS Congruence Axiom); the remaining three behaviors could then be proven as theorems. In
this section, we will prove theorems about two of those three behaviors. We will prove the ASA
Congruence Theorem and the SSS Congruence Theorem. (The fourth behavior will be proven in
the next chapter, in the AAS Congruence Theorem.) Along the way, we will also prove a few
other theorems about triangle behavior, theorems that will be needed for the proofs of the ASA
and SSS Congruence Theorems and that will also be useful throughout the remainder of the book.

We start with a definition of some terminology pertaining to triangles.

Definition 56 scalene, isosceles, equilateral, equiangular triangles

A scalene triangle is one in which no two sides are congruent.
An isosceles triangle is one in which at least two sides are congruent.
An equilateral triangle is one in which all three sides are congruent.
An equiangular triangle is one in which all three angles are congruent.

Our first theorem is commonly called the Isosceles Triangle Congruence Theorem. Notice that
the name of this theorem fits the naming convention. That is, the name of the theorem mentions
isosceles triangle, and it is in the hypothesis of the theorem that isosceles triangle shows up, not
in the conclusion. I prefer to refer to it as “the CS  CA theorem for triangles” because that
name encapsulates what the theorem actually says.

Theorem 52 the CS  CA theorem for triangles (the Isosceles Triangle Theorem)

In Neutral geometry, if two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the angles opposite those
sides are also congruent. That is, in a triangle, if CS then CA.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.

Theorem 52
Proof
(1) Suppose that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 has ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 .
(2) Using the correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐴, 𝐶, 𝐵) between the vertices of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and
Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵, we have the following pairs of corresponding parts
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ↔ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ↔ 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
∠𝐶𝐴𝐵 ↔ ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶
̅̅̅̅ ↔ 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅
Observe that the corresponding parts in each of these three pairs are congruent.
(3) The correspondence is a congruence. (In symbols, we would write Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵.) (by
Axiom <N10>, the SAS congruence axiom) That is, all other pairs of corresponding parts
are also congruent.
(4) Therefore, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵.
End of proof
 page 157

The following corollary is not difficult to prove. You will prove it in a homework exercise.

Theorem 53 (Corollary) In Neutral Geometry, if a triangle is equilateral then it is equiangular.

Recall that Theorem 40 states that every angle has a unique bisector. In order to prove it in the
previous chapter, we had to first prove Theorem 39. Together, the proofs of those two theorems
amounted to a rather difficult proof of the existence and uniqueness of angle bisectors. I
promised that there would be an easier proof that used triangle congruence. With Neutral Axiom
<N10> (SAS Congruence) and Theorem 52 (CS  CA) now available as tools to prove
theorems, an easier proof of the existence and uniqueness of angle bisectors is possible. You will
be asked to justify the steps of an easier proof in the exercises.

Now we come to our first proof of one of the triangle behaviors mentioned in Section 7.1.3. I
have supplied a drawing for each step. You will be asked to justify the steps in a class drill.

Theorem 54 the ASA Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry

In Neutral Geometry, if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two
triangles, and two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of the other triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are
congruent as well, so the correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.

Theorem 54
Proof 𝐶 𝐹
(1) Suppose that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹
are given such that ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅
∠𝐷𝐸𝐹 and 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 and
∠𝐵𝐶𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐸𝐹𝐷. 𝐴 𝐵 𝐷 𝐸
(2) There exists a point 𝐺 on ray 𝐸𝐷
such that ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐺 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐴. (Justify.) 𝐶 𝐹
(We suspect that 𝐺 is the same
point as 𝐷, but we have not yet
proven that, so we should not 𝐴 𝐵 𝐷 𝐺 𝐸
draw it that way.)
𝐶 𝐹
(3) Δ𝐺𝐸𝐹 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Justify.)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐷 𝐺 𝐸
𝐶 𝐹
(4) ∠𝐸𝐹𝐺 ≅ ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴. (Justify.)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐷 𝐺 𝐸
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 158

𝐶 𝐹
(5) ∠𝐸𝐹𝐺 ≅ ∠𝐸𝐹𝐷. (Justify.)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐷 𝐺 𝐸

𝐶 𝐹
(6) Points 𝐷 and 𝐺 are on the same
side of line ⃡𝐸𝐹 . (Justify.)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐷 𝐺 𝐸

𝐶 𝐹
(7) Ray 𝐹𝐷 must be the same ray as 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝐺
𝐹𝐺 . (Justify.)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐸

𝐶 𝐹
⃡ can only intersect line
(8) Line 𝐷𝐹 ⃡𝐹𝐷 = ⃡𝐹𝐺
⃡𝐷𝐸 at a single point. (Justify.)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐸

𝐶 𝐹
(9) Points 𝐷, 𝐺 must be the same
point.
𝐴 𝐵 𝐷=𝐺 𝐸
𝐶 𝐹
(10) Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Justify.)

End of proof 𝐴 𝐵 𝐷 𝐸
.

7.2.1. Remarks About Drawings

Notice the way in which the drawings are presented in the proof above. Each step is
accompanied by a drawing. But more than that, notice that each drawing is drawn in a way to
focus attention on the objects that were mentioned in that step of the proof. For instance, step (2)
mentions two congruent segments. In the drawing for that step, those segments are darker, with
little marks on them to indicate that they are congruent. Other parts of the drawing are dotted,
which de-emphasizes them.

Also recall the picture that accompanied the statement of Theorem 54. Observe that the picture is
made up of two drawings. The drawing on the left (consisting of a pair of triangles with certain
congruent parts indicated) illustrates the hypothesis, while the drawing on the right (consisting of
two triangles with all corresponding parts congruent.) illustrates the conclusion.
 page 159

Making drawings this way is clearly a lot of work, a lot more work than simply making a single
drawing that includes all the objects mentioned in the theorem. But realize that the purpose of the
drawings above was not to illustrate the objects mentioned in the theorem, but rather to illustrate
the statement of the theorem or the steps of the proof. To illustrate the statement of a theorem, it
really is helpful to have two drawings: one that illustrates the given information (or the
hypothesis) and another one that illustrates the claim (or the conclusion). To illustrate the steps
of a proof, it really is helpful to have a new drawing for each step.

Sometimes you will be asked to provide a drawing that illustrates the statement of a theorem, and
sometimes you will be asked to provide drawings that illustrate certain steps (or all of the steps)
in the proof of a theorem. When I ask you to illustrate the statement of a theorem, I want you to
make a picture that includes two drawings, one that illustrates the given information (or the
hypothesis) and another one that illustrates the claim (or the conclusion). When I ask you to
provide drawings that illustrate certain steps (or all of the steps), I really do mean for you to
make lots of drawings, and to try to draw each in a way that emphasizes the information stated in
the corresponding step. This can be tedious for you, but you will learn a lot.

7.2.2. Return to our discussion of Theorems about Triangles

Look back at the proof of Theorem 52 (the CS  CA Theorem for Triangles). That proof used
the SAS axiom and a trick involving a correspondence between the vertices of a single triangle. A
similar trick can be used to prove the following theorem. This theorem is called the CA  CS
Theorem; its proof will use the same sort of trick involving a correspondence between the
vertices of a single triangle, but the proof will cite the ASA Congruence Theorem, instead of the
SAS axiom. You will write the proof for a homework exercise.

Theorem 55 the CA  CS theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry

In Neutral geometry, if two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite those
angles are also congruent. That is, in a triangle, if CA then CS.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.

Theorem 55

Here is an immediate corollary that is not difficult to prove. You will be asked to supply a proof
in a homework exercise.

Theorem 56 (Corollary) In Neutral Geometry, if a triangle is equiangular then it is equilateral.

Consider what we know about congruent sides and congruent angles in triangles.

 From Theorem 52, we know that CS  CA.

 From Theorem 55, we know that CA  CS.
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 160

Combining, we have the following immediate corollary:

Theorem 57 (Corollary) The CACS theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry.

In any triangle in Neutral Geometry, congruent angles are always opposite congruent sides.
That is, CA  CS.
Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.

Theorem 57

So far in this section, the proofs that we have seen have been pretty easy. We end the section
with a theorem about another of the triangle behaviors mentioned in Section 7.1.3. The proof of
this theorem is very long and is not easy. You will study it in a homework exercise.

Theorem 58 the SSS congruence theorem for Neutral Geometry

In Neutral Geometry, if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two
triangles, and the three sides of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of the
other triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are congruent as well, so the
correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.

Theorem 58
Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(1) Suppose that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 are given such that ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 , 𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐹 , and ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐴 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐹𝐷.

Introduce the triangle 𝚫𝑨𝑩𝑷.

(2) Line ⃡𝐴𝐵 creates two half planes. Let 𝐻𝐶 be the half plane containing 𝐶, and let 𝐻2 be the
other one.
(3) There exists a ray 𝐴𝐺 such that point 𝐺 is in half-plane 𝐻2 and such that ∠𝐵𝐴𝐺 ≅ ∠𝐸𝐷𝐹.
(Justify.)
(4) There exists a point 𝑃 on ray 𝐴𝐺 such that ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑃 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹 . (Justify.)
(5) Δ𝐴𝐵𝑃 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.) Notice that this tells us that in addition to the congruences
̅̅̅̅ 𝐷𝐸 and ∠𝐵𝐴𝐺 ≅ ∠𝐸𝐷𝐹 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝑃 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹 that we already knew about from
statements (1), (3), (4), we now also have the congruences 𝐵𝑃̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐸𝐹
̅̅̅̅ and ∠𝐴𝐵𝑃 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹
and ∠𝐵𝑃𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐸𝐹𝐷.

Introduce the point 𝑸 and five possibilities for it.

(6) Line ⃡𝐴𝐵 must intersect segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝑃 at a point 𝑄 between 𝐶 and 𝑃. (Justify.)
(7) There are five possibilities for where point 𝑄 can be on line ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
 page 161

(i) 𝑄 = 𝐴.
(ii) 𝑄 = 𝐵.
(iii) 𝐴 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐵.
(iv) 𝑄 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵.
(v) 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑄.

These possibilities are illustrated in the drawings below.

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

𝑄=𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝑄=𝐵 𝐴 𝑄 𝐵 𝑄 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝑄
𝐴

𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
(i) 𝑄 = 𝐴 (ii) 𝑄 = 𝐵 (iii) 𝐴 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐵 (iv) 𝑄 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 (v) 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑄

Case (i) 𝑸 = 𝑨. 𝐶
(8) Suppose 𝑄 = 𝐴.
(9) Then ∠𝐵𝐶𝑃 ≅ ∠𝐵𝑃𝐶. (Justify.)
(10) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐵𝑃. (Justify.) 𝑄=𝐴 𝐵
(11) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.)
𝑃

𝐶
Case (ii) 𝑸 = 𝑩.
(12) – (15) This case works just like Case (i), with the roles of 𝐴 and
𝐵 interchanged. You will write the details of the steps, and the 𝐴 𝑄=𝐵
justifications, in a homework exercise.
𝑃

𝐶
Case (iii) 𝑨 ∗ 𝑸 ∗ 𝑩.
(16) Suppose 𝐴 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐵.
(17) ∠𝐴𝐶𝑃 ≅ ∠𝐴𝑃𝐶. (Justify.) 𝐴 𝑄 𝐵
(18) ∠𝐵𝐶𝑃 ≅ ∠𝐵𝑃𝐶. (Justify.)
𝑃
Establish that point 𝑸 is in the interiors of two angles, then use congruent angle addition
(19) Point 𝑄 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵. (Justify.)
(20) Point 𝑄 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵. (Justify.)
(21) ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵. (Justify.)
(22) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐵𝑃. (Justify.)
(23) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.)
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 162

𝐶
Case (iv) 𝑸 ∗ 𝑨 ∗ 𝑩.
(24) Suppose 𝑄 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵.
𝑄 𝐴 𝐵
(25) ∠𝐴𝐶𝑃 ≅ ∠𝐴𝑃𝐶. (Justify.)
(26) ∠𝐵𝐶𝑃 ≅ ∠𝐵𝑃𝐶. (Justify.)
𝑃
Establish that point 𝑨 is in the interiors of two angles, then use congruent angle subtraction
(27) Point 𝐴 is in the interior of ∠𝐵𝐶𝑄. (Justify.)
(28) Point 𝐴 is in the interior of ∠𝐵𝑃𝑄. (Justify.)
(29) ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵. (Justify.)
(30) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐵𝑃. (Justify.)
(31) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.)
𝐶
Case (v) 𝑨 ∗ 𝑩 ∗ 𝑸.
(32) – (39) This case works just like Case (iv), with the roles of 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝐴 𝑄
𝐵 interchanged.

𝑃
Conclusion of cases.
(40) We see that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 in every case.
End of proof

The proof just finished is the longest in the book so far. The good news is that it is one of the
longest in the entire book.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 7.8 on page 181.

7.3. Theorems about Bigger and Smaller Parts of Triangles

The triangle theorems that we studied in the previous section dealt with congruences—
congruence of segments, or of angles, or of triangles. We now turn our attention to theorems
involving segments or angles that are not congruent. The first of these theorems, called the
Neutral Exterior Angle Theorem, has a difficult proof. We will need some terminology.

Definition 57 exterior angle, remote interior angle

An exterior angle of a triangle is an angle that forms a linear pair with one of the angles of
the triangle. Each of the two other angles of the triangle is called a remote interior angle for
that exterior angle. For example, a triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 has six exterior angles. One of these is
∠𝐶𝐵𝐷, where 𝐷 is a point such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷. For the exterior angle ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷, the two remote
interior angles are ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 and ∠𝐶𝐴𝐵.

Here is the Neutral Exterior Angle Theorem. You will justify the proof in a class drill

Theorem 59 Neutral Exterior Angle Theorem

In Neutral Geometry, the measure of any exterior angle is greater than the measure of either
of its remote interior angles.
 page 163

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.

small and
big small big
Theorem 59

Proof
(1) Suppose that a triangle and an exterior
angle are given.

Part I: Show that the measure of the given exterior angle is larger than the measure of the
remote interior angle that the exterior point does not lie on.
(2) Label the points so that the triangle is Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝐶
and the exterior angle is ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷. The two
remote interior angles are ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 and
∠𝐵𝐶𝐴. Observe that point 𝐷 lies on side
𝐴𝐵 of ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 𝐴 𝐵 𝐷
but point 𝐷 does not lie on either of the sides of angle ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴. Our goal in Part I of the
proof will be to show that 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐷) > 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐴).
̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.) (Make a drawing.)
(3) There exists a point 𝐸 that is the midpoint of side 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.) (Update your drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐸𝐶
(4) 𝐸𝐵
(5) There exists a point 𝐹 such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐹. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(6) There exists a point 𝐺 on ray 𝐸𝐹 such that ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐺 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐴. (Justify.) (Update your drawing.)
(7) ∠𝐴𝐸𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐺𝐸𝐵. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(8) Δ𝐴𝐸𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐺𝐸𝐵. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)

Make observations about angles

(9) ∠𝐴𝐶𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐺𝐵𝐸. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
Prove that Point G is in the interior of ∠𝑪𝑩𝑫
(10) Points 𝐸 and 𝐺 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐵𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(11) Points 𝐸 and 𝐶 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐵𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(12) Therefore, points 𝐶 and 𝐺 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐵𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new
drawing.)
⃡ . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(13) Points 𝐴 and 𝐺 are on opposite sides of line 𝐵𝐶
⃡ . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(14) Points 𝐴 and 𝐷 are on opposite sides of line 𝐵𝐶
⃡ . (Justify.) (Make a new
(15) Therefore, points 𝐺 and 𝐷 are on the same side of line 𝐵𝐶
drawing.)
(16) Conclude that point 𝐺 is in the interior of ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
Make some more observations about angles
(17) 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐷) > 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐺). (Justify.)
(18) 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐷) > 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐴). (Justify.)

Part II: Show that the measure of the given exterior angle is also larger than the measure
of the remote interior angle that the exterior point does lie on.
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 164

(19) There exists a point 𝐻 such that 𝐶 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐻. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.) Observe
that ∠𝐴𝐵𝐻 is an exterior angle for Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and also observe that the point 𝐻 does not lie
on the remote interior angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶.
(20) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐻) > 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) (by statements identical to statements (2) through (12), but
with points 𝐴, 𝐶, 𝐷 replaced in all statements with points 𝐶, 𝐴, 𝐻.)
(21) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐻) = 𝑚(𝐶𝐵𝐷). (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(22) 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐷) > 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶). (Justify.)
End of proof

The following corollary is a very simple application of the exterior angle theorem. You will be
asked to prove it in a homework exercise.

Theorem 60 (Corollary) If a triangle has a right angle, then the other two angles are acute.

In the previous section, we studied the CS  CA theorem and the CA  CS theorem, both
having to do with congruent sides and congruent angles in a triangle. (These were combined into
the CACS theorem.) The following three theorems are analogous, but have to do with sides and
angles that are not the same size. You will justify the steps in the proof of the first of the three in
a homework exercise.

Theorem 61 the BS  BA theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry

In Neutral Geometry, if one side of a triangle is longer than another side, then the measure of
the angle opposite the longer side is greater than the measure of the angle opposite the shorter
side. That is, in a triangle, if BS then BA.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.
small big
big small
Theorem 61
Proof
(1) Suppose that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 has 𝐴𝐵 > 𝐴𝐶. (Make a drawing.)
(2) There exists a point 𝐷 on ray 𝐴𝐵 such that ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(3) 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵. (Justify.)
(4) Point 𝐷 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(5) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐷). (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(6) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐷) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐷𝐶). (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(7) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐷𝐶) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶). (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(8) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶). (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
End of proof

The next theorem has a fun proof in which we are able to avoid making a complicated drawing
by being clever about applying earlier theorems. I have supplied justifications for all steps.

Theorem 62 the BA  BS theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry

 page 165

In Neutral geometry, if the measure of one angle is greater than the measure of another angle,
then the side opposite the larger angle is longer than the side opposite the smaller angle. That
is, in a triangle, if BA then BS.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.
small big
big small
Theorem 62
Proof (Method: Prove the contrapositive statement ~BS  ~BA.)
(1) Suppose that in Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, the inequality 𝐴𝐵 > 𝐴𝐶 is false.
(2) There are two possibilities: either (i) 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 or (ii) 𝐴𝐶 > 𝐴𝐵.

Case (i) 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑨𝑪
(3) Suppose that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶. (assumption) (Make a drawing.)
(4) Then 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶). (by CSCA theorem applied to Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) So in this case,
the inequality 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) is false.

Case (ii) 𝑨𝑪 > 𝐴𝐵

(5) Suppose that 𝐴𝐶 > 𝐴𝐵. (assumption) (Make a new drawing.)
(6) Then 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵). (by BSBA theorem applied to Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) So in this case,
the inequality 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) is also false.

Conclusion of cases
(7) We see that in both cases, the inequality 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) is also false.
End of proof

Consider what we know about bigger sides and bigger angles in triangles.

 From Theorem 61, we know that BS  BA.

 From Theorem 62, we know that BA  BS.

Combining, we have the following immediate corollary:

Theorem 63 (Corollary) The BABS theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry.

In any triangle in Neutral Geometry, bigger angles are always opposite bigger sides. That is,
BA  BS.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.
small big
big small
Theorem 63

So far in this section, we studied theorems that compare the sizes of angles or segments. Our
final theorem of the section is the Triangle Inequality for Neutral Geometry. It involves the sum
of the lengths of segments. You will justify the steps of the proof in a homework exercise.
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 166

Theorem 64 The Triangle Inequality for Neutral Geometry

In Neutral Geometry, the length of any side of any triangle is less than the sum of the lengths
of the other two sides.
That is, for all non-collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, the inequality 𝐴𝐶 < 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 is true.
Proof
(1) Suppose that a triangle is given, and a side has been chosen on that triangle. (The goal is
to show that the length of the chosen side is less than the sum of the lengths of the other
two sides.) (Make a drawing.)
(2) Label the triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 the chosen side. (Now the goal is to show that 𝐴𝐶 <
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶.) (Update your drawing.)
(3) There exists a point 𝐷 such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(4) There exists a point 𝐸 on ray 𝐵𝐷 such that 𝐵𝐸 ̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵𝐶
(5) 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐸 = 𝐴𝐸. (Justify.)
(6) Point 𝐵 is in the interior of angle ∠𝐴𝐶𝐸. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(7) 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐸𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐸). (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(8) 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐸) < 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐸). (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(9) 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐸𝐶) < 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐸). (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(10) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐸𝐶) < 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐸). (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(11) 𝐴𝐶 < 𝐴𝐸. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(12) 𝐴𝐶 < 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶. (Justify.)
End of proof

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 7.8 on page 181.

7.4. Advanced Topic: Properties of the Distance Function

In this section, we will examine properties of the Distance Function. Because the distance
function is the subject of our investigation, we will not hide it in the notation. That is, we will
write 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶) instead of 𝐴𝐶, for example. With that more explicit notation, the “triangle
inequality” just proven in Theorem 64 reads as follows.

For all non-collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, the inequality 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶) < 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) + 𝑑(𝐵, 𝐶) is true.

There are two important subtleties in this statement.

 Points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 must be noncollinear (because they are vertices of a triangle).
 The inequality is strict. That is, the symbol is < rather than ≤.

It is worthwhile to consider what can be said about the three distances if we relax the restriction
on the three points. That is, if we allow the letters 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 to stand for points that are not
necessarily collinear and not even necessarily distinct, then what can be said about the three
distances 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) and 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) and 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅)?

The answer to that question is the following statement.

For all points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true.

The two important subtleties in this statement are

 page 167

 The symbols 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 represent any three points, not necessarily collinear or even distinct.
 The inequality is inclusive. That is, the symbol is ≤ rather than <.

This new statement is commonly called the triangle inequality. That name is bad for two
reasons:
 The three letters 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 do not necessarily represent the vertices of a triangle
 We have already seen a different statement called the triangle inequality, in Theorem 64.

We will distinguish our new statement from our previous statement by calling the new one the
Distance Function Triangle Inequality. Its restatement and proof follow. The bad news about the
proof is that there are seven cases to consider. The good news is that in each case, previous
results tell us that the claim is true. So the proof gives us a nice opportunity to review previous
results and to see them put together to prove something new without any new work.

Theorem 65 The Distance Function Triangle Inequality for Neutral Geometry

The function 𝑑 satisfies the Distance Function Triangle Inequality.
That is, for all points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true.

Proof
(1) Let 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 be any three points, not necessarily collinear or even distinct.
(2) There are seven possibilities:
(i) All three letters refer to the same point. That is, 𝑃 = 𝑄 = 𝑅.
(ii) 𝑃 = 𝑄 but 𝑅 is distinct.
(iii) 𝑄 = 𝑅 but 𝑃 is distinct.
(iv) 𝑅 = 𝑃 but 𝑄 is distinct.
(v) The three points are distinct and collinear and 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 is true.
(vi) The three points are distinct and collinear and 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 is not true.
(vii) The three points are non-collinear.

Case (i)
(3) If 𝑃 = 𝑄 = 𝑅, then 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) = 0 and 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 0 and 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) = 0. Substituting these
values into the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅), it becomes 0 ≤ 0 + 0. This
inequality is true. So the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true in this case.

Case (ii)
(4) If 𝑃 = 𝑄 but 𝑅 is distinct, then 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 0 and 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅). Substituting these
into the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅), it becomes 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 0 + 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅).
This inequality is true. So the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true in this case.

Case (iii)
(5) If 𝑄 = 𝑅 but 𝑃 is distinct, then 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) = 0 and 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅). Substituting these
into the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅), it becomes 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) + 0.
This inequality is true. So the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true in this case.

Case (iv)
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 168

(6) If 𝑅 = 𝑃 but 𝑄 is distinct, then 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) = 0 and 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅). Substituting these
into the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅), it becomes 0 ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄).
This inequality is true. So the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true in this case.

Case (v)
(7) If the three points are distinct and collinear and 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 is true, then Theorem 16 in
Section 4.1.2 tells us that the equation 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true. So the
inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is also true.

Case (vi)
(8) If the three points are distinct and collinear and 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 is not true, then Theorem 17 in
Section 4.1.3 tells us that the strict inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) < 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true. So the
weaker inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is also true.

Case (vii)
(9) If the three points are noncollinear, then Theorem 64 from the previous section tells us
that the strict inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) < 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true. So the weaker inequality
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is also true.

Conclusion of cases
(10) We see that in every case, the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true.
End of proof

Since Theorem 64 and Theorem 65 are so similar, it is worth putting them next to each other and
discussing the contexts in which each is useful.

Theorem 64 (The Triangle Inequality) says

For all non-collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, the inequality 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶) < 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) + 𝑑(𝐵, 𝐶) is true.

Theorem 65 (The Distance Function Triangle Inequality) says

For all points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true.

Theorem 64 (The Triangle Inequality) will be used in settings where one is dealing with a
triangle. That is, if is known that three points are non-collinear, then it makes sense to make use
of the full strength of the strict inequality. In this book, we will always be using Theorem 64, and
we will use it to make statements about triangles.

Theorem 65 (The Distance Function Triangle Inequality) is relevant to discussions about

properties of distance functions. I will explain.

In higher mathematics, the expression distance function is used in a very precise way. Given a
set 𝑆, the expression “a distance function on 𝑆” means a function 𝑑: 𝑆 × 𝑆 → ℝ that has the
following three properties
 page 169

(1) 𝑑 is positive definite: For all elements 𝑃 and 𝑄 of set 𝑆, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) ≥ 0, and 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 0 if
and only if 𝑃 = 𝑄. That is, if and only if 𝑃 and 𝑄 are actually the same element of set 𝑆.
(2) 𝑑 is symmetric: For all elements 𝑃 and 𝑄 of set 𝑆, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑃).
(3) 𝑑 satisfies the distance function triangle inequality: For all elements 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 of set 𝑆, the
inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true.

Here we should observe an important subtlety and imprecision in our axiom system. Notice that
axiom <N4> reads

<N4> (The Distance Axiom) There exists a function 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ, called the Distance
Function on the Set of Points.

That axiom calls the function 𝑑 the Distance Function on the Set of Points, but the axiom does
not actually say that 𝑑 has the properties normally associated with the term distance function.
Later on, it is proven in theorems that the function 𝑑 does have those properties.

 Theorem 8 proves that the function 𝑑 is Positive Definite.

 Theorem 9 proves that the function 𝑑 is Symmetric.
 Theorem 65 proves that 𝑑 satisfies the Distance Function Triangle Inequality.

So it is imprecise writing for axiom <N4> (The Distance Axiom) to call the function 𝑑 the
Distance Function on the Set of Points before it has been proven that 𝑑 does in fact have the
properties of a distance function. Perhaps a more precise, more correct presentation would be as
follows

 Axiom <N4> would say that a function 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ exists, but it would not call 𝑑 the
distance function on the set of points.
 Theorem 8 proves that the function 𝑑 is Positive Definite.
 Theorem 9 proves that the function 𝑑 is Symmetric.
 Theorem 65 proves that 𝑑 satisfies the Distance Function Triangle Inequality.
 Then an observation would be made that the function 𝑑 is qualified to be called a
Distance Function for the Set of Points.

But it is common in math books for functions to be introduced and given names that seem to
imply that the function has certain properties before it has been proven that the function has
those properties. This can be confusing. It is also tricky, because the writer must be careful to not
assume any property of the function before the property has been proven. For example, in this
book, the function 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ is introduced in Axiom <N4> and is called the Distance
Function on the Set of Points. This name seems to imply that the function 𝑑 is symmetric, but in
fact the symmetry property is not guaranteed by the axiom. And this book does not assume that
the function 𝑑 is symmetric. The symmetry property is proven in Theorem 9. After that point in
the book, the fact can be used that 𝑑 is symmetric. But when the symmetry property is used later
in the book, it is always justified by Theorem 9. It is not justified by the fact that axiom <N4>
happens to call 𝑑 the distance function function on the set of points.
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 170

That is the end of our discussion of properties of the Distance Function. We will resume using
the abbreviated notation for the distance between two points. For example, we will write 𝐴𝐶
instead of 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶).

7.5. More About Perpendicular Lines

In the previous chapter, we defined the concept of perpendicular and studied a number of
theorems involving the concept. The only axioms that were used in that study were the Axioms
of Incidence and Distance <N1> through <N5>, the Axiom of Separation <N6>, and the Axioms
of Angle Measurement <N7> through <N9>. The chapter made no use of the Axiom of Triangle
Congruence <N10>. In the current chapter, we are using axiom <N10>. That axiom does not
mention perpendicular lines, but it turns out that the axiom does indirectly give us new
information about the behavior of perpendicular lines. In this section, we will study
perpendicular lines, making use axiom <N10> and the theorems that follow from it.

7.5.1. The Perpendicular from a Point to a Line

In Section 6.6, we were able to to prove Theorem 46 about the existence and uniqueness of a line
that is perpendicular to a given line and that passes through a given point that lies on the given
line.

Theorem 46

The proof makes use of earlier theorems, and those theorems rely only on axioms <N2> - <N8>.

In Section 6.6, we also considered the different situation where there is a given line and a given
point that does not lie on the given line. It was pointed out that Theorem 46 does not apply to
this situation. It was natural to wonder if there exists a unique line that passes through the given
point and is perpendicular to the given line. This question is illustrated by the drawing below.

???
It turns out that there does exist a unique line that passes through the given point and is
perpendicular to the given line, but the proof requires theorems that follow from axiom <N10>.

Now that we have introduced that axiom and studied some theorems that follow from it, we are
ready to prove the existence and uniqueness of the perpendicular from a point to a line. Part 1 of
the proof –the proof of existence—will use theorems of angle congruence and triangle
congruence. Part 2 of the proof—the proof of uniqueness—will use Theorem 60, a theorem
whose proof depended on the Exterior Angle Theorem for Neutral Geometry.

Theorem 66 existence and uniqueness of a line that is perpendicular to a given line through a
given point that does not lie on the given line
For any given line and any given point that does not lie on the given line, there is exactly
one line that passes through the given point and is perpendicular to the given line.
 page 171

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.

Theorem 66
Proof 𝑃
(1) Suppose that 𝐿 is a line and 𝑃 is a point that does
not lie on 𝐿.
𝐿
Part 1: Show that a line 𝑴 exists that passes through 𝑷 and is perpendicular to 𝑳.
(2) There exist distinct points 𝑄, 𝑅, 𝑆 on 𝐿. (Justify.)
(3) There are two possibilities for angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄.
(i) Angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 is a right angle.
(ii) Angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 is not a right angle.
Case (i) Angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 is a right angle.
(4) Suppose that angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 is a right angle. In this 𝑃
⃡
case, line 𝑃𝑄 is perpendicular to line 𝐿. We can
let 𝑀 be line ⃡𝑃𝑅 .
𝐿
𝑄 𝑅 𝑆
Case (ii): Angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 is not a right angle.
(5) Suppose that angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 is a not right angle.
Without loss of generality, we may assume that 𝑃
angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 is acute. (If ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 is not a right
angle and is not acute, then it will be obtuse. But
in that case, the angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑆 will be acute. In 𝐿
that case, we can interchange the names of points 𝑄 𝑅 𝑆
𝑄 and 𝑆 so that the angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 will be acute.)
(6) In this case, line 𝐿 creates two half planes. Let 𝑃
𝐻𝑃 be the half plane containing 𝑃, and let 𝐻2 be
the other one.
(7) There exists a ray 𝑅𝑇 such that point 𝑇 is in half- 𝐿
plane 𝐻2 and such that ∠𝑄𝑅𝑇 ≅ ∠𝑄𝑅𝑃. 𝑄 𝑅 𝑆
(Justify.)
(8) There exists a point 𝑈 on ray 𝑅𝑇 such that 𝑅𝑈 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑈
̅̅̅̅
𝑅𝑃. (Justify.) 𝑇
(9) Point 𝑄 is in the interior of angle ∠𝑃𝑅𝑈. (Justifying this statement would take a fair bit of
work. It would be sort of work that we did in the previous chapter, and it would not shed
any new light on the previous chapter. Nor would it help our understanding of the concepts
of the current chapter. So we will accept the statement without proof.)
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 172

(10) Ray 𝑅𝑄 intersects segment ̅̅̅̅𝑃𝑈. (Justify.) Let 𝑉

be the point of intersection. 𝑃
(11) Ray 𝑅𝑉 is the same ray as ray 𝑅𝑄 and ray 𝑅𝑈 is
the same ray as ray 𝑅𝑇. (Justify.) So ∠𝑉𝑅𝑈 ≅ 𝐿
∠𝑉𝑅𝑃. (by (7)) 𝑄 𝑉 𝑅 𝑆
(12) Δ𝑉𝑅𝑈 ≅ Δ𝑉𝑅𝑃. (Justify.)
(13) ∠𝑅𝑉𝑈 ≅ ∠𝑅𝑉𝑃. (Justify.) 𝑈
(14) Angles ∠𝑅𝑉𝑈 and ∠𝑅𝑉𝑃 form a linear pair.
𝑇
(Justify.)
(15) 𝑚(∠𝑅𝑉𝑃) = 90. (Justify.) So line ⃡𝑃𝑈 is perpendicular to line 𝐿. We can let 𝑀 be line
⃡𝑃𝑈.

Conclusion of cases.
(16) We see that in every case, there exists a line 𝑀 that passes through 𝑃 and is perpendicular
to line 𝐿.
End of proof Part 1.

Proof Part 2: Show that no other lines that pass through 𝑷 are
perpendicular to 𝑳.
(17) Suppose that a line 𝑁 passes through 𝑃 and intersects line 𝐿 at a 𝑃
point 𝑊 distinct from 𝑉.
(18) Angle ∠𝑃𝑊𝑉 is acute. (by Theorem 60 applied to triangle
Δ𝑃𝑉𝑊 with right angle ∠𝑃𝑉𝑊.) So line 𝑁 is not perpendicular to 𝑊 𝐿
𝐿. 𝑉
End of Proof 𝑀 𝑁

Now that we have proven the existence and uniqueness of the line perpendicular to a given line
through a given point not on the given line, we can refer to “the perpendicular from a point to a
line”. The following theorem is about the perpendicular from a point to line. The theorem has a
very easy proof. You will justify the proof steps in a homework exercise.

Theorem 67 The shortest segment connecting a point to a line is the perpendicular.

Proof
(1) Suppose that 𝐿 is a line and 𝑃 is a point not on 𝐿, and that 𝑄, 𝑅 are two points on 𝐿 such
that line ⃡𝑃𝑄 is perpendicular to 𝐿.
(2) ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 is an acute angle. (Justify.)
(3) 𝑃𝑄 < 𝑃𝑅. (Justify.)
End of proof

7.5.2. Altitudes in Neutral Geometry

The previoius section was about perpendicular lines. In this section, we will study study right
triangles and triangle altitude lines, both of which involve perpendicular lines. Here is our first
definition:

Definition 58 right triangle, and hypotenuse and legs of a right triangle

 page 173

A right triangle is one in which one of the angles is a right angle. Recall that Theorem 60
states that if a triangle has one right angle, then the other two angles are acute, so there can
only be one right angle in a right triangle. In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle
is called the hypotenuse of the triangle. Each of the other two sides is called a leg of the
triangle.

Our first theorem of the section has such an easy proof that the theorem could really be
considered a corollary. You will prove the theorem in an exercise

Theorem 68 In any right triangle in Neutral Geometry, the hypotenuse is the longest side.

Our second theorem of the section will involve the concept of an altitude line, the foot of an
altitude, and an altitude segment of a triangle. Here are definitions.

Definition 59 altitude line, foot of an altitude line, altitude segment

An altitude line of a triangle is a line that passes through a vertex of the triangle and is
perpendicular to the opposite side. (Note that the altitude line does not necessarily have to
intersect the opposite side to be perpendicular to it. Also note that Theorem 66 in the
previous chapter tells us that there is exactly one altitude line for each vertex.) The point of
intersection of the altitude line and the line determined by the opposite side is called the foot
of the altitude line. An altitude segment has one endpoint at the vertex and the other endpoint
at the foot of the altitude line drawn from that vertex. For example, in triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, an
altitude line from vertex 𝐴 is a line 𝐿 that passes through 𝐴 and is perpendicular to line 𝐵𝐶⃡ .
⃡ . The
The foot of altitude line 𝐿 is the point 𝐷 that is the intersection of line 𝐿 and line 𝐵𝐶
altitude segment from vertex 𝐴 is the segment 𝐴𝐷 ̅̅̅̅. Point 𝐷 can also be called the foot of the
̅̅̅̅
altitude segment 𝐴𝐷 .

It is worth noting that an altitude segment does not always 𝐶 𝐶

stay inside the triangle. Consider, for example, the two
drawings at right. In the first drawing, altitude segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 is
inside the triangle. In the second drawing it is not. 𝐴 𝐷 𝐵 𝐷 𝐴 𝐵

As with so many simple observations about behavior of objects in drawings, it can be very
tedious to articulate and prove abstract statements about the corresponding behavior in Neutral
Geometry. The following theorem makes a very limited claim, and yet the proof is fairly tricky.

Theorem 69 (Lemma) In any triangle in Neutral Geometry, the altitude to a longest side
intersects the longest side at a point between the endpoints.
Given: Neutral Geometry triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, with point 𝐷 the foot of the altitude line
drawn from vertex 𝐶 to line ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
Claim: If ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 is a longest side (that is, if 𝐴𝐵 ≥ 𝐶𝐵 and 𝐴𝐵 ≥ 𝐶𝐴), then 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(Prove the contrapositive)
(1) Suppose that in Neutral Geometry triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given, and that point 𝐷 is the foot of
the altitude line drawn from vertex 𝐶 to line ⃡𝐴𝐵 , and that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 is not true.
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 174

(2) Then there are four possibilities for where point 𝐷 can be on line ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
(i) 𝐷 = 𝐴.
(ii) 𝐷 = 𝐵.
(iii) 𝐷 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵.
(iv) 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷.
Case (i) 𝑫 = 𝑨.
(3) Suppose 𝐷 = 𝐴. (Make a drawing.) Then ∠𝐶𝐴𝐵 is a right angle, and so Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a right
triangle with hypotenuse 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ .
(4) 𝐵𝐶 > 𝐴𝐵 (Justify.)
(5) We see that in this case, side ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 is not a longest side.
Case (ii) 𝑫 = 𝑩.
(6) – (8) Suppose 𝐷 = 𝐵. (Make a new drawing. Fill in the proof steps to show that in
this case, side 𝑨𝑩 ̅̅̅̅ is not a longest side.)
Case (iii) 𝑫 ∗ 𝑨 ∗ 𝑩.
(9) Suppose 𝐷 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵. (Make a new drawing.) Then Δ𝐷𝐵𝐶 is a right triangle with
hypotenuse 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ .
(10) 𝐵𝐶 > 𝐷𝐵 (Justify.)
(11) 𝐷𝐵 > 𝐴𝐵 (Justify.)
(12) 𝐵𝐶 > 𝐴𝐵 (Justify.)
(13) We see that in this case, side 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ is not a longest side.
Case (iv) 𝑨 ∗ 𝑩 ∗ 𝑫.
(14) – (18) Suppose 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷. (Make a new drawing. Fill in the proof steps to show that
in this case, side ̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝑩 is not a longest side.)
Conclusion of Cases
(19) We see that in every case, side ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 is not a longest side.
End of proof

As was mentioned before the theorem, the claim of the theorem is fairly limited. By that, I mean
that the theorem does not address many of the configurations of altitudes in triangles that can
occur. To get an idea of what sorts of configurations the theorem does not address, notice that the
theorem statement involves a conditional statement:

Claim: If ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 is the longest side (that is, if 𝐴𝐵 > 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐴𝐵 > 𝐵𝐶), then 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵.

The theorem says nothing about what may happen if ̅̅̅̅𝐴𝐵 is not the longest side. Indeed, if ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 is
not the longest side, a variety of things can happen.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 7.8 on page 181.

7.6. A Final Look at Triangle Congruence in Neutral

Geometry
In Section 7.1.3, we discussed four behaviors of drawn triangles that we hoped would be
behaviors of abstract triangles in Neutral Geometry as well. The first behavior that we described
for drawings was guaranteed to also be manifest in Neutral Geometry triangles because Neutral
Axiom <N10> (the SAS Congruence Axiom) guaranteed it. The second and third behaviors that
 page 175

we described for drawings were found to be manifest in Neutral Geometry as well, but it was not
because they were guaranteed explicitly by axioms. Rather, we proved in Theorem 54 (the ASA
Congruence Theorem) and Theorem 58 (the SSS Congruence Theorem) that those behaviors
would be manifest in Neutral Geometry. Here, we return to the fourth behavior of drawn
triangles from that discussion in Section 7.1.3. We will prove that the fourth behavior will also
be manifest in Neutral Geometry triangles. The theorem is the AAS Congruence Theorem; you
will justify its proof in a class drill

Theorem 70 the Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry

In Neutral Geometry, if there is a correspondence between parts of two right triangles such
that two angles and a non-included side of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding
parts of the other triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are congruent as well,
so the correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.

Theorem 70
Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(1) Suppose that in Neutral Geometry, triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 have ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷 and ∠𝐵 ≅
∠𝐸 and 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 .
(2) There exists a point 𝐺 on ray 𝐵𝐴 such that 𝐵𝐺̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐷 . (Justify.)
(3) Δ𝐺𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.)
(4) ∠𝐶𝐺𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐹𝐷𝐸. (Justify.)
(5) ∠𝐶𝐺𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐶𝐴𝐵. (Justify.)
(6) There are three possibilities for where point 𝐺 can be on ray 𝐵𝐴.
(i) 𝐴 ∗ 𝐺 ∗ 𝐵.
(ii) 𝐺 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵.
(iii) 𝐺 = 𝐴.
Case (i) 𝑨 ∗ 𝑮 ∗ 𝑩.
(7) Suppose 𝐴 ∗ 𝐺 ∗ 𝐵. (Make a drawing.) Then ∠𝐶𝐺𝐵 is an exterior angle for Δ𝐶𝐺𝐴, and
∠𝐶𝐴𝐵 is one of its remote interior angles.
(8) 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐺𝐵) > 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐴𝐵) (Justify.)
(9) We have reached a contradiction. (Explain the contradiction.) Therefore, the
assumption in step (7) was wrong.
Case (ii) 𝑮 ∗ 𝑨 ∗ 𝑩.
(10) – (12) Suppose 𝐺 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵. (Make a new drawing. Fill in the proof steps to show that
we reach a contradiction.)
Conclusion of Cases
(13) Since Cases (i) and (ii) lead to contradictions, we conclude that only Case (iii) is
possible. That is, it must be that 𝐺 = 𝐴. Therefore, Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
End of proof

Only one more congruence theorem left for Neutral Geometry! This last one is the Hypotenuse
Leg Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry. Its proof uses the Angle-Angle-Side
Congruence Theorem just proven.
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 176

Theorem 71 the Hypotenuse Leg Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry

In Neutral Geometry, if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of any two
right triangles, and the hypotenuse and a side of one triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of the other triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are
congruent as well, so the correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.

Theorem 71
Proof
(1) Suppose that in Neutral Geometry, right triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 have right angles at
∠𝐴 and ∠𝐷, and congruent hypotenuses 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐸𝐹
̅̅̅̅ , and a congruent leg ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 , (Make
a drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐷𝐹
(2) There exists a point 𝐺 such that 𝐶 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐺 and 𝐴𝐺 ̅̅̅̅ . (Justify. It will take two
statements.) (Make a new drawing.)
(3) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐺 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(4) ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐺 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵𝐶
(5) 𝐵𝐺 ̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(6) ∠𝐶𝐺𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐺𝐶𝐵. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(7) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐵𝐺. (by Theorem 70, the AAS Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry)
(8) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.)
End of proof

We have one leftover theorem that deals with lengths of sides and measures of angles in triangles
of Neutral Geometry. Consider the following situation: Suppose that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 have two
̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
pairs of corresponding sides that are congruent, 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐷𝐹
𝐷𝐸 and 𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ . If the included angles
are congruent, ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐸𝐷𝐹, then Neutral Axiom <N10> (the SAS axiom) tells us that
Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. Therefore, the third sides of the triangles are also congruent. That is, 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅
̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 .This is illustrated in the drawing below.
𝐶 𝐹 𝐶 𝐹

𝐵 𝐸 SAS 𝐵 𝐸
𝐴 𝐷 Axiom 𝐴 𝐷
(Note, it is the SAS Axiom, not the CACS theorem, that gives us the information about the
congruent third sides. The CACS theorem (Theorem 55) cannot be used in this situation
because the congruent angles are in different triangles!!)

What if the included angles are not congruent? That is, suppose 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) > 𝑚(∠𝐸𝐷𝐹). What
can be said about the triangles in that case? We know what the answer would be in the same
̅̅̅̅ of drawn triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 would be longer than side 𝐸𝐹
situation involving drawings: side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ of
drawn triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. This is illustrated in the drawing below.
 page 177

𝐶 𝐹 𝐶 𝐹 smaller
smaller bigger r
bigger 𝐸 𝐸
r in drawings
𝐴 𝐷 𝐴 𝐷
𝐵 𝐵
Well, it turns out that abstract triangles in Neutral Geometry will exhibit this same behavior. The
Hinge Theorem proves it.

Theorem 72 the Hinge Theorem for Neutral Geometry

In Neutral Geometry, if triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 have ̅̅̅̅ 𝐷𝐸 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐶 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹 and
𝑚(∠𝐴) > 𝑚(∠𝐷), then 𝐵𝐶 > 𝐸𝐹.

Remark: The statement of the theorem can be illustrated by the picture below.
𝐶 𝐹 𝐶 𝐹 smaller
smaller bigger r
bigger r 𝐸 𝐸
𝐴 𝐷 𝐴 𝐷
𝐵 𝐵
Theorem 72

The proof of the Hinge Theorem is very long and involves a few cases. Studying the proof would
not add significantly to our understanding, so I have not included a proof of the theorem in this
book.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 7.8 on page 181.

7.7. Parallel lines in Neutral Geometry

In this final section of the chapter, we will study an extremely important theorem called the
Alternate Interior Angle Theorem for Neutral Geometry. In order to understand the wording of
the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem, we need some definitions.

Definition 60 transversal
Words: Line 𝑇 is transversal to lines 𝐿 and 𝑀.
Meaning: Line 𝑇 intersects 𝐿 and 𝑀 in distinct points.

Note that if line 𝑇 is transversal to lines 𝐿 and 𝑀, then 𝐿 and 𝑀 must be distinct lines. (The
reason is that if 𝐿 and 𝑀 were the same line, then line 𝑇 would not be able to intersect the lines
in distinct points.) But lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are not required to be parallel.

Definition 61 alternate interior angles, corresponding angles, interior angles on the same side
of the transversal
Usage: Lines 𝐿, 𝑀, and transversal 𝑇 are given.
Labeled Points:
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 178

Let 𝐵 be the intersection of lines 𝑇 and 𝐿, and let 𝐸 be the intersection of lines 𝑇 and 𝑀. (By
definition of transversal, 𝐵 and 𝐸 are not the same point.) By Theorem 15, there exist points
𝐴 and 𝐶 on line 𝐿 such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶, points 𝐷
and 𝐹 on line 𝑀 such that 𝐷 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐹, and points 𝐻 𝑇
𝐺 and 𝐻 on line 𝑇 such that 𝐺 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 and 𝐵 ∗ 𝑀 𝐷 𝐸 𝐹
𝐸 ∗ 𝐻. Without loss of generality, we may 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
assume that points 𝐷 and 𝐹 are labeled such 𝐿
𝐺
that it is point 𝐷 that is on the same side of line
𝑇 as point 𝐴. (See the figure at right.)
Meaning:
Special names are given to the following eight pairs of angles:
 The pair {∠𝐴𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐹𝐸𝐵} is a pair of alternate interior angles.
 The pair {∠𝐶𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐷𝐸𝐵} is a pair of alternate interior angles.
 The pair {∠𝐴𝐵𝐺, ∠𝐷𝐸𝐺} is a pair of corresponding angles.
 The pair {∠𝐴𝐵𝐻, ∠𝐷𝐸𝐻} is a pair of corresponding angles.
 The pair {∠𝐶𝐵𝐺, ∠𝐹𝐸𝐺} is a pair of corresponding angles.
 The pair {∠𝐶𝐵𝐻, ∠𝐹𝐸𝐻} is a pair of corresponding angles.
 The pair {∠𝐴𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐷𝐸𝐵} is a pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal.
 The pair {∠𝐶𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐹𝐸𝐵} is a pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal.

We will be interested in the situation where it is known that a pair of alternate interior angles is
congruent. Which pair? Well, it turns out that if one pair of alternate interior angles is congruent,
then the other pair is, as well. And each pair of corresponding angles is congruent. And each pair
of interior angles on the same side of the transversal has measures that add up to 180. This is not
difficult to show, and is articulated in the following theorem. You will prove the theorem in a
homework exercise.

Theorem 73 Equivalent statements about angles formed by two lines and a transversal in
Neutral Geometry
Given: Neutral Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇, with points 𝐴, ⋯ , 𝐻 labeled as
in Definition 61, above.
Claim: The following statements are equivalent:
(1) The first pair of alternate interior angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐹𝐸𝐵.
(2) The second pair of alternate interior angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐶𝐵𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐵.
(3) The first pair of corresponding angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐺 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐺.
(4) The second pair of corresponding angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐻 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐻.
(5) The third pair of corresponding angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐶𝐵𝐺 ≅ ∠𝐹𝐸𝐺.
(6) The fourth pair of corresponding angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐶𝐵𝐻 ≅ ∠𝐹𝐸𝐻.
(7) The first pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal has measures that add
up to 180. That is, 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐸) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐸𝐵) = 180.
(8) The second pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal has measures that
add up to 180. That is, 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐸) + 𝑚(∠𝐹𝐸𝐵) = 180.

A Remark about Proving an Equivalence Theorem

There are many strategies possible for proving the theorem above. For example, here are three.
 page 179

(1) (1) (1)

(8) (2) (8) (2) (8) (2)

(7) (3) (7) (3) (7) (3)

(6) (4) (6) (4) (6) (4)

(5) (5) (5)
Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3
Strategy 1 is very simple conceptually, but notice that it involves fourteen proofs. Strategy 2 is
also very simple conceptually, and it involves only eight proofs. But it might turn out that some
of the proofs are difficult. (Maybe it is very hard to prove that (5)  (6).) It might turn out to be
easiest to build a proof using a strategy that is kind of a mixture of Strategy 1 and Strategy 2.
One such proof is shown above as Strategy 3. You will prove the theorem in an exercise, and the
choice of strategy will be up to you.
A Remark about “Using” an Equivalence Theorem

It is very important to keep in mind that Theorem 73 does not say that any of the eight statements
are true. It only says that they are either all true or they are all false. This means that in any
situation where one wants to use Theorem 73 as a justification for a step in a proof, it can only
come after a prior step in which one of the statements (1) - (8) has already been proven true or
false by some other means. That sounds vague, so I will give an example.

Consider the following fragment of the proof of the Wedgie Theorem. Its steps are lettered,
rather than numbered.
Proof of the Wedgie Theorem 𝐻 𝑇
(*) some statements here 𝑀 𝐷 𝐸
(q) ∠𝐴𝐵𝐻 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐻 𝐹
(r) ∠𝐶𝐵𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐿
(*) some more statements here 𝐺
End of proof
Observe that statements (q) and (r) in the proof of the Wedgie Theorem are just statements (4)
and (2) in the list from Theorem 73. Assume that none of the statements (1) - (8) from Theorem
73 have shown up anywhere in the earlier steps (a) - (p) of the proof of the Wedgie Theorem.
The question is, how can we justify statements (q) and (r) in the proof of the Wedgie Theorem?

Realize that Theorem 73 cannot be used to justify statement (q) of the proof of the Wedgie
Theorem. The reason is that Theorem 73 can only be be used after one of the statements (1) - (8)
of Theorem 73 has already been proven true or false by some other means. But we know that
none of those statements (1) - (8) have shown up anywhere in the earlier steps (a) - (p) of the
proof of the Wedgie Theorem. Maybe we can justify statement (q) by using the Raspberry
Theorem, I don’t know. But we cannot use Theorem 73.

On the other hand, Theorem 73 can be used to justify statement (r) of the proof of the Wedgie
Theorem. But when we do use Theorem 73 to justify statement (r), we should be very clear about
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 180

what part of Theorem 73 we are using. We should not write the justification as “by Theorem 73
(2)”. That would be misleading, because Theorem 73 does not tell us that (2) is true. Rather,
Theorem 73 tells us only that if one of the other statements on the list is known to be true, then
(2) is true as well. In our case, we are using the part of Theorem 73 that says that if (4) is known
to be true, then (2) is true as well. That is, we are using Theorem 73 (4)  (2).

In summary, the justifications for the steps in the fragment of the proof of the Wedgie Theorem
could look like the following:
Proof of the Wedgie Theorem, with
justifications 𝐻 𝑇
(*) some statements here 𝑀 𝐷 𝐸
(q) ∠𝐴𝐵𝐻 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐻 (by Raspberry Theorem) 𝐹
(r) ∠𝐶𝐵𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐵 (by Theorem 73 (4)  𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐿
(2)) 𝐺
(*) some more statements here
End of proof

End of Remark about “Using” an Equivalence Theorem

Since all eight of the statements above are equivalent, it makes sense to have a name for the
situation in which the statements are true.

Definition 62 special angle property for two lines and a transversal

Words: Lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and transversal 𝑇 have the special angle property.
Meaning: The eight statements listed in Theorem 73 are true. That is, each pair of alternate
interior angles is congruent. And each pair of corresponding angles is congruent. And each
pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal has measures that add up to 180.

Observe that if it is known that any one of the eight statements is true, then it is known that all
eight statements are true, and so lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and transversal 𝑇 have the special angle property.
On the other hand, if it is known that any one of the eight statements is not true, then lines 𝐿 and
𝑀 and transversal 𝑇 do not have the special angle property. And of course in this case, it is
known that all eight statements are not true.

With the notation presented above, we are prepared to understand the statement of the Alternate
Interior Angle Theorem for Neutral Geometry. I have included the statement of the
contrapositive because I find that for this theorem, the proof of the contrapositive is the clearest
proof.

Theorem 74 The Alternate Interior Angle Theorem for Neutral Geometry

Given: Neutral Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇
Claim: If a pair of alternate interior angles is congruent, then lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel.
Contrapositive: If 𝐿 and 𝑀 are not parallel, then a pair of alternate interior angles are not
congruent.
Proof (Indirect proof by method of contraposition)
(1) Suppose that in Neutral Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇 are given, and that 𝐿
and 𝑀 are not parallel. (make a drawing)
(2) Let 𝐴 be the point of intersection of lines 𝐿 and 𝑀, let 𝐵 be the point of intersection of
lines 𝐿 and 𝑇, and let 𝐶 be the point of intersection of lines 𝑀 and 𝑇. (update drawing)
 page 181

(3) There exists a point 𝐷 such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷. (Make a new drawing)

(4) Observe that ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 is an exterior angle for Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, and ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴 is one of its remote interior
angles. (Make a new drawing)
(5) 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐷) > 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐴). (Justify.) (Make a new drawing)
(6) Observe ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴 are alternate interior angles and they are not congruent. That
is, lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 do not have the special angle property.
End of Proof

In some geometry books, you will find three more theorems that are really corollaries of the
Alternate Interior Angle Theorem. Here they are.

Three Corollaries of the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem found in some books.
Given: Neutral Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇
Corollary (1): If a pair of corresponding angles is congruent, then lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel.
Corollary (2): If the sum of the measures of a pair of interior angles on the same side of the
transversal is 180, then lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel.
Corollary (3): If 𝐿 and 𝑀 are both perpendicular to 𝑇, then lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel.
I think it is simpler to present a single corollary that uses the terminology of the special angle
property.

Theorem 75 Corollary of The Alternate Interior Angle Theorem for Neutral Geometry
Given: Neutral Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇
Claim: If any of the statements of Theorem 73 are true (that is, if lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 have the
special angle property), then 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel.
Contrapositive: If 𝐿 and 𝑀 are not parallel, then all of the statements of Theorem 73 are
false (that is, lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 do not have the special angle property).

Recall that in Section 2.1.5, we discussed the following recurring questions about parallel lines:
(1) Do parallel lines exist?
(2) Given a line 𝐿 and a point 𝑃 that does not lie on 𝐿, how many lines exist that pass
through 𝑃 and are parallel to 𝐿?

The Alternate Interior Angle Theorem can be used to prove the following theorem that answers
question (2) for Neutral Geometry.

Theorem 76 Existence of a parallel through a point 𝑃 not on a line 𝐿 in Neutral Geometry.

In Neutral Geometry, for any line 𝐿 and any point 𝑃 not on 𝐿, there exists at least one line 𝑀
that passes through 𝑃 and is parallel to 𝐿.

You will prove Theorem 76 in a homework exercise.

The Alternate Interior Angle Theorem enabled us to prove Theorem 76. That fact alone is
enough to qualify the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem as a major theorem. But we will find that
the theorem is used frequently throughout the rest of this book.

7.8. Exercises for Chapter 7

Exercises for Section 7.1 The Concept of Triangle Congruence (Section starts on page 149)
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 182

[1] Prove Theorem 51 (triangle congruence is an equivalence relation) (found on page 152)

[2] (a) What theorem or definition tells us that every triangle is congruent to itself? Explain.
(b) Given any non-collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, the two symbols Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵 represent the same
triangle. Why?
(c) Consider the triangle shown at right. Why is the symbol 𝐶
Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵 not true in this case? Does that mean that you 1 60 2
have to change your answer to (a) or (b), or is there some 90 30
other explanation? Explain. 𝐴 𝐵
√3
[3] What does “CPCTC” mean? Is it an axiom or a theorem, and if so, which one is it? If it is not
an axiom or a theorem, then what is it? Is it even true? Explain.

[4] Here are three theorem statements:  If the car is rusty then the apples are ripe.
 If the apples are ripe then the cow is brown.
 If the cow is brown then the car is rusty.
(A) Here are the names for the theorems, but that the names have been shuffled. Write the
correct theorem statement next to each theorem name:

 The Brown Cow Theorem: _________________________________________________

 The Rusty Car Theorem: ___________________________________________________

 The Ripe Apple Theorem: __________________________________________________

(B) Here is statement (17) from a long and difficult proof. The earlier steps have been done
correctly, but the author forgot to write the justification for statement (17). Write it in.

(17) Therefore, the car is rusty. (justification: __________________________________)

Exercises for Section 7.2 Theorems about Congruences in Triangles (Starts on page 155)

[5] Write the statement of the theorem that is illustrated by the

drawing at right.

[6] Prove Theorem 53 ((Corollary) In Neutral Geometry, if a triangle is equilateral then it is

equiangular.) (found on page 157)

[7] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 54 (the ASA Congruence Theorem for Neutral
Geometry) (found on page 157).

[8] In the previous chapter, we discussed Theorem 40 (Every angle has a unique bisector.)
(found on page 135). In order to prove it in the previous chapter, we had to first prove Theorem
39 (about points in the interior of angles) (found on page 133). Together, the proofs of those two
theorems amounted to a rather difficult proof of the existence and uniqueness of angle bisectors.
 page 183

I promised that there would be an easier proof that used triangle congruence. With Neutral
Axiom <N10> (SAS Congruence) and Theorem 52 (CS  CA) now available as tools to prove
theorems, an easier proof of the existence and uniqueness of angle bisectors is possible. Justify
the steps in the following proof. You may use any of the ten Neutral Axioms, and you may use
any theorem up through (and including) Theorem 52 (CS  CA). (Of course, you may not use
Theorem 40, because that is what we are trying to prove. Re-proving earlier theorems using later
theorems is actually a rather tricky business, because one must be sure to not cite any theorems
whose proofs depended on the earlier theorem. But in this case, we are okay: None of the
theorems between Theorem 40 and Theorem 52 depended on Theorem 40. So we can use any of
them.)

Easier Proof of the Existence and Uniqueness of an Angle Bisector.

(1) Suppose that angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given. (Make a drawing.)

Part 1: Show that a bisector exists

𝐵𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
(2) There exists a point 𝐷 on ray 𝐵𝐶 such that ̅̅̅̅ 𝐵𝐴. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(3) ∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 ≅ ∠𝐵𝐷𝐴. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(4) There exists exactly one point 𝑀 that is the midpoint of segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷 . (Justify.) (Make a
new drawing.)
(5) Δ𝐵𝐴𝑀 ≅ Δ𝐵𝐷𝑀. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(6) ∠𝐴𝐵𝑀 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐵𝑀. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(7) Point 𝑀 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(8) Ray 𝐵𝑀 is a bisector of angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)

Part 2: Show that the bisector is unique.

(9) Suppose that ray 𝐵𝑁 is a bisector of angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷. (Make a new drawing.)
(10) ∠𝐴𝐵𝑁 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐵𝑁 and point 𝑁 is in the interior of angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new
drawing.)
(11) Ray 𝐵𝑁 intersects side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷 at a point 𝑃 between 𝐴 and 𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new
drawing.)
(12) Δ𝐴𝐵𝑃 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐵𝑃. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵𝑃
(13) 𝐴𝑃 ̅̅̅̅. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(14) Point 𝑃 is a midpoint of segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(15) Point 𝑃 must be the same point as point 𝑀. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(16) Ray 𝐵𝑁 must be the same ray as ray 𝐵𝑀. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
End of proof

[9] Prove Theorem 55 (the CA  CS theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry) (found on page
159)
Hint: Look back at the proof of Theorem 52 (the CS  CA theorem for triangles (the
Isosceles Triangle Theorem), found on page 156). That proof used the SAS axiom and a trick
involving a correspondence between the vertices of a single triangle. Here is the structure of
that proof:
Summary of Proof of Theorem 52
Step (1) Given information about congruent sides
Step (2) Introduce a correspondence between the vertices of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵.
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 184

Step (3) State that the correspondence is actually a congruence (justified by the
SAS Congruence Axiom <N10>)
Step (4) Conclude that the opposite angles are also congruent.
End of proof
A similar trick can be used to prove Theorem 55, the CA  CS theorem for triangles. This
time, the proof will use the trick involving a correspondence between the vertices of a single
triangle, but the proof will cite the ASA Congruence Theorem, instead of the SAS axiom.
Structure that you should use for your proof of Theorem 55
Step (1) Given information about congruent angles
Step (2) Introduce a correspondence between the vertices of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵.
Step (3) State that the correspondence is actually a congruence (justified by the
ASA Congruence Theorem)
Step (4) Conclude that the opposite sides are also congruent.
End of proof

[10] Prove Theorem 56 ((Corollary) In Neutral Geometry, if a triangle is equiangular then it is

equilateral.) (found on page 159)

[11] (Advanced) Justify the given steps and fill in the missing steps in the proof of Theorem 58
(the SSS congruence theorem for Neutral Geometry) (found on page 160)

Exercises for Section 7.3 Theorems about Bigger and Smaller Parts of Triangles (p. 162)

[12] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 59 (Neutral Exterior Angle Theorem) (found on
page 162)

[13] Prove Theorem 60 ((Corollary) If a triangle has a right angle, then the other two angles are
acute.) (found on page 164)

[14] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 61 (the BS  BA theorem for triangles in Neutral
Geometry) (found on page 164)

[15] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 64 (The Triangle Inequality for Neutral Geometry)
(found on page 166)

Exercises for Section 7.5 More About Perpendicular Lines (Section starts on page 170)

[16] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 66 (existence and uniqueness of a line that is
perpendicular to a given line through a given point that does not lie on the given line) (found on
page 170)

[17] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 67 (The shortest segment connecting a point to a
line is the perpendicular.) (found on page 172)

[18] Prove Theorem 68 (In any right triangle in Neutral Geometry, the hypotenuse is the longest
side.) (found on page 173) Here are some hints:
 Use the following proof structure: Given any Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with right angle at 𝐴, show that
̅̅̅̅ is longer than leg ̅̅̅̅
hypotenuse 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐵 and also longer than leg ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 .
 page 185

 Somewhere in your proof, use Theorem 60 and Theorem 62.

[19] (Advanced) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 69 ((Lemma) In any triangle in
Neutral Geometry, the altitude to a longest side intersects the longest side at a point between the
endpoints.) (found on page 173) Make drawings where indicated, and fill in the missing details
where indicated.

Exercises for Section 7.6 A Final Look at Triangle Congruence in Neutral Geometry
(Section starts on page 174)

[20] (Advanced) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 70 (the Angle-Angle-Side (AAS)
Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry) (found on page 175) Make drawings where
indicated, and fill in the missing details where indicated.

[21] Here is avery short proof of The Angle-Angle-Side Congruence Theorem from the internet.
Proof found on the internet for the AAS Congruence Theorem.
(1) Suppose that in triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 have ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷 and ∠𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐸 and 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 .
(2) We can do the following computations:
𝑚(∠𝐶) = 180 − (𝑚(∠𝐴) + 𝑚(∠𝐵)) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 180)
= 180 − (𝑚(∠𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐸)) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐸)
= 𝑚(∠𝐹) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 180)
Therefore, we know that ∠𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐹.
(3) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (by steps (1) and (2) and the ASA congruence theorem.)
End of Proof
Why can’t we use this proof to prove our Theorem 70 (the Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) Congruence
Theorem for Neutral Geometry) (found on page 175)?

[22] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 71 (the Hypotenuse Leg Congruence Theorem for
Neutral Geometry) (found on page 176) Make drawings where indicated, and fill in the missing
details where indicated.

[23] Here is a very simple proof of The Hypotenuse-Leg Congruence Theorem from the internet.

Proof found on the internet for the Hypotenuse-Leg Congruence Theorem.

(1) Suppose that right triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 have right angles at ∠𝐴 and ∠𝐷, and
congruent hypotenuses 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 , and a congruent leg ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 ,
(2) We can do the following computations:
(𝐴𝐶)2 = (𝐵𝐶)2 − (𝐴𝐵)2 (𝑃𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚)
= (𝐸𝐹)2 − (𝐷𝐸)2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 )
2
= (𝐷𝐹) (𝑃𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚)
Therefore, we know that ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹 .
(3) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (by steps (1) and (2) and the SSS congruence theorem.)
End of Proof

Why can’t we use this proof to prove our Theorem 71 (the Hypotenuse Leg Congruence
Theorem for Neutral Geometry) (found on page 176)?
Chapter 7 Neutral Geometry V: The Axiom of Triangle Congruence Page 186

[24] (Advanced) The statement of Theorem 72, the Hinge Theorem for Neutral Geometry, is
found on page 177. Find a proof of the theorem on the internet or in another book. Rewrite the
proof in the style of our proofs. That is, produce a numbered list of statements, with each
statement justified by a prior statement, or a prior theorem (from this book!) or a Neutral
Geometry Axiom.

Exercises for Section 7.7 Parallel lines in Neutral Geometry (Section starts on page 177)

[25] Prove Theorem 73 (Equivalent statements about angles formed by two lines and a
transversal in Neutral Geometry) (found on page 178). Include drawings with your proof.

[26] Consider the following fragment of the proof of the Bobcat Theorem. Its steps are lettered,
rather than numbered.
Proof of the Bobcat Theorem 𝐻 𝑇
(*) some statements here 𝑀 𝐷 𝐸
(x) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐸) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐸𝐵) = 180 𝐹
(y) ∠𝐴𝐵𝐺 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐺 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐿
(*) some more statements here 𝐺
End of proof
Assume that none of the statements (1) - (8) from Theorem 73 have shown up anywhere in the
earlier steps (a) - (w) of the proof of the Bobcat Theorem. Here are two questions:
(i) Why can’t Theorem 73 be used to justify step (x)? Explain.
(ii) Write a justification for step (y).

[27] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 74 (The Alternate Interior Angle Theorem for
Neutral Geometry) (found on page 180). Make drawings where indicated.

[28] Prove Theorem 76 (Existence of a parallel through a point 𝑃 not on a line 𝐿 in Neutral
Geometry.) (found on page 181).
Hints:
 Be sure to use the correct proof structure. The given information must go into step (1).
 Show that there exists a line 𝑇 that passes through 𝑃 and is perpendicular to 𝐿.
 Show that there exists a line 𝑀 that passes through 𝑃 and is perpendicular to 𝑇.
 Show that lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel.

[29] In Section 2.1.5, we discussed the following recurring questions about parallel lines:

(1) Do parallel lines exist?

(2) Given a line 𝐿 and a point 𝑃 that does not lie on 𝐿, how many lines exist that pass
through 𝑃 and are parallel to 𝐿?

In Section 7.7, it was mentioned that in Neutral Geometry, Theorem 76 (Existence of a parallel
through a point 𝑃 not on a line 𝐿 in Neutral Geometry.) (found on page 181) gives us the answer
to question (2): There is at least one line. It seems that in Neutral Geometry, the answer to
question (1) ought to be “yes”. But can you prove that parallel lines exist in Neutral Geometry?
That is, can you prove that there exist lines 𝐽 and 𝐾 that are parallel? Try it.
 page 187

8. Neutral Geometry VI: Circles

This will be our final chapter on Neutral Geometry. In previous chapters, we discussed the
behavior of lines, angles, and triangles in Neutral Geometry. Note that a line is a primitive,
undefined object, but angles and triangles are defined objects. Even so, all three objects are at
least mentioned in the axioms for Neutral Geometry. In this chapter, we will define circles and
study their behavior. Here is the definition:

Definition 63 circle, center, radius, radial segment, interior, exterior

Symbol: 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)
Spoken: the circle centered at 𝑃 with radius 𝑟
Usage: 𝑃 is a point and 𝑟 is a positive real number.
Meaning: The following set of points: 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) = {𝑄 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑟}
Additional Terminology:
 The point 𝑃 is called the center of the circle.
 The number 𝑟 is called the radius of the circle.
 The interior is the set 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) = {𝑄 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑄 < 𝑟}.
 The exterior is the set 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) = {𝑄 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑄 > 𝑟}.
 Two circles are said to be congruent if they have the same radius.
 Two circles are said to be concentric if they have the same center.

Observe that the Neutral Geometry axioms do not even mention circles. So everything that we
know about the behavior of circles will have to be proven in theorems.

8.1. Theorems about Lines Intersecting Circles

Our first investigations of circles will involve their interactions with objects that we already
know about: lines, angles, triangles. We start with a simple but important theorem about the
number of possible intersections of a line and a circle.

Theorem 77 In Neutral Geometry, the Number of Possible Intersection Points for a Line and a
Circle is 0, 1, 2.

The proof is left as an exercise for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate
students.

We have special names for lines that intersect a circle at exactly one point and lines that intersect
a circle at exactly two points.

Definition 64 Tangent Line and Secant Line for a Circle

A tangent line for a circle is a line that intersects the circle at exactly one point.
A secant line for a circle is a line that intersects the circle at exactly two points.

The remaining theorems in this section give us more details about the interactions of tangent
lines, secant lines, and circles. The first one is an equivalence theorem. The proof structure is
interesting because it uses the contrapositive. You will justify the proof in an exercise
Chapter 8 Neutral Geometry VI: Circles page 188

Theorem 78 In Neutral Geometry, tangent lines are perpendicular to the radial segment.
Given: A segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 and a line 𝐿 passing through point 𝐵.
Claim: The following statements are equivalent.
(i) Line 𝐿 is perpendicular to segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 .
(ii) Line 𝐿 is tangent to 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐴𝐵) at point 𝐵. That is, 𝐿 only intersects 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐴𝐵)
at point 𝐵.

Proof that (i)  (ii)

̅̅̅̅.
(1) Suppose that (i) is true. That is, suppose that line 𝐿 is perpendicular to segment 𝐴𝐵
(Make a drawing.)
(2) Let 𝐶 be any point on line 𝐿 except 𝐵. (Make a new drawing.)
(3) Observe that points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 form a triangle with right angle at 𝐵. Segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 is the
hypotenuse of this triangle. So 𝐴𝐶 > 𝐴𝐵. Therefore 𝐶 is in the exterior of
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐴𝐵). (Make a new drawing.)
(4) Conclude that line 𝐿 intersects 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐴𝐵) at point 𝐵, but does not intersect the circle
at any other point. That is, line 𝐿 is tangent to 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐴𝐵) at point 𝐵. So (ii) is true.

Proof that ~(i)  ~(ii) (Notice that this is the contrapositive of (ii)  (i).)
(5) Suppose that (i) is false. That is, suppose that line 𝐿 is not perpendicular to segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 .
(6) There are two possibilities:
⃡ .
(a) Line 𝐿 is the same line as line 𝐴𝐵
⃡ .
(b) Line 𝐿 is not the same line as line 𝐴𝐵
Case (a)
(7) Suppose that line 𝐿 is the same line as line ⃡𝐴𝐵 . (Make a new drawing.)
(8) There exists a point 𝐶 such that 𝐶 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 and such that 𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅. (Justify) (Make a
new drawing.)
(9) Points 𝐵 and 𝐶 are both on 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐴𝐵). (Justify.) (Make a new Drawing.)
(10) Conclude that line 𝐿 intersects 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐴𝐵) at more than one point. That is, line 𝐿 is
not tangent to 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐴𝐵). So, Statement (ii) is false in this case.
Case (b)
(11) Suppose that line 𝐿 passes through point 𝐵 and is not perpendicular to line ⃡𝐴𝐵 and is not
the same line as line ⃡𝐴𝐵 . (Make a new drawing.)
(12) There exists a line 𝑀 that passes through point 𝐴 and is perpendicular to 𝐿. Let 𝐶 be the
point of intersection of lines 𝐿 and 𝑀. (Make a new drawing.)
(13) There exists a point 𝐷 such that 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐷 and 𝐶𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐶𝐵
̅̅̅̅. (Make a new drawing.)
(Justify.)
(14) Observe that Δ𝐴𝐶𝐷 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵. (Justify.)
(15) Therefore, ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅𝐴𝐵. (Justify.) So point 𝐷 also lies on the circle. (Make a new
drawing.)
(16) Conclude that 𝐿 intersects the circle at more than one point. That is, line 𝐿 is not tangent
to the circle. So Statement (ii) is false in this case as well.
Conclusion of Cases
(17) Conclude that statement (ii) is false in either case.
End of Proof

The following corollary is not difficult to prove. You will prove it in an exercise.
 page 189

Theorem 79 (Corollary of Theorem 78) For any line tangent to a circle in Neutral Geometry,
all points on the line except for the point of tangency lie in the circle’s exterior.

We are so used to the simple behavior of lines and circles in drawings that it is a bit of a shock
(and a nuisance) to realize that we have to prove that the same simple behavior occurs in
axiomatic geometry. It is even more annoying to find that the proofs are sometimes hard. The
following theorem is not terribly hard to prove, but there are a lot of details. You will justify it in
a homework exercise.

Theorem 80 about points on a Secant line lying in the interior or exterior in Neutral Geometry
Given: 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟) and a secant line 𝐿 passing through points 𝐵 and 𝐶 on the circle
Claim:
(i) If 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐶, then 𝐷 is in the interior of the circle.
(ii) If 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 or 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐷, then 𝐷 is in the exterior of the circle.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(1) In Neutral Geometry, suppose that 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟) and a secant line 𝐿 passing through points
𝐵 and 𝐶 on the circle are given.
(2) Observe that ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 , so Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is isosceles.
(3) Therefore, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵. (Justify.)
Part 1: prove that (i) is true.
(4) Suppose that 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐶.
(5) Observe that ∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 is an exterior angle for triangle Δ𝐴𝐷𝐶, and angle ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 is one of its
remote interior angles.
(6) Therefore, 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐷𝐵) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵). (Justify.)
(7) So 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐷𝐵) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶). (Justify.)
(8) Therefore, 𝐴𝐵 > 𝐴𝐷. (Justify.)
(9) So 𝐴𝐷 < 𝑟. Conclude that 𝐷 is in the interior of the circle.
Part 2: prove that (ii) is true.
(10) Suppose that 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶.
(11) Observe that ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an exterior angle for triangle Δ𝐴𝐷𝐵, and angle ∠𝐴𝐷𝐶 is one of its
remote interior angles.
(12) Therefore, 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐷𝐵). (Justify.)
(13) So 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) > 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐷𝐵). (Justify.)
(14) Therefore, 𝐴𝐷 > 𝐴𝐶. (Justify.)
(15) So 𝐴𝐷 > 𝑟. Conclude that 𝐷 is in the exterior of the circle.
(16) – (21) Six steps analogous to steps (10) – (15) would prove that if 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐷 then 𝐷 is
also in the exterior of the circle.
End of Proof

Now that we have determined which points on secant lines lie in the interior of a circle and
which ones lie in the exterior, we can state the definition of a chord of a circle and then state an
immediate corollary about the points of a chord lying in the interior of the circle.

Definition 65 chord, diameter segment, diameter, radial segment

 A chord of a circle is a line segment whose endpoints both lie on the circle.
 A diameter segment for a circle is a chord that passes through the center of the circle.
Chapter 8 Neutral Geometry VI: Circles page 190

 The diameter of a circle is the number 𝑑 = 2𝑟. That is, the diameter is the number that is
the length of a diameter segment.
 A radial segment for a circle is a segment that has one endpoint at the center of the circle
and the other endpoint on the circle. (So that the radius is the number that is the length of
a radial segment.)

Theorem 81 (Corollary of Theorem 80) about points on a chord or radial segment that lie in
the interior in Neutral Geometry
In Neutral Geometry, all points of a segment except the endpoints lie in the interior of the
circle. Furthermore, one endpoint of a radial segment lies on the circle; all the other points of
a radial segment lie in the interior of the circle.

As mentioned above, it is a little frustrating to have to prove that abstract circles have behavior
that seems so simple and obvious in drawn circles. The next two theorems have statements that
are obvious. You will justify the steps in the proof of the first theorem in a homework exercise.

Theorem 82 In Neutral Geometry, if a line passes through a point in the interior of a circle,
then it also passes through a point in the exterior.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
(1) Suppose that a line 𝐿 passes through a point 𝐵 in the interior of 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟).
(2) There exists a point 𝐶 on line 𝐿 such that 𝐵𝐶 = 3𝑟.
(3) 𝐵𝐶 ≤ 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐴𝐶 (Justify.)
(4) 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐵𝐴 ≤ 𝐴𝐶 (arithmetic)
(5) 𝑟 > 𝐵𝐴 (Justify.)
(6) – 𝑟 < −𝐵𝐴 (arithmetic)
(7) 2𝑟 = 3𝑟 − 𝑟 < 3𝑟 − 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐵𝐴 (arithmetic)
(8) 2𝑟 ≤ 𝐴𝐶 (Justify.)
(9) Therefore, point 𝐶 is in the exterior.
End of Proof

Theorem 83 In Neutral Geometry, if a line passes through a point in the interior of a circle and
also through a point in the exterior, then it intersects the circle at a point between
those two points.

As simple Theorem 83 sounds, it is difficult to prove. One proof involves defining a new
function involving a coordinate function 𝑓 for the line and also the distance function 𝑑. We will
accept the theorem without proof in this book. The following corollary is an example of how the
theorem is used.

Theorem 84 (Corollary) In Neutral Geometry, if a line passes through a point in the interior of
a circle, then the line must be a secant line. That is, the line must intersect the
circle exactly twice.
Proof
Suppose a line passes through a point in the interior of a circle. By Theorem 82, we know
that the line must also pass through a point in the exterior. By Theorem 83, we know that the
line must intersect the circle. By Theorem 79, we know that the line cannot be a tangent line
 page 191

because it passes through an interior point. Therefore, the line must be a secant line, and
intersect the circle exactly twice.
End of Proof

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 8.6 on page 197.

8.2. A Digression: Two Theorems About Triangles

Now that we have defined chords, our goal is to prove some basic theorems about their behavior.
But before doing that, we should first study two theorems about triangles. The reason is that we
will find that the techniques used in the proofs of the theorems about chords will be the same
techniques that are used in the proofs of these theorems about triangles. These two theorems
about triangles could have been stated earlier in the book. I postponed introducing them until
now because I did not want the earlier chapters to be overfull and also because I thought it would
be nice to present the theorems here, where we can see them put to immediate use.

The first theorem has to do with angle bisectors, altitudes, and medians in isosceles triangles in
Neutral Geometry. Altitudes were introduced in Definition 59. We need a definition of medians.

Definition 66 median segment and median line of a triangle

A median line for a triangle is a line that passes through a vertex and the midpoint of the
opposite side. A median segment for triangle is a segment that has its endpoints at those points.

In general, for a given vertex of a scalene triangle in Neutral Geometry, the angle bisector,
altitude, and median drawn from that vertex will be three different rays. The following theorem
tells us that in the special case of the top vertex of an isosceles triangle, those three special rays
are in fact the same ray. You will justify the steps and supply some missing steps in the proof in
a homework exercise.

Theorem 85 about special rays in isosceles triangles in Neutral Geometry

Given: Neutral Geometry, triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐴𝐶
̅̅̅̅ and ray 𝐴𝐷 such that 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐶.
Claim: The following three statements are equivalent.
(i) Ray 𝐴𝐷 is the bisector of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶.
(ii) Ray 𝐴𝐷 is perpendicular to side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ .
̅̅̅̅ . That is, point 𝐷 is the midpoint of side 𝐵𝐶
(iii) Ray 𝐴𝐷 bisects side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ .
Proof that (i)  (ii)
(1) Suppose that (i) is true. That is, suppose that ray 𝐴𝐷 is the bisector of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶.
(Make a drawing.)
(2) Δ𝐴𝐷𝐵 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐷𝐶. (Justify.)
(3) Therefore, ∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐴𝐷𝐶. (Justify.)
(4) So 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐷𝐵) = 90. (Justify.)
(5) Therefore, ray 𝐴𝐷 is perpendicular to side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ . That is, statement (ii) is true.
Proof that (ii)  (iii)
(6) Suppose that (ii) is true. That is, suppose that ray 𝐴𝐷 is perpendicular to side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ . (Make
a drawing.)
(7) Δ𝐴𝐷𝐵 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐷𝐶. (Justify.)
Chapter 8 Neutral Geometry VI: Circles page 192

̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.)
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐷𝐶
(8) Therefore, 𝐷𝐵
̅̅̅̅ . That is, statement (iii) is true.
(9) So point 𝐷 is the midpoint of side 𝐵𝐶
Proof that (iii)  (i)
(*) You supply the missing steps.
End of Proof

The next theorem has a rather quirky-sounding statement. It turns out to be an exteremely useful
theorem. The proof, which is left as an exercise, will involve techniques similar to the techniques
used in the proof of Theorem 85.

Theorem 86 about points equidistant from the endpoints of a line segment in Neutral Geometry
In Neutral Geometry, the following two statements are equivalent
(i) A point is equidistant from the endpoints of a line segment.
(ii) The point lies on the perpendicular bisector of the segment.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 8.6 on page 197.

8.3. Theorems About Chords

With Theorem 85 at our disposal, we now go back to our job of proving theorems about chords.
Our first two theorems have simple proofs that pretty much use only Theorem 85.

Theorem 87 In Neutral Geometry, any perpendicular from the center of a circle to a chord
bisects the chord
Proof
(1) In Neutral Geometry, in 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟), suppose that line 𝐿 passes through the center and is
̅̅̅̅ . Let 𝐷 be the point of intersection. (Make a drawing.)
perpendicular to chord 𝐵𝐶
(2) Observe observe that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 has ̅̅̅̅𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 . (Make a new drawing.)
(3) By Theorem 85, we know that point 𝐷 is the midpoint of side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ . (Make a new
drawing.)
End of Proof

Theorem 88 In Neutral Geometry, the segment joining the center to the midpoint of a chord is
perpendicular to the chord.

The proof of Theorem 88 is left to the reader. (The proof is very much like the proof of the
previous theorem.)

Our third theorem about chords is really just a corollary of Theorem 86.

Theorem 89 (Corollary of Theorem 86) In Neutral Geometry, the perpendicular bisector of a

chord passes through the center of the circle.

The above three theorems about chords had short proofs involving Theorem 85 or Theorem 86.
Our fourth theorem about chords has a longer proof. You will justify some of the steps and make
drawings for it in a homework exercise.
 page 193

Theorem 90 about chords equidistant from the centers of circles in Neutral Geometry
Given: Neutral Geometry, chord 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ in 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟) and chord 𝑄𝑅 ̅̅̅̅ in 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) with the
same radius 𝑟.
Claim: The following two statements are equivalent:
(i) The distance from chord 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ to center 𝐴 is the same as the distance from
̅̅̅̅
chord 𝑄𝑅 to center 𝑃.
(ii) The chords have the same length. That is, 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑄𝑅
̅̅̅̅.
Proof that (i)  (ii)
(1) Suppose that (i) is true. That is, the distance from chord 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ to center 𝐴 is the same as the
distance from chord 𝑄𝑅 ̅̅̅̅ to center 𝑃. (Make a drawing.)
(2) Let line 𝐿 be the line that passes through point 𝐴 and is perpendicular to chord 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ in
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟). Let 𝐷 be the point of intersection. And let line 𝑀 be the line that passes
through point 𝑃 and is perpendicular to chord 𝑄𝑅 ̅̅̅̅ in 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟). Let 𝑆 be the point of
intersection. (Make a new drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑃𝑆
(3) 𝐴𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ . (by statements (1), (2)) (Make a new drawing.)
(4) Observe that triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 and Δ𝑃𝑄𝑆 have right angles at 𝐷 and 𝑆, and congruent
hypotenuses 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑃𝑄
̅̅̅̅ (because the circles have the same radius 𝑟) and congruent legs
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷 ≅ 𝑃𝑆. (by (3))
(5) Therefore, Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≅ Δ𝑃𝑄𝑆. (Justify.)
𝐵𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
(6) So ̅̅̅̅ 𝑄𝑆. (by (5) and the definition of triangle congruence) (Make a new drawing.)
(7) We know that point 𝐷 is the midpoint of chord 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ and that point 𝑆 is the midpoint of
chord 𝑄𝑅 ̅̅̅̅. (Justify.)
̅̅̅̅
(8) So 𝐵𝐶 ≅ 𝑄𝑅 ̅̅̅̅. (by (6), (7) and arithmetic) That is, statement (ii) is true. (New drawing.)
Proof that (ii)  (i)
(9) Suppose that (ii) is true. That is, suppose that 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑄𝑅̅̅̅̅. (Make a new drawing.)
(10) Let 𝐷 be the midpoint of side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ , and let 𝑆 be the midpoint of side 𝑄𝑅 ̅̅̅̅. (New drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
(11) Then 𝐵𝐷 ≅ 𝑄𝑆. (by (9), (10))
(12) Observe that triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 has ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐶 . (Make a new drawing.)
(13) Therefore, segment 𝐴𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ is perpendicular to side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
̅̅̅̅
(14) For the same reason, we know that segment 𝑃𝑆 is perpendicular to side 𝑄𝑅 ̅̅̅̅.
(15) Observe that triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 and Δ𝑃𝑄𝑆 have right angles at 𝐷 and 𝑆, and congruent
hypotenuses ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 (because the circles have the same radius 𝑟) and congruent legs
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐷 ≅ 𝑄𝑆. (by (11)) (Make a new drawing.)
(16) Therefore, Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≅ Δ𝑃𝑄𝑆. (Justify.)
(17) So ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅ 𝑃𝑆. (by (16) and the definition of triangle congruence) That is, statement (i) is
true. (Make a new drawing.)
End of proof

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 8.6 on page 197.

8.4. A Digression: Two Theorems About Angle Bisectors

We will wrap up our study of circles in Neutral Geometry by looking more at lines tangent to
circles and also looking at what are called tangent circles. Before doing that, it is useful to again
digress to present theorems about angles and triangles, theorems that could have been presented
earlier in the book.
Chapter 8 Neutral Geometry VI: Circles page 194

The first theorem we will discuss refers to the distance from a point to a line. Recall that we
proved in Theorem 66 that for any line, and any point not on the line, there is exactly one line
that passes through the point and is perpendicular to the original line. And we proved in Theorem
67 that the shortest segment connecting a point to a line is the perpendicular. So when one
speakes of the distance from a point to a line, one is referring to the length of the segment that
has one endpoint on the given point and the other endpoint on the line and that is perpendicular
to the line.

Theorem 91 about points on the bisector of an angle in Neutral Geometry

Given: Neutral Geometry, angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶, and point 𝐷 in the interior of the angle
Claim: The following statements are equivalent
(i) 𝐷 lies on the bisector of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶.
(ii) 𝐷 is equidistant from the sides of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶.
Proof
(1) In Neutral Geometry, suppose that point 𝐷 lies in the interior of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶. (Make a
drawing.)
Proof that (i)  (ii)
(2) Suppose that (i) is true. That is, suppose that 𝐷 lies on the bisector of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶.
(Make a new drawing.)
(3) Let point 𝐸 be the foot of the perpendicular from 𝐷 to line 𝐴𝐵⃡ , and let point 𝐹 be the foot
of the perpendicular from 𝐷 to line 𝐴𝐶 ⃡ . (Make a new drawing.)
(4) Then Δ𝐷𝐴𝐸 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐴𝐹. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(5) So ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 ≅ 𝐷𝐹 ̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(6) Conclude that 𝐷 is equidistant from the sides of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶. That is, (ii) is true.
Proof that (ii)  (i)
(7) Suppose that (ii) is true. That is, suppose that 𝐷 is equidistant from the sides of angle
∠𝐵𝐴𝐶. (Make a new drawing.)
(8) Let point 𝐸 be the foot of the perpendicular from 𝐷 to line 𝐴𝐵⃡ , and let point 𝐹 be the foot
of the perpendicular from 𝐷 to line 𝐴𝐶 ⃡ . (Make a new drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
(9) Then 𝐷𝐸 ≅ 𝐷𝐹 . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(10) Then Δ𝐷𝐴𝐸 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐴𝐹. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(11) So ∠𝐷𝐴𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐴𝐹. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(12) Conclude that 𝐷 lies on the bisector of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶. That is, (i) is true.
End of Proof

Our next theorem about angle bisectors is of a type called a concurrence theorem. Remember
that a collection of lines is called concurrent if there exists a point that all the lines pass through.
In this book, we will discuss three concurrence theorems about special lines related to triangles.
This first concurrence theorem is about angle bisectors. You will justify the steps in the proof in
an exercise.

Theorem 92 in Neutral Geometry, the three angle bisectors of any triangle are concurrent at a
point that is equidistant from the three sides of the triangle.
Proof
(1) In Neutral Geometry, suppose that triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given. (Make a drawing.)
Show that the bisectors of ∠𝑨 and ∠𝑩 intersect.
 page 195

(2) There exists a ray 𝐴𝐷 that bisects ∠𝐶𝐴𝐵. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(3) Point 𝐷 lies in the interior of angle ∠𝐶𝐴𝐵. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(4) Ray 𝐴𝐷 intersects side 𝐵𝐶̅̅̅̅ at a point that we can call 𝐸. (Justify.) (Make a new
drawing.)
(5) There exists a ray 𝐵𝐹 that bisects ∠𝐴𝐵𝐸. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(6) Point 𝐹 lies in the interior of angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐸. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(7) Ray 𝐵𝐹 intersects segment ̅̅̅̅𝐴𝐸 at a point that we can call 𝐺. (Justify.) (Make a new
drawing.) We have shown that the bisectors of ∠𝐴 and ∠𝐵 intersect at 𝐺.
Consider distances from the point of intersection to the sides of the triangle
(8) The distance from 𝐺 to line 𝐴𝐶 ⃡ equals the distance from 𝐺 to line 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ . (Justify.) (Make a
new drawing.)
(9) The distance from 𝐺 to line ⃡𝐵𝐴 equals the distance from 𝐺 to line 𝐵𝐶 ⃡ . (Justify.) (Make a
new drawing.)
(10) So the distance from 𝐺 to line ⃡𝐶𝐴 equals the distance from 𝐺 to line 𝐶𝐵 ⃡ . (Justify.)
(Make a new drawing.)
(11) Therefore, point 𝐺 lies on the bisector of ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(12) We have shown that the bisectors of all three angles ∠𝐴 and ∠𝐵 and ∠𝐶 intersect at 𝐺
and that 𝐺 is equidistant from the three sides of the triangle.
End of Proof

The point where the three angle bisectors meet is called the incenter of the triangle. This name
might sound strange, but the reason for it will become clearer in the next section.

Definition 67 incenter of a triangle

The incenter of a triangle in Neutral Geometry is defined to be the point where the three
angle bisectors meet. (Such a point is guaranteed to exist by Theorem 92.)

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 8.6 on page 197.

8.5. Theorems About Tangent Lines and Inscribed Circles

Our first theorem about tangent lines drawn to circles has a very short proof. You will be asked
to prove the theorem in an exercise.

Theorem 93 about tangent lines drawn from an exterior point to a circle in Neutral Geometry
⃡
Given: Neutral Geometry, 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟), point 𝐴 in the exterior of the circle, and lines 𝐴𝐵
⃡ tangent to the circle at points 𝐵 and 𝐶.
and 𝐴𝐶
Claim: ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 and ∠𝑃𝐴𝐵 ≅ ∠𝑃𝐴𝐶.

The next theorem proves that if three points lie on a circle, then they do not lie on any other
circle. The proof mainly uses one idea, a theorem from earlier in the chapter. In a homework
exercise, you will be asked to identify that theorem and to make drawings.

Theorem 94 In Neutral Geometry, if three points lie on a circle, then they do not lie on any
other circle.
Chapter 8 Neutral Geometry VI: Circles page 196

Proof
(1) In Neutral Geometry, suppose that three distinct points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 lie on 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟1 ) and on
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑄, 𝑟2 ). (We will show that 𝑃 = 𝑄 and 𝑟1 = 𝑟2.)
Show that 𝑷 lies at the intersection of two lines 𝑳 and 𝑴.
(2) Observe that point 𝑃 is equidistant from point 𝐴 and 𝐵. (Make a drawing.)
(3) Therefore, point 𝑃 lies on the line that is the perpendicular bisector of segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 .
(Which theorem justifies that statement?) Call this line 𝐿. (Make a new drawing.)
(4) Observe that point 𝑃 is equidistant from point 𝐵 and 𝐶. (Make a new drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ .
(5) Therefore, point 𝑃 lies on the line that is the perpendicular bisector of segment 𝐵𝐶
(Which theorem justifies that statement?) Call this line 𝑀. (Make a new drawing.)
(6) So point 𝑃 lies on both lines 𝐿 and 𝑀. (Make a new drawing.)
Show that 𝑸 also lies at the intersection of 𝑳 and 𝑴.
(7) Observe that point 𝑄 is equidistant from point 𝐴 and 𝐵 and that 𝑄 is also equidistant from
point 𝐵 and 𝐶. Therefore, steps identical to steps (2) – (5) would show that point 𝑄 lies
on both lines 𝐿 and 𝑀.
Conclusion
(8) We know that lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are not the same line. (because that would require that points
𝐴 and 𝐶 be the same point) So the lines can only intersect in one point. Therefore, 𝑃
and 𝑄 must be the same point. That is, 𝑃 = 𝑄.
(9) That means that 𝑟2 = 𝑄𝐴 = 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑟1.
(10) Conclude that 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟1 ) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑄, 𝑟2 ) are in fact the same circle.
End of proof

So far, we have studied situations involving one or two tangent lines on a given circle. We now
turn our attention to circles inscribed in polygon. Here, there are many tangent lines on a given
circle.

Definition 68 inscribed circle

An inscribed circle for a polygon is a circle that has the property that each of the sides of the
polygon is tangent to the circle.

For a given polygon, it is not always possible to inscribe a circle in the polygon. But it turns out
that it is always possible to inscribe a circle in a triangle. Here’s the theorem. You will justify it
in the exercises.

Theorem 95 in Neutral Geometry, every triangle has exactly one inscribed circle.
Proof
(1) In Neutral Geometry, suppose that triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given. (Make a drawing.)
Show that an inscribed circle exists.
(2) The three angle bisectors are concurrent at a point 𝑃 that is equidistant from the three
sides of the triangle. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(3) Let 𝐷 be the point on side 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ such that 𝑃𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ , Let 𝐸 be the
̅̅̅̅ is perpendicular to side 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
point on side 𝐵𝐶 such that 𝑃𝐸 is perpendicular to side 𝐵𝐶 , and let 𝐹 be the point on
side ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐴 such that ̅̅̅̅𝑃𝐹 is perpendicular to side ̅̅̅̅𝐶𝐴. (Make a new drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑃𝐸
(4) Then 𝑃𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑃𝐹̅̅̅̅ . (by (2) and (3))
(5) Let 𝑟 = 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝐹.
(6) Observe that all three points 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 lie on 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟). (by (5)) (Make a new drawing.)
 page 197

(7) Note that side 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ is tangent to 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) at 𝐷. (Justify.) Similarly, side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ is tangent
̅̅̅̅
to 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) at 𝐸, and side 𝐶𝐴 is tangent to 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) at 𝐹.
(8) Conclude that 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) is inscribed in Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Show that there cannot be any other inscribed circles.
(9) Suppose that 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑄, 𝑟2 ) is inscribed in Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Make a new drawing.) (We will show
that 𝑄 = 𝑃 and 𝑟2 = 𝑟.) Let 𝐺, 𝐻, 𝐽 be the points where 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑄, 𝑟2 ) intersects sides
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ , ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 , 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐴, respectively.
(10) Radial segments 𝑄𝐺 ̅̅̅̅ , 𝑄𝐻
̅̅̅̅ , 𝑄𝐽
̅̅̅ must be perpendicular to sides 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅, 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ , 𝐶𝐴
̅̅̅̅, respectively.
(Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(11) Conclude that point 𝑄 is equidistant from the three sides of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Make a new
drawing.)
(12) Therefore, point 𝑄 must lie on all three of the angle bisectors of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Justify.)
(13) Conclude that point 𝑄 must be point 𝑃.
(14) Conclude that points 𝐺, 𝐻, 𝐽 must be the same as points 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹, respectively. (Justify.)
(15) Therefore, 𝑟2 = 𝑄𝐺 = 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑟.
(16) We have shown that 𝑄 = 𝑃 and 𝑟2 = 𝑟. In other words, 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑄, 𝑟2 ) is just
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟).
End of Proof

We see that the inscribed circle has its center at the point where the three angle bisectors meet.
This point was given the name incenter back in Definition 67. Now we see why the name
incenter is used: the incenter is the center of the inscribed circle.

In the exercises, you will explore tangent circles. Here is the definition.

Definition 69 tangent circles

Two circles are said to be tangent to each other if they intersect in exactly one point.

The facts that you learn about tangent circles mostly follow from things that we have already
learned about lines tangent to circles. But there is one fact about circles that we have not
discussed and that you will need to use. Here it is:

Theorem 96 In Neutral Geometry, if one circle passes through a point that is in the interior of
another circle and also passes through a point that is in the exterior of the other
circle, then the two circles intersect at exactly two points.

As simple as it sounds, this theorem is difficult to prove. We will accept the theorem without
proof in this book. (Notice that this happened before, with the similar Theorem 83 about a line
passing through a point in the interior of a circle and also passing through a point in the exterior
of the circle.) (In some books, the statement of Theorem 96 is actually an axiom.)

8.6. Exercises for Chapter 8

Exercises for Section 8.1 Theorems about Lines Intersecting Circles (Starts on page 187)

[1] (Advanced) Prove Theorem 77 (In Neutral Geometry, the Number of Possible Intersection
Points for a Line and a Circle is 0, 1, 2.) (found on page 187).
Chapter 8 Neutral Geometry VI: Circles page 198

[2] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 78 (In Neutral Geometry, tangent lines are
perpendicular to the radial segment.) (found on page 188). Make drawings where indicated.

[3] Prove Theorem 79: ((Corollary of Theorem 78) For any line tangent to a circle in Neutral
Geometry, all points on the line except for the point of tangency lie in the circle’s exterior.)
(found on page 189).

[4] (Advanced) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 80 (about points on a Secant line lying
in the interior or exterior in Neutral Geometry) (found on page 189). Make drawings to illustrate
the proof, and fill in the missing steps (16) – (21).

[5] (Advanced) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 82 (In Neutral Geometry, if a line
passes through a point in the interior of a circle, then it also passes through a point in the
exterior.) (found on page 190) Make a drawing to illustrate the proof.

Exercises for Section 8.2 A Digression: Two Theorems About Triangles (Starts on p. 191)

[6] Justify the steps and supply the missing steps in the proof of Theorem 85 (about special rays
in isosceles triangles in Neutral Geometry) (found on page 191). Make a drawing for each step of
the proof.

[7] Prove Theorem 86 (about points equidistant from the endpoints of a line segment in Neutral
Geometry) (found on page 192). Make drawings to illustrate. your proof.

Exercises for Section 8.3 Theorems About Chords (Section starts on page 192)

[8] Make drawings to illustrate the proof of Theorem 87 (In Neutral Geometry, any
perpendicular from the center of a circle to a chord bisects the chord) (found on page 192).

[9] Prove Theorem 88 (In Neutral Geometry, the segment joining the center to the midpoint of a
chord is perpendicular to the chord.) (found on page 192). Make drawings to illustrate your
proof.

[10] Make drawings to illustrate the proof of Theorem 89 ((Corollary of Theorem 86) In Neutral
Geometry, the perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the center of the circle.) (found
on page 192). Find the theorem needed to justify step (5) in the proof.

[11] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 90 (about chords equidistant from the centers of
circles in Neutral Geometry) (found on page 193). Make drawings where illustrated.

Exercises for Section 8.4 A Digression: Two Theorems About Angle Bisectors (p. 193)

[12] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 91 (about points on the bisector of an angle in
Neutral Geometry) (found on page 194). Make drawings to illustrate the two sections of the
proof.
 page 199

[13] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 92 (in Neutral Geometry, the three angle bisectors
of any triangle are concurrent at a point that is equidistant from the three sides of the triangle.)
(found on page 194). Make drawings to illustrate the proof.

Exercises for Section 8.5 Theorems About Tangent Lines and Inscribed Circles (p. 195)

[14] Prove Theorem 93 (about tangent lines drawn from an exterior point to a circle in Neutral
Geometry) (found on page 195). Make drawings to illustrate your proof. Hint: Show first that
Δ𝐴𝑃𝐵 ≅ Δ𝐴𝑃𝐶.

[15] Make drawings to illustrate the proof of Theorem 94 (In Neutral Geometry, if three points
lie on a circle, then they do not lie on any other circle.) (found on page 195). One theorem can be
used to justify statements (3), (5), (9), and (11) in the proof. What is that theorem?

[16] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 95 (in Neutral Geometry,
𝐶
every triangle has exactly one inscribed circle.) (found on page 𝐹 𝐺
196).Make drawings to illustrate the proof.
𝐷 𝐴
[17] Two concentric circles are centered at point 𝐴. Outer circle chords
𝐷𝐸 and ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ 𝐹𝐺 are tangent to the inner circle at points 𝐵 and 𝐶. Prove ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 ≅ 𝐵 𝐸
̅̅̅̅
𝐹𝐺 .

𝐶
[18] Two circles are centered at points 𝐴 and 𝐷. The 𝐸
left circle has radius 𝑟1 = 𝐴𝐵. The right circle has
radius 𝑟2 = 𝐷𝐸. Lines 𝐵𝐸 ⃡ and ⃡𝐶𝐹 are tangent to the 𝐴 𝐷
𝐺
circles at points 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐸, 𝐹, and the lines intersect at 𝐺.
Prove that points 𝐴, 𝐺, 𝐷 are collinear. 𝐹
𝐵

[19] 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟1 ) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐵, 𝑟2 ) are tangent at 𝐶. Center 𝐵 is in the exterior of 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟1 ).

(a) Prove that points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are collinear. Hint: Do an indirect proof,

using the method of contradiction. Assume that 𝐶 is not on ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
Consider triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. It has sides of length 𝐶𝐴 = 𝑟1 and 𝐶𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐶 𝐵
𝑟2 . Show that there exists a point 𝐷 on the other side of line ⃡𝐴𝐵
such that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷. (There will be a few steps involved.)
Show that point 𝐷 lies on both circles. Explain the contradiction.

(b) Prove that the two circles have a common tangent line at point 𝐶.
Chapter 8 Neutral Geometry VI: Circles page 200

[20] 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟1 ) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐵, 𝑟2 ) are tangent at 𝐶. Center 𝐵 is in

the interior of 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟1 ), and radius 𝑟1 > 𝑟2 .
(a) Prove that the two circles have a common tangent line at point 𝐶.
Hint: See the hint for [19](a). It will work here, too. 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
(b) Prove that the two circles have a common tangent line at point 𝐶.

𝐶
[21] 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟1 ) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐵, 𝑟2 ) are tangent at point 𝐸. Lines 𝐹
⃡ , 𝐶𝐸
𝐶𝐷 ⃡ , 𝐶𝐹
⃡ are tangent to the circles at points 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹.
𝐷
Prove that 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐸 = 𝐶𝐹. 𝐴 𝐸 𝐵

.
 page 201

9.Euclidean Geometry I: Triangles

9.1. Introduction
In this section, we add an eleventh axiom to the axiom system for Neutral Geometry. The
resulting longer axiom list is called the Axiom System for Euclidean Geometry.

Definition 70 The Axiom System for Euclidean Geometry

Primitive Objects: point, line
Primitive Relation: the point lies on the line
Axioms of Incidence and Distance
<N1> There exist two distinct points. (at least two)
<N2> For every pair of distinct points, there exists exactly one line that both points
lie on.
<N3> For every line, there exists a point that does not lie on the line. (at least one)
<N4> (The Distance Axiom) There exists a function 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ, called the
Distance Function on the Set of Points.
<N5> (The Ruler Axiom) Every line has a coordinate function.
Axiom of Separation
<N6> (The Plane Separation Axiom) For every line 𝐿, there are two associated sets
called half-planes, denoted 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 , with the following three properties:
(i) The three sets 𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 form a partition of the set of all points.
(ii) Each of the half-planes is convex.
(iii) If point 𝑃 is in 𝐻1 and point 𝑄 is in 𝐻2 , then segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 intersects line 𝐿.
Axioms of Angle measurement
<N7> (Angle Measurement Axiom) There exists a function 𝑚: 𝒜 → (0,180), called
the Angle Measurement Function.
<N8> (Angle Construction Axiom) Let 𝐴𝐵 be a ray on the edge of the half-plane 𝐻.
For every number 𝑟 between 0 and 180, there is exactly one ray 𝐴𝑃 with point
𝑃 in 𝐻 such that 𝑚(∠𝑃𝐴𝐵) = 𝑟.
<N9> (Angle Measure Addition Axiom) If 𝐷 is a point in the interior of ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶, then
𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐴𝐶).
Axiom of Triangle Congruence
<N10> (SAS Axiom) If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of
two triangles, and two sides and the included angle of the first triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of the second triangle, then all the
remaining corresponding parts are congruent as well, so the correspondence is a
congruence and the triangles are congruent.
Euclidean Parallel Axiom
<EPA> (EPA Axiom) For any line 𝐿 and any point 𝑃 not on 𝐿, there is not more than
one line 𝑀 that passes through 𝑃 and is parallel to 𝐿.

We now officially begin our study of Euclidean Geometry. However, it is important to note that
because the ten Neutral Geometry Axioms are included on the list of axioms for Euclidean
Geometry, every theorem of Neutral Geometry will also be a theorem of Euclidean Geometry. In
Chapter 9 Euclidean Geometry I: Triangles page 202

this book that means that the statements of Theorems 1 through Theorem 96 are all true in
Euclidean Geometry.

The wording of the eleventh postulate, the so-called Euclidean Parallel Postulate, is rather
peculiar, and almost sounds like a mistake. But the wording is very carefully chosen to remind us
of the “recurring question” in Geometry, first introduced in Section 2.1.5:

The recurring question in Geometry: For any line 𝐿 and any point 𝑃 not on 𝐿, how many
lines exist that pass through 𝑃 and are parallel to 𝐿?

The Euclidean Parallel Axiom is worded the way it is to make it clear that the axiom does not
guarantee us any lines that pass through 𝑃 and are parallel to 𝐿. All the axiom says is that there
cannot be more than one such line. But remember that in Neutral Geometry, we proved a
theorem (Theorem 76) that says there is at least one such line. That theorem and the new
Euclidean Parallel Axiom together give us a definitive answer to the recurring question in the
case of Euclidean Geometry. Here is the answer, stated as a corollary. You will justify it in a
homework exercise.

Theorem 97 (Corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the answer to the recurring question is exactly
one line.
In Euclidean Geometry, for any line 𝐿 and any point 𝑃 not on 𝐿, there exists exactly one line
𝑀 that passes through 𝑃 and is parallel to 𝐿.
Proof
(1) In Euclidean Geometry, suppose that line 𝐿 and a point 𝑃 not on 𝐿 are given.
(2) There exists at least one line that passes through 𝑃 and is parallel to 𝐿. (Justify.)
(3) There is not more than one line. (Justify.)
(4) Therefore, there is exactly one line.
End of Proof.

There are some other immediate corollaries of the Euclidean Parallel Axiom. Here are two. You
will justify them in homework exercises.

Theorem 98 (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, if a line intersects one of two parallel lines,
then it also intersects the other.
In Euclidean Geometry, if 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel lines, and line 𝑇 intersects 𝑀, then 𝑇 also
intersects 𝐿.
Proof
(1) In Euclidean Geometry, suppose that line 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel lines, and line 𝑇 intersects
𝑀. (Make a drawing.)
(2) Let 𝑃 be the point of intersection of line 𝑇 and 𝑀.
(3) We see that line 𝑀 passes through 𝑃 and is parallel to line 𝐿.
(4) There cannot be a second line that passes through 𝑃 and is parallel to line 𝐿. (Justify.)
(5) Therefore, line 𝑇 cannot be parallel to line 𝐿. That is, line 𝑇 must intersect line 𝐿.
End of Proof.
 page 203

Theorem 99 (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, if two distinct lines are both parallel to a third
line, then the two lines are parallel to each other. That is, if distinct lines 𝑀 and 𝑁
are both parallel to line 𝐿, then 𝑀 and 𝑁 are parallel to each other.
Proof (indirect proof by contradiction)
(1) In Euclidean Geometry, suppose distinct lines 𝑀 and 𝑁 are both parallel to line 𝐿.
(2) Assume that 𝑀 and 𝑁 are not parallel to each other. (Justify.)
(3) Then 𝑀 and 𝑁 intersect at exactly one point. (Justify.) Let 𝑃 be their point of
intersection. (Make a drawing.)
(4) We see that lines 𝑀 and 𝑁 both pass through 𝑃 and are parallel to line 𝐿.
(5) Statement (4) contradicts something. (What does it contradict? There is more than one
possible answer.) So our assumption in step (2) was wrong. lines 𝑀 and 𝑁 must be parallel
to each other.
End of Proof.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 9.8 on page 214.

9.2. Parallel Lines and Alternate Interior Angles in

Euclidean Geometry
Recall that in Section 7.7, we discussed parallel lines in Neutral Geometry. We considered the
situation of two lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇. Theorem 74 stated that in Neutral Geometry,
if a pair of alternate interior angles is congruent, then 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel. The converse of the
statement of that theorem is not a theorem of Neutral Geometry. But it is a theorem of Euclidean
Geometry. Here is the theorem and its proof.

Theorem 100 Converse of the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem for Euclidean Geometry
Given: Euclidean Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇
Claim: If 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel, then a pair of alternate interior angles is congruent.
Proof: (Method: Prove the contrapositive statement: If a pair of alternate interior angles is
not congruent, then 𝑳 and 𝑴 are not parallel.)
(1) In Euclidean Geometry, suppose that lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇 are given. Label
points as in Definition 61. That is, let 𝐵 be the intersection of lines 𝑇 and 𝐿, and let 𝐸 be
the intersection of lines 𝑇 and 𝑀. (By
definition of transversal, 𝐵 and 𝐸 are not the 𝐻 𝑇
same point.) By Theorem 15, there exist 𝑀 𝐷 𝐸 𝐹
points 𝐴 and 𝐶 on line 𝐿 such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶, points 𝐷 and 𝐹 on line 𝑀 such that 𝐷 ∗ 𝐿
𝐺
𝐸 ∗ 𝐹, and points 𝐺 and 𝐻 on line 𝑇 such
that 𝐺 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 and 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐻. Without loss
of generality, we may assume that points 𝐷
and 𝐹 are labeled such that it is point 𝐷 that is on the same side of line 𝑇 as point 𝐴. (See
the figure at right above.) And suppose that a pair of alternate interior angles is not
congruent. In particular, assume that ∠𝐹𝐸𝐵 ≇ ∠𝐴𝐵𝐸.
Define a new line for which alternate interior angles are congruent.
(2) Transversal 𝑇 creates two half-planes. Let 𝐻𝐹 be the half-plane containing 𝐹.
Chapter 9 Euclidean Geometry I: Triangles page 204

(3) By the Congruent Angle Construction Theorem (Theorem 48), we know that there is
exactly one ray 𝐸𝐽 with point 𝐽 in 𝐻𝐹 such that ∠𝐽𝐸𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐴𝐵𝐸.
⃡ and transversal 𝑇. Observe that because of the way that line
(4) Consider line 𝐿 and line 𝐸𝐽
⃡ , was defined, this collection of lines has congruent alternate interior angles.
𝐸𝐽
⃡ is parallel to line 𝐿. (by Theorem 74, the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem)
(5) So line 𝐸𝐽
⃡ passes through point 𝐸. That is, both line 𝑀 and line 𝐸𝐽
(6) Observe that line 𝐸𝐽 ⃡ pass through
point 𝐸.
Conclude
(7) By <EPA>, the Euclidean Parallel Axiom, there can be at most one line that passes
through point 𝐸 and is parallel to line 𝐿. Therefore, line 𝑀 cannot be parallel to 𝐿.
End of Proof

Here are two immediate corollaries. You will prove the second one in a homework exercise.

Theorem 101 (corollary) Converse of Theorem 75.

Given: Euclidean Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇
Claim: If 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel, then all of the statements of Theorem 73 are true (that is,
lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 have the special angle property).

Theorem 102 (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, if a line is perpendicular to one of two parallel
lines, then it is also perpendicular to the other. That is, if lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are
parallel, and line 𝑇 is perpendicular to 𝑀, then 𝑇 is also perpendicular to 𝐿.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 9.8 on page 214.

9.3. Angles of Triangles in Euclidean Geometry

You probably came into this course with rusty geometry skills. But one of the things that you
probably did remember was that the angle sum for any triangle is 180. So it may have been
puzzling for you that we never got to use that fact in the first eight chapters of this book. The
reason that you never got to use the fact is that in Neutral Geometry, it is simply not true that the
angle sum for any triangle is 180. Now that we are at last studying Euclidean Geometry, we can
finally prove the fact about angle sums and start using it. Here is a proof. You will justify it in a
class drill.

Theorem 103 In Euclidean Geometry, the angle sum for any triangle is 180.
Proof:
(1) In Euclidean Geometry, suppose that triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given.
(2) Let 𝐿 be line ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
(3) There exists a line 𝑀 that passes through 𝐶 and is parallel to 𝐿. (Justify.) (make a
drawing)
(4) There exist points 𝐷, 𝐸 on line 𝑀 such that 𝐷 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐸. Points 𝐷 and 𝐸 can be labeled so
⃡ as point 𝐴.
that it is point 𝐷 that is on the same side of line 𝐵𝐶
(5) 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐶𝐴) + 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) = 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐶𝐵). (Justify.)
(6) 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐶𝐵) + 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐸) = 180. (Justify.)
(7) 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐶𝐴) + 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) + 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐸) = 180. (Justify.)
 page 205

(8) 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐶𝐴) = 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐴𝐵). (Justify.)

(9) 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐸) = 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐴). (Justify.)
(10) 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐴𝐵) + 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐵) + 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐴) = 180. (Justify.)
End of Proof

There are two straightforward corollaries of Theorem 103. The first has to do with exterior
angles. Recall the statement of the Neutral Exterior Angle Theorem, presented in Section 7.3:

Theorem 59: Neutral Exterior Angle Theorem

In Neutral Geometry, the measure of any exterior angle is greater than the measure of either
of its remote interior angles.

You may have a vague memory of something called the Exterior Angle Theorem from your high
school geometry class, and you might remember that its statement did not resememble the
statement above. The reason is that in high school, you learned a statement about exterior angles
that is true in Euclidean Geometry, but that is not true in Neutral Geometry. here is the statement,
presented as a theorem of Euclidean Geometry:

Theorem 104 (corollary) Euclidean Exterior Angle Theorem.

In Euclidean Geometry, the measure of any exterior angle is equal to the sum of the measure
of its remote interior angles
Proof:
(1) In Euclidean Geometry, suppose that a triangle and an exterior angle for it are given.
(2) Label the vertices of the triangle 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 such that the given exterior angle is ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷, with
𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷.
is given. (make a drawing)
(3) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) + 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐷) = 180. (Justify.)
(4) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) + 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐴) + 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐴𝐵) = 180. (Justify.)
(5) 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐷) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐴) + 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐴𝐵). (Justify.)
End of Proof

You will justify the above proof in a homework exercise.

It is important to keep in mind that we now have two theorems about Exterior Angles.
 Theorem 59 is called the Neutral Exterior Angle Theorem; it is a valid theorem in
Neutral Geometry and also in Euclidean Geometry.
 Theorem 104 is called the Euclidean Exterior Angle Theorem; it is a valid theorem in
Euclidean Geometry but not in Neutral Geometry.
Because there are two theorems about Exterior Angles, it is imperative that you use the full name
of the theorems when referring to them. In particular, it is not acceptable to justify a step in a
proof by citing “the Exterior Angle Theorem”. You must indicate which one.

The second corollary of Theorem 103 that we will study deals with angle sum of convex
quadrilaterals. You will prove it in a homework exercise.

Theorem 105 (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the angle sum of any convex quadrilateral is
360.
Chapter 9 Euclidean Geometry I: Triangles page 206

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 9.8 on page 214.

9.4. In Euclidean Geometry, every triangle can be

circumscribed
In Section 8.4 we proved Theorem 92 (in Neutral Geometry, the three angle bisectors of any
triangle are concurrent at a point that is equidistant from the three sides of the triangle.) (found
on page 194). The point of concurrence is called the incenter of the triangle. Using that
concurrence theorem, we were able in Section 8.5 to prove Theorem 95 (in Neutral Geometry,
every triangle has exactly one inscribed circle.) (found on page 196). We saw that the inscribed
circle has its center at the incenter of the triangle. That’s why the name incenter is used for that
point. All that stuff remains valid in Euclidean Geometry, of course.

Now we will study a different concurrence statement, this one about the perpendicular bisectors
of the sides of a triangle. We will prove that in Euclidean Geometry, the three perpendicular
bisectors are concurrent. And we will be able to use that concurrence theorem to help us prove
the existence of another special circle related to the triangle. But the things that we prove here
are only valid in Euclidean Geometry. They are not valid statements in Neutral Geometry.

Here is the concurrence theorem. You will justify it in a class drill.

Theorem 106 In Euclidean Geometry, the perpendicular bisectors of the three sides of any
triangle are concurrent at a point that is equidistant from the vertices of the
triangle. (This point will be called the circumcenter.)
Proof
(1) Suppose that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given in Euclidean Geometry.
̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.) Let 𝐷 be the
(2) There exists a line 𝐿 that is the perpendicular bisector of side 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅
point of intersection of line 𝐿 and side 𝐴𝐵 .
(3) There exists a line 𝑀 that is the perpendicular bisector of side 𝐵𝐶̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.) Let 𝐸 be the
̅̅̅̅ .
point of intersection of line 𝑀 and side 𝐵𝐶
(4) There exists a line 𝑁 that is the perpendicular bisector of side ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐴. (Justify.) Let 𝐹 be the
̅̅̅̅.
point of intersection of line 𝑁 and side 𝐶𝐴
(5) We must show that there exists a point that all three lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑁 pass through.)
Show that lines 𝑳 and 𝑴 intersect. (indirect proof)
(6) Assume that lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 do not intersect. (Justify.) Then lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel.
⃡ is perpendicular to line 𝑀.
(7) Observe that line 𝐵𝐶
⃡ is also perpendicular to line 𝐿. (Justify.)
(8) Therefore, line 𝐵𝐶
⃡ is perpendicular to line 𝐿.
(9) Observe that line 𝐴𝐵
⃡ is not the same line as line 𝐵𝐶
(10) Line 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ . (Justify.)
⃡ and 𝐵𝐶
(11) So there are two lines, 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ , that pass through point 𝐵 and are perpendicular to
line 𝐿.
(12) Statement (11) contradicts something. (What does it contradict?) Therefore, our
assumption in step (6) was wrong. Lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 must intersect. Let 𝐺 be their point of
intersection.
 page 207

Prove that point 𝑮 is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle and is on all three
perpendicular bisectors.
(13) Observe that 𝐺 is on line 𝐿, which is the perpendicular bisector of side 𝐴𝐵̅̅̅̅.
(14) 𝐺𝐴 = 𝐺𝐵. (Justify.)
(15) Observe that 𝐺 is on line 𝑀, which is the perpendicular bisector of side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ .
(16) 𝐺𝐵 = 𝐺𝐶. (Justify.)
(17) 𝐺𝐴 = 𝐺𝐶. (Justify.)
̅̅̅̅. (Justify.)
(18) 𝐺 is on line 𝑁, which is the perpendicular bisector of side 𝐶𝐴
End of proof

The point where the perpendicular bisectors of the three sides intersect is called the circumcenter
of the triangle.

Definition 71 circumcenter of a triangle

The circumcenter of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry is defined to be the point where the
perpendicular bisectors of the three sides intersect. (Such a point is guaranteed to exist by
Theorem 106)

The name circumcenter might sound strange, but the reason for the terminology will become
clearer after we present the following definition and theorem.

Definition 72 a circle circumscribes a triangle

We say that a circle circumscribes a triangle if the circle passes through all three vertices of
the triangle.

Theorem 107 (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, every triangle can be circumscribed.

Proof
(1) Suppose that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given in Euclidean Geometry.
(2) There exists a point 𝐺 such that 𝐺𝐴 = 𝐺𝐵 = 𝐺𝐶. (by Theorem 106)
(3) Define the real number 𝑟 = 𝐺𝐴 = 𝐺𝐵 = 𝐺𝐶. Observe that 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐺, 𝑟) passes through
all three vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶.
End of proof

We see that the circle that circumscribes a triangle has its center at the point where the
perpendicular bisectors meet. This point was given the name circumcenter in Definition 71. Now
we see why the name circumcenter is used: the circumcenter is the center of the circle that
circumscribes the circle.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 9.8 on page 214.

9.5. Parallelograms in Euclidean Geometry

In this section, we turn our attention to parallelograms. Here is the definition.

Definition 73 parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with the property that both pairs of opposite sides are
parallel.
Chapter 9 Euclidean Geometry I: Triangles page 208

Notice that there is nothing in the definition of parallelogram that assumes Euclidean Geometry.
Indeed, parallelograms do exist in Neutral Geometry. But there are not general properties that are
true for all parallelograms in Neutral Geometry. However, because of the additional restrictions
placed on parallel lines in Euclidean Geometry, it turns out that that there are general properties
that can be identified for parallelograms in Neutral Geometry. The following theorem tells us
that there are a bunch of statements about convex quadrilaterals in Euclidean geometry that all
turn out to be equivalent to saying that the convex quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

Theorem 108 equivalent statements about convex quadrilaterals in Euclidean Geometry

In Euclidean Geometry, given any convex quadrilateral, the following statements are
equivalent (TFAE)
(i) Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel. That is, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
(ii) Both pairs of opposite sides are congruent.
(iii) One pair of opposite sides is both congruent and parallel.
(iv) Each pair of opposite angles is congruent.
(v) Either diagonal creates two congruent triangles.
(vi) The diagonals bisect each other.

The proof is left as an exercise

The theorem just presented is an equivalence theorem. The last time we encountered an
equivalence theorem with so many statements was back in Section 7.7, when we studied
Theorem 73 (Equivalent statements about angles formed by two lines and a transversal in
Neutral Geometry) (found on page 178). Following that theorem were two remarks:

 A Remark about Proving an Equivalence Theorem

 A Remark about “Using” an Equivalence Theorem

It would be useful for the reader to take a moment to review those remarks.

There is an immediate corollary that you will be asked to prove in a homework exercise. Note
that the theorem statement does not mention parallelograms. But you should use them in your
proof.

Theorem 109 (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, parallel lines are everywhere equidistant.
In Euclidean Geometry, if lines 𝐾 and 𝐿 are parallel, and line 𝑀 is a transversal that is
perpendicular to lines 𝐾 and 𝐿 at points 𝐴 and 𝐵, and line 𝑁 is a transversal that is
perpendicular to lines 𝐾 and 𝐿 at points 𝐶 and 𝐷, then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷.

Parallel lines can be used in the proof of the concurrence of special lines associated to triangles.
In the next section, we will prove that for any triangle in Euclidean Geometry, the three altitude
lines are concurrent. In the final section of the chapter, we will prove that for any triangle in
Euclidean Geometry, the three medians are concurrent.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 9.8 on page 214.
 page 209

9.6. The triangle midsegment theorem and altitude

concurrence
In this section, we will prove that for any triangle in Euclidean Geometry, the three altitude lines
are concurrent. The theorem can be proven directly, with a rather hard proof. But I find it more
interesting to first introduce midsegments and medial triangles and prove some properties of
those. Then, the proof of altitude concurrence will turn out to be an easy corollary. Here is the
definition of midsegment.

Definition 74 midsegment of a triangle

A midsegment of a triangle is a line segment that has endpoints at the midpoints of two of the
sides of the triangle.

As far as I can remember, triangle midsegments only appear in the statement of one theorem, and
it is a very simple-sounding theorem. But it turns out to be a very useful theorem. Here it is:

Theorem 110 The Euclidean Geometry Triangle Midsegment Theorem

In Euclidean Geometry, if the endpoints of a line segment are the midpoints of two sides of a
triangle, then the line segment is parallel to the third side and is half as long as the third side.
That is, a midsegment of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half as long.
Proof
(1) In Euclidean Geometry, suppose that the endpoints of a line segment are the midpoints of
two sides of a triangle. Label the triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 so that the line segment is ̅̅̅̅ 𝐷𝐸 , with
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
endpoints 𝐷 and 𝐸 being the midpoints of sides 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 . (Make a drawing.)
(2) There exists a point 𝐹 such that 𝐷 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐹 and 𝐸𝐹 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new
drawing.)
(3) Δ𝐶𝐸𝐹 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐸𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(4) ∠𝐹𝐶𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐴𝐸 and ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐹 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵𝐷
(5) 𝐶𝐹 ̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
⃡ is parallel to line 𝐴𝐷
(6) Line 𝐶𝐹 ⃡ . (Make a new drawing.)
(7) Quadrilateral □𝐵𝐶𝐹𝐷 is a parallelogram. (Justify.)
(8) Segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹 ≅ 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ and line ⃡𝐷𝐹 is parallel to line 𝐵𝐶
⃡ . (Make a new drawing.)
(9) Midsegment ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ . (Make a new drawing.)
𝐷𝐸 is parallel to side 𝐵𝐶
1
(10) 𝐷𝐸 = 2 𝐷𝐹. (Justify.)
1
(11) 𝐷𝐸 = 2 𝐵𝐶. (Justify.)
End of proof

Now for the definition of medial triangles.

Definition 75 medial triangle

Words: Triangle #1 is the medial triangle of triangle #2.
Meaning: The vertices of triangle #1 are the midpoints of the sides of triangle #2.
Additional Terminology: We will refer to triangle #2 as the outer triangle.
Chapter 9 Euclidean Geometry I: Triangles page 210

The Euclidean GeometryTriangle Midsegment Theorem that we just proved will enable us to
easily prove some properties of Medial Triangles in Euclidean Geometry. Here is a theorem
stating the properties.

Theorem 111 Properties of Medial Triangles in Euclidean Geometry

(1) The sides of the medial triangle are parallel to sides of outer triangle and are half as long.
(2) The altitude lines of the medial triangle are the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the
outer triangle.
(3) The altitude lines of the medial triangle are concurrent.

𝐿 𝐶
Proof
Let triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 be the medial triangle of outer triangle
Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, labeled so that vertices 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 are the midpoints of 𝐸 𝐷
the sides opposite vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶.

𝐴 𝐹 𝐵
Proof of (1)
Observe that each side of medial triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 is a midsegment of outer triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Therefore, the sides of triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 will be parallel to the sides of outer triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and
half as long. (Justify.)
Proof of (2)
Consider the altitude line 𝐿 that passes through vertex 𝐹 of medial triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. This line
is perpendicular to line ⃡𝐷𝐸 . But line ⃡𝐷𝐸 is parallel to line ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
Therefore, line 𝐿 is also perpendicular to line ⃡𝐴𝐵 . (Justify.) Since line 𝐿 passes through point
𝐹 that is the midpoint of segment 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ , we see that line 𝐿 is the perpendicular bisector of side
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 . Similar reasoning applies to the other two altitudes of medial triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
Proof of (3)
The perpendicular bisectors of the three sides of outer triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 are concurrent.(Justify)
But those three perpendicular bisectors are the altitude lines of medial triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
Therefore, the altitude lines of medial triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 are concurrent.
End of proof

Remember that our goal for this section was to prove that for any given triangle, the three
altitude lines are concurrent. So far, we have only proved that the three altitude lines of a medial
triangle are concurrent. This next theorem is the final piece that we need to complete the puzzle.

Theorem 112 In Euclidean Geometry any given triangle is a medial triangle for some other.
Proof
(1) Suppose that triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 is given in Neutral Geometry.
Introduce lines 𝑳, 𝑴, 𝑵.
(2) Let line 𝐿 be the unique line that passes through vertex 𝐷 and is parallel to line ⃡𝐸𝐹 .
(3) Let line 𝑀 be the unique line that passes through vertex 𝐸 and is parallel to line ⃡𝐹𝐷.
(4) Let line 𝑁 be the unique line that passes through vertex 𝐹 and is parallel to line ⃡𝐷𝐸 .
 page 211

Introduce triangle 𝚫𝑨𝑩𝑪. 𝐿

(5) Lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 intersect at a point that we
can call 𝐶. (If lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 did not 𝐶
intersect, then they would be parallel, and
Theorem 99 tell that that lines ⃡𝐸𝐹 and ⃡𝐹𝐷 𝐸 𝐷
would be parallel as well. But we know
that lines ⃡𝐸𝐹 and 𝐹𝐷⃡ are not parallel
𝐴 𝐵 𝑁
because they intersect at point 𝐹.) 𝐹
(6) Similarly, lines 𝑀 and 𝑁 intersect at a point
that we can call 𝐴, and lines 𝑁 and 𝐿 𝑀
intersect at a point that we can call 𝐵.
(7) Clearly, points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear. (If they were collinear, then all three lines
𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑁 would be the same line. That would mean that the three lines ⃡𝐷𝐸 , ⃡𝐸𝐹 , ⃡𝐹𝐷 are
parallel. But they are not.) So there is a triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Use parallelograms to prove that points 𝑫, 𝑬, 𝑭 are midpoints.
(8) Observe that Quadrilateral □𝐸𝐹𝐷𝐶 is a parallogram.
(9) Therefore, 𝐸𝐹̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐶 . (by Theorem 108)
(10) And observe that Quadrilateral □𝐸𝐹𝐵𝐷 is a parallogram.
(11) Therefore, 𝐸𝐹 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵𝐷
̅̅̅̅. (by Theorem 108)
(12) Therefore, point 𝐷 is the midpoint of side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ .
(13) Similarly, point 𝐸 is the midpoint of side 𝐶𝐴 ̅̅̅̅ and point 𝐹 is the midpoint of side 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ .
Conclusion
(14) Triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 is the medial triangle for triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.
End of Proof

We are now able to easily prove that the altitude lines of any triangle in Euclidean Geometry are
concurrent. We will call the point of concurrence the orthocenter.

Theorem 113 (Corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the altitude lines of any triangle are
concurrent.
Proof
(1) Suppose that a triangle is given in Euclidean Geometry.
(2) That triangle is a medial triangle. (Justify.)
(3) Therefore the three altitude lines are concurrent. (Justify.)
End of proof

Definition 76 Orthocenter of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry

The orthocenter of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry is a point where the three altitude lines
intersect. (The existence of such a point is guaranteed by Theorem 113.)

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 9.8 on page 214.
Chapter 9 Euclidean Geometry I: Triangles page 212

9.7. Advanced Topic: Equally-spaced parallel lines and

median concurrence
Recall that the median of a triangle was introduced in Definition 66. Our goal is a theorem
stating that in Euclidean Geometry, the three medians of any triangle are concurrent. Our proof
will involve equally-spaced lines. Recall that Theorem 109 tells us that in Euclidean Geometry,
parallel lines are everywhere equidistant. That theorem is referring to a single pair of parallel
lines. The term equally-spaced lines refers to a collection of lines.

Definition 77 Equally-Spaced Parallel Lines in Euclidean Geometry

Words: lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , ⋯ , 𝐿𝑛 are equally-spaced parallel lines.
Meaning: The lines are parallel and 𝐿1 𝐿2 = 𝐿2 𝐿3 = ⋯ = 𝐿𝑛−1 𝐿𝑛 .

Equally-spaced lines will be important to us because they cut congruent segments in transversals.
The following theorem makes this precise.

Theorem 114 about 𝑛 distinct parallel lines intersecting a transversal in Euclidean Geometry
Given: in Euclidean Geometry, parallel lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , ⋯ , 𝐿𝑛 intersecting a transversal 𝑇 at
points 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , ⋯ , 𝑃𝑛 such that 𝑃1 ∗ 𝑃2 ∗ ⋯ ∗ 𝑃𝑛 .
Claim: The following are equivalent
(i) Lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , ⋯ , 𝐿𝑛 are equally spaced parallel lines.
(ii) The lines cut congruent segments in transversal 𝑇. That is, ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃2 𝑃3 ≅ ⋯ ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 .
𝑃5 𝑇
A picture is shown at right. In a homework 𝐿5
exercise, you will use this picture as an
illustration for a proof of Theorem 114 in 𝑃4 𝑄4
the case of five lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 , 𝐿4 , 𝐿5 . The 𝐿4
general statement involving 𝑛 lines
𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , ⋯ , 𝐿𝑛 is proven using induction. We 𝑃3 𝑄3
𝐿3
won’t do that more general proof in this
course.
𝑃2
𝐿2
𝑄2
The following easy corollary requires no
proof. 𝑃1
𝐿1
𝑄1
Theorem 115 (Corollary) about 𝑛 distinct parallel lines cutting congruent segments in
transversals in Euclidean Geometry
If a collection of 𝑛 parallel lines cuts congruent segments in one transversal, then the n
parallel lines must be equally spaced and so they will also cut congruent segments in any
transversal.

We are now ready to prove the concurrence of medians of triangles in Euclidean Geometry.

Theorem 116 about concurrence of medians of triangles in Euclidean Geometry

In Euclidean Geometry, the medians of any triangle are concurrent at a point that can be
called the centroid. Furthermore, the distance from the centroid to any vertex is 2/3 the
length of the median drawn from that vertex.
 page 213

𝐿5
𝐶 = 𝐸5
𝐿4
𝐸4
𝐿 = 𝐿3

𝐸 = 𝐸3 𝐷 = 𝐷4
𝐿2
𝐸2 𝑃 = 𝐷3
𝐿1
𝐷2
𝐴 = 𝐸1 = 𝐷1 𝐵

Proof
 Let 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 be the midpoints of side 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ , ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐴, ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 .

̅̅̅̅ and 𝑩𝑬
Part 1: Prove that medians 𝑨𝑫 ̅̅̅̅ intersect at a point 𝑷 in the interior of 𝚫𝑨𝑩𝑪.
 You do this.

𝟐
Part 2: Prove that 𝑨𝑷 = 𝟑 𝑨𝑫.
 Let 𝐸2 be the midpoint of ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐸 , and let 𝐸4 be the midpoint of ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐸 .
 It is convenient to use the alternate names 𝐴 = 𝐸1 and 𝐶 = 𝐸5 so that we can observe that
the five points 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , 𝐸4 , 𝐸5 are equally spaced on line ⃡𝐴𝐶 .
 Let 𝐿 be median line ⃡𝐵𝐸 .
 Let 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿4 , 𝐿5 be the unique lines that pass through points 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸4 , 𝐸5 and are
parallel to 𝐿. (justify)
 It is convenient to use the alternate name 𝐿 = 𝐿3 so that we can observe that the five lines
𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 , 𝐿4 , 𝐿5 cut congruent segments in line ⃡𝐴𝐶 .
 Therefore, the five lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 , 𝐿4 , 𝐿5 also cut congruent segments in line ⃡𝐴𝐷.
(justify)
 That is, if 𝐷1 , 𝐷2 , 𝐷3 , 𝐷4 are the points of intersection of lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 , 𝐿4 and line 𝐴𝐷
⃡ ,
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
then 𝐷1 𝐷2 ≅ 𝐷2 𝐷3 ≅ 𝐷3 𝐷4 . ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
2
 Conclude that 𝐴𝑃 = 3 𝐴𝐷.

𝟐
Part 3: Prove that 𝑩𝑷 = 𝟑 𝑩𝑬.
 Repeat the process of Part 2, but this time use five points 𝐷1 = 𝐵, 𝐷2 , 𝐷3 = 𝐷, 𝐷4 , 𝐷5 = 𝐶
that are equally spaced on line 𝐵𝐶⃡ .
 Let 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿4 , 𝐿5 be the unique lines that pass through points 𝐷1 , 𝐷2 , 𝐷4 , 𝐷5 and are
parallel to median line ⃡𝐴𝐷 = 𝐿 = 𝐿3 .
 Let 𝐸1 = 𝐵, 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , 𝐸4 = 𝐸 are the points of intersection of lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 , 𝐿4 and line
⃡𝐵𝐸 .
Chapter 9 Euclidean Geometry I: Triangles page 214

 Show that ̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝐸1 𝐸2 ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐸2 𝐸3 ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐸3 𝐸4 .
2
 Conclude that 𝐵𝑃 = 3 𝐵𝐸.

𝑩𝑬 and ̅̅̅̅
Part 4: Prove that medians ̅̅̅̅ 𝑪𝑭 intersect at a point 𝑸 in the interior of 𝚫𝑨𝑩𝑪.
 You do this.

𝟐
Part 5: Prove that 𝑪𝑸 = 𝟑 𝑪𝑭.
 You do this.

𝟐
Part 6: Prove that 𝑩𝑸 = 𝟑 𝑩𝑬.
 You do this.

Conclusion
 Conclude that points 𝑃 and 𝑄 must be the same point.

End of proof

The term centroid was introduced in the above theorem. Here is the official defintion.

Definition 78 Centroid of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry

The centroid of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry is the point where the three medians
intersect. (Such a point is guaranteed to exist by Theorem 116.)

It turns out that also in Neutral Geometry, not just in Euclidean Geometry, the three medians of
any triangle are concurrent. So any triangle in Neutral Geometry has a centroid. You might
wonder why we did not prove that more general fact back when we were studying Neutral
Geometry. The proof that we just did is a Euclidean proof: it uses concepts of equally-spaced
lines and unique parallels, things that only happen in Euclidean Geometry. There is another proof
that works only in Hyperbolic geometry.. So taken together, those constitute a proof of median
concurrence in Neutral Geometry. I know of no proof of median concurrence in Neutral
Geometry that does not use two cases, one for the Euclidean case and one for the Hyperbolic
case. So I know of no proof that would have been appropriate for our earlier chapters on Neutral
Geometry.

9.8. Exercises for Chapter 9

Exercises for Section 9.1 Introduction (Section starts on page 201)

[1] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 97 ((Corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the answer
to the recurring question is exactly one line.) (found on page 202).

[2] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 98 ((corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, if a line
intersects one of two parallel lines, then it also intersects the other.) (found on page 202).
 page 215

[3] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 99 ((corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, if two
distinct lines are both parallel to a third line, then the two lines are parallel to each other.) (found
on page 203).

Exercises for Section 9.2 Parallel Lines and Alternate Interior Angles in Euclidean
Geometry (Section starts on page 203)

[4] Prove Theorem 102 ((corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, if a line is perpendicular to one of
two parallel lines, then it is also perpendicular to the other. That is, if lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel,
and line 𝑇 is perpendicular to 𝑀, then 𝑇 is also perpendicular to 𝐿.) (found on page 204). (Hint:
Remember the proof structure: The given information goes in step (1). Then show that 𝑇
intersects 𝐿. Then show that 𝑇 is perpendicular to 𝐿. Justify all steps.

Exercises for Section 9.3 Angles of Triangles in Euclidean Geometry (Starts on page 204)

[5] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 103 (In Euclidean Geometry, the angle sum for any
triangle is 180.) (found on page 204).

[6] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 104 ((corollary) Euclidean Exterior Angle
Theorem.) (found on page 205).

[7] Prove Theorem 105 ((corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the angle sum of any convex
quadrilateral is 360.) (found on page 205). Hint: The convex quadrilateral has four angles. Draw
a diagonal to create two triangles, thus six angles. Use what you know about triangle angle sums
to determine the sum of the measures of the six angles. You would like to be able to say that that
sum will be the same as the sum of the four angles of the quadrilateral, but that will require angle
addition. Before using angle addition, you will have to show that certain requirements are met.

Exercises for Section 9.4 In Euclidean Geometry, every triangle can be circumscribed
(Section starts on page 206)

[8] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 106 (In Euclidean Geometry, the perpendicular
bisectors of the three sides of any triangle are concurrent at a point that is equidistant from the
vertices of the triangle. (This point will be called the circumcenter.)) (found on page 206).

Exercises for Section 9.5 Parallelograms in Euclidean Geometry (Starts on page 207)

[9] Prove Theorem 108 (equivalent statements about convex quadrilaterals in Euclidean
Geometry) (found on page 208).
Hint: Be sure to re-read the “Remark about Proving an Equivalence Theorem” that followed the
presentation of Theorem 73 (Equivalent statements about angles formed by two lines and a
transversal in Neutral Geometry) on page 178 of Section 7.7.

[10] Prove Theorem 109 ((corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, parallel lines are everywhere
equidistant.) (found on page 208).

Exercises for Section 9.6 The triangle midsegment theorem and altitude concurrence
(Section starts on page 209)
Chapter 9 Euclidean Geometry I: Triangles page 216

[11] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 110 (The Euclidean Geometry Triangle
Midsegment Theorem) (found on page 209).

[12] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 111 (Properties of Medial Triangles in Euclidean
Geometry) (found on page 210).

[13] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 113 ( (Corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the
altitude lines of any triangle are concurrent. ) (found on page 211).

Exercises for Section 9.7 (Advanced Topic: Equally-spaced parallel lines and median
concurrence) (Section starts on page 212)

[14] (Advanced) Prove Theorem 114 (about 𝑛 distinct parallel lines intersecting a transversal in
Euclidean Geometry) (found on page 212).

[15] (Advanced) Justify the steps and supply the missing steps in Theorem 116 (about
concurrence of medians of triangles in Euclidean Geometry) (found on page 212).
 page 217

10. Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity

Triangle Congruence was introduced in Definition 54 of Chapter 7. That definition did not tell us
anything about the behavior of triangle congruence. It was the axiom systems for Neutral
Geometry (Definition 17) and Euclidean Geometry (Definition 70) that gave us information
about how triangle congruence behaved. Those axiom systems included an axiom about triangle
congruence (The Side-Angle-Side Axiom, <N10>). In Chapter 7, we studied theorems that
involved triangle congruence. The theorems in Chapter 7 were theorems of Neutral Geometry.
That means that those theorems are true in both Neutral Geometry and Euclidean Geometry. The
theorems in Chapters 9 were theorems of Euclidean Geometry: their proofs also depended on the
Euclidean Parallel Axiom, <EPA>. Keep in mind that without Axiom <N10>, we would not
know anything about the behavior of triangle congruence and therefore we would not be able to
prove many of the theorems of Chapters 7 through 9.

In this chapter, we will define the concept of similarity in Euclidean Geometry and we will use
that concept to prove some theorems, including the famous Pythagorean Theorem. There are no
axioms that mention similarity. All that we will know about similarity will be a consequence of
the eleven axioms that we already have discussed: Axioms <N1> through <N10> and <EPA>.
Any theorems that we later prove using the concept of similarity would be true statements in
Euclidean Geometry even if we did not introduce the concept of similarity. It is reasonable to
wonder why we bother introducing similarity if it does not make anything true that would not be
true without introducing similarity. The reason is that the concept of similarity allows us to
shorten proofs. That is, it may take 10 or 20 pages of this text to develop the ideas of similarity,
but then the proof of the Pythagorean Theorem is only about 10 lines long. And a bunch of other
theorems are also made short. If we did not develop the ideas of similarity, then the proof of the
Pythagorean Theorem and many other theorems would each need to be 10 or 20 pages long.
Because the concept of similarity can shorten so many proofs, it is worth developing.

Our first theorems about similarity will be proven using properties of parallel lines. In particular,
we will use something called parallel projection. The most basic properties of parallel
projection have simple proofs. So we will start this chapter with a section on parallel projection
and then get to similarity in the section after that.

10.1. Parallel Projections

In most of this book, we have studied the objects of geometry. We have had theorems about
points, lines, angles, triangles, circles, and quadrilaterals. Parallel projection is interesting
because it is easiest to explain parallel projection using drawings of points and lines, and yet it is
useful to define parallel projection using the terminology of functions. Here is the definition.

Definition 79 Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry

Symbol: 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇
Usage: 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 are lines, and 𝑇 intersects both 𝐿 and 𝑀.
Meaning: 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 is a function whose domain is the set of points on line 𝐿 and whose
codomain is the set of points on line 𝑀. In function notation, this would be denoted by
the symbol 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 : 𝐿 → 𝑀. Given an input point 𝑃 on line 𝐿, the output point on line
Chapter 10 Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity page 218

𝑀 is denoted 𝑃′. That is, 𝑃′ = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 (𝑃). The output point 𝑃′ is determined in the
following way:
Case 1: If 𝑃 happens to lie at the intersection of lines 𝐿 and 𝑇, then 𝑃′ is defined to be
the point at the intersection of lines 𝑀 and 𝑇.
Case 2: If 𝑃 lies on 𝐿 but not on 𝑇, then there exists exactly one line 𝑁 that passes
through 𝑃 and is parallel to line 𝑇. (Such a line 𝑁 is guaranteed by Theorem 97).
The output point 𝑃′ is defined to be the point at the intersection of lines 𝑀 and 𝑁.
Drawing:
𝑇 𝐿 𝑇 𝐿
𝑃
𝑃
𝑁
𝑃′
𝑃′
𝑀 𝑀
Case 1: 𝑃 lies on both 𝐿 and 𝑇. Case 2: 𝑃 lies on 𝐿 but not on 𝑇.

Our first three theorems about parallel projection have fairly straightforward proofs. We will
prove all three theorems.

Theorem 117 Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry is one-to-one and onto.

A digression to discuss one-to-one and onto.

Before proving this theorem, it is useful to digress and review what it means to say that a
function is one-to-one and onto, and to discuss strategies for proving that a function has those
properties.

To say that a function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is one-to-one means that different inputs always result in
different outputs. That is, ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ). The contrapositive of
this statement has the same meaning. It says ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 . That
is, if the two outputs are the same, then the two inputs must have been the same.

To say that a function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is onto means that for any chosen element of the codomain, there
exists some element of the domain that can be used as input and will produce the chosen element
of the codomain as output. That is, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

It can be difficult to prove that a function is one-to-one or onto. Remember that if a function
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is one-to-one and onto, then it has an inverse function, denoted 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴. An inverse
function is a function that satisfies both of the following inverse relations:

∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥
∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑦)) = 𝑦
For example, the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 has an inverse function 𝑓 −1 : ℝ → ℝ
1
defined by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 . To verify that this is indeed the inverse function, we have to check to
see if the inverse relations are satisfied.
 page 219

1
𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = ((𝑥)3 )3 = 𝑥
1 3
𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = ((𝑥)3 ) = 𝑥

1
Since both inverse relations are satisfied, we have confirmed that 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 is indeed the
inverse function for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 .

Now also remember that if it is known that a function 𝑓 has an inverse function, then 𝑓 must be
both one-to-one and onto. That is, given some 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, if one can somehow find a function
𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴 that satisfies the two equations

∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥
∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑓(𝑔(𝑦)) = 𝑦

then 𝑔 is the inverse function for 𝑓 and one would automatically know that 𝑓 must be both one-
to-one and onto.

End of the digression

In light of what was discussed in the digression about one-to-one and onto, we see that one
strategy for proving that the projection 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 : 𝐿 → 𝑀 is one-to-one and onto would be to
somehow find a function 𝑔: 𝑀 → 𝐿 that qualifies as an inverse function. That is the strategy that
we will take.

Proof of Theorem 117.

Given the parallel projection 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 : 𝐿 → 𝑀, consider the projection 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑀,𝐿,𝑇 : 𝑀 → 𝐿.
This is a function that takes as input a point on line 𝑀 and produces as output a point on
line 𝐿. For any point 𝑃 on line 𝐿, find the value of 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑀,𝐿,𝑇 (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 (𝑃)).

𝑇 𝐿 𝑇 𝐿
𝑃 𝑃′′

𝑁 𝑁

𝑃′ 𝑃′
𝑀 𝑀

Referring to the sample diagram above, we see that

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑀,𝐿,𝑇 (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 (𝑃)) = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑀,𝐿,𝑇 (𝑃′) = 𝑃′′

But notice that the output point 𝑃′′ is the same as the input point 𝑃. That is,
Chapter 10 Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity page 220

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑀,𝐿,𝑇 (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 (𝑃)) = 𝑃

A similar drawing would show that for any point 𝑄 on line 𝑀,

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑀,𝐿,𝑇 (𝑄)) = 𝑄

Therefore the projection 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑀,𝐿,𝑇 : 𝑀 → 𝐿 is qualified to be called the inverse function

for the projection 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 : 𝐿 → 𝑀. Since the projection 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 : 𝐿 → 𝑀 has an inverse
function, we conclude that it is both one-to-one and onto.
End of proof

Our second basic theorem about parallel projection can be proven using concepts from Chapter
3. Recall that betweenness of points was introduced in Definition 24. The following theorem
articulates what happens when three points with a particular betweenness relationship are used as
input to a Parallel Projection function. The theorem says that the resulting three output points
have the same betweenness relationship.

Theorem 118 Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry preserves betweenness.

If 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 are lines, and 𝑇 intersects both 𝐿 and 𝑀, and 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are points on 𝐿 with 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶,
then 𝐴′ ∗ 𝐵 ′ ∗ 𝐶′.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
The proof is left to an exercise.

Our third basic theorem about parallel projection is proved using facts about parallelograms—
facts that we studied in Section 9.5. In a homework exercise, you will be asked to make a
drawing to illustrate the proof.

Theorem 119 Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry preserves congruence of segments.

̅̅̅̅ ≅
If 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 are lines, and 𝑇 intersects both 𝐿 and 𝑀, and 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are points on 𝐿 with 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷, then 𝐴′𝐵′ ≅ 𝐶′𝐷′.

Proof
(1) Suppose that 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 are lines, and 𝑇 intersects both 𝐿 and 𝑀, and 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are points on
𝐿 with ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷. (Make a drawing.)
Part 1 Introduce lines and points.
(2) Let 𝑁1 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁3 , 𝑁4 be lines that pass through 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 and are parallel to line 𝑇. (One of
these lines could actually be line 𝑇.) (Update your drawing.)
(3) Let 𝐴′ = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 (𝐴), and similarly for 𝐵 ′ , 𝐶 ′ , 𝐷′ . Then the four points 𝐴′ , 𝐵 ′ , 𝐶 ′ , 𝐷′ are
located at the intersections of lines 𝑁1 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁3 , 𝑁4 and line 𝑀. (Update your drawing.)
(4) Let 𝐾1 be the line that passes through point 𝐴 and is parallel to line 𝑀. (Update your
drawing.)
(5) Let 𝐾2 be the line that passes through point 𝐶 and is parallel to line 𝑀. (Update your
drawing.)
(6) Let 𝐸 be the point at the intersection of lines 𝐾1 and 𝑁2 . (Update your drawing.)
(7) Let 𝐹 be the point at the intersection of lines 𝐾2 and 𝑁4 . (Update your drawing.)
 page 221

Part 2: Show that two triangles are congruent.

(8) Observe that ∠𝐴𝐵𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐶𝐷𝐹 (by Theorem 100 applied to parallel lines 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 and
transversal 𝐿).
(9) Observe that ∠𝐵𝐴𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐶𝐹. (Justify.)
(10) Therefore, that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐸 ≅ Δ𝐶𝐷𝐹. (Justify.)
Part 3: Prove that the segments are congruent.
(11) ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ (by statement (10) and the definition of triangle congruence, Definition 54)
𝐴𝐸 ≅ 𝐶𝐹
(12) Observe that 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙(𝐴𝐸𝐵 ′ 𝐴′ ) is a parallelogram.
𝐴𝐸 ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
(13) Therefore, ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴′𝐵′. (Justify.)
(14) Observe that 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙(𝐶𝐹𝐷′𝐶′) is a parallelogram.
̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
(15) Therefore, 𝐶𝐹 𝐶′𝐷′. (Justify.)
(16) Conclude that 𝐴′𝐵′ ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅ 𝐶′𝐷′ (by statements (13), (11), (15), and transitivity).
End of Proof

Our fourth theorem about parallel projection can be proved using concepts that are at the level of
this book, but it would take a day of lecture time and a couple of additional sections of text to
fully present. All that would be okay, but the proof is of a style that would not appear again in
the course. For that reason, the proof is left as an advanced exercise.

Theorem 120 Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry preserves ratios of lengths of segments.
If 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 are lines, and 𝑇 intersects both 𝐿 and 𝑀, and 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are points on 𝐿 with 𝐶 ≠ 𝐷,
𝐴′𝐵′ 𝐴𝐵
then 𝐶′𝐷′ = 𝐶𝐷.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
The proof is left to an exercise.

The following corollary is the key fact about parallel projection that we will use when we study
similarity. In a homework exercise, you will be asked to make a drawing to illustrate the proof.

Theorem 121 (corollary) about lines that are parallel to the base of a triangle in Euclidean
Geometry.
̅̅̅̅ of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and intersects rays
In Euclidean Geometry, if line 𝑇 is parallel to side 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸
𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 at points 𝐷 and 𝐸, respectively, then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 .

Proof
̅̅̅̅ of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and
(1) Suppose that in Euclidean Geometry, line 𝑇 is parallel to side 𝐵𝐶
intersects rays 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 at points 𝐷 and 𝐸. (Make a drawing.)
(2) Let 𝐿 be line ⃡𝐴𝐵 and let 𝑀 be line ⃡𝐴𝐶 . (Update your drawing.)
̅̅̅̅ . (Make a new
(3) Let 𝑁 be the line that passes through point 𝐴 and is parallel to side 𝐵𝐶
drawing.)
(4) Consider the parallel projection 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 from line 𝐿 to line 𝑀 in the direction of line 𝑇.
𝐴′𝐷′ 𝐴𝐷
By Theorem 120, we know that 𝐴′𝐵′ = 𝐴𝐵.
(5) But 𝐴′ = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 (𝐴) = 𝐴 and 𝐵 ′ = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 (𝐵) = 𝐶 and 𝐷′ = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 (𝐷) = 𝐸.
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸
(6) Substituting letters from (5) into the equation from (4), we obtain 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 .
End of Proof
Chapter 10 Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity page 222

Our last theorem of the section does not seem to be about parallel projection or parallel lines at
all. In fact, it is not. But the proof makes a nice use of the corollary just presented, and also
includes some nice review of facts from earlier in the book. You will justify the proof steps in a
homework exercise.

Theorem 122 The Angle Bisector Theorem.

In Euclidean Geometry, the bisector of an angle in a triangle splits the opposite side into two
segments whose lengths have the same ratio as the two other sides. That is, in Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, if 𝐷 is
̅̅̅̅ such that ray 𝐵𝐷 bisects angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, then 𝐷𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴.
the point on side 𝐴𝐶 𝐷𝐶 𝐵𝐶

Proof
(1) Suppose that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given in Euclidean Geometry, and that 𝐷 is the point on side ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐶
such that ray 𝐵𝐷 bisects angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Make a drawing.)
(2) There exists a line 𝐿 that passes through point 𝐶 and is parallel to line ⃡𝐵𝐷. (Justify.)
(Make a new drawing.)
(3) Line ⃡𝐴𝐵 intersects line 𝐵𝐷⃡ , and 𝐵𝐷⃡ is parallel to 𝐿, so therefore line ⃡𝐴𝐵 must also
intersect line 𝐿 at a point that we can call 𝐸. (Justify) (Make a new drawing.)
Identify congruent angles and use them to identify congruent segments
(4) ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≅ ∠𝐵𝐸𝐶. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(5) ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 ≅ ∠𝐵𝐶𝐸. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(6) But ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≅ ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷. (Make a new drawing.)
(7) So, ∠𝐵𝐶𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐵𝐸𝐶. (Make a new drawing.)
(8) Therefore, ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐸 ≅ 𝐵𝐶̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
Use Parallel Projection.
𝐷𝐴 𝐵𝐴
(9) 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐵𝐸 (Justify.)
𝐷𝐴 𝐵𝐴
(10) Therefore, 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶 (by (8) and (9)).
End of proof

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 10.4 on page 231.

10.2. Similarity
We now turn to the main topic for this chapter: similarity. Before proceeding, it would be very
useful for you to read the beginning paragraph of Chapter 7 and then all of Section 7.1.1 and
Section 7.1.2, in which the definition of congruence for triangles is developed. The definition of
similarity for triangles has the same style.

Definition 80 triangle similarity

To say that two triangles are similar means that there exists a correspondence between the
vertices of the two triangles and the correspondence has these two properties:
 Each pair of corresponding angles is congruent.
 The ratios of the lengths of each pair of corresponding sides is the same.
 page 223

If a correspondence between vertices of two triangles has the two properties, then the
correspondence is called a similarity. That is, the expression a similarity refers to a particular
correspondence of vertices that has the two properties.

The following statement has a straightforward proof. You will be asked to supply the proof in a
homework exercise.

Theorem 123 triangle similarity is an equivalence relation

It is important to discuss notation at this point. It is no accident that Definition 80 above does not
include a symbol. There is no commonly-used symbol whose meaning matches the definition of
triangle similarity. This may surprise you, because you have all seen the symbol ~ put between
triangles. But that symbol means something different, and the difference is subtle. Here is the
definition.

Definition 81 symbol for a similarity of two triangles

Symbol: Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶~Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
Meaning: The correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) of vertices is a similarity.

There may be more subtlety in the notation than you realize. It is worthwhile to consider a few
examples. Refer to the drawing below.
𝐹
60
2
𝐶
1
1 60 1
2 90 30 90 30
𝐴 √3 𝐵 𝐷 √3 𝐸
2
Easy examples involving Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is similar to Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹” is true. Proof: Consider the correspondence
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹). Observe that ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷 and ∠𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐸 and ∠𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐹 and
̅̅̅̅ )
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ )
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅)
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐶𝐴 1
̅̅̅̅ )
= ̅̅̅̅ )
= ̅̅̅̅ )
= . Therefore, the correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐷𝐸 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐸𝐹 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐹𝐷 2
(𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) is a similarity. Since there exists a correspondence that is a similarity, we say
that the triangles are similar.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is similar to Δ𝐷𝐹𝐸” is true. Proof: The correspondence
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) is a similarity. This is the same correspondence from the previous
example. Since there exists a correspondence that is a similarity, we say that the triangles
are similar.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶~Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹” is true, because the correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹)
is a similarity.
 The statement “Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶~Δ𝐷𝐹𝐸” is false, because the correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔
(𝐷, 𝐹, 𝐸) is not a similarity. Observe that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 30 while the corresponding angle
has measure 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐹𝐸) = 60.
Chapter 10 Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity page 224

We will study four triangle similarity theorems. Before doing that, it is important to digress and
review the concept of a triangle congruence theorem.

A digression about triangle congruence theorems

In Section 7.1.2, we saw that the definition of triangle congruence (Definition 54) is that each of
the three pairs of corresponding angles is a congruent pair and each of the three pairs of sides is a
congruent pair. If all we knew about triangle congruence was the definition, then we would have
to verify all six congruences in order to be able to say that a given pair of triangles is congruent.
In other words, the concept of triangle congruence would just be a fancy name for the situation
where we know that all six pairs of corresponding parts are congruent pairs. That would not be
terribly useful. But the Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Congruence Axiom <N10> (found in the Axioms
for Neutral Geometry in Definition 17 and in the Axioms for Euclidean Geometry in Definition
70) tells us that a certain combination of three congruences is enough to know that two triangles
are congruent. More specifically, the axiom states that

<N10> (SAS Axiom) If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two
triangles, and two sides and the included angle of the first triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of the second triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are
congruent as well, so the correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

The statement above cannot be proven. It is an axiom, a statement that we assume is true. It
allows us to parlay some known information about two triangles (the fact that two sides and an
included angle of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of the other) into some
other information (the fact that the other three pairs of corresponding parts are congruent pairs,
as well, so that the triangles are congruent). With this axiom, the concept of triangle congruence
becomes useful.

Later in Chapter 7, we proved four triangle congruence theorems:

Theorem 54: the ASA Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry

Theorem 58: the SSS congruence theorem for Neutral Geometry

Theorem 70: the Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry

Theorem 71: the Hypotenuse Leg Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry

Each triangle congruence theorem allows us to parlay some known information about two
triangles (the fact that three parts of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of the
other) into some other information (the fact that the other three pairs of corresponding parts are
congruent pairs, as well, so that the triangles are congruent).

We will find that there is analogous situation with similarity and similarity theorems.

End of digression about triangle congruence theorems

So far, all have seen of triangle similarity is the definition:

 page 225

To say that two triangles are similar means that there exists a correspondence between
the vertices of two triangles and the correspondence has these two properties:
 Each pair of corresponding angles is congruent.
 The ratios of the lengths of each pair of corresponding sides is the same.

If all we knew about triangle similarity was the definition, then we would have to verify all three
angle congruences and check all three ratios of lengths in order to be able to say that a given pair
of triangles is similar. In other words, the concept of triangle similarity would just be a fancy
name for the situation where we know that each pair of corresponding angles is congruent and
the ratios of the lengths of each pair of corresponding sides is the same. That would not be
terribly useful.

But it turns out that four triangle similarity theorems can be proven. Each similarity theorem
allows us to parlay some known information about two triangles (the fact that some angles of one
triangle are congruent to the corresponding angles of the other triangle, or that the ratio of the
lengths of some pair of corresponding sides is equal to the ratio of the lengths of some other pair
of corresponding sides) into some other information (the fact that every pair of corresponding
angles is congruent and the ratios of the lengths of every pair of corresponding sides is the same,
so that the triangles are similar). With these theorems, the concept of triangle similarity becomes
useful.

We will now discuss the four triangle similarity theorems. We start with the Angle-Angle-Angle
Similarity Theorem. In a homework exercise, you will be asked to supply a drawing.

Theorem 124 The Angle-Angle-Angle (AAA) Similarity Theorem for Euclidean Geometry
If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two triangles, and each pair of
corresponding angles is a congruent pair, then the ratios of the lengths of each pair of
corresponding sides is the same, so the correspondence is a similarity and the triangles are
similar.

Proof
(1) Suppose that in Euclidean Geometry, triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 are given and that the
correspondence of vertices (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) has the property that ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷 and
∠𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐸 and ∠𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐹. (Make a drawing.)
Part 1: Build a copy of 𝚫𝑫𝑬𝑭 using vertex 𝑨.
(2) There exists a point 𝐸′ on ray 𝐴𝐵 such that ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐸′ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 and there exists a point 𝐹′ on ray
̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 such that 𝐴𝐹′ ≅ 𝐷𝐹 . (Make a new drawing.)
(3) Δ𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 (by (1), (2), and the SAS Congruence Axiom, <N10>) (We have built a
copy of Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 using vertex 𝐴.)
(4) ∠𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹 (by (3))
(5) ∠𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ ≅ ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 (by (4) and (1))
(6) Line ⃡𝐸′𝐹′ is parallel to line 𝐵𝐶
⃡ (by (5) and Theorem 74)
𝐴𝐸′ 𝐴𝐹′
(7) 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 (by (6) and Theorem 121)
(8) ̅̅̅̅̅ 𝐷𝐸 and ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐸′ ≅ ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐹′ ≅ 𝐷𝐹̅̅̅̅ (by (2))
𝐷𝐸 𝐷𝐹
(9) 𝐴𝐵 = (by (7) and (8))
𝐴𝐶
Chapter 10 Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity page 226

Part 2: Build a copy of 𝚫𝑬𝑭𝑫 using vertex 𝑩.

(10)-(15) Make the following substitutions in statements (2) through (9):
𝐴→𝐵
𝐵→𝐶
𝐶→𝐴
𝐷→𝐸
𝐸→𝐹
𝐹→𝐷
𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝐷
The result will be the following statement (15) 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐴.
Conclusion
𝐷𝐸 𝐸𝐹 𝐹𝐷
(16) By (9), (15), and transitivity, we have 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐶𝐴 . That is, the ratios of the lengths of
each pair of corresponding sides is the same, so the correspondence is a similarity and
the triangles are similar.
End of proof

The following corollary has a very simple proof. You will be asked to supply the proof in the
exercises.

Theorem 125 (Corollary) The Angle-Angle (AA) Similarity Theorem for Euclidean Geometry
If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two triangles, and two pairs
of corresponding angles are congruent pairs, then the third pair of corresponding angles is
also a congruent pair, and the ratios of the lengths of each pair of corresponding sides is the
same, so the correspondence is a similarity and the triangles are similar.

And the corollary has a simple corollary of its own:

Theorem 126 (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the altitude to the hypotenuse of a right
triangle creates two smaller triangles that are each similar to the larger triangle.

You will be asked to supply the proof in the exercises.

Our next theorem, the Side-Side-Side Similarity Theorem, is a bit harder to prove than the
Angle-Angle-Angle Similarity Theorem. But the general approach is still the same in that a
triangle Δ𝐴𝐸′𝐹′ is constructed and then is related to triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. The proof will
use the Angle-Angle Similarity Theorem. In a homework exercise, you will be asked to justify
the steps of the proof.

Theorem 127 The Side-Side-Side (SSS) Similarity Theorem for Euclidean Geometry
If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two triangles, and the ratios
of lengths of all three pairs of corresponding sides is the same, then all three pairs of
corresponding angles are congruent pairs, so the correspondence is a similarity and the
triangles are similar.
Proof
(1) Suppose that in Euclidean Geometry, triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 are given and that the
𝐷𝐸 𝐸𝐹 𝐹𝐷
correspondence of vertices (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) has the property that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐶𝐴.
(Make a drawing.)
 page 227

Part 1: Consider ratios of lengths of sides of 𝚫𝑨𝑩𝑪 and 𝚫𝑫𝑬𝑭.

𝐷𝐸 𝐸𝐹
(2) The first part of the string of equalities says that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶.
𝐷𝐸
(3) Therefore, 𝐸𝐹 = (𝐴𝐵) 𝐵𝐶.
𝐸𝐹 𝐹𝐷
(4) The second part of the string of equalities says that 𝐵𝐶 = .
𝐶𝐴
𝐸𝐹
(5) Therefore, 𝐹𝐷 = (𝐵𝐶) 𝐶𝐴.
Part 2: Build a triangle that is similar to 𝚫𝑨𝑩𝑪.
(6) There exists a point 𝐸′ on ray 𝐴𝐵 such that ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐸′ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
⃡ . (Justify.)
(7) There exists a line 𝐿 that passes through point 𝐸′ and is parallel to line 𝐵𝐶
(Make a new drawing.)
⃡ intersects line 𝐵𝐶
(8) Line 𝐴𝐶 ⃡ , so line 𝐴𝐶
⃡ must also intersect line 𝐿 at a point that we can call
𝐹′. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(9) ∠𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ ≅ ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(10) Δ𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ ~Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
Part 3: Consider ratios of lengths of sides of 𝚫𝑨𝑩𝑪 and 𝚫𝑨′𝑬′𝑭′.
𝐴𝐸′ 𝐸′𝐹′ 𝐹′𝐴
(11) We know that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐶𝐴 . (Justify.)
𝐴𝐸′ 𝐸′𝐹′
(12) The first equality in this string of two equalities says = .
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐸′ 𝐷𝐸
(13) Therefore, 𝐸′𝐹′ = ( 𝐴𝐵 ) 𝐵𝐶 = (𝐴𝐵) 𝐵𝐶. (Cross-multiplied then used statement (6))
(14) Conclude that ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐸′𝐹′ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 (by (3) and (13)).
𝐸′𝐹′ 𝐹′𝐴
(15) The second equality in the string of two equalities in step (11) says = .
𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐴
𝐸′𝐹′ 𝐸𝐹
(16) Therefore, 𝐹′𝐴 = ( ) 𝐶𝐴 = ( ) 𝐶𝐴. (Cross-multiplied then used statement (14))
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐶
(17) Conclude that ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐹′𝐴 ≅ 𝐹𝐷̅̅̅̅ (by (5) and (16)).
Conclusion.
(18) Therefore, Δ𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 (Justify.)
(19) So ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷 and ∠𝐹′𝐸′𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐹𝐸𝐷 (Justify.)
(20) But ∠𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹′ ≅ ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Justify.) So ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹.
(21) Conclude that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶~Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.)
End of proof

Our final similarity theorem is the Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Similarity Theorem. The general
approach of the proof again involves the construction of a triangle Δ𝐴𝐸′𝐹′ and then the
relationship of this triangle to triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. Interestingly, the proof will use the
SAS Congruence Axiom and the AA Similarity Theorem. The justification of the steps in the
proof is left as an advanced exercises.

Theorem 128 The Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Similarity Theorem for Euclidean Geometry
If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two triangles, and the ratios
of lengths of two pairs of corresponding sides is the same and the corresponding included
angles are congruent, then the other two pairs of corresponding angles are also congruent
pairs and the ratios of the lengths of all three pairs of corresponding sides is the same, so the
correspondence is a similarity and the triangles are similar.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
Chapter 10 Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity page 228

(1) Suppose that in Euclidean Geometry, triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 are given and that the
correspondence of vertices (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) has the property that ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷 and
𝐷𝐸 𝐷𝐹
= . (Make a drawing.)
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
Introduce line 𝑳 and point 𝑭′.
(2) There exists a point 𝐸′ on ray 𝐴𝐵 such that ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐸′ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 . (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
⃡ . (Justify.)
(3) There exists a line 𝐿 that passes through point 𝐸′ and is parallel to line 𝐵𝐶
(Make a new drawing.)
(4) Line ⃡𝐴𝐶 intersects line 𝐵𝐶
⃡ , so line ⃡𝐴𝐶 must also intersect line 𝐿 at a point that we can call
𝐹′. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
Use AA Similarity to show that 𝚫𝑨𝑬′ 𝑭′ ~𝚫𝑨𝑩𝑪.
(5) ∠𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ ≅ ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(6) Δ𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ ~Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
Use Parallel Projection and the SAS Congruence Axiom to show that 𝚫𝑨𝑬′ 𝑭′ ≅ 𝚫𝑫𝑬𝑭.
𝐴𝐹′ 𝐴𝐸′
(7) 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 . (Justify.)
𝐴𝐸′⋅𝐴𝐶
(8) 𝐴𝐹′ = . (Justify.)
𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶
(9) 𝐴𝐹′ = (𝐴𝐵) 𝐷𝐸. (Justify.)
𝐴𝐶
(10) But 𝐷𝐹 = (𝐴𝐵) 𝐷𝐸. (Justify.)
̅̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐷𝐹
(11) Therfore, 𝐴𝐹′ ̅̅̅̅ . (Justify.)
′ ′
(12) So Δ𝐴𝐸 𝐹 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.)
Use AA Similarity to show that 𝚫𝑨𝑩𝑪~𝚫𝑫𝑬𝑭.
(13) ∠𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.)
(14) But also ∠𝐴𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ ≅ ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. (Justify.)
(15) Therefore, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.)
(16) So Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶~Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹. (Justify.)
End of Proof

The four so-called similarity theorems that we studied above all have the same sort of statement.
Each has as its hypothesis some known information about two triangles (the fact that some
angles of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding angles of the other triangle, or that the
ratio of the lengths of some pair of corresponding sides is equal to the ratio of the lengths of
some other pair of corresponding sides) and has as its conclusion the statement that the two
triangles are similar.

Our final theorem of the section is about similarity but is of a very different style. The first
theorem shows that in similar triangles, it is not just the pairs of corresponding sides whose ratios
are the same. There are many line segments associated with triangles, and most of these will
have the same ratio behavior as the sides in similar triangles. The following theorem mentions
three kinds of line segments: altitudes, angle bisectors, and medians.

Theorem 129 About the ratios of lengths of certain line segments associated to similar triangles
in Euclidean Geometry.
In Euclidean Geometry, if Δ~Δ′, then
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
= = =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒′ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒′ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟′ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛′
 page 229

You will be asked to supply the proof in a homework exercise.

So far, we have seen a bunch of theorems about similarity, but we have not seen any examples of
the use of similarity. You will work on couple in the exercises. But our most important
application of similarity comes in the coming sections, when we use similarity to prove the
Pythagorean Theorem and also prove a theorem about the product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 in a triangle.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 10.4 on page 231.

10.3. Applications of Similarity

In this section, we will study two very important applications of similarity. Most people
remember both. The first that we will study is The Pythagorean Theorem.

Theorem 130 The Pythagorean Theorem of Euclidean Geometry

In Euclidean Geometry, the sum of the squares of the length of the two sides of any right
triangle equals the square of the length of the hypotenuse. That is, in Euclidean Geometry,
given triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with 𝑎 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑏 = 𝐶𝐴 and 𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵, if angle ∠𝐶 is a right angle, then
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 .
There are hundreds of proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem. The most beautiful proofs make use
of simple pictures involving triangles and squares, and discuss the sums of various areas. But in
this book, we have not yet discussed area. However, we have discussed similarity. Here is a
proof that uses the concept of similarity.

Proof
(1) In Euclidean Geometry, suppose that triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 has a right angle at 𝐶 and that 𝑎 =
𝐵𝐶 and 𝑏 = 𝐶𝐴 and 𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵. (Make a drawing.)
̅̅̅̅
(2) Let 𝐷 be the foot of the altitude drawn from vertex 𝐶. That is, 𝐷 is the point on side 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
such that segment 𝐶𝐷 is perpendicular to side 𝐴𝐵 . Let 𝑥 = 𝐴𝐷 and 𝑦 = 𝐵𝐷. (Make a
new drawing.)
(3) Δ𝐴𝐷𝐶~Δ𝐴𝐶𝐵. (Justify) (Make a new drawing.)
𝑥 𝑏
(4) 𝑏 = 𝑐 . (Justify)
(5) 𝑐𝑥 = 𝑏 2 . (Justify)
(6) Δ𝐵𝐷𝐶~Δ𝐵𝐶𝐴. (Justify) (Make a new drawing.)
𝑦 𝑎
(7) 𝑎 = 𝑐 . (Justify)
(8) 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑎2 . (Justify)
(9) 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦. (Justify)
(10) 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐(𝑥 + 𝑦). (arithmetic)
(11) 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 . (Justify)
End

Recall that statement of the form 𝐼𝑓 𝑃 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑄 is called a conditional statement. The converse
statement is 𝐼𝑓 𝑄 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃. Remember also that the converse statement does not mean the same
thing as the original statement and so in general, the fact that a conditional statement is true does
not mean that its converse is true. For example, the conditional statement 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = −3 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 2 =
Chapter 10 Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity page 230

9 is true, but the converse statement 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 2 = 9 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = −3 is false. But in the case of the
Pythagorean Theorem for Euclidean Geometry, the converse statement is also a theorem. You
will justify the proof steps in a homework exercise.

Theorem 131 The Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem of Euclidean Geometry

In Euclidean Geometry, if the sum of the squares of the length of two sides of a triangle
equals the square of the length of the third side, then the angle opposite the third side is a
right angle. That is, in Euclidean Geometry, given triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with 𝑎 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑏 = 𝐶𝐴
and 𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵, if 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 , then angle ∠𝐶 is a right angle.

Proof
(1) In Euclidean Geometry, suppose that triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given and that 𝑎 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑏 =
𝐶𝐴 and 𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵 and that 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 . (Make a drawing.)
(2) There exist three points 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 such that ∠𝐸𝐹𝐷 is a right angle and such that ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 ≅ 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅. (Justify. If you do this properly, citing axioms and theorems, it will
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐶𝐴
and 𝐹𝐷
take quite a few steps.) (Make a new drawing.)
(3) Observe that 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑎 and 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐴 = 𝑏. Therefore, (𝐷𝐸)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 . (by the
Pythagorean Theorem Theorem 130 applied to triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.)
(4) Thus (𝐷𝐸)2 = 𝑐 2 (by (3), (1), and transitivity), so ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 ≅ 𝐴𝐵̅̅̅̅..
(5) Therefore, Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 ≅ Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 (Justify.)
(6) Therefore, ∠𝐸𝐹𝐷 ≅ ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴. That is, ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴 must be a right angle (by (5) and Definition
54 of triangle congruence).
End

The proof of the Pythagorean Theorem used the AA Similarity Theorem. The second important
application the AA Similarity theorem that we will study has to do with the product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 in a triangle. We should be clear about the terminology.

Definition 82 base times height

For each side of a triangle, there is an opposite vertex, and there is an altitude segment drawn
from that opposite vertex. The expression "𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡" or "𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡" refers to
the product of the length of a side of a triangle and the length of the corresponding altitude
segment drawn to that side. The expression can be abbreviated 𝑏 ⋅ ℎ.

An obvious question is, does it matter which side of the triangle is chosen to be the base? The
answer is no. That is, the value of the product 𝑏 ⋅ ℎ does not depend on which side of the triangle
is chosen to be the base.

Theorem 132 In Euclidean Geometry, the product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 in a triangle does not
depend on which side of the triangle is chosen as the base.

The proof is a straightforward application of the AA Similarity Theorem (Theorem 125), but it is
rather tedious to follow. You will be asked to justify the steps in a homework exercise.

Proof
(1) Suppose that a triangle is given in Euclidean Geometry. There are two possibilities: either
the triangle is a right triangle, or it is not.
 page 231

Case 1: Right triangle

(2) If the triangle is a right triangle, label the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 so that the right-angle is at 𝐶.
Let 𝑎 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑏 = 𝐶𝐴 and 𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵. (Make a drawing.)

Observe that when side 𝐵𝐶̅̅̅̅ is chosen as the base, then the product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 is 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏,
̅̅̅̅
and when side 𝐶𝐴 is chosen as the base, then the product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 is 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑎.
These two products are equal. But we need to see what happens when side ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 is
chosen as the base.

(3) Let 𝐹 be the point on side ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐵 such that segment ̅̅̅̅𝐶𝐹 is perpendicular to side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 , and let
𝑧 = 𝐶𝐹. (Make a new drawing.)
(4) Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶~Δ𝐴𝐶𝐹. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
𝑎 𝑐
(5) 𝑧 = 𝑏. (Justify)
(6) Then 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑧. (Justify.)
Conclusion of Case 1
(7) We see that the product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 does not depend on the choice of base in this
case.
Case 2: Not a right triangle
(8) If the triangle is not a right triangle, label the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶. (Make a new drawing.)
Let 𝐷 be the point on side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ such that segment 𝐴𝐷̅̅̅̅ is perpendicular to side 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ , and let 𝑥 =
𝐴𝐷. (Update your drawing.)
Let 𝐸 be the point on side ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐴 such that segment ̅̅̅̅𝐵𝐸 is perpendicular to side ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐴, and let 𝑦 =
𝐵𝐸. (Update your drawing.)
Let 𝐹 be the point on side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 such that segment ̅̅̅̅𝐶𝐹 is perpendicular to side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 , and let 𝑧 =
𝐶𝐹. (Update your drawing.)
(9) Δ𝐴𝐶𝐷~Δ𝐵𝐶𝐸. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
𝑏 𝑥
(10) 𝑎 = 𝑦. (Justify)
(11) Then 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑦. (Justify.)
(12) Δ𝐵𝐴𝐸~Δ𝐶𝐴𝐹. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
𝑐 𝑦
(13) 𝑏 = 𝑧 . (Justify)
(14) Then 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑦 = 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑧. (Justify.)
Conclusion of Case 2
(15) We see that the product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 does not depend on the choice of base in this
case, either.
Conclusion
(16) The product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 does not depend on the choice of base in either case.
End of proof

Theorem 132 will play an extremely important role in the next chapter, when we introduce the
concept of Area.

10.4. Exercises for Chapter 10

Exercises for Section 10.1 (Parallel Projections) (Section starts on page 217)
Chapter 10 Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity page 232

[1] (Advanced) Prove Theorem 118 (Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry preserves
betweenness.) (found on page 220).

[2] (Advanced) Prove Theorem 118 (Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry preserves
betweenness.) (found on page 220).

[3] Justify the steps and make drawings to illustrate the proof of Theorem 119 (Parallel
Projection in Euclidean Geometry preserves congruence of segments.) (found on page 220).

[4] (Advanced) Prove Theorem 120 (Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry preserves ratios
of lengths of segments.) (found on page 221).

[5] Make a drawing to illustrate the proof of Theorem 121 ((corollary) about lines that are
parallel to the base of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry.) (found on page 221).

[6] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 122 (The Angle Bisector Theorem.) (found on page
222).

Exercises for Section 10.2 (Similarity) (Section starts on page222)

[7] Prove Theorem 123 (triangle similarity is an equivalence relation) (found on page 223).

[8] Make a drawing to illustrate the proof of Theorem 124 (The Angle-Angle-Angle (AAA)
Similarity Theorem for Euclidean Geometry) (found on page 225).

[9] Prove Theorem 125 ((Corollary) The Angle-Angle (AA) Similarity Theorem for Euclidean
Geometry) (found on page 226).

[10] Prove Theorem 126 ((corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the altitude to the hypotenuse of a
right triangle creates two smaller triangles that are each similar to the larger triangle.) (found on
page 226).

[11] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 127 (The Side-Side-Side (SSS) Similarity Theorem
for Euclidean Geometry) (found on page 226).

[12] (Advanced.) Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 128 (The Side-Angle-Side (SAS)
Similarity Theorem for Euclidean Geometry) (found on page 227).

[13] There is an ASA Congruence Theorem (Theorem 54). Why isn’t there an ASA Similarity
Theorem? Explain.

[14] Prove Theorem 129 (About the ratios of lengths of certain line segments associated to
similar triangles in Euclidean Geometry.) (found on page 228).
Hint: Do the proof in three parts, as follows.
Part I: Suppose that a pair of similar triangles is given in Euclidean Geometry and that a pair of
corresponding altitudes is chosen. Label the vertices of the triangles 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐸, 𝐹, 𝐺 so that
the chosen altitudes are segments 𝐴𝐷̅̅̅̅ and 𝐸𝐻
̅̅̅̅. Consider triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 and Δ𝐸𝐹𝐻. Show that
 page 233

𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐷
=
𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝐻
Part II: Suppose that a pair of similar triangles is given in Euclidean Geometry and that a pair of
corresponding angle bisectors is chosen. Label the vertices of the triangles 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐸, 𝐹, 𝐺 so
that the chosen angle bisectors are segments ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅. Consider triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 and Δ𝐸𝐹𝐻.
𝐴𝐷 and 𝐸𝐻
Show that
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐷
=
𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝐻
Part III: Suppose that a pair of similar triangles is given in Euclidean Geometry and that a pair of
corresponding medians is chosen. Label the vertices of the triangles 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐸, 𝐹, 𝐺 so that
the chosen medians are segments ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐷 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐻 . Consider triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 and Δ𝐸𝐹𝐻. Show that
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐷
=
𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝐻
𝐴
8 12
𝐵
[15] In the figure at right, is it possible to determine 𝑥? Is it 𝐶
possible to determine 𝑦? Explain. 14
𝑥
𝐸
𝑦 𝐷

[16] In all three figures, 𝐴𝐵 = 5, 𝐴𝐶 = 4, 𝐵𝐸 = 7, 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑥, 𝐷𝐸 = 𝑦, and ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐴𝐸𝐷

A 4 C x D A 4 C x D A 4 C x D

5 5 5
B y
B B
y y 7
7 7 E
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
E E
(A) In Figure 1, identify two similar triangles and explain how you know that they are similar.
Draw them with matching orientations.

(B) Find the value of 𝑥 for Figure 1. Observe that this will be the value of 𝑥 for all three figures.

(C) Figure 2 is a special case of Figure 1, the special case in which ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 is a right angle. Find 𝑦
by using the Pythagorean Theorem and the known value of 𝑥 from part (B).

(D) Figure 3 is a different special case of Figure 1, the special case in which ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 is a right
angle. Find 𝑦 by using the Pythagorean Theorem and the known value of 𝑥 from part (B).

Your answers to [16](C) and (D) should differ. This proves that it is not possible to find the
value of 𝑦 for Figure 1 using only the information shown in Figure 1. More information is
needed, such as the additional information given in Figure 2 or Figure 3.
Chapter 10 Euclidean Geometry II: Similarity page 234

A
[17] Refer to the drawing at right. Find 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥.

Hint: Start by identifying two similar triangles. Be sure

15
to explain how you know that they are similar, and be
sure to draw the triangles side-by-side with the same E
orientation and with all known parts labeled. y
B x C 7 D
Exercises for Section 10.3 (Applications of Similarity) (Section starts on page 229)
[18] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 130 (The Pythagorean Theorem of Euclidean
Geometry) (found on page 229).

[19] The Hypotenuse Leg Theorem (Theorem 71) is a theorem of Neutral Geometry. That means
that it can be proven using only the Neutral Geometry Axioms (Definition 17) and is therefore
true in both Neutral Geometry and Euclidean Geometry. The proof of the theorem using only the
Neutral Axioms is fairly difficult. (See the proof of Theorem 71, found on page 176.) The
theorem can be proved much more easily using the Pythagorean Theorem. Such a proof would
prove that the theorem is true in Euclidean Geometry, but it would not prove that the theorem is
true in Neutral Geometry. Prove the Hypotenuse-Leg Theorem using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[20] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 131 (The Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem of
Euclidean Geometry) (found on page 230).

[21] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 132 (In Euclidean Geometry, the product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 in a triangle does not depend on which side of the triangle is chosen as the base.)

[22] You studied a proof of Theorem 132 in the previous exercise. Here is an invalid proof of
that theorem. What is wrong with it? Explain.
Proof
(1) Suppose that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given in Euclidean Geometry, and that segments ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷 and
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐸 and 𝐶𝐹 are altitudes.
(2) Let 𝑎 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑏 = 𝐶𝐴 and 𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵 and 𝑥 = 𝐶𝐹 and 𝑦 = 𝐴𝐷 and 𝑧 = 𝐵𝐸.
𝑎⋅𝑥 𝑏⋅𝑦 𝑐⋅𝑧
(3) Then 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2 and 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2 and 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2 .
𝑎⋅𝑥 𝑏⋅𝑦 𝑐⋅𝑧
(4) Therefore, 2 = 2 = 2 , so 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑦 = 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑧.
End of Proof 𝐷 𝐶
[23] Prove that in Euclidean Geometry, if 𝑃 is a
point in the interior of 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷) and 𝑑
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 are the lengths of segments 𝑥3 𝑐
̅̅̅̅ 𝐵𝑃, ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑃 , ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝑃, ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝑃, then 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑑2 .
Hint: Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 be the distances from 𝑃 𝑥4 𝑃 𝑥2
⃡ , 𝐵𝐶
to lines 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ , 𝐶𝐷⃡ , 𝐷𝐴⃡ . Express 𝑎2 , 𝑏 2 , 𝑐 2 , 𝑑2
in terms of 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 . Then build the 𝑎 𝑥1 𝑏
2 2 2 2
expressions 𝑎 + 𝑐 and 𝑏 + 𝑑 and compare
them. 𝐴 𝐵
.
 page 235

11. Euclidean Geometry III: Area

So far in this book, there has been no development of a concept of area. Our eleven axioms of
Euclidean Geometry (Definition 70, found on page 201) do not mention area, and it has not been
the subject of any theorem or definition. We would like to have a notion of area for our abstract
geometry that mimics our notion of area for drawings. But before we can do that, we need to
more precisely articulate what we are trying to mimic.

What do we know about computing area in drawings? To compute the area of certain simple
shapes, we measure certain lengths and substitute those numbers into formulas, depending on the
shapes. The list of shapes for which we have area formulas is a very short list. To compute the
area of a more complicated shape, we subdivide the shape into simple shapes and then add up the
area of the simple shapes. We assume that different subdivisions of a shape will give the same
area.

To mimic this in our abstract geometry, we will need the following

(1) a short list of simple regions whose areas we know how to compute by formulas
(2) a description of more general regions and the procedure for subdividing them
(3) a definition of the area of a region as the sum of the areas of simple regions, and a
verification that different subdivisions of a region will give the same area

Previously in this book, we have studied the concepts of measuring distance and measuring
angles. In both cases, we were trying to mimic the use of certain tools in drawings—rulers and
protractors—and we found that the terminology of functions could make our writing precise. We
will use the terminology of functions in our formulation of the concept of area.

11.1. Triangular Regions, Polygons, and Polygonal Regions

We start with item (1), the short list of simple regions whose areas we know how to compute by
formulas. It is indeed a very short list: triangular regions.

Recall that a triangle is defined to be the union of three line segments determined by three non-
collinear points (Definition 28, found on page 98). The interior of a triangle is defined in terms
of the intersection of three half-planes (Definition 38 found on page 117). We will use these in
our definition of a triangular region.

Definition 83 triangular region, interior of a triangular region, boundary of a triangular region

Symbol: ▲𝐴𝐵𝐶
Spoken: triangular region 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶
Usage: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points
Meaning: the union of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and the interior of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. In symbols, we
would write ▲𝐴𝐵𝐶 = Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ∪ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶).
Additional Terminology: the interior of a triangular region is defined to be the interior of
the associated triangle. That is, 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(▲𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶). The boundary of
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 236

a triangular region is defined to be the associated triangle, itself. That is,

𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦(▲𝐴𝐵𝐶) = Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.

1 𝑏ℎ
We are going to define the area of a triangular region to be 2 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, or 2 for short. But
we should be more thorough. First, we should confirm that the value that we get for the area will
not depend on the choice of base. Recall that Theorem 132 (found on page 230)states that the
product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 in a triangle does not depend on choice of base. Secondly, we should
use the terminology of functions to make our definition of area more precise. We apply the
𝑏ℎ
formula 2 to a triangular region and we get a positive real number as a result. So the process of
applying the formula can be described as a function whose domain is the set of all triangular
regions and whose codomain is the set of non-negative real numbers. Here is a symbol that we
can use for the set of all triangular regions.

Definition 84 the set of all triangular regions is denoted by ℛ .

▴

We will use that symbol in the definition of area for triangular regions.

Definition 85 the area function for triangular regions

symbol: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
▴
spoken: the area function for triangular regions
𝑏ℎ
meaning: the function 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 : ℛ → ℝ+ defined by 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (▲𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2 , where 𝑏 is the
▴ ▴ ▴
length of any side of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ℎ is the length of the corresponding altitude segment.
(Theorem 132 guarantees that the resulting value does not depend on the choice of base.)

We now move on to item (2) on the list at the start of this chapter: a description of more general
regions and the procedure for subdividing them. We will see how triangular regions can be
assembled to create what will be called polygonal regions. The areas of the triangular regions
will be used to find the areas of the polygonal regions.

Quadrilaterals were introduced in Definition 39 (found on page 123). The definition of Polygons
will be analogous.

Definition 86 polygon
words: polygon 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛
symbol: 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 )
usage: 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 are distinct points, with no three in a row being collinear, and such that the
segments ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 , ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃2 𝑃3 , … , ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑛 𝑃1 intersect only at their endpoints.
meaning: 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 ) is defined to be the following set:
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 ) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 ∪ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃2 𝑃3 ∪ … ∪ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑛 𝑃1
additional terminology: Points 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 are each called a vertex of the polygon. Pairs of
vertices of the form {𝑃𝑘 , 𝑃𝑘+1 } and the pair {𝑃𝑛 , 𝑃1 } are called adjacent vertices. The
𝑛 segments ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 , ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃2 𝑃3 , … , ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑛 𝑃1 whose endpoints are adjacent vertices are each
called a side of the polygon. Segments whose endpoints are non-adjacent vertices
are each called a diagonal of the polygon.
 page 237

We are interested in defining something called a polygonal region. We would hope that it could
be done the same way that we defined a triangular region. That is, define the interior of a
polygon, and then define a polygonal region to be the union of a polygon and its interior.

But defining the interior of a polygon is tricky. In some cases, the interior could be defined in the
same way that we defined the interior of a triangle.
𝐷 𝐶
For example, consider the quadrilateral 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛[𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷]
shown at right.
𝐴
𝐵

𝐻1

Let 𝐻1 be the half-plane bordered by line ⃡𝐴𝐵 and containing

point 𝐶. (The half-plane stops at the dotted line but extends 𝐷 𝐶
forever in the other directions.)
𝐴
𝐵

𝐻2
⃡ and containing
Let 𝐻2 be the half-plane bordered by line 𝐵𝐶
point 𝐷. 𝐷 𝐶

𝐴
𝐵

𝐷 𝐶
⃡ and containing
Let 𝐻3 be the half-plane bordered by line 𝐶𝐷
𝐴
point 𝐴. 𝐵
𝐻3

⃡ and containing 𝐷 𝐶
Let 𝐻4 be the half-plane bordered by line 𝐷𝐴
point 𝐵.
𝐴
𝐵
𝐻4

𝐷 𝐶
Let set 𝑆 be the intersection 𝑆 = 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ∩ 𝐻3 ∩ 𝐻4 . Then 𝑆
is the shaded region shown at right. 𝑆
𝐴
𝐵
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 238

For the quadrilateral 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛[𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷], we could define the interior to be the intersection of
the four half-planes, as shown.
But sometimes the intersection of half-planes does not turn out to be the set that we would think
of as the “inside” of a polygon.
𝐶
For example, consider the quadrilateral 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛[𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐸]
shown at right. 𝐸
𝐴
𝐵

𝐻1
⃡ and containing
Let 𝐻1 be the half-plane bordered by line 𝐴𝐵
point 𝐶. (The half-plane stops at the dotted line but extends 𝐶
forever in the other directions.) 𝐸
𝐴
𝐵

𝐻2
⃡ and containing
Let 𝐻2 be the half-plane bordered by line 𝐵𝐶
point 𝐸. 𝐶
𝐸
𝐴
𝐵

𝐻3
Let 𝐻3 be the half-plane bordered by line ⃡𝐶𝐸 and containing
point 𝐴. 𝐶
𝐸
𝐴
𝐵
𝐶
𝐸
Let 𝐻4 be the half-plane bordered by line ⃡𝐸𝐴 and containing
𝐴
point 𝐵. 𝐵
𝐻4
𝐶
Let set 𝑆 be the intersection 𝑆 = 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ∩ 𝐻3 ∩ 𝐻4 . Then 𝑆
is the shaded region shown at right. 𝐸
𝐴
𝐵

We see that the set 𝑆 is not the whole region “inside” 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛[𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐸].
 page 239

The problem is that 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛[𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐸] is not convex. We have seen a definition of convex
quadrilateral (Definition 40, found on page 126), but we have not seen a definition of convex
polygon. Here is a definition.

Definition 87 convex polygon

A convex polygon is one in which all the vertices that are not the endpoints of a given side lie
in the same half-plane determined by that side. A polygon that does not have this property is
called non-convex.

In the two examples above, we see that

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛[𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷] is convex because the following four statements are all true:
Vertices 𝐶, 𝐷 lie in the same half-plane 𝐻1 determined by line ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
⃡ .
Vertices 𝐷, 𝐴 lie in the same half-plane 𝐻2 determined by line 𝐵𝐶
Vertices 𝐴, 𝐵 lie in the same half-plane 𝐻3 determined by line ⃡𝐶𝐷.
Vertices 𝐵, 𝐶 lie in the same half-plane 𝐻4 determined by line ⃡𝐷𝐴.

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛[𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐸] is non-convex because:

⃡ .
Vertices 𝐴, 𝐵 do not both lie in the same half-plane 𝐻3 determined by line 𝐶𝐸
Vertices 𝐵, 𝐶 do not both lie in the same half-plane 𝐻4 determined by line ⃡𝐸𝐴.

It is the existence of non-convex polygons that makes it difficult to state a simple definition of
the interior of a polygon. So we will not try to state a simple defintion of the interior of a
polygon. Instead, we will skip to the concept of a polygonal region.

Definition 88 complex, polygonal region, separated, connected polygonal regions

A complex is a finite set of triangular regions whose interiors do not intersect. That is, a set of
the form 𝐶 = {▲1 , ▲2 , … , ▲𝑘 } where each ▲𝑖 is a triangular region and such that if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗,
then the intersection 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(▲𝑖 ) ∩ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 (▲𝑗 ) is the empty set.

A polygonal region is a set of points that can be described as the union of the triangular
regions in a complex. That is a set of the form
𝑘

𝑅 = ▲1 ∪ ▲2 ∪ … ∪ ▲𝑘 = ⋃ ▲𝑖
𝑖=1
We say that a polygonal region can be separated if it can be written as the union of two
disjoint polygonal regions. A connected polygonal region is one that cannot be separated into
two disjoint polygonal regions. We will often use notation like 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 ) to denote
a connected polygonal region. In that symbol, the letters 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 are vertices of the
region (I won’t give a precise definition of vertex. You get the idea.)

For example, in the figure shown below, the set {▲𝐴𝐵𝐶, ▲𝐵𝐷𝐸} is a complex, but the set
{▲𝐴𝐵𝐶, ▲𝐵𝐷𝐹} is not a complex, because the interiors of ▲𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ▲𝐵𝐷𝐹 intersect.
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 240

𝐶
𝐺 𝐼
𝑃 𝑟
𝐹 𝐻
𝐵
𝐸
𝐴 𝐷
The set 𝑆 = ▲𝐴𝐵𝐶 ∪ ▲𝐵𝐷𝐸 is a polygonal region because it is possible to write 𝑆 as the union of
the triangular regions in a complex. The symbol 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐵𝐶) could be used to denote
polygonal region 𝑆.

Of course it is also possible to write 𝑆 as the union of triangular regions that overlap. For
example, we can write 𝑆 = ▲𝐴𝐵𝐶 ∪ ▲𝐵𝐷𝐹. This does not disqualify 𝑆 from being called a
polygonal region. The fact that a complex exists for set 𝑆 qualifies 𝑆 to be called a polygonal
region.

Also note that the set the set

{▲𝐴𝐵𝐶, ▲𝐵𝐷𝐸, ▲𝐺𝐻𝐼}

is a complex. Therefore, the set

𝑇 = ▲𝐴𝐵𝐶 ∪ ▲𝐵𝐷𝐸 ∪ ▲𝐺𝐻𝐼

is a polygonal region. It is a polygonal region that can be separated. Here is a separation:

𝑇 = 𝑆 ∪ ▲𝐺𝐻𝐼

So 𝑇 is a polygonal region but it is not a connected polygonal region. Clearly, a symbol like
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐵𝐶𝐺𝐻𝐼) would be a terrible choice to describe polygonal region 𝑇. That’s why the
definition above states that we will only use that sort of notation only for connected polygonal
regions. For example, we could write 𝑇 = 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐵𝐶) ∪ ▲𝐺𝐻𝐼.

So far, it seems like every “filled-in” shape is a polygonal region. But this is not true. In the
picture above, the set consisting of the union of 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) and its interior is not a polygonal
region.

It is not very hard to come up with a definition for the interior of a polygonal region. But it helps
if we first define open disks.

Definition 89 open disk, closed disk

symbol: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟)
spoken: the open disk centered at point 𝑃 with radius 𝑟.
meaning: the set 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)). That is, the set {𝑄: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑃, 𝑄) < 𝑟}.
another symbol: ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟)
spoken: the closed disk centered at point 𝑃 with radius 𝑟.
 page 241

meaning: the set 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) ∪ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)). That is, {𝑄: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑃, 𝑄) ≤ 𝑟}.
pictures: 𝑃 𝑟 𝑃 𝑟

the open disk the closed disk

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟)

Now we can easily define the interior of a polygonal region.

Definition 90 interior of a polygonal region, boundary of a polygonal region

words: the interior of polygonal region 𝑅
meaning: the set of all points 𝑃 in 𝑅 with the property that there exists some open disk
centered at point 𝑃 that is entirely contained in 𝑅
meaning in symbols: {𝑃 ∈ 𝑅 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∃𝑟 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟) ⊂ 𝑅}
additional terminology: the boundary of polygonal region 𝑅
meaning: the set of all points 𝑄 in 𝑅 with the property that no open disk centered at point 𝑄
is entirely contained in 𝑅. This implies that every open disk centered at point 𝑄
contains some points that are not elements of the region 𝑅.
meaning in symbols: {𝑄 ∈ 𝑅 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∀𝑟 > 0, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟) ⊄ 𝑅}
picture:

𝑅 𝑄
𝑃

𝑃 is an interior point; 𝑄 is a boundary point

Now that we have a definition of the interior of a polygonal region, we should discuss what
happens when we take the union of two polygonal regions, because the interiors play a role in the
answer. Consider the drawing below.

▲2
▲1
▲4 ▲6
▲3 ▲5

Here are some small polygonal regions:

The set 𝑅1 = ▲1 ∪ ▲2 is a polygonal region with complex 𝐶1 = {▲1 , ▲2 }.
The set 𝑅2 = ▲3 ∪ ▲4 is a polygonal region with complex 𝐶2 = {▲3 , ▲4 }.
The set 𝑅3 = ▲5 ∪ ▲6 is a polygonal region with complex 𝐶3 = {▲5 , ▲6 }.

We can combine them into larger regions by forming their set unions:

The set 𝑅1 ∪ 𝑅2 is a polygonal region with complex 𝐶 = 𝐶1 ∪ 𝐶2 = {▲1 , ▲2 , ▲3 , ▲4 }.

The set 𝑅2 ∪ 𝑅3 is a polygonal region but the set {▲3 , ▲4 , ▲5 , ▲6 } is not its complex.
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 242

From this example, we would infer that the union of two polygonal regions is a new polygonal
region. If the interiors of the two polygonal regions do not intersect, then a complex for the new
polygonal region can be obtained by taking the union of complexes for the two regions. But if
the interiors of the two polygonal regions do intersect, then the union of their complexes might
not be a complex for the new region. This issue will come up when we consider the area of the
union of two polynomial regions.

Finally we are ready to move on to item (3) on the list at the start of the chapter: a definition of
the area of a region as the sum of the areas of simple regions, and a verification that different
subdivisions of a region will give the same area.

11.2. The Area of a Polygonal Region

With the terminology that we have developed, it is fairly easy to state a definition for the area of
a polygonal region. We want to say that the area of a polygonal region 𝑅 is defined to be the sum
of the areas of the triangular regions in a complex for 𝑅.
𝐶
But there is a potential problem, because for any polygonal
region there are many complexes. Recall 𝑆 =
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐵𝐶) in our earlier example. With some dotted 𝐹 𝐵
lines added as shown, we can see a few obvious complexes for
𝐸 𝐷
𝑆. 𝐴
𝐶1 = {▲𝐴𝐵𝐶, ▲𝐵𝐷𝐸}
𝐶2 = {▲𝐴𝐵𝐹, ▲𝐵𝐶𝐹, ▲𝐶𝐴𝐹, ▲𝐵𝐷𝐸}
𝐶3 = {▲𝐴𝐸, ▲𝐷𝐵𝐹, ▲𝐵𝐶𝐹, ▲𝐶𝐴𝐹}

Are we sure that the sum of the areas of the triangular regions in complex 𝐶1 will be the same as
the sum of the areas of the triangular regions in complex 𝐶2 ? It would not be hard to show that in
this diagram, the sum of the areas would be the same for complexes 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 . But there are lots
of other complexes for region 𝑆. And there are lots of other poygonal regions. We need a general
theorem that will settle the question once and for all. A general theorem is possible, and can be
proven with a proof at the level of this course. We will accept the theorem without proof.

Theorem 133 (accepted without proof) Given any polygonal region, any two complexes for that
region have the same area sum.
If 𝑅 is a polygonal region and 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are two complexes for 𝑅, then the sum of the areas
of the triangular regions of complex 𝐶1 equals the sum of the areas of the triangular regions
of complex 𝐶2 .

We are going to define the area of a polygonal region 𝑅 to be the sum of the areas of the
triangular regions of any complex 𝐶 for 𝑅. When we compute the area, we get a positive real
number as a result. The process of finding the area can be described as a function whose domain
is the set of all polygonal regions and whose codomain is the set of non-negative real numbers.
Here is a symbol that we can use for the set of all polygonal regions.

Definition 91 the set of all polygonal regions is denoted by ℛ.

 page 243

We will use that symbol in the definition of area for polygonal regions.

Definition 92 the area function for polygonal regions

symbol: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
spoken: the area function for polygonal regions
meaning: the function 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎: ℛ → ℝ+ defined by
𝑘

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎▴ (▲1 ) + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎▴ (▲2 ) + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎▴ (▲3 ) = ∑ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎▴ (▲𝑖 )

𝑖=1
where 𝐶 = {▲1 , ▲2 , … , ▲𝑘 } is a complex for region 𝑅. (Theorem 133 guarantees that the
resulting value does not depend on the choice of complex 𝐶.)

Now that we have a definition for the area of a polygonal region, we can restate some of the
discussion from Sections 11.1 and 11.2 in a theorem.

Theorem 134 Properties of the Area Function for Polygonal Regions

Congruence: If 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are triangular regions bounded by congruent triangles,
then 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅1 ) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅2 ).
Additivity: If 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are polygonal regions whose interiors do not intersect,
then 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅1 ∪ 𝑅2 ) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅1 ) + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅2 ).

In the next sections, we will discuss the area of Similar polygons.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 11.6 on page 250.

11.3. Using Area to Prove the Pythagorean Theorem

Here is a brief summary of key facts in our theory of area.
𝑏ℎ
 The area of a triangle is 𝐴 = 2 , and it does not matter which side is chosen as the base.
(from Definition 85 on page 236)
 The area of a polygonal region is obtained by subdividing the region into non-
overlapping triangles and adding up the areas of those triangles. It does not matter which
subdivision into non-overlapping triangles is used. (from Definition 92 on page 243)
 The Area Function for Polygonal Regions has the Congruence Property and the
Additivity Property. (from Theorem 134, above)

In the exercises for Section 11.2 (exercise found in Section 11.6 on page 250), you used those
key facts to produce area formulas for a number of familiar shapes, including

 The area of a rectangle with length 𝑎 and width 𝑏 is 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏.

It turns out that the four bulleted facts above can be used to re-prove the Pythagorean Theorem.
Here is one such proof:
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 244

Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem Using Area

b
Given a right triangle with legs of length a and b.
a
b a

b
Introduce a square with sides of length a + b, with points a
on the sides of the square that divide each side of the
square into segments of length a and b, as shown a
b

a b
b a
When the four points are joined, four right triangles are
created. b
a
The four triangles are congruent, and each is congruent to
the original, given triangle.
a
(Question for the reader: How do we know that the b
four triangles are congruent?)
a b
b a

c b
a c
Therefore, the inner quadrilateral has sides of length c.
c a
b c

a b
b a

The quadrilateral on the inside has four sides of equal c b

length, so it is certainly a rhombus. But in fact, the inner a c
quadrilateral is also a square.
c a
(Question for the reader: How do we know that the
inner quadrilateral is actually a square?) b c

a b
 page 245

Now consider the following area calculations involving our final figure:
 The area of the large square is (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 .
𝑎𝑏
 The area of each triangle is 2 .
 The area of the inner square is 𝑐 2 .
 So the sum of the areas of the four triangles and the inner square is
𝑎𝑏
4 ( ) + 𝑐 2 = 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐 2
2
 By additivity, the area of the large square must equal the sum of the areas of the four
triangles and the inner square. That is, 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 = 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐 2
 Subtracting 2𝑎𝑏 from both sides leaves us with the equation 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 . That is,
the Pythagorean Theorem holds for the given right triangle.

End of Proof

This proof involving area seems to be conceptually much easier than our earlier proof of the
Pythagorean Theorem, a proof that used only similarity. (Theorem 130 found in Section 10.3
Applications of Similarity on page 229) But keep in mind that many important details underly
the simple proof involving area. For starters, the proof used the four bulleted facts at the start of
this subsection. Those facts are highlights of more than fifteen pages of development in the
current Chapter 11. And that development was possible only after the proof of the important
𝑏ℎ
theorem that says that for any triangle, the value of the quantity 2 does not depend on which
side is chosen as the base, proven in Chapter 10. (Theorem 132, on page 230 of Section 10.3)

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 11.6 on page 250.

11.4. Areas of Similar Polygons

In Theorem 129 (About the ratios of lengths of certain line segments associated to similar
triangles in Euclidean Geometry.) (found on page 228), we saw that for similar triangles, the
ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding altitudes was the same as the ratio of the lengths
of any pair of corresponding sides. That fact allows us to easily prove a very interesting result
about the ratio of the areas of similar triangles

Theorem 135 about the ratio of the areas of similar triangles

The ratio of the areas of similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of the lengths of
any pair of corresponding sides.

Proof
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 2 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎′ 1 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ′ ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ′
2
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
=
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ′ ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ′
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
=( ) ⋅ ( )
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ′ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ′
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 246

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
=( ′
)⋅( )
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ′
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2
=( )
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ′
End of proof

It is reasonable to wonder if this fact generalizes to similar polygons. That is, is the ratio of the
areas of a pair of similar polygons is equal to the square of the ratio of the lengths of any pair of
corresponding sides? We will spend the rest of this section addressing that question. First, we
should define similar polygons. You will notice that the definition reads a lot like our earlier
Definition 80 of triangle similarity.

Definition 93 polygon similarity

To say that two polygons are similar means that there exists a correspondence between the
vertices of the two polygons and the correspondence has these two properties:
 Each pair of corresponding angles is congruent.
 The ratios of the lengths of each pair of corresponding sides is the same.
If a correspondence between vertices of two polygons has the two properties, then the
correspondence is called a similarity. That is, the expression a similarity refers to a particular
correspondence of vertices that has the two properties.

The following statement has a straightforward proof. You will be asked to supply the proof in a
homework exercise.

Theorem 136 polygon similarity is an equivalence relation

As with triangle similarity, there is subtlety in the notation used for similar polygons.

Definition 94 symbol for a similarity of two polygons

Symbol: 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 )~𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 ′𝑃2 ′ … 𝑃𝑛 ′).
Meaning: The correspondence (𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 ) ↔ (𝑃1 ′𝑃2 ′ … 𝑃𝑛 ′) of vertices is a similarity.

Now on to our question: is the ratio of the areas of a pair of similar polygons is equal to the
square of the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides?

We will start by attempting to answer the question for similar convex polygons. We will start
with convex 3-gons, then consider convex 4-gons, convex 5-gons, etc. It will be helpful to first
note the following algebraic fact about ratios:
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑘 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘
𝐼𝑓 = =⋯= = 𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 =𝑟
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏𝑘 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑘

For convex 3-gons

Question: Is the ratio of the areas of a pair of similar convex 3-gons equal to the square of
the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides?
Answer: Yes, of course. A 3-gon is just a triangle, and every triangle is convex. Theorem
135 tells us that the ratio of the areas of a pair of similar triangles is equal to the square of
the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides.
 page 247

For convex 4-gons

Question: Is the ratio of the areas of a pair of similar convex 4-gons equal to the square of
the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides?
Answer: Yes. Suppose that 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷) and 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′) are convex and that
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷)~𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′). Suppose that the ratio of lengths of
𝐴𝐵
corresponding sides is 𝐴′𝐵′ = 𝑟. Observe that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶~Δ𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′ (by the SAS Similarity
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) 𝐴𝐵 2
Theorem 128), so that 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′) = (𝐴′𝐵′) = 𝑟 2 (by Theorem 135 about the ratio of
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐵𝐶𝐷)
the areas of similar triangles). Also observe that Δ𝐵𝐶𝐷~Δ𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′, so that 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′) =
𝐵𝐶 2 𝐴𝐵 2
(𝐵′𝐶′) = (𝐴′𝐵′) = 𝑟 2. Therefore, using the algebraic fact about ratios, we have
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶)+𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐵𝐶𝐷) 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷))
= 𝑟 2 . Therefore, 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′)) = 𝑟 2 .
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′)+𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′)

For convex 5-gons

Question: Is the ratio of the areas of a pair of similar convex 5-gons equal to the square of
the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides?
Answer: Yes. Suppose that 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸) and 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′𝐸′) are convex and
that 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸)~𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′𝐸′). Suppose that the ratio of lengths of
𝐴𝐵
corresponding sides is 𝐴′𝐵′ = 𝑟. Observe that Δ𝐷𝐸𝐴~Δ𝐷′𝐸′𝐴′ (by SAS Similarity), so that
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐷𝐸𝐴) 𝐷𝐸 2
= (𝐷′𝐸′) = 𝑟 2 (by Theorem 135).
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐷′𝐸′𝐴′)

𝐷𝐴 and ̅̅̅̅̅̅
The segments ̅̅̅̅ 𝐷′𝐴′ partitioned each of the original 5-gons into a triangle and a
quadrilateral. The fact that those two triangles are similar tells us that ∠𝐷𝐴𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐷′𝐴′𝐸′
𝐷𝐴
and ∠𝐸𝐴𝐷 ≅ 𝐸′𝐴′𝐷′ and that 𝐷′𝐴′ = 𝑟. The fact about the congruent pairs of
corresponding angles can be used to show that ∠𝐷𝐴𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐷′𝐴′𝐵′ and ∠𝐴𝐷𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐴′𝐷′𝐶′.
In other words, the quadrilaterals 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷) and 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′) are similar!
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷))
Therefore, 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′)) = 𝑟 2 because of the fact that we proved earlier about
the ratio of the areas of convex quadrilaterals. Therefore, using the algebraic fact about
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶)+𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷))
ratios, we have 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′)+𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′)) = 𝑟 2 . In other words, we have shown
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸))
that 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′𝐸′)) = 𝑟 2.

For convex n-gons

Question: Is the ratio of the areas of a pair of similar convex n-gons equal to the square of
the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides?
Answer: Yes, but the proof structure is more sophisticated than the ones that we have seen
so far in this book. Here is the general idea.

Suppose that 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 ) and 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 ′𝑃2 ′ … 𝑃𝑛 ′) are convex and that
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 )~𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 ′𝑃2 ′ … 𝑃𝑛 ′). Suppose that the ratio of lengths of
𝐴𝐵
corresponding sides is 𝐴′𝐵′ = 𝑟. Observe that Δ𝑃𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 𝑃1 ~Δ𝑃𝑛−1 ′𝑃𝑛 ′𝑃1 ′ (by SAS
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 248

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝑃𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 𝑃1 ) 𝑃 𝑃 2
Similarity), so that 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝑃 = (𝑃 𝑛−1′𝑃𝑛′) = 𝑟 2 (by Theorem 135).
𝑛−1 ′𝑃𝑛 ′𝑃1 ′) 𝑛−1 𝑛

The segments ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝑃𝑛−1 ′𝑃𝑛 ′ and ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑛−1 ′𝑃𝑛 ′ partitioned each of the original n-gons into a triangle
and an n-1-gon. The fact that those two triangles are similar can be used to show
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛−1 ) and 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 ′𝑃2 ′ … 𝑃𝑛−1 ′) are similar. If we just knew that
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃 𝑃 …𝑃 ))
the equation 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃 1′𝑃 2′…𝑃𝑛−1 ′)) = 𝑟 2 was true, then the algebraic fact about ratios
1 2 𝑛−1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝑃𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 𝑃1 )+𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 …𝑃𝑛−1 ))
would tell us that 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝑃 = 𝑟 2 . In other words, we
𝑛−1 ′𝑃𝑛 ′𝑃1 ′)+𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 ′𝑃2 ′…𝑃𝑛−1 ′))
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 …𝑃𝑛 ))
would know that 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃 = 𝑟 2.
1 ′𝑃2 ′…𝑃𝑛 ′))
We can make this work with the method of Proof by Induction. That method will not be
presented in this book, so we will not do the proof for convex n-gons in detail.

Having considered the question about the ratio of the areas of convex n-gons, an obvious
question is: what if we drop the requirement that the n-gons be convex?

For general n-gons

Question: Is the ratio of the areas of a pair of similar n-gons (not necessarily convex) equal
to the square of the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides?
Answer: Yes, but the proof is beyond the level of this course.

We summarize the above discussion in the following theorem.

Theorem 137 about the ratio of the areas of similar n-gons

The ratio of the areas of a pair of similar n-gons (not necessarily convex) is equal to the
square of the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides.

In other words, if you double the lengths of the sides of a triangle, then you quadruple the area of
the triangle. If you double the lengths of the sides of an n-gon, then you quadruple its area.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 11.6 on page 250.

11.5. Area in High School Geometry Books

Now that we have finished our study of the theory of area in our Euclidean Geometry, it would
be worthwhile to summarize what we have done and then compare our theory to the theory of
area typically found in high school geometry books.

First, note that none of our eleven axioms says anything about area. Our whole theory was
developed in definitions and theorems.

One of the two theorems that made our whole theory of area possible was in the previous
chapter: Theorem 132 (In Euclidean Geometry, the product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 in a triangle does
not depend on which side of the triangle is chosen as the base.) (found on page 230) That
theorem is what enabled us to introduce the area function for triangular regions in Definition 85
(found in Section 11.1 on page 236).
 page 249

Then we introduced the notion of a polygonal region and a complex (in Definition 88 on page
239 of Section 11.1).

A second theorem that made our whole theory of area possible was Theorem 133 ((accepted
without proof) Given any polygonal region, any two complexes for that region have the same
area sum.) (found in Section 11.2 on page 242) Although we officially accepted that theorem
without proof, we studied most of the elements of the proof in a sequence of homework exercises
for this chapter. That theorem is what enabled us to introduce the area function for polygonal
regions (in Definition 92 on page 243 of Section 11.2). That is, the area of a polygonal region is
obtained by subdividing the region into non-overlapping triangles and adding up the areas of
those triangles. It does not matter which subdivision into non-overlapping triangles is used.

Finally, we proved that our area function has certain properties in Theorem 134 (Properties of the
Area Function for Polygonal Regions) (found on page 243 of Section 11.2)

In summary, our theory of area is written in the precise mathematical language of functions, and
it is developed without any additional axioms.

By contrast, high school books typically include axioms that simply declare that something
called area exists. Here are the SMSG axioms having to do with area.

SMSG Postulate 17: To every polygonal region there corresponds a unique positive real
number called its area.
SMSG Postulate 18: If two triangles are congruent, then the triangular regions have the
same area.
SMSG Postulate 19: Suppose that the region 𝑅 is the union of two regions 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 . If 𝑅1
and 𝑅2 intersect at most in a finite number of segments and points, then the area of 𝑅 is
the sum of the areas of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 .
SMSG Postulate 20: The area of a rectangle is the product of the length of its base and the
length of its altitude.

Notice that the SMSG Postulates do not use the terminology of functions. Furthermore, the
SMSG postulates simply declare that the area has certain properties, the same properties that we
were able to prove in theorems.

It is worth noting an important consequence of the SMSG approach to area. Recall our
discussion of the Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem Using Area, at the end of Section 11.3.
(That section starts on page 243.) We observed that in our book, there is the following sequence
of developments.

(1) The concept of Similarity is developed in Chapter 10.

(2) The Pythagorean Theorem is proven with a moderately-difficult proof involving
similarity. (Theorem 130 found in Section 10.3 Applications of Similarity on page 229)
(3) The theory of Area is developed in Chapter 11.
(4) The Pythagorean Theorem is re-proven with a very simple proof using Area (in Chapter
11).
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 250

We discussed the fact that although the proof of the Pythagorean Theorem using area looked
very simple, it did involve a lot of underlying theory. So the proof involving Similarity was
simpler overall, even though it looked more difficult than the proof involving area.

But in a book that uses the SMSG Postulates, one is simply given the theory of Area in the
axioms; no development of Area theory is required. If that is the approach, then the smartest way
to prove the Pythagorean Theorem would be to just use area, taking advantage of the SMSG
axioms about area. In such a book, the area-based proof really would be concepually simpler
than a proof that used similarity.

11.6. Exercises for Chapter 11

Exercises for Section 11.2 (The Area of a Polygonal Region) (Section starts on page 242.)

In our definition of the area of a polygonal region, the only regions whose areas are computed by
a formula are the triangular regions. The area of any other kind of polygonal region is obtained
by first identifying a complex for the region, and then finding the area of the triangles in the
complex. But if we stick to this plan for computing area, we will quickly see some familiar
formulas emerge for the area of certain kinds of polygonal regions. Our first exercises explore
this.

[1] Find the formula for the area of each shape by identifying a complex and then finding the
sum of the triangular regions in the complex using the formula for the area of a triangular region,
𝑏ℎ
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (▲𝐴𝐵𝐶) =
▴ 2
Provide large drawings showing your triangulations clearly.

(a) Rectangle 𝑏
𝑎

(b) Parallelogram ℎ

𝑏
𝑏2

(c) Trapezoid ℎ

𝑏1

Theorem 133 (found on page 242) states that given any polygonal region, any two complexes for
that region have the same area sum. We accepted this theorem without proof, but we should have
some sense of how the proof of the theorem would work. The next few exercises show how some
pieces of the proof would work.
 page 251

𝐴
[2] Show that for any triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, if
̅̅̅̅ , then the
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑘 are points on side 𝐵𝐶
complex of 𝑘 + 1 triangles {▲𝐵𝑃1 𝐴, ▲ ℎ
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝐴, … , ▲𝑃𝑘 𝐶𝐴} has an area sum that is equal to
the area of the complex {▲𝐴𝐵𝐶}.
𝐵 𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑘 𝐶
𝐷 𝐶

[3] Show that for any trapezoid 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷, if a

complex of triangles is formed by connecting ℎ
points on the upper and lower bases, then the
complex has an area sum that is equal to the area
given by the formula that you found in problem [3].

𝐴 𝐵
𝐴
[4] Triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is split by a segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸
̅̅̅̅
parallel to side 𝐵𝐶 . Show that the following two ℎ2
numbers are the same: 𝐷 𝑏2 𝐸
(1) The area of complex {▲𝐴𝐵𝐶}.
(2) The area of complex ℎ1
𝑏1
{▲𝐴𝐷𝐸, ▲𝐷𝐵𝐸, ▲𝐵𝐶𝐸}.
𝐵 𝐶

Exercises for Section 11.3 (Using Area to Prove the Pythagorean Theorem) (page 243)

[5] In the Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem Using Area, which starts on page 243 in Section
11.3, there are two questions for the reader. Answer those questions.

[6] Use the diagram at right as the inspiration for a proof of the
Pythagorean Theorem using area.
Hint: Use as your model the proof that starts on page 243 in Section
11.3. That is, provide a sequence of drawings and the same amount of
explanation. (But don’t leave any unanswered questions for the
reader!)

[7] Come up with another proof of the Pythagorean Theorem using area, not like the two
presented in this chapter.
Hint: You can start by doing a web search for “proof of the pythagorean theorem”, and in the
search results, choose “images”. This should get you a large collection of images that you can
use for inspiration, and will also get you some fully-explained proofs. But you will need to write
a proof in your own words, in full detail, using a sequence of drawings, not just one drawing.

Exercises for Section 11.4 (Areas of Similar Polygons) (Section starts on page 245.)

[8] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 135 (about the ratio of the areas of similar triangles)
(found on page 245).
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 252

[9] Prove Theorem 136 (polygon similarity is an equivalence relation) (found on page 246).

[10] Prove the algebraic fact about ratios cited in Section 11.4:
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑘 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘
𝐼𝑓 = =⋯= = 𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 =𝑟
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏𝑘 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑘
Hint: Notice that 𝑎1 = 𝑟𝑏1 and 𝑎2 = 𝑟𝑏2 , etc. Use this to rewrite the 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 in the
numerator.

[11] Make drawings to illustrate the discussion preceeding Theorem 137 (about the ratio of the
areas of similar n-gons) (found on page 248). That is, draw 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷) and
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′) that are convex and similar, and illustrate the steps in the discussion about
convex 4-gons. Then draw 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸) and 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′𝐸′) that are convex and
similar, and illustrate the steps in the discussion about convex 5-gons. Then draw
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 ) and 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 ′𝑃2 ′ … 𝑃𝑛 ′) that are convex and similar, and illustrate the
discussion about convex n-gons.

[12] If you want to triple the area of a square, by what factor should you multiply the lengths of
the sides?

[13] (A) Suppose that a 30-60-90 triangle has a hypotenuse that is 𝑥 units long. How long is the
short leg of the triangle? (Hint: Theorem 62, found on page 164, tells us that the short leg will be
opposite the angle of measure 30. Consider first an equilateral triangle whose sides are 𝑥 units
long. Draw the altitude from one vertex to the opposite side. Theorem 85, found on page 191,
can be used to say something about the lengths of the segments created on the opposite side.)

(B) Suppose that a 30-60-90 triangle has a hypotenuse that is 𝑥 units long. How long is the long
leg of the triangle? (Hint: Use the answer to (A) and the Pythagorean Theorem.

(C) Using your answers to (A) and (B), find the area of a 30-60-90 triangle.

(D) Find the area of an equilateral triangle whose sides are 𝑥 units long.

[14] Suppose that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a right triangle with right angle at 𝐶. Let 𝑎 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑏 = 𝐶𝐴 and
𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵. The Pythagorean Theorem says that 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 . This can be interpreted
geometrically: Suppose that squares are constructed on each side of the triangle. Then those
squares will have areas 𝑎2 and 𝑏 2 and 𝑐 2 . The Pythagorean Theorem says that the sum of the
areas of the two smaller squares equals the are of the larger square.

There is a generalization of this idea to other shapes. For instance, instead of constructing
squares on each side of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, construct three triangles that are similar to each other.
That is, suppose that 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 are three points such that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷~Δ𝐵𝐶𝐸~Δ𝐶𝐴𝐹. Show that
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐵𝐶𝐸) + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐶𝐴𝐹) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷)

Hint: Divide both sides of the Pythagorean Theorem by 𝑐 2 to obtain the new equation
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 2
+ =
𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐2
 page 253

That is,
𝑎 2 𝑏 2
( ) +( ) =1
𝑐 𝑐
Then use Theorem 135, found on page 245, to rewrite this equation in terms of ratios of areas of
similar triangles. Then rearrange the equation to get the form asked for in the problem statement.
𝐴
[15] Refer to the drawing at right, which is not drawn to scale.

𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥
⃡ ‖𝐷𝐸
𝐵𝐶 ⃡ 𝑥
𝐷 𝐸
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 3𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐷𝐸)

Find 𝐴𝐷 in terms of 𝑥. 𝐵 𝐶
.
[16] Refer to the drawing at right, which is not drawn to scale. 𝐴

𝐴𝐷 = 𝑥
𝐷𝐵 = 3 𝑥
⃡ ‖𝐷𝐸
𝐵𝐶 ⃡
𝐷 𝐸
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 16𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐷𝐸)
3
Find 𝑥. Show your work. 𝐵 𝐶
.
[17] In the figure at right, 𝐴
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑥
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐷 = 1

Let 𝑦 be the value of the ratio of the areas: 𝑥 𝐷 𝑥

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶)
𝑦= 𝐵 1 𝐶
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐵𝐶𝐷)

Find 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥. Show all steps that lead to your answer.

Hint: Each triangle has two congruent sides. Cite a theorem to identify congruent angles. Then
identify two similar triangles. (Draw them side-by-side with the same orientation.)

[18] A regular hexagon called ℎ𝑒𝑥1 has sides of length 𝑥. A second hexagon called ℎ𝑒𝑥2 is
created by joining the midpoints of the sides of ℎ𝑒𝑥1 . Let 𝑦 be the value of the ratio of the areas:

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(ℎ𝑒𝑥1 )
𝑦=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(ℎ𝑒𝑥2 )

Find 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥. Show all steps that lead to your answer.

Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 254

𝐶
[19] In the figure at right,
𝐻
⃡𝐴𝐵 ∥ ⃡𝐷𝐸
⃡ ∥ ⃡𝐹𝐺
𝐵𝐶 𝐺
⃡ ∥ 𝐻𝐼
𝐶𝐴 ⃡
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎1 𝑃 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎3
The goal is to find a relationship between 𝐷 𝐸
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) and 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎1 and 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎2 and
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎3. 𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎2 𝐵
𝐼 𝐹
(A) Prove that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶~Δ𝐷𝑃𝐺~Δ𝐼𝐹𝑃~Δ𝑃𝐸𝐻.

Define symbols
 Let 𝑥1 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐷𝑃𝐺 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑃𝐷̅̅̅̅ ).
 Let 𝑥2 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐼𝐹𝑃 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐼𝐹 ).
̅̅̅
 Let 𝑥3 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝑃𝐸𝐻 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑃𝐸̅̅̅̅ ).
 Let 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ).

In the next three questions, you will apply Theorem 135 to get ratios of areas in terms of the
symbols 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐷𝑃𝐺)
(B) Find the ratio 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶).
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐼𝐹𝑃)
(C) Find the ratio 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶).
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝑃𝐸𝐻)
(D) Find the ratio 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶).

The next four questions are the main computation.

(E) Get an equation expressing 𝑥 in terms of 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 .

(F) Divide both sides of this equation by 𝑥.
(G) Replace these expressions with square roots of the ratios of areas from questions (B),(C),(D).
(H) Finally, multiply both sides of this equation by √𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶). The result should be an
equation that expresses a relationship between 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) and 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎1 and 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎2 and 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎3.

.
 page 255

12. Euclidean Geometry IV: Circles

We previously studied circles in Chapter 8, in the context of Neutral Geometry. All of the
theorems of that chapter are also theorems that are true about circles in Euclidean Geometry. In
this chapter we will study some results that are strictly Euclidean. That is, their proofs require the
use of the Euclidean Parallel Axiom <EPA>, and their statements are not true in Neutral
Geometry. We will study angles that intersect circles. Arcs will be introduced, and we will study
the relationships between the measures of angles and the arcs that they intercept.

12.1. Circular Arcs

In this chapter, we will be interested in angles that intersect circles but only in seven particular
configurations. Here are the seven types, presented as a single definition.

Definition 95 seven types of angles intersecting circles

Type 1 Angle (Central Angle) 𝐶

A central angle of a circle is an angle whose rays lie
on two secant lines that intersect at the center of the 𝐴
circle.
𝐵
In the picture at right, lines ⃡𝐴𝐸 and 𝐶𝐹
⃡ are secant 𝐸
lines that intersect at the center point 𝐵 of the circle.
Angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a central angle. So are angles
𝐹
∠𝐶𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐸𝐵𝐹, ∠𝐹𝐵𝐴.
Type 2 Angle (Inscribed Angle) 𝐶

An inscribed angle of a circle is an angle whose rays

lie on two secant lines that intersect on the circle and
such that each ray of the angle intersects the circle at 𝐵
one other point. In other words, an angle of the form
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, where 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are three points on the circle.

In the picture at right, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an inscribed 𝐴

angle.
Type 3 Angle
Our third type of an angle intersecting a circle is an 𝐶
angle whose rays lie on two secant lines that intersect
at a point that is inside the circle but is not the center
of the circle. 𝐴
In the picture at right, lines ⃡𝐴𝐸 and 𝐶𝐹
⃡ are secant
lines that intersect at point 𝐵 in the interior of the 𝐸 𝐵
circle. Angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an angle of type three. So are
angles ∠𝐶𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐸𝐵𝐹, ∠𝐹𝐵𝐴. 𝐹
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 256

Type 4 Angle 𝐶

Our fourth type of an angle intersecting a circle is an

angle whose rays lie on two secant lines that intersect
𝐴
at a point that is outside the circle and such that each
ray of the angle intersects the circle.

In the picture at right, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an angle of type 𝐵

four.

Type 5 Angle

Our fifth type of an angle intersecting a circle is an

𝐶
angle whose rays lie on two tangent lines and such
that each ray of the angle intersects the circle.
Because the rays lie in tangent lines, we know that
each ray intersects the circle exactly once.

In the picture at right, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an angle of type 𝐵

five. 𝐴

Type 6 Angle
𝐶
Our sixth type of an angle intersecting a circle is an
angle whose vertex lies on the circle and such that one
ray contains a chord of the circle and the other ray lies
in a line that is tangent to the circle.

In the picture at right, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an angle of type 𝐵

six. 𝐴
𝐶
Type 7 Angle

Our seventh type of an angle intersecting a circle is an

angle whose rays lie on a secant line and tangent line
that intersect outside the circle and such that each ray
of the angle intersects the circle.

In the picture at right, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an angle of type 𝐵

seven. 𝐴

Notice that in each of the seven pictures above, there is a portion of the circle that lies in the
interior of the angle. Those subsets can be described using the terminology of circular arcs. That
terminology is the subject of the next section.
 page 257

Recall that in Euclidean Geometry, any three non-collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 lie on exactly one
circle. (by Theorem 107, found on page 207) We could use the symbol 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) to denote
the unique circle that passes through those three points. Also recall that the Axiom of Separation
gives us the notion of the two half-planes determined by a line (Definition 17, found on page 55).
We can use the symbol 𝐻𝐵 to denote the half-plane determined by line ⃡𝐴𝐶 that contains point 𝐵.
We will use the terminology of half-planes in our definition of circular arcs.

Definition 96 Circular Arc

̂
Symbol: 𝐴𝐵𝐶
Spoken: arc 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶
Usage: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points.
Meaning: the set consisting of points 𝐴 and 𝐶 and all points of 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) that lie on the
⃡ as point 𝐵.
same side of line 𝐴𝐶
Meaning in Symbols: 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ = {𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 ∪ (𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ∩ 𝐻𝐵 )}
Additional terminology:
 Points 𝐴 and 𝐶 are called the endpoints of arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶̂.
 The interior of the arc is the set 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ∩ 𝐻𝐵 .
 If the center 𝑃 lies on the opposite side of line 𝐴𝐶
⃡ from point 𝐵, then arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ is
called a minor arc.
 If the center 𝑃 of 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) lies on the same side of line ⃡𝐴𝐶 as point 𝐵,then arc
̂ is called a major arc.
𝐴𝐵𝐶
 If the center 𝑃 lies on line 𝐴𝐶
⃡ , then arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ is called a semicircle.
Picture:
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
𝐴 𝐶
𝐴 𝐶
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃

𝐴 𝐶
minor arc major arc semicircle

Now that we have the terminology of circular arcs, we can resume the discussion that we started
above about the portion of the circle that lies in the interiors of the seven types of angles. The
termology of an angle intercepting an arc will be useful.

Definition 97 angle intercepting an arc

We say that an angle intercepts an arc if each ray of the angle contains at least one endpoint
of the arc and if the interior of the arc lies in the interior of the angle.

There is a bit of subtlety in the way that this definition is written. It is worthwhile to go examine
our seven types of angles intersecting circles, and consider the arcs that each type intersects.
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 258

𝐶
𝐷

𝐴
̂.
Type 1 Central angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶
𝐵
𝐸

𝐶
𝐷

𝐵
̂.
Type 2 Inscribed angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶

𝐶
𝐷
𝐴
̂.
Type 3 angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶

𝐸 𝐵

𝐶
𝐷

Type 4 angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶̂ and also

̂ 𝐴
intercepts arc 𝐸𝐺𝐹 . Notice that the angle intercepts
two arcs. This is allowed by the definition. 𝐸
𝐺
𝐹
𝐵
 page 259

Type 5 angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts dashed arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶̂ and 𝐶

̂ . Notice that the angle
also intercepts dotted arc 𝐴𝐸𝐶
intercepts two arcs and the arcs share both of their
endpoints.
𝐸
𝐵
𝐴

Type 6 angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts arc 𝐵𝐷𝐶 ̂ . Notice that 𝐶

the angle only intercepts one arc. But both endpoints
of the arc lie on ray 𝐵𝐶 , and one endpoint of the arc 𝐷
lies one ray 𝐵𝐴. This is allowed by the definition,
because each ray of the angle contains at least one
endpoint of the arc.
𝐵
𝐴
𝐶
𝐷
Type 7 angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶̂ and also
̂
intercepts arc 𝐴𝐸𝐺 . Notice that the angle intercepts
two arcs and the arcs share an endpoint.

Question for the reader: Why does angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 not 𝐸

̂?
intercept arc 𝐸𝐴𝐶 𝐺
𝐵
𝐴

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 12.6 on page 274..

12.2. Angle Measure of an Arc

For a given arc on a circle, we would like to have some way of quantifying how far around the
circle the arc goes. That leads us to the idea of the angle measure of an arc. We want to state a
definition that uses function notation, so it will help for us to have a symbol for the set of all
circular arcs.

Definition 98 the symbol for the set of all circular arcs is 𝒜̂ .

We will define the angle measure of an arc using a function.

Definition 99 the angle measure of an arc

Symbol: 𝑚 ̂
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 260

Name: the Arc Angle Measurement Function

Meaning: The function 𝑚̂ : 𝒜̂ → (0,360), defined in the following way:
 If 𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ is a minor arc, then 𝑚 ̂ ) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶), where point 𝑃 is the
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
center of the circle.
 If 𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ is a major arc, then 𝑚 ̂ ) = 360 − 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶), where point 𝑃
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
is the center of the circle.
 If 𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ is a semicircle, then 𝑚 ̂ ) = 180.
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
Picture:
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
𝐴 𝐶
𝐴 𝐶
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃

𝐴 𝐶
minor arc major arc semicircle
𝑚 ̂ ) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶)
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ) = 360 − 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) ̂ ) = 180
𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶

We see that a very small minor arc will have an arc angle measure near zero, while a major arc
that goes almost all the way around the circle will have an arc angle measure near 360. And we
see why, in this definition, the measure of an arc is always greater than zero and less than 360.

Our first theorem is an easy corollary of the definition of arc angle measurement.

Theorem 138 If two distinct arcs share both endpoints, then the sum of their arc angle measures
̂ and 𝐴𝐷𝐶
is 360. That is, if 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ are distinct, then 𝑚 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ) = 360.
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶

Our second theorem uses only the definition of arc angle measurement and has a very simple
proof. You will be asked to prove it in a homework exercise.

Theorem 139 Two chords of a circle are congruent if and only if their corresponding arcs have
the same measure.

Recall the Angle Measure Addition Axiom from the Axioms for Neutral Geometry (Definition
17, found on page 55)

<N9> (Angle Measure Addition Axiom) If 𝐷 is a point in the interior of ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶,

then 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐴𝐶).

Because of the way that arc angle measure is defined in terms of angle measure, it should be no
surprise that arc angle measure will behave in an analogous way. Here is the theorem and its
proof.

Theorem 140 The Arc Measure Addition Theorem

̂ and 𝐶𝐷𝐸
If 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ and 𝐴𝐶𝐸
̂ are arcs, then 𝑚 ̂) = 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐶𝐸 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ).
̂ (𝐶𝐷𝐸
 page 261

The proof is a rather obnoxious one involving five cases. In a homework exercise, you will be
asked to provide drawings.

Proof (for readers interested in advanced topics and for graduate students)
̂ and 𝐶𝐷𝐸
Suppose that 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ and 𝐴𝐶𝐸 ̂ are arcs.
There are exactly five possibilities:
̂ and 𝐶𝐷𝐸
(1) 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ and 𝐴𝐶𝐸 ̂ are minor arcs.
̂ and 𝐶𝐷𝐸
(2) 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ are minor arcs, but 𝐴𝐶𝐸
̂ is a semicircle.
̂ ̂
(3) 𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝐶𝐷𝐸 are minor arcs, but 𝐴𝐶𝐸̂ is a major arc.
̂ is a minor arc, but 𝐶𝐷𝐸
(4) 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ is a semicircle, and 𝐴𝐶𝐸
̂ is a major arc.
̂ is a minor arc, but 𝐶𝐷𝐸
(5): 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ and 𝐴𝐶𝐸 ̂ are major arcs.
We must show that 𝑚 ̂) = 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐶𝐸 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ) in every case.
̂ (𝐶𝐷𝐸
Case 1:
̂ and 𝐶𝐷𝐸
Suppose that 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ and 𝐴𝐶𝐸 ̂ are minor arcs. (Make a drawing)
Then
𝑚 ̂ ) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐸) (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦)
̂ (𝐴𝐶𝐸
= 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) + 𝑚(∠𝐶𝑃𝐸) (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦)
=𝑚 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ) (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦)
̂ (𝐶𝐷𝐸
So 𝑚 ̂) = 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐶𝐸 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ) in this case.
̂ (𝐶𝐷𝐸

Case 2:
̂ and 𝐶𝐷𝐸
Suppose that 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ are minor arcs, but 𝐴𝐶𝐸
̂ is a semicircle. (Make a drawing.)
Then
𝑚 ̂ ) = 180 (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦)
̂ (𝐴𝐶𝐸
= 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) + 𝑚(∠𝐶𝑃𝐸) (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦)
=𝑚 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ) (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦)
̂ (𝐶𝐷𝐸
So 𝑚 ̂) = 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐶𝐸 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ) in this case.
̂ (𝐶𝐷𝐸

Case 3:
̂ and 𝐶𝐷𝐸
Suppose that 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ are minor arcs, but 𝐴𝐶𝐸
̂ is a major arc. (Make a drawing.)
(You provide the steps to prove this case.)
Case 4:
̂ is a minor arc, but 𝐶𝐷𝐸
Suppose that 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ is a semicircle, and 𝐴𝐶𝐸
̂ is a major arc. (Make a
drawing.) (You provide the steps to prove this case.)

Case 5:
̂ is a minor arc, but 𝐶𝐷𝐸
Suppose that 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ and 𝐴𝐶𝐸
̂ are major arcs. (Make a drawing.)
(You provide the steps to prove this case.)

Conclusion:
We see that 𝑚 ̂) = 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐶𝐸 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ) in every case.
̂ (𝐶𝐷𝐸
End of Proof

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 12.6 on page 274.
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 262

12.3. The Measure of Angles Related to the Measures of Arcs

that they Intercept
In Section 12.1, we discussed angles intersecting circles, identifying seven types of angles that
would be of interest to us. We also defined circular arcs and the notion of an angle intercepting
an arc. In Section 12.2, we defined the angle measure of an arc. In this section, we will study the
relationships between the measures of angles that intersect circles and the measures of the arcs
that they intercept. We will consider all seven types of angles from Section 12.1.

We already know that the angle measure of a central angle (Type 1) is equal to the arc angle
measure of the arc intercepted by the angle, because that is how the arc angle measure was
defined.

Next, we will consider inscribed angles (Type 2). Here is a theorem presenting the relationship.
You will justify the proof steps in a homework exercise.

Theorem 141 the angle measure of an inscribed angle (Type 2) is equal to half the arc angle
measure of the intercepted arc.
𝐶
𝐷

̂.
Type 2 Inscribed angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶 𝐵

Proof
(1) Suppose that an inscribed angle is given. There are three possibilities
(i) The center of the circle lies on one of the rays of the angle.
(ii) The center of the circle lies in the interior of the angle.
(ii) The center of the circle lies in the exterior of the angle.
Case (i)
(2) Suppose that the center of the circle lies on one of the rays of the angle. (Make a
drawing.)
(3) (Labeling) Label the angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 so that the center 𝑃 lies on ray 𝐵𝐴. Let 𝐷 be some point
̂ . Let
in the interior of the arc intercepted by ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, so that the arc can be denoted 𝐴𝐷𝐶
𝑥=𝑚 ̂
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶 ) and let 𝑦 = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶). (Update your drawing.) Our goal is to find 𝑦 in
terms of 𝑥.
(4) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) = 𝑥. (Justify. Update your drawing.)
(5) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝑃𝐵𝐶) + 𝑚(∠𝑃𝐶𝐵). (Justify)
(6) ∠𝑃𝐶𝐵 ≅ ∠𝑃𝐵𝐶. (Justify)
(7) Therefore, 𝑚(∠𝑃𝐶𝐵) = 𝑦. (Update your drawing.)
(8) 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 𝑦. (Substituted from steps 3 and 7 into step 5.)
 page 263

𝑥
(9) Therefore, 𝑦 = 2. So in this case, we see that the angle measure of the inscribed angle is
equal to half the arc angle measure of the intercepted arc.
Case (ii)
(10) Suppose that the center of the circle lies in the interior of the angle. (Make a new
drawing.)
(11) (Labeling) Label the angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 and the center 𝑃. Let point 𝐸 be at the other end of a
diameter from point 𝐵. Let 𝐷 be some point in the interior of the arc intercepted by
̂ . Let 𝐹 be some point in the interior of the
∠𝐴𝐵𝐸, so that the arc can be denoted 𝐴𝐷𝐸
arc intercepted by ∠𝐸𝐵𝐶, so that the arc can be denoted 𝐸𝐹𝐶 ̂ . (Update your drawing.)
̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐸𝐶
𝑚
Our goal is to show that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2 .
(12) Then
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐸 ) + 𝑚(∠𝐸𝐵𝐶 ) (𝑱𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒚. )
𝑚 ̂) 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐸 ̂)
̂ (𝐸𝐹𝐶
= + (𝑱𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒚. )
2 2
𝑚 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐸 ̂)
̂ (𝐸𝐹𝐶
=
2
𝑚 ̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐸𝐶
= (𝑱𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒚. )
2
So in this case, we see that the angle measure of the inscribed angle is equal to half the arc
angle measure of the intercepted arc.
Case (iii)
(13) Suppose that the center of the circle lies in the exterior of the angle. (Make a new
drawing.)
(14) (Labeling) Label the angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 and the center 𝑃 so that 𝑃 and 𝐶 lie on opposite sides
⃡ . Let point 𝐹 be at the other end of a diameter from point 𝐵. Let 𝐸 be some
of line 𝐴𝐵
point in the interior of the arc intercepted by ∠𝐴𝐵𝐹, so that the arc can be denoted
̂ . Let 𝐷 be some point in the interior of the arc intercepted by ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, so that the arc
𝐴𝐸𝐹
̂ . (Update your drawing.) Our goal is to show that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) =
can be denoted 𝐴𝐷𝐶
̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶
𝑚
.
2
(15) Then
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐹𝐵𝐶) − 𝑚(∠𝐹𝐵𝐴) (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦. )
𝑚 ̂) 𝑚
̂ (𝐹𝐴𝐶 ̂)
̂ (𝐹𝐸𝐴
= − (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦. )
2 2
𝑚 ̂) − 𝑚
̂ (𝐹𝐴𝐶 ̂)
̂ (𝐹𝐸𝐴
=
2
𝑚 ̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶
= (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦. )
2
So in this case, we see that the angle measure of the inscribed angle is equal to half the arc
angle measure of the intercepted arc.
Conclusion
(16) We see that in every case, the angle measure of the inscribed angle is equal to half the
arc angle measure of the intercepted arc.
End of Proof

There is a very simple corollary that turnes out to be extremely useful:

Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 264

Theorem 142 (Corollary) Any inscribed angle that intercepts a semicircle is a right angle.

The two figures below illustrate Theorem 142

𝐷 𝐷

𝐴 𝐶 𝐴 𝐶
𝑃 𝑃
𝐵

𝐵
𝑚 ̂ ) 180
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = = = 90
2 2

Now on to Type 3 angles. You will justify the steps of the proof in a homework exercise.

Theorem 143 the angle measure of an angle of Type 3.

The angle measure of an angle of Type 3 is equal to the average of the arc angle measures of
two arcs. One arc is the arc intercepted by the angle, itself. The other arc is the arc
intercepted by the angle formed by the opposite rays of the original angle.
𝐶
In the figure at right, Type 3 angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂. 𝐷
The theorem states that
̂) + 𝑚 ̂) 𝐴
𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂ (𝐸𝐺𝐹
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) =
2
𝐸 𝐵
𝐺
𝐹
Proof
(1) Suppose that an angle of Type 3 is given. (Make a drawing.)
(2) (Labeling) Label the angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. Ray 𝐵𝐴 lies in a secant line. Let 𝐸 be the second point
of intersection of that secant line and the circle. Ray 𝐵𝐶 lies in a secant line. Let 𝐹 be the
second point of intersection of that secant line and the circle. Let 𝐷 be some point in the
interior of the arc intercepted by angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, so that the arc can be denoted 𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂ . Let 𝐺
be some point in the interior of the arc intercepted by angle ∠𝐸𝐵𝐹, so that the arc can be
̂ . (Update your drawing.) Our goal is to show that
denoted 𝐸𝐺𝐹
𝑚 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂)
̂ (𝐸𝐺𝐹
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) =
2
(3) Then
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐸𝐶) + 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐶𝐸) (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦. )
𝑚 ̂) 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂)
̂ (𝐸𝐺𝐹
= + (𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦. )
2 2
𝑚 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂)
̂ (𝐸𝐺𝐹
=
2
End of proof
 page 265

Now on to Type 4 angles. You will prove the following theorem in a homework exercise.

Theorem 144 the angle measure of an angle of Type 4.

The angle measure of an angle of Type 4 is equal to one half the difference of the arc angle
measures of the two arcs intercepted by the angle. (The difference computed by subracting
the smaller arc angle measure from the larger one.)

𝐶
In the figure at right, Type 4 angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts 𝐷
̂ and also intercepts arc 𝐸𝐺𝐹
arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂ . Notice that the
angle intercepts two arcs. This is allowed by the
definition. The theorem states that 𝐴
𝑚 ̂) − 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂)
̂ (𝐸𝐺𝐹 𝐸
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐺
2
𝐹
𝐵
The proof is left to you as a homework exercise.

Now on to Type 5 angles. You will justify steps and fill in details of the proof in a homework
exercise.

Theorem 145 the angle measure of an angle of Type 5.

The angle measure of an angle of Type 5 can be related to the arc angle measures of the arcs
that it intersects in three useful ways:
(i) The angle measure of the angle is equal to 180 minus the arc angle measure of
the smaller intercepted arc
(ii) The angle measure of the angle is equal to the arc angle measure of the larger
intercepted arc minus 180
(iii) The angle measure of the angle is equal to half the difference of the arc angle
measures of the two arcs intercepted by the angle. (The difference computed
by subracting the smaller arc angle measure from the larger one.)

̂ and 𝐷
Type 5 angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts dashed arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶
̂ . Notice that the angle
also intercepts dotted arc 𝐴𝐸𝐶
𝐶
intercepts two arcs and the arcs share both of their
endpoints. The theorem states that
𝑚 ̂) − 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐸𝐶
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) =
2
𝐸
𝐵
𝐴
Proof
(1) Suppose that an angle of Type 5 is given. (Make a drawing.)
(2) (Labeling) The two rays of the angle lie in tangent lines that intersect at a point outside
the circle. Each ray of the angle intersects the circle. Because the rays lie in tangent lines,
we know that each ray intersects the circle exactly once. Label the angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 with
points 𝐴 and 𝐶 being the points of intersection of the angle with the circle. The angle
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 266

intercepts a major arc and a minor arc. Let 𝐷 be a point in the interior of the major arc,
and let 𝐸 be a point in the interior of the minor arc. So the major and minor arcs are
denoted by the symbols 𝐴𝐷𝐶̂ and 𝐴𝐸𝐶 ̂ . (Update your drawing.) With this labeling, our
goal is to show that the following three equations are true:
(i) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 180 − 𝑚 ̂ ).
̂ (𝐴𝐸𝐶
(ii) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚 ̂ ) − 180.
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶
̂ )−𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶
𝑚 ̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐸𝐶
(iii) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = .
2
(3) (Show that equation (i) is true.) Let 𝑃 be the center of the circle and consider
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝑃). This is a convex quadrilateral, so its angle sum is 360. (Justify.)
Observe that ∠𝐵𝐴𝑃 and ∠𝐵𝐶𝑃 are right angles. (Justify.) (Update your drawing.) From
here, you should be able to complete the steps to show that equation (i) is true. (Show the
details.)
(4) (Show that equation (ii) is true.) Determine the relationship between the measure of major
̂ and minor arc 𝐴𝐸𝐶
arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂ . Using this relationship and equation (i), you should be able
to show that equation (ii) is true. (Show the details.)
(5) (Show that equation (iii) is true.) Add equation (i) and equation (ii) together and divide by
2. (Show the details.)
End of proof

Now on to Type 6 angles. You will justify some of the steps in the proof and fill in some missing
steps in a homework exercise.

Theorem 146 the angle measure of an angle of Type 6.

The angle measure of an angle of Type 6 is equal to one half the arc angle measure of the arc
intercepted by the angle.
In the picture at right, Type 6 angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts
̂ . Notice that the angle only intercepts one arc.
arc 𝐵𝐷𝐶
But both endpoints of the arc lie on ray 𝐵𝐶 , and one
𝐶
endpoint of the arc lies one ray 𝐵𝐴. This is allowed by
the definition, because each ray of the angle contains
𝐷
at least one endpoint of the arc. Note that the picture is
the special case when angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is acute, but this is
not necessarily the case. The theorem states that
𝑚 ̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶 𝐵
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐴
2
Proof
(1) Suppose that an angle of Type 6 is given.
(2) There are three possibilities for the angle.
(i) It is a right angle.
(ii) It is an obtuse angle. That is, its measure is greater than 90.
(iii) It is an acute angle. That is, its measure is less than 90.
Case (i)
(3) Suppose that the angle is a right angle (Make a drawing.)
(4) (Labeling) Label the angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 where 𝐴 is a point on the tangent ray and 𝐶 is the
second point of intersection of the secant ray and the circle. Let 𝐷 be a point in the
interior of the arc intercepted by the angle, so that the arc is denoted by the symbols
 page 267

̂ . (Update your drawing.) With this labeling, our goal is to show that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) =
𝐵𝐷𝐶
̂)
̂ (𝐵𝐷𝐶
𝑚
.
2
(5) But 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 90 because it is a right angle, and 𝑚 ̂ ) = 180 because it is a
̂ (𝐵𝐷𝐶
̂)
̂ (𝐵𝐷𝐶
𝑚
semicircle. So the equation 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2 is true. So in this case, the angle
measure of the angle of Type 6 is equal to one half the arc angle measure of the arc
intercepted by the angle.

Case (ii)
(6) Suppose that the angle is obtuse. (Make a new drawing.)
(7) (Labeling) Label the angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 where 𝐴 is a point on the tangent line and 𝐶 is the
second point of intersection of the secant line of the circle.
(8) There exist a point 𝐷 on the same side of line ⃡𝐴𝐵 as point 𝐶 such that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) = 90.
(Justify.) (Make a new drawing.)
(9) Ray 𝐴𝐷 intersects the circle at a point that we can label 𝐸. (Justify.) (Update your
drawing.) Observe that point 𝐸 is in the interior of angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, and that angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ . (Update your drawing.) With this labeling, our goal is to show that
intercepts arc 𝐵𝐸𝐶
̂)
̂ (𝐵𝐸𝐶
𝑚
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2 .
(10) Let 𝐹 be a point in the interior of the arc intercepted by angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐸, so that the arc is
denoted by the symbols 𝐵𝐹𝐸̂ , and let 𝐺 be a point in the interior of the arc intercepted
by angle ∠𝐸𝐵𝐶, so that the arc is denoted by the symbols 𝐸𝐺𝐶 ̂ . (Update your
drawing.)
̂)
̂ (𝐵𝐹𝐸
𝑚
(11) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐸) = 90 = . (Justify.)
2
̂)
̂ (𝐸𝐺𝐶
𝑚
(12) 𝑚(∠𝐸𝐵𝐶) = . (Justify.)
2
𝑚 ̂)
̂ (𝐵𝐹𝐸 ̂)
̂ (𝐸𝐺𝐶
𝑚
(13) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = + . (Justify.)
2 2
̂)
̂ (𝐵𝐸𝐶
𝑚
(14) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = . (Justify.)
2

Case (iii)
(15) Suppose that the angle is acute. (Make a new drawing.) You should be able to prove
that in this case, the angle measure of the angle of Type 6 is equal to one half the arc
angle measure of the arc intercepted by the angle. (Fill in the missing steps, with
justifications.)

Conclusion of cases
(16) We see that in every case, the angle measure of the angle of Type 6 is equal to one half
the arc angle measure of the arc intercepted by the angle.
End of proof

Finally, our last proof relating the measures of angles of Types 1 – 7 to the arc angle measure of
the arcs that they intersect. We will state and prove a result about Type 7 angles. The proof will
make use of the result for Type 6 angles. You will justify the proof steps in a homework
exercise.

Theorem 147 the angle measure of an angle of Type 7.

Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 268

The angle measure of an angle of Type 7 is equal to one half the difference of the arc angle
measures of the two arcs intercepted by the angle. (The difference computed by subracting
the smaller arc angle measure from the larger one.
𝐶
̂
Type 7 angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶 and also 𝐷
̂ . Notice that the angle intercepts
intercepts arc 𝐴𝐸𝐹
two arcs and the arcs share an endpoint. The theorem
states that
𝑚 ̂) − 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂)
̂ (𝐸𝐺𝐴
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐸
2
𝐺
The proof is left to you as a homework exercise. 𝐵
𝐴

So far, this chapter has just been about the list of seven types of angles and the arcs that they
intersect. We have studied theorems about relationships between their measures. In the next two
sections and in the exercises, we will see how these theorems can be put to use to solve
interesting geometric problems.

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 12.6 on page 274.

12.4. Cyclic Quadrilaterals

We know from Theorem 107 that in Euclidean Geometry, every triangle can be circumscribed.
That is, there exists a circle that passes through all three vertices of the triangle. (Another way of
stating this fact is that given any three non-collinear points in Euclidean Geometry, there exists a
circle that passes through them.) And the circle is unique: there cannot be two different circles
that pass through the same three points. We know this because the center of the circle must be at
the point where the perpendicular bisectors of the three sides of the triangle intersect. There is
only one such point.

Can the same be said of quadrilaterals in Euclidean Geometry? That is, can every quadrilateral
be circumscribed?

It is obvious from pictures that a non-convex quadrilateral cannot be

circumscribed. A circle that goes through three of the vertices will not pass
through the fourth. We haven’t proven this, but we won’t bother trying to
prove it. Non-convex quadrilaterals are too messy to deal with.

But what about convex quadrilaterals? Can they be circumscribed? Or are there some that can be
circumscribed and some that cannot?
 page 269

𝐴 𝐷
A quick answer is, of course there are some that can be circumscribed
and some that cannot be circumscribed. In the picture at right, we know 𝐸
that 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐸) cannot be circumscribed, because the only circle that
passes through vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 is the one shown, and it does not pass
through 𝐸. 𝐵 𝐶
It turns out that there is a simple test to determine whether or not a convex quadrilateral can be
circumscribed, and the test is a nice application of the theorems of the previous section.

First, a definition.

Definition 100 cyclic quadrilateral

A quadrilateral is said to be cyclic if the quadrilateral can be circumscribed. That is, if there
exists a circle that passes through all four vertices of the quadrilateral.

We start by considering a quadrilateral that is known to be cyclic. Here is a theorem that you will
prove in the exercises. Its proof uses Theorem 141 about the measure of inscribed angles.
𝐷 𝐶
Theorem 148 In Euclidean Geometry, in any cyclic quadrilateral, the
sum of the measures of each pair of opposite angles is
180. That is, if 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷) is cyclic, then 𝑚(∠𝐴) +
𝑚(∠𝐶) = 180 and 𝑚(∠𝐵) + 𝑚(∠𝐷) = 180. 𝐵
𝐴

An obvious question is, does the theorem just presented work in reverse? That is, if it is known
that a quadrilateral has the property that the sum of the measures of each pair of opposite angles
is 180, then will the quadrilateral definitely be cyclic? The answer will turn out to be yes, but we
need to prove that answer as a theorem. To do that, we will need a preliminary theorem.

Theorem 149 about angles that intercept a given arc

̂ and a point 𝑃 on the opposite side of line ⃡𝐴𝐶 from
In Euclidean geometry, given an arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶
point 𝐵, the following are equivalent:
(1) Point 𝑃 lies on 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶).
̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝑚
(2) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) = .
2
Proof
In Euclidean geometry, given an arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶̂ and a point 𝑃 on the opposite side of line ⃡𝐴𝐶 from
̂.
point 𝐵, the angle ∠𝐴𝑃𝐶 will intercept arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝐶
Show that (1)  (2). 𝐵
Suppose that (1) is true. That is, suppose that point 𝑃 lies
on 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶). Then ∠𝐴𝑃𝐶 will be an inscribed angle.
Theorem 141 about the measure of inscribed angles tells 𝑃
̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝑚
us that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) = 2
, So (2) is true.

Show that ~(1)  ~(2).

𝐴
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 270

Suppose that (1) is false. That is, suppose that point 𝑃 does not lie on 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶). Then
𝑃 lies in the interior of the circle or in the exterior.

If 𝑃 lies in the interior of the circle, then it is an angle of Type 1 or Type 3.

𝐶
𝐵 𝐶
𝐵
𝐴
𝐴
𝑃
𝑃

̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝑚
In either case, 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) > . (Justify) So statement (2) is false.
2

If 𝑃 lies in the exterior of the circle, then it is an angle of Type 4, 5, or 7.

𝐶 𝐵 𝐶
𝐵 𝐵
𝐶
𝐴
𝐹
𝐸 𝐸
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝐴 𝐴
̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝑚
In either case, 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) < . (Justify) So statement (2) is false.
2

We see that in all cases, statement (2) is false.

End of proof

With Theorem 149 at our disposal, it is now possible to prove a theorem that answers the
question that we posed earlier: If it is known that a quadrilateral has the property that the sum of
the measures of each pair of opposite angles is 180, then will the quadrilateral definitely be
cyclic? We discussed the fact that the answer would turn out to be yes. Here is the theorem.

Theorem 150 In Euclidean Geometry, in any convex quadrilateral, if the sum of the measures of
either pair of opposite angles is 180, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
Proof
In Euclidean geometry, suppose that a convex quadrilateral has the property that the sum of
the measures of one of its pairs of opposite angles is 180. Label the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 so that
it is angles ∠𝐵 and ∠𝐷 whose measures add up to 180. Let 𝑥 = 𝑚(∠𝐵) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶), and
let 𝑦 = 𝑚(∠𝐷) = 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐷𝐴).

For now, forget about point 𝐷 and consider just points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶. By Theorem 107, there exists
a 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) that passes through these three points. The picture below illustrates such a
 page 271

circle. In the picture, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts a dotted arc. By Theorem 141 about the measure
of inscribed angles, the arc angle measure of the dotted arc must be 2𝑥. By Theorem 138, the
̂ that makes up the rest of the circle must be 360 −
arc angle measure of the dashed arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶
2𝑥.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 2𝑥
𝐶

𝑥
𝐴 ̂ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 360 − 2𝑥
𝐵 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝑚 ̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 360−2𝑥
̂ . Observe that
Now consider the dashed arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = = 180 − 𝑥. This is the
2 2
number that is the known measure of ∠𝐷 in our quadrilateral. Since point 𝐷 lies on the
⃡ from point 𝐵 and has the property that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐷𝐶) = 180 − 𝑥 =
opposite side of line 𝐴𝐶
̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝑚
, Theorem 149 tells us that point must 𝐷 lie somewhere on the dotted arc.
2
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐷𝐶) = 180 − 𝑥,
𝐶 𝑠𝑜 𝐷 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐷 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑐.

𝑥
𝐴 ̂ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 360 − 2𝑥
𝐵 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝐵𝐶
So point 𝐷 must lie on 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶). In other words, 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷) is cyclic!
End of proof

Before going on to read the next section, you should do the exercises for the current section. The
exercises are found in Section 12.6 on page 274.

12.5. The Intersecting Secants Theorem

So far in this chapter, our theorems have been about the measure of angles that intersect circles.
In this final section of the chapter, we will turn our attention to the lengths of chords and other
segments on secant lines. We will will only study three theorems. The key to all three is this first
theorem. You will see that its proof uses similarity.

Theorem 151 The Intersecting Secants Theorem

In Euclidean geometry, if two secant lines intersect, then the product of the distances from
the intersection point to the two points where one secant line intersects the circle equals the
product of the distances from the intersection point to the two points where the other secant
line intersects the circle. That is, if secant line 𝐿 passes through a point 𝑄 and intersects the
circle at points 𝐴 and 𝐵 and secant line 𝑀 passes through a point 𝑄 and intersects the circle at
points 𝐷 and 𝐸, then 𝑄𝐴 ⋅ 𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐷 ⋅ 𝑄𝐸.

Proof
Case 1: 𝑸 is outside the circle.
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 272

(1) Suppose that 𝑄 is outside the circle. Then label the two intersection points of the circle
and line 𝐿 as 𝐴, 𝐵 so that 𝑄 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵. And label the two intersection points of the circle
and line 𝑀 as 𝐷, 𝐸 so that 𝑄 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐸.
𝐸 𝑀
𝐷
𝑄

𝐴 𝐵
𝐿

(2) Observe that ∠𝑄𝐵𝐷 ≅ ∠𝑄𝐸𝐴. (Justify.)

(3) Therefore, Δ𝑄𝐵𝐷~Δ𝑄𝐸𝐴. (Justify.) (Make a new drawing of the separate triangles.)
𝑄𝐵 𝑄𝐷
(4) So 𝑄𝐸 = 𝑄𝐴.
(5) Therefore, 𝑄𝐴 ⋅ 𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐷 ⋅ 𝑄𝐸 .

Case 2: 𝑸 is on the circle.

(6) Suppose that 𝑄 is on the circle. Then label the two intersection points of the circle and
line 𝐿 as 𝐴, 𝐵 so that 𝑄 = 𝐴. And label the two intersection points of the circle and line 𝑀
as 𝐷, 𝐸 so that 𝑄 = 𝐷.
(7) Observe that in this case, 𝑄𝐴 = 0 = 𝑄𝐷, so the equation

𝑄𝐴 ⋅ 𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐷 ⋅ 𝑄𝐸

becomes the trivial equation 0 = 0, which is true.

Case 3: 𝑸 is inside the circle but not at the center.

(8) Suppose that 𝑄 is inside the circle but not at the center. Then label the two intersection
points of the circle and line 𝐿 as 𝐴, 𝐵 so that 𝐴 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐵. And label the two intersection
points of the circle and line 𝑀 as 𝐷, 𝐸, it doesn’t matter the order.
𝑀
𝐸

𝐴 𝑄

𝐷 𝐵 𝐿

(9) Fill in the missing details to show that the equation

𝑄𝐴 ⋅ 𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐷 ⋅ 𝑄𝐸
is true in this case as well.

Case 4: 𝑸 is at the center of the circle.

(10) In this case, the four segments ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅, ̅̅̅̅
𝑄𝐴, 𝑄𝐵 𝑄𝐷, ̅̅̅̅
𝑄𝐸 are all radial segments, with length 𝑟, so
the equation
 page 273

𝑄𝐴 ⋅ 𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐷 ⋅ 𝑄𝐸

becomes the trivial equation 𝑟 2 = 𝑟 2, which is true.

End of proof

The final theorem of the chapter has a statement that is believable. You will be asked to provide
a proof in the exercises.

Theorem 152 about intersecting secant and tangent lines.

In Euclidean geometry, if a secant line and tangent line intersect, then the square of the
distance from the point of intersection to the point of tangency equals the product of the
distances from the intersection point to the two points where the secant line intersects the
circle. That is, if a secant line passes through a point 𝑄 and intersects the circle at points 𝐴
and 𝐵 and a tangent line passes through 𝑄 and intersects the circle at 𝐷, then
(𝑄𝐷)2 = 𝑄𝐴 ⋅ 𝑄𝐵

In the figure at right, secant line 𝐿 intercepts the 𝐿

𝐵
circle at points 𝐴 and 𝐵. Line 𝑀 is tangent to the
circle at point 𝐷. Lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 intersect at point
𝑄. The theorem states that (𝑄𝐷)2 = 𝑄𝐴 ⋅ 𝑄𝐵.
𝐴
The proof is left to you as a homework exercise. 𝑄 𝐷
𝑀

.
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 274

12.6. Exercises for Chapter 12

Exercises for Section 12.1 Circular Arcs (Section starts on page 255.)

[1] The notion of an angle intercepting an arc was made precise in Definition 97 (angle
intercepting an arc, found on page 257). In the discussion of the Type 7 angle, it is written that
̂ and also intercepts arc 𝐴𝐸𝐹
angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 intercepts arc 𝐴𝐷𝐶 ̂ . Why does angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 not
̂
intercept arc 𝐹𝐴𝐶 ? Explain.

Exercises for Section 12.2 Angle Measure of an Arc (Section starts on page 259.)

[2] Prove Theorem 139: Two chords of a circle are congruent if and only if their corresponding
arcs have the same measure.

[3] (Advanced) Provide drawings and fill in the missing part for the proof of Theorem 140 (The
Arc Measure Addition Theorem) (found on page 260).

Exercises for Section 12.3 The Measure of Angles Related to the Measures of Arcs that they
Intercept (Section starts on page 262.)

[4] Justify the steps and provide drawings for the proof of Theorem 141 (the angle measure of an
inscribed angle (Type 2) is equal to half the arc angle measure of the intercepted arc.) (found on
page 262).

[5] Tangent circles were defined in Definition 69. They are circles that intersect in exactly one
point. In Section 8.6 Exercises [19] and [20], it was proven that two tangent circles share a
tangent line at their point of tangency, and that the centers of the two circles and their point of
tangency are collinear.

Two circles called 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃1 , 𝑟) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃2 , 𝑅) are

tangent at point 𝐴. 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃1 , 𝑟) is inside 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃2 , 𝑅). 𝐶
𝑀
That is, center 𝑃1 is in the interior of 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃2 , 𝑅), and 𝑟 < 𝐸
𝑅. By the result cited above, points 𝐴, 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 are collinear on
a line that we can call 𝐿. This line is a secant line for both 𝐿
circles. Its second point of intersection with 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃1 , 𝑟) is 𝐴 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝐷 𝐵
labeled 𝐷; its second point of intersection with
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃2 , 𝑅) is labeled 𝐵. A second secant line 𝑀
intersects 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃1 , 𝑟) at points 𝐴 and 𝐸 and intersects
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃2 , 𝑅) at points 𝐴 and 𝐶. Prove that Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶~Δ𝐴𝐷𝐸.

[6] In the drawing for the previous problem, suppose that 𝐴𝐸 = 8 and 𝐸𝐶 = 4 and 𝐷𝐸 = 6. Find
𝐵𝐶 and the two radii 𝑟 and 𝑅.

𝐸 𝐶
[7] In the drawing at right, the two circles are tangent. 𝐷 is the
midpoint of segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 . Prove that 𝐸 is the midpoint of segment
̅̅̅̅ . 𝐴 𝐷 𝐵
𝐴𝐶
 page 275

[8] Justify the steps and provide drawings for the proof of Theorem 143 (the angle measure of an
angle of Type 3.) (found on page 264).

[9] Prove Theorem 144 (the angle measure of an angle of Type 4.) (found on page 265).

[10] Justify the steps, fill in missing details, and provide drawings for the proof of Theorem 145
(the angle measure of an angle of Type 5.) (found on page 265).

[11] Justify the steps, fill in missing details, and provide drawings for the proof of Theorem 146
(the angle measure of an angle of Type 6.) (found on page 266).

[12] Parallel lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 both intersect a circle. There are two arcs that have the following
properties:
 One endpoint of the arc lies on each line.
 The interior of the arc lies between the lines.
We will say that these two arcs are intercepted by the parallel lines 𝐿 and 𝑀. Prove that the two
arcs have the same measure.

There are three possible cases. Use the following notation.

Case 1: Lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are both tangent. The two intercepted 𝑀 𝐶

̂ and 𝐴𝐷𝐶
̂. 𝐵
arcs can be labeled 𝐴𝐵𝐶
Prove that 𝑚 ̂) = 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ).
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶
Hint: Draw segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 . 𝐿 𝐴
𝐷

Case 2: Lines 𝐿 is a tangent line and line 𝑀 is a secant line.

̂ and 𝐴𝐷𝐸 ̂. 𝑀 𝐶 𝐸
The two intercepted arcs can be labeled 𝐴𝐵𝐶
Prove that 𝑚 ̂) = 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ).
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐸
Hint: Draw segment 𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ . 𝐵 𝐷
𝐿 𝐴

Case 3: Both lines are secant lines. The two intercepted arcs
̂ and 𝐷𝐸𝐹 ̂. 𝑀 𝐶 𝐹
can be labeled 𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝐸
𝐵
Prove that 𝑚 ̂) = 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ).
̂ (𝐷𝐸𝐹
Hint: Draw segment 𝐷𝐶̅̅̅̅ . 𝐿 𝐴 𝐷

[13] Prove Theorem 147 (the angle measure of an angle of Type 7.) (found on page 267).

Exercises for Section 12.4 Cyclic Quadrilaterals (Section starts on page 268.)

[14] Prove Theorem 148 (In Euclidean Geometry, in any cyclic quadrilateral, the sum of the
measures of each pair of opposite angles is 180. That is, if 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷) is cyclic, then
𝑚(∠𝐴) + 𝑚(∠𝐶) = 180 and 𝑚(∠𝐵) + 𝑚(∠𝐷) = 180.) (found on page 269).

Exercises for Section 12.5 The Intersecting Secants Theorem (Section starts on page 271.)
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 276

[15] Justify the steps and fill in the missing parts of the proof of Theorem 151 (The Intersecting
Secants Theorem) (found on page 271).

[16] Prove Theorem 152 (about intersecting secant and tangent lines.) (found on page 273).
Make lots of drawings.
Hint: Study the proof of Theorem 151 (The Intersecting Secants Theorem) (found on page 271).
Notice the key to the proof was to identify two similar triangles. They were known to be similar
by the AA Similarity Theorem. One of the pairs of congruent angles was known to be congruent
because they were either the same angle or vertical angles. The other pair of congruent angles
was known to be congruent because they were both inscribed angles and they intercepted the
same arc. The same sort of strategy will work for this theorem.

𝑥 3
5
6
[17] The figure at right is not drawn to scale. Find 𝑥. 𝑄

𝐴 𝐵
7 5
[18] In the figure at right, the circle has radius 𝑟 = 4. If 𝑄𝐴 = 7
and 𝐴𝐵 = 5, find 𝑄𝐶. 𝑄 𝐶

[19] In the proof of Theorem 151 Cases 1 and 3, similar triangles are used. In both cases, the
proof uses the equality of the ratios of the lengths of two pairs of corresponding sides that all
have the point 𝑄 as one of their endpoints. It is reasonable to wonder if anything useful can be
made of the fact that the ratio of the lengths of the third pair of corresponding sides (the sides
that don’t touch point 𝑄) is also the same. That is, in those figures,
𝑄𝐵 𝑄𝐷 𝐵𝐷
= =
𝑄𝐸 𝑄𝐴 𝐸𝐴
Here is a rockin problem that uses the ratio of the lengths of the third sides. I did not make this
problem up. It was created by a mathematician named Vasil'ev and appeared in the Russian
magazine Kvant (M26, March-April, 1991, 30). (According to Wikipedia, Kvant (Russian:
Квант for "quantum") is a popular science magazine in physics and mathematics for school
students and teachers, issued since 1970 in Soviet Union and continued in Russia.) It was also
included in the book Mathematical Chestnuts from Around the World, by R. Honsberger.

Boat 1 and boat 2, which travel at constant speeds, 𝐸

not necessarily the same speed, depart at the same
time from docks 𝐴 and 𝐷, respectively, on the
banks of a circular lake. If they go straight to
docks 𝐵 and 𝐸, respectively, they collide. Prove 𝐴 𝑄
that if boat 1 goes instead straight to dock 𝐸 and 𝐶 𝐵
boat 2 goes straight to dock 𝐵, they arrive at their 𝐷
destinations simultaneously.
 page 277

Hints: (Okay, this is really a complete outline of the solution.)

(1) Let 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 be the speeds of boat 1 and boat 2.

𝐴𝑄
(2) The time it takes boat 1 to get from 𝐴 to 𝑄 is .
𝑣1
𝐷𝑄
(3) The time it takes boat 2 to get from 𝐷 to 𝑄 is .
𝑣2
The times in steps (2) and (3) must be equal, because the boats will collide at 𝑄.
𝐴𝐸
(4) The time it takes boat 1 to get from 𝐴 to 𝐸 is .
𝑣1
𝐷𝐵
(5) The time it takes boat 2 to get from 𝐷 to 𝐵 is .
𝑣2
The goal is to prove that the times in steps (4) and (5) are equal to each other.

(6) Because the times in steps (2) and (3) must be equal, the two ratios must be equal to each
𝑣
other. Set the two ratios equal to each other and solve for the ratio 𝑣1. The result should be an
2
𝑣 𝐴𝑄
equation that involves the ratio 𝑣1 and also involves the ratio 𝐷𝑄.
2

(7) Using facts about angles and arcs that we have learned in this chapter, identify similar
triangles.
𝐴𝑄 𝐴𝐸
(8) Find a realtionship between the the ratio 𝐷𝑄 and the ratio 𝐷𝐵.

(9) From your results of steps (6) and (8), you should be able to get an equation expressing a
𝑣 𝐴𝐸
relationship between the ratio 𝑣1 and the ratio 𝐷𝐵.
2

(10) Rearrange the equation from step (9) to get a new equation expressing a relationship
𝐴𝐸 𝐷𝐵
between the ratio 𝑣 and the ratio 𝑣 .
1 2
Chapter 11 Euclidean Geometry III: Area page 278

.
 page 279

13. Euclidean Geometry VI: Advanced

Theorems about Triangles
This short chapter presents some advanced theorems about triangles in Euclidean Geometry. You
will be asked to prove them.

13.1. Six Theorems

Our first theorem is about the existence of a point of intersection of three circles attached to a
triangle.

Theorem 153 Miquel’s Theorem

If points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 are given such that points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear and 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 and
𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐶 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐴, then 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐷, 𝐹) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐵, 𝐸, 𝐷) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐶, 𝐹, 𝐸) exist
and there exists a point 𝐺 that lies on all three circles.
C C
F E F E

G
B B
A D Thm 153 A D

The next theorem is about a surprising relationship between the collinearity of three points on the
lines determined by the sides of a triangle and the ratios of the lengths of certain segments
defined by those points.

Theorem 154 Menelaus’s Theorem

Given: points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 such that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear and 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷 and 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐶
and 𝐶 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐴
Claim: The following are equivalent
(1) Points 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 are collinear.
𝐴𝐷 𝐵𝐸 𝐶𝐹
(2) 𝐷𝐵 ⋅ 𝐶𝐸 ⋅ 𝐴𝐹 = −1
C
F E 𝐴𝐷 𝐵𝐸 𝐶𝐹
⋅ ⋅ = −1
Thm 154 𝐷𝐵 𝐶𝐸 𝐴𝐹
A B D

The next theorem is about a surprising relationship between the concurrence of three lines
determined by points on the sides of a triangle and the ratios of the lengths of certain segments
determined by those points.
Chapter12: Euclidean Geometry IV: Circles page 280

Theorem 155 Ceva’s Theorem

Given: points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 such that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear and 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐶
and 𝐶 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐴
Claim: The following are equivalent
(1) Lines ⃡𝐴𝐸 , ⃡𝐵𝐹 , ⃡𝐶𝐷 are concurrent
𝐴𝐷 𝐵𝐸 𝐶𝐹
(2) 𝐷𝐵 ⋅ 𝐶𝐸 ⋅ 𝐴𝐹 = 1
C
E
F 𝐴𝐷 𝐵𝐸 𝐶𝐹
⋅ ⋅ =1
Thm 155 𝐷𝐵 𝐶𝐸 𝐴𝐹
A D B

The next theorem is a corollary to Ceva’s Theorem.

Theorem 156 (Corollary to Ceva’s Theorem)

If 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points and 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐶 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐴 are the points of
tangency of the inscribed circle for Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, then lines ⃡𝐴𝐸 , 𝐵𝐹 ⃡ are concurrent.
⃡ , 𝐶𝐷
C C
F F
E E

Thm 156
A D B A D B

Recall our three important theorems about concurrence of each of three kinds of important lines
associated to triangles.
 In Theorem 106 on page 206, we proved that the perpindicular bisectors of the three sides
of any triangle are concurrrent. In Definition 71 we gave the name circumcenter to that
point of concurrence.
 In Theorem 113 on page 211, we proved that the three altitudes of any triangle are
concurrent. Definition 76 gave the name orthocenter to that point of concurrence.
 In Theorem 116 on page 212, we proved that the three medians of any triangle are
concurrent. Definition 78 gave the name centroid to that point of concurrence.

Of course, if a triangle is equilateral, then the three kinds of important lines are all the same lines
(Can you prove this? The proof would be similar to the proof of Theorem 85 on page 191), so the
circumcenter, orthocenter, and centroid will all be the same point.
 page 281

The following surprising theorem is about the case where the triangle is not equilateral.

Theorem 157 Collinearity of the orthcenter, centroid, and circumcenter

If a non-equilateral triangle’s orthcenter, centroid, and circumcenter are labeled 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶,
Then 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are collinear, with 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐴𝐵 = 2𝐵𝐶.

A
B
C
Orthocenter Centroid
(point of concurrence of (point of concurrence of Circumcenter
altitudes) medians) (point of concurrence of
perpendicular bisectors)

A
B
Thm 157 C

Definition 101 The Euler Line of a non-equilateral triangle

Given a non-equilateral triangle, the Euler Line is defined to be the line containing the
orthocenter, centroid, and circumcenter of that triangle. (Existence and uniqueness of this
line is guaranteed by Theorem 157.)

The statement of our final theorem of the section is made simpler if we first introduce a new kind
of special point.

Definition 102 The three Euler Points of a triangle are defined to be the midpoints of the
segments connecting the vertices to the orthocenter.

Given any triangle, consider the following three sets of three special points and the three special
circles that they define.
 The midpoints of the three sides. These could be labeled 𝑀1 , 𝑀2 , 𝑀3 . These three points
are non-collinear (Can you explain why?), so there exists a circle that passes through all
three. It would be denonted 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑀1 , 𝑀2 , 𝑀3 )
 The feet of the three altitudes. These could be labeled 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 . These are the points
where the altitude lines intersect the lines defined by the vertices. The three feet are non-
collinear (Can you explain why?), so as with the three midoints, there exists a circle that
passes through all three feet. It would be denoted 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 ).
 The feet of the three Euler points. These could be labeled 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 . The three Euler
points are non-collinear (Can you explain why?), so as with the three midoints and the
three feet, there exists a circle that passes through all three Euler points. It would be
denoted 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 ).
Chapter12: Euclidean Geometry IV: Circles page 282

It is an astonishing fact that the three special circles described above are in fact the same circle.
That is, there exists a single circle that passes through all nine special points. This fact is
articulated in the following theorem.

Theorem 158 Existence of a circle passing through nine special points associated to a triangle
For every triangle, there exists a single circle that passes through the midpoints of the three
sides, the feet of the three altitudes, and the three Euler points.

Definition 103 The nine point circle associated to a triangle is the circle that passes through the
midpoints of the three sides, the feet of the three altitudes, and the three Euler
points. (The existence of the nine point circle is guaranteed by Theorem 158.)

The drawing below illustrates the statement of Theorem 158.

circle passing through circle passing through circle passing through

the midpoints of the feet of the three Euler points
the three sides the three altitudes

Thm 158

The three circles are actually the same circle,

called the nine point circle,

13.2. Exercises for Chapter 13

The six theorems in this chapter are all advanced. (One clue that they are advanced is that five of
them are named for the mathematicians to whom the first proof is attributed. That only happens
for advanced theorems.) But all seven can be proven using the definitions and theorems that you
have studied in previous chapters. Write proofs of the seven theorems. You are encouraged to
collaborate with others, and to look to the internet for clues and sample proofs. But ultimately,
your proof should be written using references to defined terms and theorems from this book..
 page 283

14. The Circumference and Area of Circles

At some point in junior high and high school, you learned the formulas for the circumference 𝐶
and area 𝐴 of a circle of radius 𝑟 and diameter 𝑑 = 2𝑟:
𝐶 = 𝜋𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑟
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
You learned these as given rules, rules that could be applied to solve geometric problems. We
would like to fit those formulas into what we have learned so far. But there are two obvious
questions:

(1) What is 𝜋?
(2) How do we know that the formulas above are true?

But there is a third, less obvious question:

(3) What do we mean by the circumference of a circle, or the area of a circular region?

In this chapter, we will discuss these questions. We will answer them in reverse order.

14.1. Defining the Circumference and Area of a Circle

We have a notion of length in our geometry: The length of a line segment is defined to be the
distance between the endpoints. We generalize this for the length of a segmented path: the length
of the segmented path is the sum of the lengths of the line segments that make up that path. But
we have never discussed a notion of length for curvy objects. Notice that when we measured arcs
in the previous chapter, it was arc angle measure that we were measuring, not arc length. In this
section, we will introduce the circumference of a circle. It will be a number obtained as the limit
of a sequence of numbers that are lengths of segmented paths.
1
For now, consider a circle with radius 𝑟 = 2 and with a regular polygon inscribed inside. We will
be interested in regular n-gons with 𝑛 = 6,12,24,48,96, …. In other words, 𝑛 = 3 ⋅ 2𝑘 for 𝑘 =
1,2,3,4, ….

The first case, 𝑘 = 1, is shown in the diagram at right below. The table at left below introduces
notation for some quantities that will be useful to us, and gives their values.
Value of 𝒌: 𝑘 = 1
Name of polygonal region: 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦1
Number of sides: 𝑛 = 3 ⋅ 2𝑘 = 3 ⋅ 21 = 6
1
Length of sides: 𝑥1 = 2.
Perimeter: 𝑃1 = 3
3√3
Area: 𝐴1 = ≈ 0.65
8
1
The value of the perimeter is easy: Six sides of length 𝑥1 = 2 each. For the area, we used the fact
𝑥√3
that an equilateral triangle that has sides of length 𝑥 will have a height of ℎ = .
2
Chapter 14 The Circumference and Area of Circles page 284

To get a polygon for the second case, 𝑘 = 2, we start with the figure above, then draw the three
lines that pass through the center of the circle and through the midpoints of the sides of the
hexagon. We put points at the intersection of these lines and the circle. These six new points,
along with the six vertices of the original hexagon, will be the twelve vertices of the new
polygon.

Value of 𝒌: 𝑘 = 2
Name of polygonal region: 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦2
Number of sides: 𝑛 = 3 ⋅ 2𝑘 = 3 ⋅ 22 = 12
Length of sides: 𝑥2 =?.
Perimeter: 𝑃2 =?
Area: 𝐴2 =?

It would not be terribly difficult to compute the length of the sides for this region, or to compute
its area. But those values are not important.

What is important is to notice that the area 𝐴2 will be greater than the
area 𝐴1 . We see that from the figure at right. The shaded region is
part of 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦2 but not part of 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦1 . Therefore,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦2 ) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦1 ∪ 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛)
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦1 ) + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛)
> 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦1 )

It is also important to notice that the perimeter 𝑃2 will be greater than

the perimeter 𝑃1 . We see that from the figure at right. The solid dark
line is part of the perimeter of 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦1 , while the dotted dark line is
part of the perimeter of 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦2 .

Even more important is to realize that the method that we used to construct 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦2 from 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦1
will be the same method that we will use in general to construct 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘+1 from 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 . To get
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘+1, we start with 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 and draw the lines that pass through the center of the circle and
through the midpoints of the sides of 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 . We put points at the intersection of these lines and
the circle. These new points, along with the vertices of 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 , will be the vertices of the new
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘+1. As a result, there will be pictures analogous to the two above that will show that
𝑃𝑘+1 > 𝑃𝑘 and 𝐴𝑘+1 > 𝐴𝑘 .

So we have a list of regular polygons inscribed in the circle. Their polygonal regions are called

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦1 , 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦2 , 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦3 , … , 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 , 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘+1 , …

Their perimeters form a strictly increasing sequence of real numbers

3 = 𝑃1 < 𝑃2 < 𝑃3 < ⋯ < 𝑃𝑘 < 𝑃𝑘+1 < ⋯

and their areas form a strictly increasing sequence of real numbers

 page 285

3√3
= 𝐴1 < 𝐴2 < 𝐴3 < ⋯ < 𝐴𝑘 < 𝐴𝑘+1 < ⋯
8

Also, observe that the sequence of perimeters is bounded above by the number 4 and the
sequence of areas is bounded above by the number 1. To see why, consider a square tangent to
the circle as shown in the figure at left below. Once we have the square, it helps to omit the circle
and some lines as shown in the figures in the middle and at right below.

The square has sides of length 1 because that is the length of a diameter of the circle. So the
square has perimeter 4 and area 1. Looking at the middle drawing, it is very believeable that
each polygonal region 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 has perimeter 𝑃𝑘 < 4. But to be thorough about it, one should
demonstrate that each polygonal path is a shortcut compared to the path around the square. We
won’t do this. Looking at the drawing on the right, we see that the square region can be
considered as a union of the polygonal region 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 and the shaded region outside 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 . But
the shaded region is a polygonal region with some positive area. So the area of the square is
strictly greater than the area of 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 . Therefore, each polygonal region 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 has area 𝐴𝑘 < 1.

Recall that any sequence of real numbers that is increasing and bounded above will have a limit.
So, there exists a real number that is the lim 𝑃𝑘 and a there also exists a real number that is the
𝑘→∞
lim 𝐴𝑘 . It is these real numbers that we will define to be the circumference of the circle and the
𝑘→∞
area of the circular region. Before doing that, note that all of our analysis has been for a circle of
diameter 1. The same sort of analysis could be done for a general circle of diameter 𝑑.

Definition 104 circumference of a circle and area of a circular region

Given a circle of diameter 𝑑, for each 𝑘 = 1,2,3, … define 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 to be a polygonal region
bounded by a regular polygon with 3 ⋅ 2𝑘 sides, inscribed in the circle. Define 𝑃𝑘 and 𝐴𝑘
to be the perimeter and area of the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ polygonal region. The resulting sequences {𝑃𝑘 }
and {𝐴𝑘 } are increasing and bounded above and so they each have a limit.
 Define the circumference of the circle to be the real number 𝐶 = lim 𝑃𝑘 .
𝑘→∞
 Define the area of the circular region to be the real number 𝐴 = lim 𝐴𝑘 .
𝑘→∞

With that definition, we have answered the third question that was posed on page 283:

(3) What do we mean by the circumference of a circle, or the area of a circular region?

But that definition does not tell us much about the values of the real numbers that are the
circumference and area. We will consider the values of those numbers in the next section.
Chapter 14 The Circumference and Area of Circles page 286

14.2. Estimating the Value of the Circumference and Area of

a Circle
In the previous section, we defined the real numbers that are the circumference of a circle and the
area of a circular region, but our definition did not mention the values of these numbers. How big
are they?

We should note that we can state some crude estimates based on work that we have already done.

Let’s start by estimating the circumference. For the circumference of a circle of diameter 𝑑 = 1,
we saw that the perimeters of the inscribed polygons form a strictly increasing sequence of real
numbers

3 = 𝑃1 < 𝑃2 < 𝑃3 < ⋯ < 𝑃𝑘 < 𝑃𝑘+1 < ⋯

and that this sequence was bounded above by the number 4. Therefore, the circumference 𝐶 =
lim 𝑃𝑘 will be bounded by 3 < 𝐶 ≤ 4.
𝑘→∞

More generally, for the circumference of a circle of diameter 𝑑, the perimeters of the inscribed
polygons will form a strictly increasing sequence of real numbers

3𝑑 = 𝑃1 < 𝑃2 < 𝑃3 < ⋯ < 𝑃𝑘 < 𝑃𝑘+1 < ⋯

and this sequence will be bounded above by the number 4𝑑. Therefore, the circumference 𝐶 =
lim 𝑃𝑘 will be bounded by 3𝑑 < 𝐶 ≤ 4𝑑.
𝑘→∞

Now let’s estimate the area. For the area of a circle of diameter 𝑑 = 1, we saw that the areas of
the inscribed polygons form a strictly increasing sequence of real numbers

3√3
= 𝐴1 < 𝐴2 < 𝐴3 < ⋯ < 𝐴𝑘 < 𝐴𝑘+1 < ⋯
8

and that this sequence was bounded above by the number 1. Therefore, the area 𝐴 = lim 𝐴𝑘 will
𝑘→∞
3√3
be bounded by < 𝐴 ≤ 1.
8

More generally, for the area of a circle of diameter 𝑑, the areas of the inscribed polygons will
form a strictly increasing sequence of real numbers

3√3 2
𝑑 = 𝐴1 < 𝐴2 < 𝐴3 < ⋯ < 𝐴𝑘 < 𝐴𝑘+1 < ⋯
8

and this sequence will be bounded above by the number 𝑑 2 . Therefore, the area 𝐴 = lim 𝐴𝑘 will
𝑘→∞
3√3 2 2 3√3 2 2
be bounded by 𝑑 < 𝐴 ≤ 𝑑 . In terms of the radius, the bounds are 𝑟 < 𝐴 ≤ 4𝑟 . Note
8 2
3√3
that ≈ 2.598, so we have the bounds 2.5𝑟 2 < 𝐴 ≤ 4𝑟 2
2
 page 287

14.3. Introducing 𝑷𝒊
We would like to have a more precise estimate of the circumference and area, more precise than
the crude estimates that we have found so far.

We will start by trying to make precise the relationship between the circumference and the
diameter and also make precise the relationship between the area and the diameter (or radius).

The following theorem will get us started.

𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Theorem 159 The ratio is the same for all circles.
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

Proof:
Consider two different circles 𝐴 and 𝐵 of radius 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑟𝐵 and diameter 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝑟𝐴 and 𝑑𝐵 = 2𝑟𝐵
and circumference 𝐶𝐴 and 𝐶𝐵 . With this notation, our goal is to show that

𝐶𝐴 𝐶𝐵
=
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵

For each circle, we will consider the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ inscribed polygon as described in Section 14.1. We will
denote these by the symbols 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘,𝐴 and 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘,𝐵 . These polygons have perimeters 𝑃𝑘,𝐴 and 𝑃𝑘,𝐵 .
Each is regular polygon is made up of isosceles triangles.

In each of the isosceles triangles, the two congruent sides have length 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑟𝐵 .

𝛼 𝛼
𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐵
𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐴
𝑥𝑘,𝐵

𝑥𝑘,𝐴
The top angles have measure
360
𝛼=
3 ⋅ 2𝑘

Therefore, the isosceles triangles are similar, by the SAS Similarity Theorem. This gives us the
equality of ratios
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝐴
=
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝐵

Cross multiplying, we obtain the new equation

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐴 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐵
=
𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝐵
Chapter 14 The Circumference and Area of Circles page 288

But the bases of the isosceles triangles are the lengths 𝑥𝑘,𝐴 and 𝑥𝑘,𝐵 that are the lengths of the
sides of the regular polygons 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘,𝐴 and 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘,𝐵 . And the sides of the isosceles triangles are
the radii of the circles, 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑟𝐵 . Substituting these symbols into our equation, we obtain
𝑥𝑘,𝐴 𝑥𝑘,𝐵
=
𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵
3⋅2𝑘
Here’s a trick: Multiply each side of this equation by the constant . The result is the new
2
equation
3 ⋅ 2𝑘 𝑥𝑘,𝐴 3 ⋅ 2𝑘 𝑥𝑘,𝐵
⋅ = ⋅
2 𝑟𝐴 2 𝑟𝐵

Rearranging factors, we obtain

3 ⋅ 2𝑘 ⋅ 𝑥𝑘,𝐴 3 ⋅ 2𝑘 ⋅ 𝑥𝑘,𝐵
=
2𝑟𝐴 2𝑟𝐵

We recognize the expressions for the perimiters of the polygons and for the diameters of the
circles.

𝑃𝑘,𝐴 𝑃𝑘,𝐵
=
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵

We take the limit of both sides of this equation as 𝑘 → ∞.

𝑃𝑘,𝐴 𝑃𝑘,𝐵
lim ( ) = lim ( )
𝑘→∞ 𝑑𝐴 𝑘→∞ 𝑑𝐵

The denominators are constants, so the limits can be moved to the numerators.

lim 𝑃𝑘,𝐴 lim 𝑃𝑘,𝐵

𝑘→∞
= 𝑘→∞
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵

Finally, notice that the values of the limits in the numerators will simply be the circumference of
each circle!

𝐶𝐴 𝐶𝐵
=
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵
End of proof

The theorem just presented makes precise the relationship between the circumference and
diameter of a circle: their ratio is always the same real number. We give this real number a name.

𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Definition 105 The symbol 𝑝𝑖, or 𝜋, denotes the real number that is the ratio for
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐶
any circle. That is, 𝜋 = 𝑑. (That this ratio is the same for all circles is guaranteed
by Theorem 159, found on page 287.)
 page 289

Rearranging the equation that defines 𝜋, we obtain the equation 𝐶 = 𝜋𝑑. We see that this
equation is really just a restatement of the definition of 𝜋. It is not a formula that can be
somehow proved. It is a definition of what the symbol 𝜋 means.

From the results of the previous section, we can give a rough estimate of the value of 𝜋. For a
circle of diameter 𝑑 = 1, we have 𝐶 = 𝜋. In the previous section, we found that for such a circle,
the circumference 𝐶 will be bounded by 3 < 𝐶 ≤ 4. Therefore, 3 < 𝜋 ≤ 4.

So far in this section, we have made precise the relationship between the circumference and
diameter of a circle. They are related by the equation 𝐶 = 𝜋𝑑. Now let’s make precise the
relationship between the area and diameter, or the relationship between area and radius.

The 𝑘 𝑡ℎ polygonal region 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 can be subdivided into isosceles triangles

like the one shown at right. The area of the triangular region is
1 1 𝑟 𝑟
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑥𝑘 ⋅ ℎ𝑘
2 2
We could come up with formulas for 𝑥𝑘 and ℎ𝑘 , but it would be hard. ℎ𝑘
Luckily, it will turn out that we don’t need formulas for these lengths.
𝑥𝑘
𝑘
The polygonal region 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 is made up of 𝑛 = 3 ⋅ 2 of the isosceles triangular regions, so its
area will be
1 1
𝐴𝑘 = (3 ⋅ 2𝑘 ) ⋅ ( 𝑥𝑘 ⋅ ℎ𝑘 ) = (3 ⋅ 2𝑘 ⋅ 𝑥𝑘 )ℎ𝑘
2 2

We recognize the expression in parentheses. It is the perimeter of the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ polygonal region

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 . The perimeter is denoted by 𝑃𝑘 .

1 1
𝐴𝑘 = (3 ⋅ 2𝑘 ⋅ 𝑥𝑘 )ℎ𝑘 = 𝑃𝑘 ℎ𝑘
2 2

The area of the circle will be the limit:

1 1 1 𝜋𝑑𝑟 𝜋2𝑟𝑟
𝐴 = lim 𝐴𝑘 = lim ( 𝑃𝑘 ℎ𝑘 ) = ( lim 𝑃𝑘 ) ( lim ℎ𝑘 ) = 𝐶𝑟 = = = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑘→∞ 𝑘→∞ 2 2 𝑘→∞ 𝑘→∞ 2 2 2

There are a few things to notice here.

(1) The reason that we did not need formulas for 𝑥𝑘 and ℎ𝑘 is that we only needed to
consider their limits, and those limits were familiar.
(2) The formula for area involves the same constant 𝜋 that shows up in the formula for
circumference.
(3) The radius is squared in the formula for area. This does not surprise us, because from the
section on similarity we are used to the idea that area is related to the square of lengths.
But what is surprising is that the constant 𝜋 is not squared in the formula for area.

Before going on, let’s restate the formulas for circumference and area of a circle in the following
theorem.
Chapter 14 The Circumference and Area of Circles page 290

Theorem 160 The circumference of a circle is 𝑐 = 𝜋𝑑. The area of a circle is 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 .

Proof
Definition 104 (found on page 285) states precisely what we mean by the circumference of a
circle and the area of a circular region in terms of limits.

𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
From Theorem 159 (found on page 287) we know that the ratio 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 is the same for
all circles. Definition 105 (found on page 288) introduces the symbol 𝜋 as the value of that
𝑐
ratio. That is, 𝜋 = 𝑑. This gives us the equation 𝑐 = 𝜋𝑑.

The calculations on the preceeding page gave us the formula 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 .

End of Proof

With Theorem 160, we have answered the second question that was posed on page 283:

(2) How do we know that the formulas 𝑐 = 𝜋𝑑 and 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 are true?

Having made precise the relationships between circumference and area and the diameter and
radius, we will now turn our attention to finding more precise estimates of the value of 𝜋.

14.4. Approximations for 𝑷𝒊

From the formula 𝐶 = 𝜋𝑑, we know that 𝜋 will be equal to the circumference of a circle of
diameter 𝑑 = 1. We defined that circumference in terms of a limit:

𝐶 = lim 𝑃𝑘
𝑘→∞

One approach to finding a value for 𝐶 would be to find an explicit formula for 𝑃𝑘 and then take
the limit of that formula as 𝑘 → ∞. But an explicit expression is difficult to obtain. Instead, we
will define 𝑃𝑘 recursively. That is, we will show how to obtain a value for 𝑃𝑘+1 from a known
value of 𝑃𝑘 . Since we know that 𝑃1 = 3, we can use the recursive formula to make a list of
values of 𝑃𝑘 for 𝑘 = 1,2,3, ….

The 𝑘 𝑡ℎ polygonal region 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 can be subdivided into isosceles

triangles like the shaded one shown at right. The solid horizontal
segment that forms the base of the triangle is one of the sides of 1 1
𝑟= 𝑟=
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 . Its length is 𝑥𝑘 , but for our purposes, it is more useful to 2 ℎ 2
𝑥
break the segment into two segments of length 2𝑘. The two
1 𝑥𝑘 𝑥𝑘
congruent sides of the isosceles triangle have length 𝑟 = 2, the
2 2
radius of the circle. The dotted segments are two sides of the
(𝑘 + 1)𝑠𝑡 polygonal region 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘+1. Each of the dotted segments 𝑏 𝑥𝑘+1
has length 𝑥𝑘+1 .

Our goal is to find the perimeter 𝑃𝑘+1 in terms of 𝑃𝑘 . We will start by finding the length 𝑥𝑘+1 in
terms of 𝑥𝑘 .
 page 291

𝑥𝑘 2
𝑥𝑘+1 = √( ) + 𝑏2
2
2
𝑥𝑘 2 1
= √( ) + ( − ℎ)
2 2
2
2
𝑥𝑘 2 1 1 𝑥𝑘 2
= √( ) + ( − √( ) − ( ) )
2 2 2 2

1 2
= √𝑥𝑘 2 + (1 − √1 − 𝑥𝑘 2 )
2
1
= √𝑥𝑘 2 + (1 − 2√1 − 𝑥𝑘 2 + (1 − 𝑥𝑘 2 ))
2
1
= √2 − 2√1 − 𝑥𝑘 2
2
1
= √1 − √1 − 𝑥𝑘 2
√2
𝑃
Now we use the fact that 𝑃𝑘 = 3 ⋅ 2𝑘 ⋅ 𝑥𝑘 so that 𝑥𝑘 = 3⋅2𝑘𝑘

1 √ 𝑃𝑘 2
𝑥𝑘+1 = √
1− 1−( )
√2 3 ⋅ 2𝑘

And finally, we use the fact that 𝑃𝑘+1 = 3 ⋅ 2𝑘+1 ⋅ 𝑥𝑘+1 .

3 ⋅ 2𝑘+1 √ 𝑃𝑘 2
𝑃𝑘+1 = √
1− 1−( )
√2 3 ⋅ 2𝑘

2
𝑃𝑘
= 3 ⋅ 2 √2 ⋅ √1 − √1 − (
𝑘
)
3 ⋅ 2𝑘

This is the equation that we were seeking. It shows us how to obtain a value for 𝑃𝑘+1 from a
known value of 𝑃𝑘 . As an example of the use of this formula, we use the formula with 𝑘 = 1
and 𝑃1 = 3 and obtain

√ 3 2
1 √
𝑃2 = 3 ⋅ 2 √2 ⋅ 1 − 1 − ( ) = 6 √2 − √3 ≈ 3.10582854
3 ⋅ 21
Chapter 14 The Circumference and Area of Circles page 292

Continuing, we can obtain a list of values of 𝑃𝑘 for 𝑘 = 1,2,3, …. The values of 𝑃𝑘 on this list
will converge to a real number. The symbol for that real number is 𝜋.

How does the list look beyond the first two terms? The easiest way to answer that is to use the
recursive formula for 𝑃𝑘 to make a table of values in Excel.

k n 𝑃𝑘
1 6 3.00000000000000000000
2 12 3.10582854123025000000
3 24 3.13262861328124000000
4 48 3.13935020304687000000
5 96 3.14103195089053000000
6 192 3.14145247228534000000
7 384 3.14155760791162000000
8 768 3.14158389214894000000
9 1536 3.14159046323676000000
10 3072 3.14159210604305000000
11 6144 3.14159251658816000000
12 12288 3.14159261864079000000
13 24576 3.14159264532122000000
14 49152 3.14159264532122000000
The good news is that these numbers seem to be converging to a number close to 3.14159. The
bad news is that from the 15𝑡ℎ decimal place on, all the digits are 0, and the that the values of
𝑃13 and 𝑃14 are exactly the same. This seems to indicate that the value of 𝜋 is the number
3.14159264532122000000.

But this is suspicious. Consider the table entry for 𝑃2 . We found that the expression for 𝑃2 was

𝑃2 = 6 √2 − √3

In earlier courses, you learned that √3 is irrational. Therefore, 2 − √3 will be irrational and
√2 − √3 will be irrational and 𝑃2 = 6 √2 − √3 will be irrational.

The table says 𝑃2 = 3.10582854123025000000. This is a rational number because it can be

written
310582854123025
𝑃2 = 3.10582854123025000000 =
100000000000000

So the value of 𝑃2 given by Excel is definitely wrong. It should not end in zeroes.

Similar reasoning could be used to tell us that all of the other 𝑃𝑘 values for 𝑘 ≥ 2 are also
irrational, so the other 𝑃𝑘 values in the table are wrong, as well. The problem is in round-off
errors commited by Excel. A more scientific program like MATLAB could be used to produce a
list with more digits of accuracy.
 page 293

But what about the value of 𝜋? Is it irrational? We know that each 𝑃𝑘 value for 𝑘 ≥ 2 is
irrational, and that 𝜋 = lim 𝑃𝑘 , but that does not imply that 𝜋 must be irrational. Indeed, it is
𝑘→∞
possible to produce a sequence of irrational numbers that converges to a rational number. But in
fact it has been shown that 𝜋 is irrational.

In conclusion, we see that 𝜋 is an irrational number close to 3.14159. So we have answered the
first question that was posed on page 283:

(1) What is 𝜋?

Now we turn our attention to the concept of arc length.

14.5. Arc Length

The angle measure of an arc was defined in Definition 99, found on page 259 in Section 12.2.
Recall that the angle measure is a number 𝑚 in the range 0 < 𝑚 < 360. Now that we have seen
a definition of the circumference of a circle, we are ready to discuss arc length.

We could start from scratch and consider segmented paths inscribed in circles, as we did at the
beginning of this chapter. But that would be tedious and not terribly productive: our investigation
of the circumference of a circle gave us enough of an idea of how that process works. Studying it
again in a more difficult setting would not make us much wiser.

Instead, we will simply skip to the result of all that work and state it as a definition.

Definition 106 arc length

̂ on a circle of radius 𝑟 is defined to be the number
The length of an arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝑚 ̂ )𝜋𝑟
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂) =
𝐿̂(𝐴𝐵𝐶
180
.

14.6. Area of Regions Bounded by Arcs and Line Segments

Now that we have defined the area of polygonal regions and circular regions it would be nice to
have a notion of the area of regions bounded by arcs and line segments. In the case of polygonal
regions, we first defined triangular regions, and then defined polygonal regions to be finite
unions of triangular regions. In the case of regions bounded by arcs and line segments, it is not
clear if there is a basic shape bounded by arcs and segments, a shape that can be arranged like
pieces of a puzzle in order to make more general shapes bounded by arcs and segments.

For this edition of the book, we will not consider that general question. Instead, we will simply
use our intuition to solve certain simple problems involving the area of regions bounded by arcs
and line segments. Our main tools will be the following “rules” about area.

Definition 107 Rules for computing area

(1) The area of a triangular region is equal to one-half the base times the height. It does not
matter which side of the triangle is chosen as the base.
Chapter 14 The Circumference and Area of Circles page 294

(2) The area of a polygonal region is equal to the sum of the areas of the triangles in a
complex for the region.
(3) The area of a circular region is 𝜋𝑟 2 .
̂
̂ is 𝜋𝑟 2 ⋅ 𝑚̂(𝐴𝐵𝐶).
(4) More generally, the area of a circular sector bounded by arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶 360
(5) Congruence property: If two regions have congruent boundaries, then the area of the two
regions is the same.
(6) Additivity property: If a region is the union of two smaller regions whose interiors do not
intersect, then the area of the whole region is equal to the sum of the two smaller regions.

For example, at right is a slice of a pizza that had radius 1 foot. The
crust is an arc of angle measure 60. Six of these slices arranged in a
circle and touching without overlap would make up the entire pizza. By
the additivity property, the sum of the areas of the six slices must equal
the area of the pizza. By the congruence property, the areas of the six
slices
must be equal. Therefore, the area of this slice must be one sixth of the area of the pizza. That is,
𝜋
this slice must have area 𝐴 = 6 square feet. Another way of reaching the same result is to use
rule (4) to compute the area. That is,
𝑚 ̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 60 𝜋
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ⋅ = 𝜋(1)2 ⋅ =
360 360 6

At right is some leftover crust of the same pizza after an equilateral

√3
triangle has been eaten. The triangle has area square feet, so by the
4
𝜋 √3
additivity property, the leftover crust has area 𝐴 = 6 − square feet.
4

In the exercises, you will see some more computational problems like this example involving
adding and subtracting areas.
 page 295

14.7. Exercises for Chapter 14

[1] In Section 14.4, we saw that an expression for 𝑃2 was 𝑃2 = 6 √2 − √3.
(A) Find the exact expression for 𝑃3 . Try to simplify it as much as I simplified the expression for
𝑃2 .
(B) Using a calculator, find a decimal approximation for 𝑃3 that has more accurate digits than the
decimal approximation presented in the table.

[2] I gave a pretty sketchy explanation of how we know that 𝑃2 is irrational. See if you can
explain it more thoroughly. One approach would be to do a sort of proof by contradiction. That
is, assume that 𝑃2 is rational. That means that it can be written as a ratio of integers,
𝑚
6 √2 − √3 =
𝑛
Square both sides of this expression. Do some arithmetic and reach a contradiction.

[3] Which path from point 𝐴 to point 𝐵 is longer: the one

consisting of two small semicircles or the one consisting of
one large semicircle? Justify your answer with calculations.

𝐴 𝐵
[4] OSHA has decided that a fence needs to be erected along the equator to keep people from
falling from the northern hemisphere into the southern. The fence needs to have two rails: one
that is three feet off the surface of the earth, and another that is low enough that Shemika Charles
cannot limbo under it. What is the length of the top rail (in feet and inches), and what is the
length of the bottom rail? Explain your calculations clearly. (You may assume that the earth is
spherical, but you will need to look up its diameter.)

[5] In each picture below, the square has sides of length 1. Find the shaded areas. Show your
work clearly. Note: You will see an obvious pattern in the answers to (a),(b),(c), so you will be
able to guess the right answer to (d). But I want you to calculate the answer to (d) and show that
it does indeed equal your guess. This will require that you figure out some way to work with the
positive integer variable 𝑛.

n by n
array
of circles

picture (a) picture (b) picture (c) picture (d)

[6] In the figure at right, the outer square has sides of length 2. Find the
value of the unshaded area. Show the details of the calculation clearly and
simplify your answer.
Chapter 14 The Circumference and Area of Circles page 296

[7] In each picture below, a regular polygon is inscribed in the outer circle and is tangent to the
inner circle. For each picture, find the ratio of the area of the outer circle to the area of the inner
circle.

[8] Prove that the sum of the areas of the two smaller semicircular
regions in the figure at right equals the area of the larger semicircular
region.

[9] In the figure at right, the two solid arcs are semicircles. The one
large dotted arc is also a semicircle. Prove that the shaded area
equals the area of the triangle. Hint: Use your result from [8].

[10] In the figure at right, each circle has the same radius 𝑟 and
passes through the center of the other two circles. Find the shaded
area.

[11] In the figure at right, the hexagon has sides of length 𝑥. Find the
area of the portion of the hexagon that is not covered up by the petals
of the flower.

.
 page 297

15. Maps, Transformations, Isometries

15.1. Functions
Recall our definition of function from Section 7.1:

Definition 51: function, domain, codomain, image, machine diagram; correspondence

Symbol: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵
Spoken: “𝑓 is a function that maps 𝐴 to 𝐵.”
Usage: 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets. Set 𝐴 is called the domain and set 𝐵 is called the codomain.
Meaning: 𝑓 is a machine that takes an element of set 𝐴 as input and produces an element of
set 𝐵 as output.
More notation: If an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 is used as the input to the function , then the symbol
𝑓(𝑎) is used to denote the corresponding output. The output 𝑓(𝑎) is called the
image of 𝑎 under the map 𝑓.
Machine Diagram:

𝑎 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓
input output
Domain: Codomain:
the set 𝐴 the set 𝐵
Additional notation: If 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto (that is, if 𝑓 is a bijection), then the
symbol 𝑓: 𝐴 ↔ 𝐵 will be used. In this case, 𝑓 is called a correspondence between
the sets 𝐴 and 𝐵.

When you studied functions in earlier courses, the domain and codomain were almost always
sets of numbers. In Geometry, we often work with functions whose domains and codomains are
sets of points. Even so, we will discuss many examples involving functions whose domain and
codomain are sets of numbers, because they are simple and familiar.

Definition 108 Image and Preimage of a single element

If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 is used as input to the function 𝑓, then the corresponding output
𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝐵 is called the image of 𝑎.
If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, then the preimage of 𝑏, denoted 𝑓 −1 (𝑏), is the set of all elements of
𝐴 whose image is 𝑏. That is, 𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏}.

Observe that the image of a single element of the domain is a single element of the codomain,
but the preimage of a single element of the codomain is a set.

For example, consider the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .

 The image of 3 is 𝑓(3) = 9.
 The preimage of 9 is the set 𝑓 −1 (9) = {−3,3}.
 The preimage of −5 is the empty set, because there is no real number 𝑎 such that 𝑎2 =
−5.
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 298

Notice that in the definition of function, inputs are fed into the function one at a time. So in the
symbol 𝑓(𝑎), the letter 𝑎 represents a single element of the domain and the symbol 𝑓(𝑎)
represents a single element of the codomain. In our study of functions in Geometry, we will often
make use of the concept of the image of a set and the preimage of a set. Here is a definition.

Definition 109 Image of a Set and Preimage of a Set

If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑆 ⊂ 𝐴, then the image of 𝑆, denoted 𝑓(𝑆), is the set of all elements of 𝐵 that
are images of elements of 𝑆. That is,
𝑓(𝑆) = {𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆}
If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑇 ⊂ 𝐵, then the preimage of 𝑇, denoted 𝑓 −1 (𝑇), is the set of all elements of
𝐴 whose images are elements of 𝑇. That is,
𝑓 −1 (𝑇) = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝑇}

For example, consider again the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .

 The image of the set {−2,0,1,9} is the set 𝑓({−2,0,1,9}) = {0,1,4,81}.

 The preimage of the same set {−2,0,1,9} is the set 𝑓 −1 ({−2,0,1,9}) = {−3, −1,0,1,3}.

So with the new definition of the image of a set, we must keep in mind that when we encounter
the symbol 𝑓(𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔), the 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 inside might be a single element of the domain—in which case
the symbol 𝑓(𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔) represents a single element of the codomain—or the 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 inside might be
a subset of the domain—in which case the symbol 𝑓(𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔) represents a subset of the codomain.

We will spend a lot of time studying the composition of functions. Here is the definition.

Definition 110 composition of fuctions, composite function

Symbol: 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓
Spoken: “𝑔 circle 𝑓”,or “𝑔 after 𝑓”, or “𝑔 composed with 𝑓”
Usage: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶
Meaning: the function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐶 defined by 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)).
Additional terminology: A function of the form 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is called a composite function.

For example, 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1, we have

the following two compostions:
(a) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is the function defined by 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 2 + 1.
(b) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is the function defined by 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 + 1)2 .

Observe that in this example, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ≠ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓. This illustrates that function composition is usually
not commutative. We will return to this terminology later in the chapter.

However, function composition is associative. That is, for all functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶
and ℎ: 𝐶 → 𝐷, the functions ℎ ∘ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) and (ℎ ∘ 𝑔) ∘ 𝑓 are equal. To prove this, we need to
show that when the two functions are given the same input, they always produce the same
output. Here is the claim stated as a theorem. The proof follows.

Theorem 161 Function composition is associative.

 page 299

For all functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 and ℎ: 𝐶 → 𝐷, the functions ℎ ∘ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) and

(ℎ ∘ 𝑔) ∘ 𝑓 are equal.
Proof
For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, we simply compute the resulting outputs.

ℎ ∘ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑎) = ℎ((𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑎)) = ℎ (𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)))

(ℎ ∘ 𝑔) ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = (ℎ ∘ 𝑔)(𝑓(𝑎)) = ℎ (𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)))
Since the resulting outputs are the same, we conclude that the functions are the same.

End of Proof

In previous courses, you studied one-to-one functions and onto functions. Here are definitions

Definition 111 One-to-One Function

Words: The function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is one-to-one.
Alternate Words: The function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is injective.
Meaning in Words: Different inputs always produce different outputs.
Meaning in Symbols: ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
Contrapositive: If two outputs are the same, then the inputs must have been the same.
Contrapositive in Symbols: ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .

Definition 112 Onto Function

Words: The function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is onto.
Alternate Words: The function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is surjective.
Meaning in Words: For every element of the codomain, there exists an element of the
domain that will produce that element of the codomain as output.
Meaning in Symbols: ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

You may have heard the term range in previous courses. That word is problematic, because it
has different meanings in different books.

 In some books, the range of a function is defined the way that we defined codomain. That
is, for 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, the range of 𝑓 would be defined as the set 𝐵.
 In some books, the range of a function is defined to be the image of the domain. That is,
for 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, the range of 𝑓 would be defined as the set 𝑓(𝐴) ⊂ 𝐵.

The two uses of the words are not equivalent. For example, for the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , the codomain is the set of all real numbers, ℝ, while the image of the domain is the
set of all non-negative real numbers. That is,
𝑓(𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛) = 𝑓(ℝ) = ℝ𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 = {𝑦 ∈ ℝ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 ≥ 0}
So the image of the domain is not the same set as the entire codomain in this case.

In this book, I have tried to avoid using terminology that has conflicting definitions in common
use. For that reason, we will not use the word range. But I will sometimes refer to the image of
the domain.
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 300

For example, it is useful to observe that the definition of an onto function could be summarized
simply in the following way:
An onto function 𝑓 is one for which 𝑓(𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛) = 𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛.

We will be interested in functions that are both one-to-one and onto. They have two commonly-
used names:

Definition 113 Bijection, One-to-One Correspondence

Words: “The function 𝑓 is a bijection”, or “the function 𝑓 is bijective”.
Alternate Words: The function 𝑓 is a one-to-one correspondence.
Meaning: The function 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto.

15.2. Inverse Functions

You might have learned in earlier courses that every bijective function has an inverse that is also
a bijection. We will prove the fact here, because it gives us a good chance to review and because
the proof is wonderfully simple if the notation is done right.

We start by abbreviating in symbols the definition of function (Definition 51). That definition
says that a function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 takes any element of the domain 𝐴 as input and produces as output
exactly one element of the codomain 𝐵. In the language of quantifiers, this would be written as
follows:

Definition of function, using quantifiers:

For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, there exists a unique 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

In symbols, we use the exclamation point “!” as the abbreviation for the word unique and the
colon “:” as the abbreviation for the words such that. Using those symbols, the definition of
function would be abbreviated as follows:

Definition of function, using quantifiers, abbreviated in symbols:

∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, ∃! 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵: 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏

Now let’s abbreviate in symbols the meaning of the word bijection. A bijection is both one-to-
one and onto. The definition of onto says

Definition of onto, using quantifiers:

For every 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, there exists an 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

For the present discussion, it helps to be clearer about this: the words there exists really mean
there exists at least one.

Definition of onto, using quantifiers, clarified

For every 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, there exists at least one 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

But a bijection 𝑓 is both onto and one-to-one. The fact that 𝑓 is one-to-one means that there
cannot be more than one 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏. Combined with the fact that 𝑓 is onto, we
 page 301

see that there exists exactly one 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏. In other words, there exists a unique
𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

Definition of bijection, using quantifiers:

For every 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, there exists a unique 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.
This is ready to be abbreviated:

Definition of bijection, using quantifiers, abbreviated in symbols:

∀𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, ∃! 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴: 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏

Summarizing, here is the definition of a bijective function, written in symbols.

Definition of bijective function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 in symbols:

(i) ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, ∃! 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵: 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏 (definition of function)
(ii) ∀𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, ∃! 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴: 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏 (definition of bijective)

Now consider defining a new symbol as follows:

New Symbol: 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑎.

Meaning: 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

It might seem silly to do that. But now consider what happens if we substitue the new symbol
into the two symbolic expressions above. The result is two new symbolic expressions

(new i) ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, ∃! 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵: 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑎
(new ii) ∀𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, ∃! 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴: 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑎

Observe that expression (new ii) tells us that 𝑔 is qualified to be called a function, 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴.
And observe that expression (new i) tells us that the function 𝑔 is a bijection!

Let’s explore the function 𝑔 further. In particular, let’s study what happens when we compose 𝑓
and 𝑔. Note that because 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴, we can compose them in either order. That is,

The function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 will be a function with domain 𝐴 and codomain 𝐴. That is, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐴.
The function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 will be a function with domain 𝐵 and codomain 𝐵. That is, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐵.

Consider what happens when we feed inputs into these composite functions. For this discussion,
suppose that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏. Then 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑎 where 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵.

Start with the function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓. Given 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 as input, what will be the output 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎)?

𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)) meaning of the composition symbol

= 𝑔(𝑏) because 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏
= 𝑎 because 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑎

We see that when 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 is used as input to the function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓, the output will be 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎.
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 302

Now consider the function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔. Given some 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 as input, what will be the output 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑏)?

𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑏)) meaning of the composition symbol

= 𝑓(𝑎) because 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑎
= 𝑏 because 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏
We see that when 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 is used as input to the function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, the output will be 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑏.

It is worthwhile to stop here and summarize what we have done.

Given a bijective function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, we defined a new symbol 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑎 to mean the same thing
as the symbol 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏. We saw that this defines a bijective function 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴. The
compositions of functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 have the following two properties:

∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎
∀𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑏

In math, functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 that have the two properties above are called inverses of one another.
The two properties are called inverse relations. Here is the definition:

Definition 114 Inverse Functions, Inverse Relations

Words: Functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are inverses of one another.
Usage: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴
Meaning: 𝑓 and 𝑔 satisfy the following two properties, called inverse relations:

∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎
∀𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑏

Additional Symbols and Terminology: Another way of saying that functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are
inverses of one another is to say that 𝑔 is the inverse of 𝑓. Instead of using different
letters for a function and its inverse, it is common to use the symbol 𝑓 −1 to denote the
inverse of a function 𝑓. With this notation, we would say that 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴,
and the inverse relations become:

∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎
∀𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = 𝑏

Our discussion on the previous two pages, in which we introduced the function g and discussed
its properties, can now be summarized using the terminology of inverse functions. It is worth
presenting this as a theorem.

Theorem 162 Bijective functions have inverse functions that are also bijective.
If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a bijective function, then 𝑓 has an inverse function 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴. The
inverse function is also bijective.

Proof: The discussion on the previous few pages.

Another theorem from earlier courses is the following:

 page 303

Theorem 163 If a function has an inverse function, then both the function and its inverse are
bijective.
If functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴 are inverses of one another (that is, if they satisfy the
inverse relations), then both 𝑓 and 𝑔 are bijective.

The proof of Theorem 163 is easy if one makes use of the following wonderful trick. The trick
can be employed any time it is known that a function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 has an inverse function. Recall
that the meaning of the term inverse function is that 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 satisfy the inverse relations

∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎
∀𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = 𝑏

Here’s the trick. Because we know the inverse relations are satisfied, any element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 can be
replaced by the expression 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑎)). That may seem silly, because the expression 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑎))
takes up a lot more room on the page than the expression 𝑎. But there are times (such as in the
proof of Theorem 163) when the longer expression is useful. Similarly, any element 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 can
be replaced by the expression 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑏)). And of course, the trick works the other way as well.
That is, the expression 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑎)) can be replaced by the letter 𝑎, and the expression 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑏))
can be replaced by the letter 𝑏. But this doesn’t seem so tricky.

Now we will prove Theorem 163, making use of the trick.

Proof of Theorem 163

Part 1: Show that 𝒇 is one-to-one and that 𝒈 is one-to-one.
(1) Suppose that 𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎2 ).
(2) Then 𝑔(𝑓(𝑎1 )) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑎2 )) because 𝑔 is a function.
(3) Therefore, 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 , because 𝑔 is the inverse of 𝑓. (Here we have used the trick.)

Steps (1) – (3) prove that 𝑓 is one-to-one. Analogous steps would prove that 𝑔 is also one-to-
one.
End of Proof Part 1

Part 2: Show that 𝒇 is onto and that 𝒈 is onto.

To show that 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is onto, we must show that for any 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, there exists some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴
such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

(7) Suppose that 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵.

(8) We can write 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑏)), because 𝑓 and 𝑔 are inverses of each other. (Here we have
used the trick.)
(9) Observe that 𝑔(𝑏) is an element of the set 𝐴, because 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴. So let 𝑎 = 𝑔(𝑏). Then
𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎). We have found an 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

Steps (7) – (9) prove that 𝑓 is onto. Analogous steps would prove that 𝑔 is also onto.
End of Proof Part 2
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 304

Theorem 163 is useful for proving that a function is bijective without having to do any work.
That sounds very vague, so let me give an example to illustrate. Here is a theorem about the
inverse of a composition of functions. The proof will use Theorem 163.

Theorem 164 about the inverse of a composition of functions

If functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 are both bijective, then their composition 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 will
be bijective. The inverse of the composition will be (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)−1 = 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 .

Proof

Part 1: Prove that (𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)−𝟏 = 𝒇−𝟏 ∘ 𝒈−𝟏 .

Consider the composition of (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) and (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 ). Observe that

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) ∘ (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 ) = 𝑔 ∘ (𝑓 ∘ (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 ))
= 𝑔 ∘ ((𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 ) ∘ 𝑔−1 )
= 𝑔 ∘ (𝑖𝑑 ∘ 𝑔−1 )
= 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔−1
= 𝑖𝑑
Similarly,
(𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 ) ∘ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) = 𝑖𝑑

Since the functions (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) and (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 ) satisfy the inverse relations, we conclude they
are inverses of one another. Or, we could say that (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 ) is the inverse of (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓). That
is, (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 ) = (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)−1 .

Part 2: Prove that 𝒈 ∘ 𝒇 is bijective.

We have found an inverse function for 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓. By Theorem 163, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 must be bijective.

End of Proof

15.3. Maps of the Plane

As mentioned at the start of this chapter, in Geometry we will be interested in functions whose
domain and codomain are sets of points. Recall from Definition 20 that the symbol 𝒫 is used to
denote the set of all points. So far in our course, we have not used any other name for that set.
But many books refer to the set 𝒫 as the plane. We can make it official with a definition.

Definition 115 The plane is defined to be the set 𝒫 of all points.

With this terminology, we can refer to maps of the plane.

Definition 116 A map of the plane is defined to be a function 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫.

 page 305

We will be interested in maps of the plane that have certain other properties. In particular, we
will be interested in maps of the plane that are bijective. We give such functions the name
tranformations. Here is the official definition.

Definition 117 A transformation of the plane is defined to be a bijective map of the plane. The
set of all transformations of the plane is denoted by the symbol 𝑇.
But we are more interested in maps of the plane that are distance preserving. We will give such
functions the name isometries. Here is the official definition.

Definition 118 Isometry of the Plane

Words: 𝑓 is an isometry of the plane.
Meaning: 𝑓 is a distance preserving map of the plane. That is, for all points 𝑃 and 𝑄, the
distance from 𝑃 to 𝑄 is the same as the distance from 𝑓(𝑃) to 𝑓(𝑄).
Meaning in symbols: ∀𝑃, 𝑄 ∈ 𝒫, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 𝑑(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑓(𝑄)).

In the next section, we will study transformations of the plane. In later sections, we will study
isometries of the plane.

15.4. Transformations of the Plane

We will start this section with a quick presentation of three examples of Transformations of the
Plane.

Our first example of a transformation of the plane is so simple that it might seem silly to
introduce it. But in fact, it is a very important function.

Definition 119 The Identity Map of the Plane is the map 𝑖𝑑: 𝒫 → 𝒫 defined by 𝑖𝑑(𝑄) = 𝑄 for
every point 𝑄.

Observe that the identity map of the plane is clearly both one-to-one and onto, so it is a
transformation of the plane.

This is a good time to introduce the terminology of fixed points. Here is a definition.

Definition 120 a Fixed Point of a Map of the Plane

Words: 𝑄 is a fixed point of the map 𝑓.
Meaning: 𝑓(𝑄) = 𝑄

We see that every point in the plane is a fixed point of the identity map of the plane.

Our second example of a transformation of the plane is the dilation. Here is the definition.

Definition 121 The Dilation of the Plane

Symbol: 𝐷𝐶,𝑘
Spoken: The dilation centered at 𝐶 with scaling factor 𝑘
Usage: 𝐶 is a point, called the center of the dilation, and 𝑘 is a positive real number.
Meaning: The map 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 : 𝒫 → 𝒫 defined as follows
The point 𝐶 is a fixed point of 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 . That is, 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 (𝐶) = 𝐶.
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 306

When a point 𝑄 ≠ 𝐶 is used as input to the map 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 , the output is the unique point
𝑄 ′ = 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 (𝑄) that has these two properties:
 Point 𝑄′ lies on ray 𝐶𝑄
 The distance 𝑑(𝐶, 𝑄′) = 𝑘𝑑(𝐶, 𝑄)
(The existence and uniqueness of such a point 𝑄 ′ is guaranteed by the Congruent
Segment Construction Theorem, (Theorem 24).)
𝑄′
For example, consider the dilation with 𝑘 = 2, denoted by
the symbol 𝐷𝐶,2 . It has 𝐶 as a fixed point. If any other 𝑄
point 𝑄 ≠ 𝐶 is used as input to the map 𝐷𝐶,2, the output
𝐶 = 𝐶′
will be the point 𝑄′ as shown. in the figure at right. 𝑃
𝑃′

It is probably reasonably clear to you that the dilation 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 is one-to-one and onto. That is, it is a
transformation of the plane. You are asked to provide the details in an exercise.

Our third example of a transformation of the plane is the reflection. Here is the definition.

Definition 122 The Reflection of the Plane

Symbol: 𝑀𝐿
Spoken: The reflection in line 𝐿
Usage: 𝐿 is a line, called the line of reflection
Meaning: The map 𝑀𝐿 : 𝒫 → 𝒫 defined as follows
Every point on the line 𝐿 is a fixed point of 𝑀𝐿 . That is, if 𝑃 ∈ 𝐿 then 𝑀𝐿 (𝑃) = 𝑃.
When a point 𝑄 not on line 𝐿 is used as input to the map 𝑀𝐿 , the output is the unique
̅̅̅̅̅.
point 𝑄 ′ = 𝑀𝐿 (𝑄) such that line 𝐿 is the perpendicular bisector of segment 𝑄𝑄′
(The existence and uniqueness of such a point 𝑄 ′ is can be proven using the axioms
and theorems of Neutral Geometry. You are asked to provide the details in an
exercise.)
𝑄′
𝐿
For example, see the reflection 𝑀𝐿 with line of reflection 𝐿 as
shown in the figure at right. 𝑃 = 𝑃′
𝑄

It is probably reasonably clear to you that the reflection 𝑀𝐿 is one-to-one and onto. That is, it is a
transformation of the plane. You are asked to provide the details in an exercise.

15.5. Review of Binary Operations and Groups

In the next section, we will show that the set of transformations of the plane is a group. We
should start by reviewing the definition of a group. That is what we will do in this section. In
order to do that, we need to first review the definition of a binary operation on a set.

Definition 123 A binary operation on a set 𝑆 is a function ∗: 𝑆 × 𝑆 → 𝑆.

 page 307

In other words, a binary operation is a function that takes as input a pair of elements of the set 𝑆
and produces as output a single element of the set 𝑆.

The definition of a binary operation might be unfamiliar to you, but in fact you have been
working with binary operations since grade school.

Example #1 of a binary operation:

The operation of addition is a binary operation on the set of integers. That is, addition may be
thought of as a function, +: ℤ × ℤ → ℤ. If a pair of integers is used as input to the function,
the resulting output is an integer. For example, +(2,5) = 7. But of course, this is not the way
that we are used to writing the addition operation. We would write 2 + 5 = 7 instead. But it
is the same operation.

Example #2 of a binary operation:

The operation of subtraction is a binary operation on the set of integers. That is, subtraction
may be thought of as a function, −: ℤ × ℤ → ℤ. If a pair of integers is used as input to the
function, the resulting output is an integer. For example, −(2,5) = −3. As with the operation
of addition, this is not the way that we are used to writing the subtraction operation. We
would write 2 − 5 = −3 instead. But it is the same operation.

Example #3 of a binary operation:

The operation of multiplication is a binary operation on the set of real numbers. That is,
multiplication may be thought of as a function, ∗: ℝ × ℝ → ℝ. If a pair of real numbers is
1 𝜋
used as input to the function, the resulting output is a real number. For example, ∗ (𝜋, 2) = 2 .
Again, this is not the way that we are used to writing the multiplication operation. We would
1 𝜋
write 𝜋 ∗ 2 = 2 instead. But it is the same operation.

The three examples just presented illustrate a common notation for binary operations. The
symbol that represents the operation is often placed in between the elements in the pair that is the
input to the operation instead of in front of the pair. For example, we write 2 + 5 = 7 instead of
writing +(2,5) = 7.

We will be interested in four properties that a binary operation may or may not have. They are
associativity, the existence of an identity, the existence of inverses, and commutativity. Here are
the definitions and examples.

We start with the definition of the associativity property.

Definition 124 associativity, associative binary operation

Words: “∗ is associative” or “∗ has the associativity property”
Usage: ∗ is a binary operation ∗ on some set 𝑆.
Meaning: ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐

For example, addition on the set of integers (Example #1 above) is an associative binary
operation. (Associativity of addition is specified in the axioms for integer arithmetic.)
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 308

But subtraction on the set of integers (Example #2 above) is not associative. As a

counterexample, observe that

10 − (8 − 5) ≠ (10 − 8) − 5

So subtraction is a binary operation, but it is not associative.

The second property that we will discuss is the existence of an identity element.

Definition 125 identity element, binary operation with an identity element

Words: “∗ has an identity element.”
Usage: ∗ is a binary operation ∗ on some set 𝑆.
Meaning:.There is an element ∃𝑒 ∈ 𝑆 with the following property:
∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎
Meaning in symbols: ∃𝑒 ∈ 𝑆: ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎
Additional Terminology: The element ∃𝑒 ∈ 𝑆 is called the identity for operation ∗.

For example, addition on the set of integers (Example #1 above) has an identity element: the
integer 0. We say that 0 is the additive identity element.

As a second example, multiplication on the set of integers has an identity element: the integer 1.
We say that 1 is the multiplicative identity element.

As a third example, consider the operation of multiplication on the set of even integers. This is a
binary operation, because when two even integers are multiplied, the result is an even integer.
But there is no identity element. That is because the only integer that could possibly be an
identity element would be the integer 1, but 1 is not an even integer.

As a fourth example, consider the binary operation of subtraction on the set of integers.
(Example #2 above). Notice that the number 0 has the property that for any integer 𝑚, the
equation 𝑚 − 0 = 𝑚 is true. Based on this, one might suspect that the number 0 might be an
identity element for the operation of subtraction. But notice that the equation 0 − 𝑚 = 𝑚 is not
always true. For example, 0 − 0 = 0 is true, but 0 − 5 = 5 is false. Since the equation 0 − 𝑚 =
𝑚 is not always true, the integer 0 is not qualified to be called an identity element for the
operation of subtraction. It should be clear that the operation of subtraction on the set of integers
does not have an identity element.

The example just presented shows the significance of the expression 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 in the
definition of an identity element. That single expression means that the equalities 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 and
𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 must both be satisfied. It is sometimes possible to find an element that satisfies one of
the equalities but not both. Such an element is not qualified to be called an identity element.

The third property that we will discuss is the existence of an inverse for each element.

Definition 126 binary operation with inverses

Words: “∗ has inverses.”
 page 309

Usage: ∗ is a binary operation ∗ on some set 𝑆.

Meaning: For each element 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, there exists is an 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝑆 such that
𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒 and 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒.
Meaning in symbols: ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, ∃𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑆: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
Additional Terminology: The element 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑆 is called the inverse of 𝑎.

For example, consider the binary operation of addition on the set of real numbers. For this
operation, the set of real numbers contians an inverse for each element. For the real number 𝑥,
the inverse is the real number – 𝑥. We would say that – 𝑥 is the additive inverse of 𝑥.

For another example, consider the binary operation of multiplication on the set of real numbers.
For this operation, the set of real numbers contians an inverse for some elements, but not for
1
every element. If 𝑥 ≠ 0, then the real number 𝑥 is a multiplicative inverse for 𝑥. But the real
number 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse. So we must say that the operation of
multiplication on the set of real numbers does not have an inverse for every element.

The notation of inverse elements can be confusing. For an element 𝑎, the generic symbol for the
inverse element is 𝑎−1 . But for different binary operations, different symbols are sometimes
used. Maybe a table will help clarify.

binary operation element generic symbol for the common symbol for the
inverse of the element inverse of the element
−1 −𝑥
addition 𝑥
𝑥
on ℝ (never used in this context) the additive inverse of 𝑥
1
multiplication −1 𝑥 −1 or 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
on ℝ the multiplicative inverse of 𝑥

The commutative property is our fourth and final definition of a property that binary operations
may or may not have.

Definition 127 commutativity, commutative binary operation

Words: “∗ is commutative” or “∗ has the commutative property”
Usage: ∗ is a binary operation ∗ on some set 𝑆.
Meaning: ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎

For example, addition on the set of integers (Example #1 above) is a commutative binary
operation. (Commutativity of addition is specified in the axioms for integer arithmetic.)

But subtraction on the set of integers (Example #2 above) is a non-commutative binary

operation. As a counterexample, observe that 10 − 7 ≠ 7 − 10.

Now that we have introduced the four properties associativity, the existence of an identity, the
existence of inverses, and commutativity, we are ready to indiscuss the definition of a group.

Definition 128 Group

Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 310

A Group is a pair (𝐺,∗) consisting of a set 𝐺 and a binary operation ∗ on 𝐺 that has the
following three properties.
(1) Associativity (Definition 124)
(2) Existence of an Identity Element (Definition 125)
(3) Existence of an Inverse for each Element (Definition 126)

Notice that the definition of group does not include any mention of commutativity, the fourth
property that we introduced above. Some groups will have this property; some will not. There is
a special name for those groups that do have the property.

Definition 129 Commutative Group, Abelian Group

A commutative group (or abelian group) is a group (𝐺,∗) that has the commutativity property
(Definition 127)

For instance, consider the binary operation of addition on the set of integers.
(1) Note that or all integers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, the equation 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 is true. So the
operation is associative.
(2) Consider the integer 0. Observe that for all integers 𝑚, the equations 𝑚 + 0 = 𝑚 and 0 +
𝑚 = 𝑚 are both true. Therefore, the integer 0 is qualified to be called an identity element
for the operation of addition.
(3) For any integer 𝑚, observe that the number – 𝑚 is an integer and that the two equations
𝑚 + (−𝑚) = 0 and (−𝑚) + 𝑚 = 0 are both true. So the integer – 𝑚 is qualified to be
called an additive inverse for the integer 𝑚.
We conclude that the pair (ℤ, +) is a group. Observe that it is a commutative group, because it
also has the fourth important property:
Commutative property: for all integers 𝑚, 𝑛 the equation 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 𝑚 is true.

On the other hand, consider the binary operation of multiplication on the set of integers.
(1) Note that or all integers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, the equation 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 is true. So the
operation is associative.
(2) Consider the integer 1. Observe that for all integers 𝑚, the equations 𝑚 ∗ 1 = 𝑚 and 1 ∗
𝑚 = 𝑚 are both true. Therefore, the integer 1 is qualified to be called an identity element
for the operation of multiplication.
1
(3) The integer 5 does not have a multiplicative inverse. The real number 5 does have the
1 1 1
property that 5 ∗ 5 = 1 and 5 ∗ 5 = 1, but the real number 5 is not an integer.
We conclude that the pair (ℤ,∗) is not group because the set ℤ does not contain a multiplicitive
inverse for each element.

15.6. The Set of Transformations of the Plane is a Group

In this short section, we will prove the following theorem.

Theorem 165 the pair (𝑇,∘) consisting of the set of Transformations of the Plane and the
operation of composition of functions, is a group.

Proof of the theorem

Part (0): Prove that ∘ is a binary operation on the set 𝑻.
 page 311

To prove that ∘ is a binary operation on the set 𝑇, we must prove that if 𝑓 and 𝑔 are elements
of 𝑇, then 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is also an element of 𝑇. That is, we must show that if 𝑓 and 𝑔 are bijective
maps of the plane, then 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is also bijective. But this was proven in Theorem 164.
Part 1: Prove that the binary operation ∘ on the set 𝑻 is associative.
In Theorem 161 we proved that function composition is associative. Transformations of the
plane are just a particular kind of function. Therefore composition of transformations is
associative.
Part 2: Prove that there exists an identity element in the set 𝑻.
This is easy. Consider the map 𝑖𝑑: 𝒫 → 𝒫 introduced in Definition 119. We have observed
that it is both one-to-one and onto, so it is a transformation of the plane. We must consider its
composition with other transformations. In particular, we must show that for any
transformation 𝑓, the equations 𝑖𝑑 ∘ 𝑓 = 𝑓 and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑓 are both true. Realize that these
are equations about equality of functions. To prove that two functions are equal, one must
prove that when fed the same input, they produce the same ouput.
So we must consider the output for any given point 𝑄 ∈ 𝒫. Observe that
𝑖𝑑 ∘ 𝑓(𝑄) = 𝑖𝑑(𝑓(𝑄)) = 𝑓(𝑄)
This tells us that the functions 𝑖𝑑 ∘ 𝑓 and 𝑓 are the same function. Therefore, the equation
𝑖𝑑 ∘ 𝑓 = 𝑓 is true.
A similar calculation would show that the equation 𝑓 ∘ 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑓 is true.
Part 3: Prove that there is an inverse for each element.
Transformations of the plane are bijections. Theorem 162 tells us that bijective functions
have inverses that are also bijections. So every transformation of the plane has an inverse that
is also a transformation of the plane. This all sounds good, but we need to be careful. In the
context of Theorem 162, the inverse of a function 𝑓 iss a function called 𝑓 −1 that has the
following property:

For every 𝑄 ∈ 𝒫, the equations 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(𝑄) = 𝑄 and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑄) = 𝑄 are both true.

In our present context, the inverse of a function 𝑓 is a function called 𝑓 −1 that has this
property:
𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓 = 𝑖𝑑 and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 = 𝑖𝑑

We see that the two properties mean the same thing. That is, the kind of inverse that is
guaranteed by Theorem 162 is equivalent to the kind of inverse that we need for a binary
operation.
End of Proof

We have proved that the set of transformations of the plane is a group, that is, that the set of
transformations has the first three important properties of binary operations that we introduced in
the previous section. So it is natural to wonder if the set of transformations also has the fourth
property, commutativity. That is, is the set of transformations an abelian group? It is very easy to
find a counterexample that shows that the group is non-abelian. Here’s one:

Example to illustrate that the group of Transformations of the Plane is non-abelain.

Let 𝑀𝐾 and 𝑀𝐿 be the reflections in the lines 𝐾 and 𝐿 shown in the figures below. For the
given point 𝑄, the outputs 𝑄 ′′ = 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐿 (𝑄) and 𝑄 ′′ = 𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 (𝑄) are shown. We see that
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 312

the two outputs are not the same. Therefore, the transformations 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐿 and 𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 are
not the same.
𝑄 ′′ = 𝑀𝑀 (𝑀𝐿 (𝑄))

𝑄 ′ = 𝑀𝑀 (𝑄)
𝑀 𝑀

𝑄 𝑄
𝐿 𝐿

𝑄 ′ = 𝑀𝐿 (𝑄)

𝑄 ′′ = 𝑀𝐿 (𝑀(𝑄))

15.7. Isometries of the Plane

In the previoius sections, we studied maps of the plane that are also bijective, the so-called
transformations of the plane. But as mentioned in Section 15.3, we are more interested in the
isometries of the plane. Those are the distance preserving maps of the plane. In this section, we
will begin our study of isometries of the plane by showing that they have a number of other
properties.

For starters, it is very easy to prove that the composition of two isometries is another isometry:

Theorem 166 The composition of two isometries of the plane is also an isometry of the plane.
Proof
Suppose that 𝑓 and 𝑔 are isometries of the plane.
Let 𝑃, 𝑄 be any two points. Then

𝑑(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑃), 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑄)) = 𝑑 (𝑔(𝑓(𝑃)), 𝑔(𝑓(𝑄))) (𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

= 𝑑(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑓(𝑄)) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
= 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)

So 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 preserves distance. That is, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is an isometry.

End of proof

It is also very easy to prove that every isometry of the plane is also one-to-one. Here is the
theorem and a quick proof:

Theorem 167 Every isometry of the plane is one-to-one.

Proof
Suppose that 𝑓 is an isometry of the plane and that 𝑃 and 𝑄 are two points such that 𝑓(𝑃) =
𝑓(𝑄). That is, the two symbols 𝑓(𝑃) and 𝑓(𝑄) represent the same point. (We must show that
𝑃 and 𝑄 are in fact the same point.)
0 = 𝑑(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑓(𝑃)) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑄)
= 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
 page 313

Therefore, 𝑃 and 𝑄 are the same point.

End of proof

It is a little harder to prove that every isometry is also onto. One goal for the rest of this section
will be to prove that fact. But we will start by proving that isometries also preserve collinearity.

Our first theorem is really just a restatement of facts that have been proven in two earlier
theorems. We restate them here in a form that is useful for the current section.

Theorem 168 For three distinct points, betweenness is related to distance between the points.
For distinct points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, the following two statements are equivalent.
(i) 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶
(ii) 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) + 𝑑(𝐵, 𝐶) = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶)
Proof
(1) Suppose that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are distinct points.
(2) Either they are collinear or they are not.
Case I: Points 𝑨, 𝑩, 𝑪 are non-collinear.
(3) Suppose that points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear.
(4) Then the statement (i) is false, because part of the definition of the symbol 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 is
that the three points are collinear.
(5) 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) + 𝑑(𝐵, 𝐶) > 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶) by Theorem 64, the Triangle Inequality, applied to the three
non-collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶. So statement (ii) is false.
(6) We see that in this case, statements (i) and (ii) are both false.
Case II: Points 𝑨, 𝑩, 𝑪 are collinear.
(7) Suppose that points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are collinear.
(8) Then statements (i) and (ii) are equivalent by Theorem 16
Conclusion
(9) We see that in either case, statements (i) and (ii) are equivalent.
End of proof

Because we have seen that betweenness of points is related to the distances between the points, it
should come as no surprise that isometries of the plane preserve collinearity. Here is the theorem
and a quick proof.

Theorem 169 Isometries of the plane preserve collinearity.

If 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are distinct, collinear points and 𝑓 is an isometry of the plane, then
𝑓(𝐴), 𝑓(𝐵), 𝑓(𝐶) are distinct, collinear points.
Proof
(1) Suppose that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are distinct, collinear points.
(2) Then 𝑓(𝐴), 𝑓(𝐵), 𝑓(𝐶) are distinct points (because 𝑓 is one-to-one, by Theorem 167)
(3) Exactly one of the three points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 is between the other two (by Theorem 15). Assume
that it is point 𝐵 that is the one in the middle, so 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶. (If not, rename the three points so
that point 𝐵 is the one in the middle.)
(4) Then 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) + 𝑑(𝐵, 𝐶) = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶) (by (3) and Theorem 168 (i)(ii)).
(5) So 𝑑(𝑓(𝐴), 𝑓(𝐵)) + 𝑑(𝑓(𝐵), 𝑓(𝐶)) = 𝑑(𝑓(𝐴), 𝑓(𝐶)). (because 𝑓 preserves distance).
(6) Therefore, 𝑓(𝐴) ∗ 𝑓(𝐵) ∗ 𝑓(𝐶). (by (2), (5), and Theorem 168 (ii)(i)).
End of proof
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 314

Now we can prove that every isometry of the plane is onto.

Theorem 170 Every isometry of the plane is onto.

Proof
(1) Suppose 𝑓 is an isometry of the plane.
(2) Let 𝑌 be any point. (We must show that there exists a point 𝑋 such that 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌.)
(3) There exist two distinct points 𝐴, 𝐵.
(4) There are three possibilities for 𝑓(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵) and 𝑌.
(i) 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑌 or 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑌.
(ii) 𝑓(𝐴) ≠ 𝑌 and 𝑓(𝐵) ≠ 𝑌 but 𝑓(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵) and 𝑌 are collinear.
(iii) 𝑓(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵) and 𝑌 are non-collinear.
Case (i)
(5) If 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑌 or 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑌 then simply let 𝑋 = 𝐴 or 𝑋 = 𝐵. We have shown that in this
case, there exists a point 𝑋 such that 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌.
Case (ii)
(6) Suppose that 𝑓(𝐴) ≠ 𝑌 and 𝑓(𝐵) ≠ 𝑌 but 𝑓(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵) and 𝑌 are collinear.
Introduce point 𝑿.
(7) Let 𝐿 be line 𝐴𝐵 ⃡
⃡ and let 𝑀 be line 𝑓(𝐴)𝑓(𝐵) .
(8) Let 𝑋 be the point on line 𝐿 such that 𝑑(𝑋, 𝐴) = 𝑑(𝑌, 𝑓(𝐴)) and 𝑑(𝑋, 𝐵) = 𝑑(𝑌, 𝑓(𝐵)).
(It is not hard to show that such a point 𝑋 exists, but it is tedious. It can be done by
using coordinate systems on lines 𝐿 and 𝑀, or by using the congruent segment
construction theorem.)
Show that 𝒇(𝑿) = 𝒀.
(9) Observe that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑋 are distinct, collinear points. (Although we do not know which one is
in the middle.)
(10) By Theorem 169, we know that 𝑓(𝐴), 𝑓(𝐵), 𝑓(𝑋) are also distinct collinear points. So
point 𝑓(𝑋) lies on line 𝑀.
(11) Because 𝑓 preserves distance, we know that 𝑑(𝑓(𝑋), 𝑓(𝐴)) = 𝑑(𝑋, 𝐴) = 𝑑(𝑌, 𝑓(𝐴))
and that 𝑑(𝑓(𝑋), 𝑓(𝐵)) = 𝑑(𝑋, 𝐵) = 𝑑(𝑌, 𝑓(𝐵)). This tells us that points 𝑓(𝑋) and 𝑌
must be the same point on line 𝑀.
(12) We have shown that in this case, there exists a point 𝑋 such that 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌.

Case (iii)
(13) Suppose that 𝑓(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵) and 𝑌 are non-collinear.
Introduce point 𝒁.
(14) Let 𝑟1 = 𝑑(𝑌, 𝑓(𝐴)) and 𝑟2 = 𝑑(𝑌, 𝑓(𝐵)). Then point 𝑌 is an intersection point of the
two circles 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝐴), 𝑟1 ) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝐵), 𝑟2 ).
(15) Because 𝑓(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵) and 𝑌 are non-collinear, we know that the two circles will also
intersect at another point that we can call 𝑍.
Introduce points 𝑾, 𝑿.
(16) Observe that the points 𝑌, 𝑍 are the same distances from point 𝑓(𝐴) and are the same
distances from point 𝑓(𝐵). That is,

𝑑(𝑌, 𝑓(𝐴)) = 𝑑(𝑍, 𝑓(𝐴)) = 𝑟1

 page 315

𝑑(𝑌, 𝑓(𝐵)) = 𝑑(𝑍, 𝑓(𝐵)) = 𝑟2

(17) Because 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝑑(𝑓(𝐴), 𝑓(𝐵)), we know that the two circles 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟1 ) and
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐵, 𝑟1 ) will also intersect at two points that we can call 𝑊 and 𝑋.
Show that 𝒇({𝑾, 𝑿}) = {𝒀, 𝒁}.
(18) Observe that the points 𝑊, 𝑋 are the same distances from point 𝐴 and are the same
distances from point 𝐵. That is,

𝑑(𝑊, 𝐴) = 𝑑(𝑋, 𝐴) = 𝑟1
𝑑(𝑊, 𝐵) = 𝑑(𝑋, 𝐵) = 𝑟2

(19) Because 𝑓 is distance preserving, we know

𝑑(𝑓(𝑊), 𝑓(𝐴)) = 𝑑(𝑊, 𝐴) = 𝑟1

𝑑(𝑓(𝑋), 𝑓(𝐴)) = 𝑑(𝑋, 𝐴) = 𝑟1
𝑑(𝑓(𝑊), 𝑓(𝐵)) = 𝑑(𝑊, 𝐵) = 𝑟2
𝑑(𝑓(𝑋), 𝑓(𝐵)) = 𝑑(𝑋, 𝐵) = 𝑟2

In other words, points 𝑓(𝑊), 𝑓(𝑋) must lie at the two intersection points of the two circles
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝐴), 𝑟1 ) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝐵), 𝑟2 ). But those two intersection points are 𝑌 and 𝑍.
This could be written in symbols as 𝑓({𝑊, 𝑋}) = {𝑌, 𝑍}.
(20) So the output points 𝑓(𝑊), 𝑓(𝑋) must be the same points as 𝑌, 𝑍, although we don’t
know which one is which. But 𝑓 is one-to-one, so we do know that the two inputs do
not both produce the same output. Therefore, one of the inputs will definitely produce
an output of 𝑌. We can interchange the names of 𝑊, 𝑋 if necessary so that 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌.
(21) We have shown that in this case, there exists a point 𝑋 such that 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌.
Conclusion
(11) We have shown that in every case, there exists a point 𝑋 such that 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌.
End of Proof

The following corollary follows immediately from Theorem 167 and Theorem 170 and
Definition 117.

Theorem 171 (corollary) Every isometry of the plane is also a transformation of the plane.
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 316

The Venn diagram at right summarizes the

relationship between the types of maps of Maps of the Plane
the plane that we have studied so far.

Note that because every isometry of the Transformations of the Plane

plane is a transformation of the plane, we
know that every isometry of the plane will
have an inverse. This fact could be stated Isometries of the Plane
as a quick corollary of the theorem just
proved. But instead, I will combine it with
another fact as part of the following
theorem.

Theorem 172 Every isometry of the plane has an inverse that is also an isometry.

Proof
(1) Suppose that 𝑓 is an isometry of the plane.
(2) Then 𝑓 is a transformation of the plane (Justify) and so it has an inverse 𝑓 −1 that is also a
transformation of the plane. (Justify) That is, both 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 are transformations of the
plane.
(3) Let 𝑃, 𝑄 be any two points. Then

𝑑(𝑓 −1 (𝑃), 𝑓 −1 (𝑄)) = 𝑑 (𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑃)), 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑄))) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦)

= 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)

(4) So 𝑓 −1 preserves distance. That is, 𝑓 −1 is also an isometry.

End of Proof

15.8. The set of isometries of the plane is a group

In Section 15.6, we proved that the set of transformations of the plane, with the operation of
composition, is a group (Theorem 165). In this section, we will prove the same for the set of
isometries.

Theorem 173 the pair (𝐼,∘) consisting of the set of Isometries of the Plane and the operation of
composition of functions, is a group.

Proof of the theorem

Part (0): Prove that ∘ is a binary operation on the set 𝑰.
To prove that ∘ is a binary operation on the set 𝐼, we must prove that if 𝑓 and 𝑔 are elements
of 𝐼, then 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is also an element of 𝐼. That is, we must show that if 𝑓 and 𝑔 are isometries
of the plane, then 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is also an isometry of the plane. But this was proven in Theorem 166.
Part 1: Prove that the binary operation ∘ on the set 𝑰 is associative.
In Theorem 161 we proved that function composition is associative. Isometries of the plane
are just a particular kind of function. Therefore composition of isometries is associative.
Part 2: Prove that there exists an identity element in the set 𝑰.
 page 317

The map 𝑖𝑑: 𝒫 → 𝒫 introduced in Definition 119 is an isometry of the plane. It is also an
identity map in the sense of composition of maps of the plane. That is, for any 𝑓 that is a map
of the plane, the equations 𝑓 ∘ 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑓 and 𝑖𝑑 ∘ 𝑓 = 𝑓 are both true.
Part 3: Prove that there is an inverse for each element.
Theorem 172 tells us that every isometry of the plane has an inverse that is alsO an isometry.
In the context of Theorem 172, the inverse of a function 𝑓 is a function called 𝑓 −1 that has
the following property:

For every 𝑄 ∈ 𝒫, the equations 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(𝑄) = 𝑄 and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑄) = 𝑄 are both true.

In our present context, the inverse of a function 𝑓 is a function called 𝑓 −1 that has this
property:
𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓 = 𝑖𝑑 and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 = 𝑖𝑑
We see that the two properties mean the same thing. That is, the kind of inverse that is
guaranteed by Theorem 172 is equivalent to the kind of inverse that we need for a binary
operation.
End of Proof

15.9. Some More Properties of Isometries

Theorem 174 Isometries of the plane preserve lines.
If 𝐿 is a line and 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫 is an isometry, then the image 𝑓(𝐿) is also a line.
Proof
(1) Suppose that 𝐿 is a line and 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫 is an isometry.
(2) There exist two distinct points 𝐴, 𝐵 on line 𝐿. (Justify.)
(3) 𝑓(𝐴) ≠ 𝑓(𝐵). (Justify.)
(4) There is a unique line passing through points 𝑓(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵). (Justify.) Call this line 𝑀.

Our goal now is to prove that 𝑓(𝐿) = 𝑀. This is a statement about equality of two sets. To
prove it, we must prove that 𝑓(𝐿) ⊂ 𝑀 and that 𝑀 ⊂ 𝑓(𝐿).

Part 1: Prove that 𝒇(𝑳) ⊂ 𝑴.

(5) To prove that 𝑓(𝐿) ⊂ 𝑀, we must show that if 𝑃 ∈ 𝐿 then 𝑓(𝑃) ∈ 𝑀.
(6) In the case the 𝑃 = 𝐴 or 𝑃 = 𝐵, we already know that 𝑓(𝑃) ∈ 𝑀 because of the way that
we defined line 𝑀.
(7) So suppose that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑃 are distinct points on 𝐿.
(8) Then 𝑓(𝐴), 𝑓(𝐵), 𝑓(𝑃) are distinct, collinear points. (Justify.) So point 𝑓(𝑃) lies on line
𝑀.
Part 2: Prove that 𝑴 ⊂ 𝒇(𝑳).

To prove that 𝑀 ⊂ 𝑓(𝐿), we must show that if 𝑄 ∈ 𝑀 then there exists a point 𝑃 ∈ 𝐿 such
that 𝑓(𝑃) = 𝑄.

(9) In the case the 𝑄 = 𝑓(𝐴) or 𝑄 = 𝑓(𝐵), then we’re done: we can let 𝑃 = 𝐴 or 𝑃 = 𝐵.
(10) So suppose that 𝑓(𝐴), 𝑓(𝐵), 𝑄 are distinct points on 𝑀.
(11) The isometry 𝑓 has an inverse 𝑓 −1 that is also an isometry. (Justify.)
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 318

(12) Then 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝐴)), 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝐵)), 𝑓 −1 (𝑄) are distinct, collinear points. (Justify.) So point
𝑓(𝑃) lies on line 𝑀. That is, 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑓 −1 (𝑄) are distinct, collinear points. (Justify.) So
point 𝑓 −1 (𝑄) lies on line 𝐿.
(13) Let 𝑃 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑄). Then 𝑃 lies on 𝐿 and 𝑓(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑄)) = 𝑄.
Conclusion of cases
(14) We see that in either case, there exists a point 𝑃 ∈ 𝐿 such that 𝑓(𝑃) = 𝑄.
Conclusion of Proof
(15) We have proven that 𝑓(𝐿) ⊂ 𝑀 and that 𝑀 ⊂ 𝑓(𝐿). Conclude that 𝑓(𝐿) = 𝑀.
End of Proof

Here is an analogous theorem for circles.

Theorem 175 Isometries of the plane preserve circles.

If 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫 is an isometry, then the image of a circle is a circle with the same radius.
More specifically, the image 𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) is the circle 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟).
Proof
(1) Suppose that 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) is given and that 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫 preserves distance.

Our goal is to prove that 𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) = 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟). This is a statement about
equality of sets. To prove it, we must prove that 𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) ⊂ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟) and that
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)).

Part 1: Show that 𝒇(𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆(𝑷, 𝒓)) ⊂ 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆(𝒇(𝑷), 𝒓).

To show that 𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) ⊂ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟), we must show that if 𝑋 ∈ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟),
then 𝑓(𝑋) ∈ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟).

(2) Suppose that 𝑋 ∈ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟).

(3) Then
𝑟 = 𝑑(𝑋, 𝑃) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒)
= 𝑑(𝑓(𝑋), 𝑓(𝑃)) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
(4) So 𝑓(𝑋) ∈ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟). (by (3))
End of Proof Part 1

Part 2: Show that 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆(𝒇(𝑷), 𝒓) ⊂ 𝒇(𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆(𝑷, 𝒓)).

To show that 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)), we must show that if 𝑌 ∈ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟),
then there exists a point 𝑋 ∈ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) such that 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌.

(5) Suppose that 𝑌 ∈ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟).

(6) The isometry 𝑓 has an inverse 𝑓 −1 that is also an isometry. (Justify.)
(7) Observe that

𝑟 = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑓(𝑝)) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑌 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟))

= 𝑑 (𝑓 −1 (𝑌), 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑃))) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓 −1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦)
= 𝑑(𝑓 −1 (𝑌), 𝑃) (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)
 page 319

(8) So point 𝑓 −1 (𝑌) lies on 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟). Let 𝑋 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑌). Then 𝑋 lies on 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) and
𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑌)) = 𝑌.
(9) We have shown that for every 𝑌 ∈ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟), there exists a point 𝑋 ∈ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)
such that 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌. This shows that 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)).
End of Proof Part 2

Conclusion of Proof
(10) We have shown that 𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) ⊂ 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟) and that 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟) ⊂
𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)). This proves that 𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) = 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟).
End of Proof

It turns out that isometries of the plane can be completely determined by the outputs that they
produce when three non-collinear points are used as inputs. The following theorem is about the
situation where the three non-collinear input points are fixed points.

Theorem 176 If an isometry has three non-collinear fixed points, then the isometry is the
identity map.
Proof
(1) Suppose that 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫 is an isometry with three non-collinear fixed points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶.
(2) Let 𝑄 be any point. (We must show that 𝑓(𝑄) = 𝑄.)
(3) Assume that 𝑓(𝑄) ≠ 𝑄.
(4) Note that 𝑄 is not any of the points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, because they are all fixed points.
(5) Observe that
𝑑(𝐴, 𝑄) = 𝑑(𝑓(𝐴), 𝑓(𝑄)) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦)
= 𝑑(𝐴, 𝑓(𝑄)) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
That is, point 𝐴 is equidistant from points 𝑄 and 𝑓(𝑄).
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅.
(6) Therefore, 𝐴 lies on the line that is the perpendicular bisector of segment 𝑄𝑓(𝑄)
(7) Similarly, we could show that point 𝐵 is equidistant from points 𝑄 and 𝑓(𝑄), so 𝐵 also
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅.
lies on the line that is the perpendicular bisector of segment 𝑄𝑓(𝑄)
(8) And we could show that point 𝐶 is equidistant from points 𝑄 and 𝑓(𝑄), so 𝐶 lies on the
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅.
line that is the perpendicular bisector of segment 𝑄𝑓(𝑄)
(9) We have shown that points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 all lie on the line that is the perpendicular bisector of
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅.
segment 𝑄𝑓(𝑄)
(10) Statement (9) contradicts statement (1) that says that points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear.
Therefore, our assumption in step (3) was wrong. It must be that 𝑓(𝑄) = 𝑄. In other
words, the map 𝑓 is the identity map.
End of Proof

The theorem just proved is the heart of the proof of the following theorem that essentially says
that an isometry is completely determined by its image at three non-collinear fixed points.

Note that the proof uses the trick described after Theorem 163.

Theorem 177 If two isometries have the same images at three non-collinear fixed points, then
the isometries are in fact the same isometry.
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 320

If 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫 and 𝑔: 𝒫 → 𝒫 are isometries and 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points such that

𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑔(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑔(𝐵) and 𝑓(𝐶) = 𝑔(𝐶), then 𝑓 = 𝑔.
Proof
(1) Suppose that 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫 and 𝑔: 𝒫 → 𝒫 are isometries and 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points
such that 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑔(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑔(𝐵) and 𝑓(𝐶) = 𝑔(𝐶).
(2) Let 𝑄 be any point. (We must show that 𝑓(𝑄) = 𝑔(𝑄).)
(3) The map 𝑔 has an inverse 𝑔−1 that is also an isometry. (Justify.)
(4) The map 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 is also an isometry. (Justify.)
(5) Observe that
𝑔−1 (𝑓(𝐴)) = 𝑔−1 (𝑔(𝐴)) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑔(𝐴))
= 𝐴 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
That is, point 𝐴 is a fixed point of the isometry 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓.
(6) Similarly, we could show that point 𝐵 is a fixed point of the isometry 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓.
(8) And we could show that point 𝐶 is a fixed point of the isometry 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓.
(9) We have shown that the non-collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are all fixed points of the isometry
𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓. Therefore, 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 = 𝑖𝑑. (Justify.)
(10) Similarly, we could introduce the the isometry 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔−1 and show that points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are
all fixed point of it. Therefore, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔−1 = 𝑖𝑑. (Justify.)
(11) Statements (9) and (10) tell us that 𝑔−1 must be the inverse of 𝑓. But 𝑔−1 is the inverse
of 𝑔. So 𝑓 = 𝑔.
End of Proof
𝐿 𝐾
Here is a simple example of the use of
Theorem 177.

For the lines 𝐽, 𝐾, 𝐿 shown, prove that 𝐵

𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 = 𝑀𝐾 .
𝐽
𝜃 𝐶
𝜃
𝐴

Solution: For each map 𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 and 𝑀𝐾 , we will consider the images of the non-collinear
points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶.
 page 321

(i) Describe the trajectories of the three

𝐿 𝐾
points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 under the mapping
𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 𝐶′′

The trajectory of point 𝐴 under the map

𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 is:
𝐴→𝐴→𝐴→𝐴 𝐵′′

The trajectory of point 𝐵 under the map 𝐵

𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 is:
𝐽
𝐵 → 𝐵′ → 𝐵′′ → 𝐵
𝜃 𝐶
The trajectory of point 𝐶 under the map 𝜃
𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 is: 𝐴
𝐶 → 𝐶 → 𝐶′′ → 𝐶′′ 𝐵′

(ii) Now Describe the trajectories of the

𝐿 𝐾
three points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 under the mapping
𝑀𝐾 𝐶′′

The trajectory of point 𝐴 under the map

𝑀𝐾 is:
𝐴→𝐴

The trajectory of point 𝐵 under the map 𝐵

𝑀𝐾 is:
𝐵→𝐵 𝐽
𝜃 𝐶
The trajectory of point 𝐶 under the map 𝜃
𝑀𝐾 is: 𝐴
𝐶 → 𝐶′′

(iii) Conclusion: We see that

𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐴) = 𝑀𝐾 (𝐴)
𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐵) = 𝑀𝐾 (𝐵)
𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐶) = 𝑀𝐾 (𝐶)

Therefore, 𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 = 𝑀𝐾 by Theorem 177.

Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 322

15.10. Exercises
[1] (a) Prove that the dilation map 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 (introduced in Definition 121) is bijective.
(b) What is 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 −1 ? Explain.

[2] (a) Prove the existence and uniqueness of the point 𝑄 ′ described in the definition of 𝑀𝐿 , the
reflection in line 𝐿 (introduced in Definition 122).

(b) Prove that the reflection 𝑀𝐿 is bijective.

(c) What is 𝑀𝐿 −1 ? Explain.

[3] Prove that the reflection 𝑀𝐿 is an isometry.

[4] Prove that the dilation 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 is not an isometry.

[5] Justify the steps in the proof of Theorem 172, which states that every isometry of the plane
has an inverse that is also an isometry.

[6] In the proof of Theorem 176 (If an isometry has three non-collinear fixed points, then the
isometry is the identity map.), step (3) is the assumption that 𝑓(𝑄) ≠ 𝑄. This fact does not get
mentioned explicitly later in the proof. Explain where this fact is used.

[7] For the lines 𝐽, 𝐾 and the non-collinear

points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 shown, 𝐾

(a) Find the images of the three points

𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 under the mapping 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 . That
is,

Find 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐴).
Find 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐵). 𝐵
Find 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐶).
𝐽
(b) Based on your answer to (A), what is 𝐶
another name for the mapping 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 ?
𝜃
Explain. (You might need to make up 𝐴
some notation. Go ahead.)
 page 323

[8] For the parallel lines 𝐽, 𝐾 and the non-collinear 𝐾

points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 shown,
𝐶
(a) Find the images of the three points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 under
the mapping 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 . That is, find 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐴) and 𝐽
find 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐵) and find 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐶). 𝐴 𝐵

(b) Based on your answer to (A), what is another

name for the mapping 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 ? Explain.

[9] For the lines 𝐽, 𝐾, 𝐿 and the non- 𝐿

collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 shown,

(a) Find the images of the three points

𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 under the mapping

𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽

That is, find 𝐾

𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐴)
and find
𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐵)
and find
𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐶). 𝐽
𝐵
(b) Based on your answer to (A), what
is another name for the mapping

𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 ?
𝐴 𝐶
Explain.
Chapter 15 Maps, Transformations, Isometries page 324

[10] For the lines 𝐽, 𝐾, 𝐿 and the non- 𝐿

collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 shown, 𝐾

(a) Find the images of the four points

𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 under the mapping

𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽

That is, find

𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐴)
and find
𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐵) 𝐷
and find
𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐶) 𝐽
and find 𝐵
𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 (𝐷).

(b) Based on your answer to (A), what

is another name for the mapping
𝐴
𝑀𝐿 ∘ 𝑀𝐾 ∘ 𝑀𝐽 ?
𝐶
Explain.
 page 325

16. Appendix 1: List of Definitions

Definition 1: Interpretation of an axiom system (page 12)
Suppose that an axiom system consists of the following four things
 an undefined object of one type, and a set 𝐴 containing all of the objects of that type
 an undefined object of another type, and a set 𝐵 containing all of the objects of that type
 an undefined relation ℛ from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵
 a list of axioms involving the primitive objects and the relation
An interpretation of the axiom systems is the following three things
 a designation of an actual set 𝐴′ that will play the role of set 𝐴
 a designation of an actual set 𝐵′ that will play the role of set 𝐵
 a designation of an actual relation ℛ′ from 𝐴′ to 𝐵′ that will play the role of the relation ℛ

Definition 2: successful interpretation of an axiom system; model of an axiom system (page 14)
To say that an interpretation of an axiom system is successful means that when the
undefined terms and undefined relations in the axioms are replaced with the
corresponding terms and relations of the interpretation, the resulting statements are all
true. A model of an axiom system is an interpretation that is successful.

Definition 3: isomorphic models of an axiom system (page 15)

Two models of an axiom system are said to be isomorphic if it is possible to describe a
correspondence between the objects and relations of one model and the objects and
relations of the other model in a way that all corresponding relationships are preserved.

Definition 4: consistent axiom system (page 15)

An axiom system is said to be consistent if it is possible for all of the axioms to be true.
The axiom system is said to be inconsistent if it is not possible for all of the axioms to be
true.

Definition 5: dependent and independent axioms (page 18)

An axiom is said to be dependent if it is possible to prove that the axiom is true as a
consequence of the other axioms. An axiom is said to be independent if it is not possible
to prove that it is true as a consequence of the other axioms.

Definition 6: independent axiom system (page 20)

An axiom system is said to be independent if all of its axioms are independent. An axiom
system is said to be not independent if one or more of its axioms are not independent.

Definition 7: complete axiom system (page 20)

An axiom system is said to be complete if any two models of the axiom system are
isomorphic. An axiom system is said to be not complete if there exist two models that are
not isomorphic.
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 326

Definition 8: Alternate definition of a complete axiom system (page 22)

An axiom system is said to be not complete if it is possible to write an additonal
independent statement regarding the primitive terms and relations. (An additional
independent statement is a statement S that is not one of the axioms and such that there is a
model for the axiom system in which Statement S is true and there is also a model for the
axiom system in which Statement S is false.) An axiom system is said to be complete if it is
not possible to write such an additional independent statement.

Definition 9: passes through (page 29)

 words: Line L passes through point P.
 meaning: Point P lies on line L.

Definition 10: intersecting lines (page 29)

 words: Line L intersects line M.
 meaning: There exists a point (at least one point) that lies on both lines.

Definition 11: parallel lines (page 29)

 words: Line L is parallel to line M.
 symbol: L||M.
 meaning: Line L does not intersect line M. That is, there is no point that lies on both lines.

Definition 12: collinear points (page 29)

 words: The set of points {P1, P2, … , Pk} is collinear.
 meaning: There exists a line L that passes through all the points.

Definition 13: concurrent lines (page 30)

 words: The set of lines {L1, L2, … , Lk} is concurrent.
 meaning: There exists a point P that lies on all the lines.

Definition 14: Abstract Model, Concrete Model, Relative Consistency, Absolute Consistency
(page 45)
 An abstract model of an axiom system is a model that is, itself, another axiom system.
 A concrete model of an axiom system is a model that uses actual objects and relations.
 An axiom system is called relatively consistent if an abstract model has been
demonstrated.
 An axiom system is called absolutely consistent if a concrete model has been
demonstrated.

Definition 15: the concept of duality and the dual of an axiomatic geometry (page 46)
Given any axiomatic geometry with primitive objects point and line, primitive relation
“the point lies on the line”, and defined relation “the line passes through the point”, one
can obtain a new axiomatic geometry by making the following replacements.

 Replace every occurrence of point in the original with line in the new axiom system.
 Replace every occurrence of line in the original with point in the new axiom system.
 Replace every occurrence of lies on in the original with passes through in the new.
 Replace every occurrence of passes through in the original with lies on in the new.
 page 327

The resulting new axiomatic geometry is called the dual of the original geometry. The
dual geometry will have primitive objects line and point, primitive relation “the line
passes through the point”, and defined relation “the point lies on the line.” Any theorem
of the original axiom system can be translated as well, and the result will be a valid
theorem of the new dual axiom system.

Definition 16: self-dual geometry (page 50)

An axiomatic geometry is said to be self-dual if the statements of the dual axioms are true
statements in the original geometry.

Definition 17: The Axiom System for Neutral Geometry (page 55)
Primitive Objects: point, line
Primitive Relation: the point lies on the line
Axioms of Incidence and Distance
<N1> There exist two distinct points. (at least two)
<N2> For every pair of distinct points, there exists exactly one line that both points
lie on.
<N3> For every line, there exists a point that does not lie on the line. (at least one)
<N4> (The Distance Axiom) There exists a function 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ, called the
Distance Function on the Set of Points.
<N5> (The Ruler Axiom) Every line has a coordinate function.
Axiom of Separation
<N6> (The Plane Separation Axiom) For every line 𝐿, there are two associated sets
called half-planes, denoted 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 , with the following three properties:
(i) The three sets 𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 form a partition of the set of all points.
(ii) Each of the half-planes is convex.
(iii) If point 𝑃 is in 𝐻1 and point 𝑄 is in 𝐻2 , then segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 intersects line 𝐿.
Axioms of Angle measurement
<N7> (Angle Measurement Axiom) There exists a function 𝑚: 𝒜 → (0,180), called
the Angle Measurement Function.
<N8> (Angle Construction Axiom) Let 𝐴𝐵 be a ray on the edge of the half-plane 𝐻.
For every number 𝑟 between 0 and 180, there is exactly one ray 𝐴𝑃 with point
𝑃 in 𝐻 such that 𝑚(∠𝑃𝐴𝐵) = 𝑟.
<N9> (Angle Measure Addition Axiom) If 𝐷 is a point in the interior of ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶, then
𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐴𝐶).
Axiom of Triangle Congruence
<N10> (SAS Axiom) If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of
two triangles, and two sides and the included angle of the first triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of the second triangle, then all the
remaining corresponding parts are congruent as well, so the correspondence is a
congruence and the triangles are congruent.

Definition 18: the unique line passing through two distinct points (page 57)
words: line 𝑃, 𝑄
⃡
symbol: 𝑃𝑄
usage: 𝑃 and 𝑄 are distinct points
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 328

meaning: the unique line that passes through both 𝑃 and 𝑄. (The existence and uniqueness of
such a line is guaranteed by Axiom <N2>.)

Definition 19: The set of all abstract points is denoted by the symbol 𝒫 and is called the plane.
(page 63)

Definition 20: abbreviated symbol for the distance between two points (page 63)
abbreviated symbol: 𝑃𝑄
meaning: the distance between points 𝑃 and 𝑄, that is, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄)

Definition 21: Coordinate Function (page 64)

Words: 𝑓 is a coordinate function on line 𝐿.
Meaning: 𝑓 is a function with domain 𝐿 and codomain ℝ (that is, 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ) that has the
following properties:
(1) 𝑓 is a one-to-one correspondence. That is, 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto.
(2) 𝑓 “agrees with” the distance function 𝑑 in the following way:
For all points 𝑃,𝑄 on line 𝐿, the equation |𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑄)| = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) is true.
Additional Terminology: In standard function notation, the symbol 𝑓(𝑃) denotes the output
of the coordinate function 𝑓 when the point 𝑃 is used as input. Note that 𝑓(𝑃) is a real
number. The number 𝑓(𝑃) is called the coordinate of point 𝑃 on line 𝐿.
Additional Notation: Because a coordinate function is tied to a particular line, it might be a
good idea to have a notation for the coordinate function that indicates which line the
coordinate function is tied to. We could write 𝑓𝐿 for a coordinate function on line 𝐿. With
that notation, the symbol 𝑓𝐿 (𝑃) would denote the coordinate of point 𝑃 on line 𝐿. But
although it might be clearer, we do not use the symbol 𝑓𝐿 . We just use the symbol 𝑓.

Definition 22: Distance Function on the set of Real Numbers (page 66)
Words: The Distance Function on the Set of Real Numbers
Meaning: The function 𝑑ℝ : ℝ × ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑑ℝ (𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦|.

Definition 23: betweenness for real numbers (page 91)

words: “𝑦 is between 𝑥 and 𝑧”, where 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 are real numbers.
symbol: 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧, where 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 are real numbers
meaning: 𝑥 < 𝑦 < 𝑧 or 𝑧 < 𝑦 < 𝑥.
additional symbol: the symbol 𝑤 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧 means 𝑤 < 𝑥 < 𝑦 < 𝑧 or 𝑧 < 𝑦 < 𝑥 < 𝑤, etc.

Definition 24: betweenness of points (page 94)

words: “𝑄 is between 𝑃 and 𝑅”, where 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are points.
symbol: 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅, where 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are points.
meaning: Points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are collinear, lying on some line 𝐿, and there is a coordinate
function 𝑓 for line 𝐿 such that the real number coordinate for 𝑄 is between the real
number coordinates of 𝑃 and 𝑅. That is, 𝑓(𝑃) ∗ 𝑓(𝑄) ∗ 𝑓(𝑅).
remark: By Theorem 14, we know that it does not matter which coordinate function is used
on line 𝐿. The betweenness property of the coordinates of the three points will be the
same regardless of the coordinate function used.
additional symbol: The symbol 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑆 means 𝑓(𝑃) ∗ 𝑓(𝑄) ∗ 𝑓(𝑅) ∗ 𝑓(𝑆), etc.
 page 329

Definition 25: segment, ray (page 96)

words and symbols: “segment 𝐴, 𝐵”, denoted 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅, and “ray 𝐴, 𝐵”, denoted 𝐴𝐵
usage: 𝐴 and 𝐵 are distinct points.
meaning: Let 𝑓 be a coordinate function for line ⃡𝐴𝐵 with the property that 𝑓(𝐴) = 0 and 𝑓(𝐵)
is positive. (The existence of such a coordinate function is guaranteed by Theorem
11 (Ruler Placement Theorem).)
 Segment ̅̅̅̅𝐴𝐵 is the set ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 = {𝑃 ∈ ⃡𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑃) ≤ 𝑓(𝐵)}.
 Ray 𝐴𝐵 is the set 𝐴𝐵 = {𝑃 ∈ 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑃)}.
additional terminology:
 Points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are called the endpoints of segment ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 .
 Point 𝐴 is called the endpoint of ray 𝐴𝐵 .
 The length of a segment is defined to be the distance between the endpoints. That is,
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐴𝐵̅̅̅̅ ) = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵). As mentioned in Definition 20, many books use the symbol
𝐴𝐵 to denote 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵). Thus we have the following choice of notations:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ) = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝐴𝐵

Definition 26: Opposite rays are rays of the form 𝐵𝐴 and 𝐵𝐶 where 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶. (page 97)

Definition 27: angle (page 97)

words: “angle 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶”
symbol: ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶
usage: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points.
meaning: Angle 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 is defined to be the following set: ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐶
additional terminology: Point 𝐵 is called the vertex of the angle. Rays 𝐵𝐴 and 𝐵𝐶 are each
called a side of the angle.

Definition 28: triangle (page 98)

words: “triangle 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶”
symbol: Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶
usage: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points.
meaning: Triangle 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 is defined to be the following set: Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ∪ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ∪ 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐴
̅̅̅̅
additional terminology: Points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are each called a vertex of the triangle. Segments 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
and 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐶𝐴 are each called a side of the triangle.

Definition 29: segment congruence (page 98)

Two line segments are said to be congruent if they have the same length. The symbol ≅ is
used to indicate this. For example ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 means 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ) = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅). Of course,
this can also be denoted 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝑑(𝐶, 𝐷) or 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷.

Definition 30: reflexive property (page 99)

words: Relation ℛ is reflexive.
usage: ℛ is a relation on some set 𝐴.
meaning: Element of set 𝐴 is related to itself.
abbreviated version: For every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, the sentence 𝑥 ℛ𝑥 is true.
More concise abbreviaton: ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥ℛ𝑥
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 330

Definition 31: symmetric property (page 99)

words: Relation ℛ is symmetric.
usage: ℛ is a relation on some set 𝐴.
meaning: If 𝑥 is related to 𝑦, then 𝑦 is related to 𝑥.
abbreviated version: For every 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑥ℛ𝑦 is true then 𝑦ℛ𝑥 is also true.
More concise abbreviaton: ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥ℛ𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦ℛ𝑥

Definition 32: transitive property (page 99)

words: Relation ℛ is transitive.
usage: ℛ is a relation on some set 𝐴.
meaning: If 𝑥 is related to 𝑦 and 𝑦 is related to 𝑧, then 𝑥 is related to 𝑧.
abbreviated: For every 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑥ℛ𝑦 is true and 𝑦ℛ𝑧 is true, then 𝑥 ℛ𝑧 is also true.
More concise abbreviaton: ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥ℛ𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦ℛ𝑧 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥ℛ𝑧

Definition 33: equivalence relation (page 99)

words: Relation ℛ is an equivalence relation.
usage: ℛ is a relation on some set 𝐴.
meaning: ℛ is reflexive and symmetric and transitive.

Definition 34: midpoint of a segment (page 104)

Words: 𝑀 is a midpoint of Segment 𝐴, 𝐵.
Meaning: 𝑀 lies on ⃡𝐴𝐵 and 𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵.

Definition 35: convex set (page 112)

 Without names: A set is said to be convex if for any two distinct points that are elements
of the set, the segment that has those two points as endpoints is a subset of the set.
 With names: Set 𝑆 is said to be convex if for any two distinct points 𝑃, 𝑄 ∈ 𝑆, the
segment 𝑃𝑄̅̅̅̅ ⊂ 𝑆.

Definition 36: same side, opposite side, edge of a half-plane. (page 113)
Two points are said to lie on the same side of a given line if they are both elements of the
same half-plane created by that line. The two points are said to lie on opposite sides of the
line if one point is an element of one half-plane and the other point is an element of the other.
The line itself is called the edge of the half-plane.

Definition 37: Angle Interior (page 117)

Words: The interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Symbol: 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶)
Meaning: The set of all points 𝐷 that satisfy both of the following conditions.
⃡ .
Points 𝐷 and 𝐴 are on the same side of line 𝐵𝐶
Points 𝐷 and 𝐶 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
Meaning abbreviated in symbols: 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐻𝐴𝐵 ⃡ (𝐶) ∩ 𝐻𝐵𝐶
⃡ (𝐴)
Related term: The exterior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is defined to be the set of points that do not lie on the
angle or in its interior.
 page 331

Definition 38: Triangle Interior (page 117)

Words: The interior of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Symbol: 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶)
Meaning: The set of all points 𝐷 that satisfy all three of the following conditions.
⃡ .
Points 𝐷 and 𝐴 are on the same side of line 𝐵𝐶
Points 𝐷 and 𝐵 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐶𝐴.
Points 𝐷 and 𝐶 are on the same side of line ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
Meaning abbreviated in symbols: 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐻𝐴𝐵 ⃡ (𝐶) ∩ 𝐻𝐵𝐶⃡ (𝐴) ∩ 𝐻𝐶𝐴
⃡ (𝐵).
Related term: The exterior of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is defined to be the set of points that do not lie on the
triangle or in its interior.

Definition 39: quadrilateral (page 123)

words: “quadrilateral 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷”
symbol: □𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
usage: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are distinct points, no three of which are collinear, and such that the segments
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ , ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 , 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐷 , ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐴 intersect only at their endpoints.
meaning: quadrilateral 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 is the set □𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ∪ 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ ∪ 𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅ ∪ 𝐷𝐴
̅̅̅̅
additional terminology: Points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are each called a vertex of the quadrilateral.
Segments ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐴 are each called a side of the quadrilateral.
Segments 𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ and 𝐵𝐷
̅̅̅̅ are each called a diagonal of the quadrilateral.

Definition 40: convex quadrilateral (page 126)

A convex quadrilateral is one in which all the points of any given side lie on the same side of
the line determined by the opposite side. A quadrilateral that does not have this property is
called non-convex.

Definition 41: The set of all abstract angles is denoted by the symbol 𝒜. (page 131)

Definition 42: adjacent angles (page 133)

Two angles are said to be adjacent if they share a side but have disjoint interiors. That is, the
two angles can be written in the form ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶, where point 𝐶 is not in the interior
of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and point 𝐴 is not in the interior of ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶.

Definition 43: angle bisector (page 134)

An angle bisector is a ray that has its endpoint at the vertex of the angle and passes through a
point in the interior of the angle, such that the two adjacent angles created have equal
measure. That is, for an angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, a bisector is a ray 𝐵𝐷 such that 𝐷 ∈ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶)
and such that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) = 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶).

Definition 44: linear pair (page 136)

Two angles are said to be a linear pair if they share one side, and the sides that they do not
share are opposite rays. That is, if the two angles can be written in the form ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and
∠𝐷𝐵𝐶, where 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶.

Definition 45: vertical pair (page 138)

A vertical pair is a pair of angles with the property that the sides of one angle are the opposite
rays of the sides of the other angle.
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 332

Definition 46: acute angle, right angle, obtuse angle (page 141)
An acute angle is an angle with measure less than 90.
A right angle is an angle with measure 90.
An obtuse angle is an angle with measure greater than 90.

Definition 47: perpendicular lines (page 141)

Two lines are said to be perpendicular if there exist two rays that lie in the lines and whose
union is a right angle. The symbol 𝐿 ⊥ 𝑀 is used to denote that lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are
perpendicular.

Definition 48: perpendicular lines, segments, rays (page 141)

Suppose that Object 1 is a line or a segment or a ray and that Object 2 is a line or a segment
or a ray. Object 1 is said to be perpendicular to Object 2 if the line that contains Object 1 is
perpendicular to the line that contains Object 2 by the definition of perpendicular lines in the
previous definition. The symbol 𝐿 ⊥ 𝑀 is used to denote that objects 𝐿 and 𝑀 are
perpendicular.

Definition 49: angle congruence (page 144)

Two angles are said to be congruent if they have the same measure. The symbol ≅ is used to
indicate this. For example ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹 means 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐸𝐹).

Definition 50: symbol for equality of two sets (found on page 149)
Words: 𝑆 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑇.
Symbol: 𝑆 = 𝑇.
Usage: 𝑆 and 𝑇 are sets.
Meaning: 𝑆 and 𝑇 are the same set. That is, every element of set 𝑆 is also an element of set
𝑇, and vice-versa.

Definition 51: function, domain, codomain, image, machine diagram, correspondence (found on
page 149)
Symbol: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵
Spoken: “𝑓 is a function that maps 𝐴 to 𝐵.”
Usage: 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets. Set 𝐴 is called the domain and set 𝐵 is called the codomain.
Meaning: 𝑓 is a machine that takes an element of set 𝐴 as input and produces an element of
set 𝐵 as output.
More notation: If an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 is used as the input to the function , then the symbol
𝑓(𝑎) is used to denote the corresponding output. The output 𝑓(𝑎) is called the
image of 𝑎 under the map 𝑓.
Machine Diagram:

𝑎 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓
input output
Domain: Codomain:
the set 𝐴 the set 𝐵
 page 333

Additional notation: If 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto (that is, if 𝑓 is a bijection), then the
symbol 𝑓: 𝐴 ↔ 𝐵 will be used. In this case, 𝑓 is called a correspondence between
the sets 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Definition 52: Correspondence between vertices of two triangles (found on page 151)
Words: “𝑓 is a correspondence between the vertices of triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.”
Meaning: 𝑓 is a one-to-one, onto function with domain {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶} and codomain {𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹}.

Definition 53: corresponding parts of two triangles (found on page 152)

Words: Corresponding parts of triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
Usage: A correspondence between the vertices of triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 has been given.
Meaning: As discussed above, if a correspondence between the vertices of triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶
and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 has been given, then there is an automatic correspondence between the
sides of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and and the sides of triangle Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹, and also between the
angles of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and the angles of Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹, For example, if the correspondence
between vertices were (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹), then corresponding parts would be pairs
̅̅̅̅ ↔ ̅̅̅̅
such as the pair of sides 𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐸 and the pair of angles ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ↔ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐹.

Definition 54: triangle congruence (found on page 152)

To say that two triangles are congruent means that there exists a correspondence between the
vertices of the two triangles such that corresponding parts of the two triangles are congruent.
If a correspondence between vertices of two triangles has the property that corresponding
parts are congruent, then the correspondence is called a congruence. That is, the expression a
congruence refers to a particular correspondence of vertices that has the special property that
corresponding parts of the triangles are congruent.

Definition 55: symbol for a congruence of two triangles (found on page 152)
Symbol: Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
Meaning: The correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) of vertices is a congruence.

Definition 56: scalene, isosceles, equilateral, equiangular triangles (found on page 156)
A scalene triangle is one in which no two sides are congruent.
An isosceles triangle is one in which at least two sides are congruent.
An equilateral triangle is one in which all three sides are congruent.
An equiangular triangle is one in which all three angles are congruent.

Definition 57: exterior angle, remote interior angle (found on page 162)
An exterior angle of a triangle is an angle that forms a linear pair with one of the angles of
the triangle. Each of the two other angles of the triangle is called a remote interior angle for
that exterior angle. For example, a triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 has six exterior angles. One of these is
∠𝐶𝐵𝐷, where 𝐷 is a point such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷. For the exterior angle ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷, the two remote
interior angles are ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 and ∠𝐶𝐴𝐵.

Definition 58: right triangle, and hypotenuse and legs of a right triangle (found on page 172)
A right triangle is one in which one of the angles is a right angle. Recall that Theorem 60
states that if a triangle has one right angle, then the other two angles are acute, so there can
only be one right angle in a right triangle. In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 334

is called the hypotenuse of the triangle. Each of the other two sides is called a leg of the
triangle.

Definition 59: altitude line, foot of an altitude line, altitude segment (found on page 173)
An altitude line of a triangle is a line that passes through a vertex of the triangle and is
perpendicular to the opposite side. (Note that the altitude line does not necessarily have to
intersect the opposite side to be perpendicular to it. Also note that Theorem 66 in the
previous chapter tells us that there is exactly one altitude line for each vertex.) The point of
intersection of the altitude line and the line determined by the opposite side is called the foot
of the altitude line. An altitude segment has one endpoint at the vertex and the other endpoint
at the foot of the altitude line drawn from that vertex. For example, in triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, an
altitude line from vertex 𝐴 is a line 𝐿 that passes through 𝐴 and is perpendicular to line 𝐵𝐶⃡ .
⃡ . The
The foot of altitude line 𝐿 is the point 𝐷 that is the intersection of line 𝐿 and line 𝐵𝐶
altitude segment from vertex 𝐴 is the segment ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐷. Point 𝐷 can also be called the foot of the
altitude segment 𝐴𝐷̅̅̅̅.

Definition 60: transversal (found on page 177)

Words: Line 𝑇 is transversal to lines 𝐿 and 𝑀.
Meaning: Line 𝑇 intersects 𝐿 and 𝑀 in distinct points.

Definition 61: alternate interior angles, corresponding angles, interior angles on the same side of
the transversal (found on page 177)
Usage: Lines 𝐿, 𝑀, and transversal 𝑇 are given.
Labeled Points:
Let 𝐵 be the intersection of lines 𝑇 and 𝐿, and let 𝐸 be the intersection of lines 𝑇 and 𝑀. (By
definition of transversal, 𝐵 and 𝐸 are not the same point.) By Theorem 15, there exist points
𝐴 and 𝐶 on line 𝐿 such that 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶, points 𝐷
and 𝐹 on line 𝑀 such that 𝐷 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐹, and points 𝐻 𝑇
𝐺 and 𝐻 on line 𝑇 such that 𝐺 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 and 𝐵 ∗ 𝑀 𝐷 𝐸 𝐹
𝐸 ∗ 𝐻. Without loss of generality, we may 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
assume that points 𝐷 and 𝐹 are labeled such 𝐿
𝐺
that it is point 𝐷 that is on the same side of line
𝑇 as point 𝐴. (See the figure at right.)
Meaning:
Special names are given to the following eight pairs of angles:
 The pair {∠𝐴𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐹𝐸𝐵} is a pair of alternate interior angles.
 The pair {∠𝐶𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐷𝐸𝐵} is a pair of alternate interior angles.
 The pair {∠𝐴𝐵𝐺, ∠𝐷𝐸𝐺} is a pair of corresponding angles.
 The pair {∠𝐴𝐵𝐻, ∠𝐷𝐸𝐻} is a pair of corresponding angles.
 The pair {∠𝐶𝐵𝐺, ∠𝐹𝐸𝐺} is a pair of corresponding angles.
 The pair {∠𝐶𝐵𝐻, ∠𝐹𝐸𝐻} is a pair of corresponding angles.
 The pair {∠𝐴𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐷𝐸𝐵} is a pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal.
 The pair {∠𝐶𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐹𝐸𝐵} is a pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal.
 page 335

Definition 62: special angle property for two lines and a transversal (found on page 180)
Words: Lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and transversal 𝑇 have the special angle property.
Meaning: The eight statements listed in Theorem 73 are true. That is, each pair of alternate
interior angles is congruent. And each pair of corresponding angles is congruent. And each
pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal has measures that add up to 180.

Definition 63: circle, center, radius, radial segment, interior, exterior (found on page 187)
Symbol: 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)
Spoken: the circle centered at 𝑃 with radius 𝑟
Usage: 𝑃 is a point and 𝑟 is a positive real number.
Meaning: The following set of points: 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) = {𝑄 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑟}
Additional Terminology:
 The point 𝑃 is called the center of the circle.
 The number 𝑟 is called the radius of the circle.
 The interior is the set 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) = {𝑄 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑄 < 𝑟}.
 The exterior is the set 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) = {𝑄 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑄 > 𝑟}.
 Two circles are said to be congruent if they have the same radius.
 Two circles are said to be concentric if they have the same center.

Definition 64: Tangent Line and Secant Line for a Circle (found on page 187)
A tangent line for a circle is a line that intersects the circle at exactly one point.
A secant line for a circle is a line that intersects the circle at exactly two points.

Definition 65: chord, diameter segment, diameter, radial segment (found on page 189)
 A chord of a circle is a line segment whose endpoints both lie on the circle.
 A diameter segment for a circle is a chord that passes through the center of the circle.
 The diameter of a circle is the number 𝑑 = 2𝑟. That is, the diameter is the number that is
the length of a diameter segment.
 A radial segment for a circle is a segment that has one endpoint at the center of the circle
and the other endpoint on the circle. (So that the radius is the number that is the length of
a radial segment.)

Definition 66: median segment and median line of a triangle (found on page 191)
A median line for a triangle is a line that passes through a vertex and the midpoint of the
opposite side. A median segment for triangle is a segment that has its endpoints at those points.

Definition 67: incenter of a triangle (found on page 195)

The incenter of a triangle in Neutral Geometry is defined to be the point where the three
angle bisectors meet. (Such a point is guaranteed to exist by Theorem 92.)

Definition 68: inscribed circle (found on page 196)

An inscribed circle for a polygon is a circle that has the property that each of the sides of the
polygon is tangent to the circle.

Definition 69: tangent circles (found on page 197)

Two circles are said to be tangent to each other if they intersect in exactly one point.
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 336

Definition 70: The Axiom System for Euclidean Geometry (found on page 201)
Primitive Objects: point, line
Primitive Relation: the point lies on the line
Axioms of Incidence and Distance
<N1> There exist two distinct points. (at least two)
<N2> For every pair of distinct points, there exists exactly one line that both points
lie on.
<N3> For every line, there exists a point that does not lie on the line. (at least one)
<N4> (The Distance Axiom) There exists a function 𝑑: 𝒫 × 𝒫 → ℝ, called the
Distance Function on the Set of Points.
<N5> (The Ruler Axiom) Every line has a coordinate function.
Axiom of Separation
<N6> (The Plane Separation Axiom) For every line 𝐿, there are two associated sets
called half-planes, denoted 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 , with the following three properties:
(i) The three sets 𝐿, 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 form a partition of the set of all points.
(ii) Each of the half-planes is convex.
(iii) If point 𝑃 is in 𝐻1 and point 𝑄 is in 𝐻2 , then segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 intersects line 𝐿.
Axioms of Angle measurement
<N7> (Angle Measurement Axiom) There exists a function 𝑚: 𝒜 → (0,180), called
the Angle Measurement Function.
<N8> (Angle Construction Axiom) Let 𝐴𝐵 be a ray on the edge of the half-plane 𝐻.
For every number 𝑟 between 0 and 180, there is exactly one ray 𝐴𝑃 with point
𝑃 in 𝐻 such that 𝑚(∠𝑃𝐴𝐵) = 𝑟.
<N9> (Angle Measure Addition Axiom) If 𝐷 is a point in the interior of ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶, then
𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐴𝐶).
Axiom of Triangle Congruence
<N10> (SAS Axiom) If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of
two triangles, and two sides and the included angle of the first triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of the second triangle, then all the
remaining corresponding parts are congruent as well, so the correspondence is a
congruence and the triangles are congruent.
Euclidean Parallel Axiom
<EPA> (EPA Axiom) For any line 𝐿 and any point 𝑃 not on 𝐿, there is not more than
one line 𝑀 that passes through 𝑃 and is parallel to 𝐿.

Definition 71: circumcenter of a triangle (found on page 207)

The circumcenter of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry is defined to be the point where the
perpendicular bisectors of the three sides intersect. (Such a point is guaranteed to exist by
Theorem 106)

Definition 72: a circle circumscribes a triangle (found on page 207)

We say that a circle circumscribes a triangle if the circle passes through all three vertices of
the triangle.

Definition 73: parallelogram (found on page 207)

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with the property that both pairs of opposite sides are
parallel.
 page 337

Definition 74: midsegment of a triangle (found on page 209)

A midsegment of a triangle is a line segment that has endpoints at the midpoints of two of the
sides of the triangle.

Definition 75: medial triangle (found on page 209)

Words: Triangle #1 is the medial triangle of triangle #2.
Meaning: The vertices of triangle #1 are the midpoints of the sides of triangle #2.
Additional Terminology: We will refer to triangle #2 as the outer triangle.

Definition 76: Orthocenter of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry (found on page 211)

The orthocenter of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry is a point where the three altitude lines
intersect. (The existence of such a point is guaranteed by Theorem 113.)

Definition 77: Equally-Spaced Parallel Lines in Euclidean Geometry (found on page 212)
Words: lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , ⋯ , 𝐿𝑛 are equally-spaced parallel lines.
Meaning: The lines are parallel and 𝐿1 𝐿2 = 𝐿2 𝐿3 = ⋯ = 𝐿𝑛−1 𝐿𝑛 .

Definition 78: Centroid of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry (found on page 214)

The centroid of a triangle in Euclidean Geometry is the point where the three medians
intersect. (Such a point is guaranteed to exist by Theorem 116.)

Definition 79: Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry (found on page 217)

Symbol: 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇
Usage: 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 are lines, and 𝑇 intersects both 𝐿 and 𝑀.
Meaning: 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 is a function whose domain is the set of points on line 𝐿 and whose
codomain is the set of points on line 𝑀. In function notation, this would be denoted by
the symbol 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 : 𝐿 → 𝑀. Given an input point 𝑃 on line 𝐿, the output point on line
𝑀 is denoted 𝑃′. That is, 𝑃′ = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿,𝑀,𝑇 (𝑃). The output point 𝑃′ is determined in the
following way:
Case 1: If 𝑃 happens to lie at the intersection of lines 𝐿 and 𝑇, then 𝑃′ is defined to be
the point at the intersection of lines 𝑀 and 𝑇.
Case 2: If 𝑃 lies on 𝐿 but not on 𝑇, then there exists exactly one line 𝑁 that passes
through 𝑃 and is parallel to line 𝑇. (Such a line 𝑁 is guaranteed by Theorem 97).
The output point 𝑃′ is defined to be the point at the intersection of lines 𝑀 and 𝑁.
Drawing:
𝑇 𝐿 𝑇 𝐿
𝑃
𝑃
𝑁
𝑃′
𝑃′
𝑀 𝑀
Case 1: 𝑃 lies on both 𝐿 and 𝑇. Case 2: 𝑃 lies on 𝐿 but not on 𝑇.
.
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 338

Definition 80: triangle similarity (found on page 222)

To say that two triangles are similar means that there exists a correspondence between the
vertices of the two triangles and the correspondence has these two properties:
 Each pair of corresponding angles is congruent.
 The ratios of the lengths of each pair of corresponding sides is the same.
If a correspondence between vertices of two triangles has the two properties, then the
correspondence is called a similarity. That is, the expression a similarity refers to a particular
correspondence of vertices that has the two properties.

Definition 81: symbol for a similarity of two triangles (found on page 223)
Symbol: Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶~Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹.
Meaning: The correspondence (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ↔ (𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) of vertices is a similarity.

Definition 82: base times height (found on page 230)

For each side of a triangle, there is an opposite vertex, and there is an altitude segment drawn
from that opposite vertex. The expression "𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡" or "𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡" refers to
the product of the length of a side of a triangle and the length of the corresponding altitude
segment drawn to that side. The expression can be abbreviated 𝑏 ⋅ ℎ.

Definition 83: triangular region, interior of a triangular region, boundary of a triangular region
(found on page 235)
Symbol: ▲𝐴𝐵𝐶
Spoken: triangular region 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶
Usage: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points
Meaning: the union of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and the interior of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶. In symbols, we
would write ▲𝐴𝐵𝐶 = Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 ∪ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶).
Additional Terminology: the interior of a triangular region is defined to be the interior of
the associated triangle. That is, 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(▲𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶). The boundary of
a triangular region is defined to be the associated triangle, itself. That is,
𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦(▲𝐴𝐵𝐶) = Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶..

Definition 84: the set of all triangular regions is denoted by ℛ . (found on page 236)
Definition 85: the area function for triangular regions (found on page 236)
symbol: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
▴
spoken: the area function for triangular regions
𝑏ℎ
meaning: the function 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 : ℛ → ℝ+ defined by 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (▲𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2 , where 𝑏 is the
▴ ▴ ▴
length of any side of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ℎ is the length of the corresponding altitude segment.
(Theorem 132 guarantees that the resulting value does not depend on the choice of base.)

Definition 86: polygon (found on page )

words: polygon 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛
symbol: 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 )
usage: 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 are distinct points, with no three in a row being collinear, and such that the
segments ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 , ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 , … , ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑛 𝑃1 intersect only at their endpoints.
meaning: 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 ) is defined to be the following set:
 page 339

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 ) = 𝑃 ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅

1 𝑃2 ∪ 𝑃1 𝑃2 ∪ … ∪ 𝑃𝑛 𝑃1
additional terminology: Points 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 are each called a vertex of the polygon. Pairs of
vertices of the form {𝑃𝑘 , 𝑃𝑘+1 } and the pair {𝑃𝑛 , 𝑃1 } are called adjacent vertices. The
𝑛 segments ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 , ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 , … , ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑛 𝑃1 whose endpoints are adjacent vertices are each
called a side of the polygon. Segments whose endpoints are non-adjacent vertices
are each called a diagonal of the polygon.

Definition 87: convex polygon (found on page 239)

A convex polygon is one in which all the vertices that are not the endpoints of a given side lie
in the same half-plane determined by that side. A polygon that does not have this property is
called non-convex.

Definition 88: complex, polygonal region, separated, connected polygonal regions (found on
page 239)
A complex is a finite set of triangular regions whose interiors do not intersect. That is, a set of
the form 𝐶 = {▲1 , ▲2 , … , ▲𝑘 } where each ▲𝑖 is a triangular region and such that if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗,
then the intersection 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(▲𝑖 ) ∩ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 (▲𝑗 ) is the empty set.

A polygonal region is a set of points that can be described as the union of the triangular
regions in a complex. That is a set of the form
𝑘

𝑅 = ▲1 ∪ ▲2 ∪ … ∪ ▲𝑘 = ⋃ ▲𝑖
𝑖=1
We say that a polygonal region can be separated if it can be written as the union of two
disjoint polygonal regions. A connected polygonal region is one that cannot be separated into
two disjoint polygonal regions. We will often use notation like 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 ) to denote
a connected polygonal region. In that symbol, the letters 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 are vertices of the
region (I won’t give a precise definition of vertex. You get the idea.)

Definition 89: open disk, closed disk (found on page 240)

symbol: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟)
spoken: the open disk centered at point 𝑃 with radius 𝑟.
meaning: the set 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)). That is, the set {𝑄: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑃, 𝑄) < 𝑟}.
another symbol: ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟)
spoken: the closed disk centered at point 𝑃 with radius 𝑟.
meaning: the set 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) ∪ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)). That is, {𝑄: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑃, 𝑄) ≤ 𝑟}.
pictures: 𝑃 𝑟 𝑃 𝑟

the open disk the closed disk

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟)

Definition 90: interior of a polygonal region, boundary of a polygonal region (page 241)
words: the interior of polygonal region 𝑅
meaning: the set of all points 𝑃 in 𝑅 with the property that there exists some open disk
centered at point 𝑃 that is entirely contained in 𝑅
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 340

meaning in symbols: {𝑃 ∈ 𝑅 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∃𝑟 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟) ⊂ 𝑅}

additional terminology: the boundary of polygonal region 𝑅
meaning: the set of all points 𝑄 in 𝑅 with the property that no open disk centered at point 𝑄
is entirely contained in 𝑅. This implies that every open disk centered at point 𝑄
contains some points that are not elements of the region 𝑅.
meaning in symbols: {𝑄 ∈ 𝑅 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∀𝑟 > 0, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑃, 𝑟) ⊄ 𝑅}
picture:

𝑅 𝑄
𝑃

𝑃 is an interior point; 𝑄 is a boundary point

Definition 91: the set of all polygonal regions is denoted by ℛ. (found on page 242)

Definition 92: the area function for polygonal regions (found on page 243)
spoken: the area function for polygonal regions
meaning: the function 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎: ℛ → ℝ+ defined by
𝑘

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎▴ (▲1 ) + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎▴ (▲2 ) + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎▴ (▲3 ) = ∑ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎▴ (▲𝑖 )

𝑖=1
where 𝐶 = {▲1 , ▲2 , … , ▲𝑘 } is a complex for region 𝑅. (Theorem 133 guarantees that the
resulting value does not depend on the choice of complex 𝐶.)

Definition 93: polygon similarity (found on page 246)

To say that two polygons are similar means that there exists a correspondence between the
vertices of the two polygons and the correspondence has these two properties:
 Each pair of corresponding angles is congruent.
 The ratios of the lengths of each pair of corresponding sides is the same.
If a correspondence between vertices of two polygons has the two properties, then the
correspondence is called a similarity. That is, the expression a similarity refers to a particular
correspondence of vertices that has the two properties.

Definition 94: symbol for a similarity of two polygons (found on page 246)
Symbol: 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 )~𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛(𝑃1 ′𝑃2 ′ … 𝑃𝑛 ′).
Meaning: The correspondence (𝑃1 𝑃2 … 𝑃𝑛 ) ↔ (𝑃1 ′𝑃2 ′ … 𝑃𝑛 ′) of vertices is a similarity.
 page 341

Definition 95: seven types of angles intersecting circles (found on page 255)

Type 1 Angle (Central Angle) 𝐶

A central angle of a circle is an angle whose rays lie
on two secant lines that intersect at the center of the 𝐴
circle.
𝐵
In the picture at right, lines ⃡𝐴𝐸 and 𝐶𝐹
⃡ are secant 𝐸
lines that intersect at the center point 𝐵 of the circle.
Angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a central angle. So are angles
𝐹
∠𝐶𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐸𝐵𝐹, ∠𝐹𝐵𝐴.
Type 2 Angle (Inscribed Angle) 𝐶

An inscribed angle of a circle is an angle whose rays

lie on two secant lines that intersect on the circle and
such that each ray of the angle intersects the circle at 𝐵
one other point. In other words, an angle of the form
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, where 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are three points on the circle.

In the picture at right, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an inscribed 𝐴

angle.
Type 3 Angle
Our third type of an angle intersecting a circle is an 𝐶
angle whose rays lie on two secant lines that intersect
at a point that is inside the circle but is not the center
of the circle. 𝐴
In the picture at right, lines ⃡𝐴𝐸 and ⃡𝐶𝐹 are secant
lines that intersect at point 𝐵 in the interior of the 𝐸 𝐵
circle. Angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an angle of type three. So are
angles ∠𝐶𝐵𝐸, ∠𝐸𝐵𝐹, ∠𝐹𝐵𝐴. 𝐹

Type 4 Angle 𝐶

Our fourth type of an angle intersecting a circle is an

angle whose rays lie on two secant lines that intersect
𝐴
at a point that is outside the circle and such that each
ray of the angle intersects the circle.

In the picture at right, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an angle of type 𝐵

four.
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 342

Type 5 Angle

Our fifth type of an angle intersecting a circle is an

𝐶
angle whose rays lie on two tangent lines and such
that each ray of the angle intersects the circle.
Because the rays lie in tangent lines, we know that
each ray intersects the circle exactly once.

In the picture at right, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an angle of type 𝐵

five. 𝐴

Type 6 Angle
𝐶
Our sixth type of an angle intersecting a circle is an
angle whose vertex lies on the circle and such that one
ray contains a chord of the circle and the other ray lies
in a line that is tangent to the circle.

In the picture at right, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an angle of type 𝐵

six. 𝐴
𝐶
Type 7 Angle

Our seventh type of an angle intersecting a circle is an

angle whose rays lie on a secant line and tangent line
that intersect outside the circle and such that each ray
of the angle intersects the circle.

In the picture at right, angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an angle of type 𝐵

seven. 𝐴

Definition 96: Circular Arc (found on page 257)

̂
Symbol: 𝐴𝐵𝐶
Spoken: arc 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶
Usage: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points.
Meaning: the set consisting of points 𝐴 and 𝐶 and all points of 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) that lie on the
⃡ as point 𝐵.
same side of line 𝐴𝐶
Meaning in Symbols: 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ = {𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 ∪ (𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ∩ 𝐻𝐵 )}
Additional terminology:
 Points 𝐴 and 𝐶 are called the endpoints of arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶̂.
 The interior of the arc is the set 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ∩ 𝐻𝐵 .
 If the center 𝑃 lies on the opposite side of line ⃡𝐴𝐶 from point 𝐵, then arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ is
called a minor arc.
 If the center 𝑃 of 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) lies on the same side of line 𝐴𝐶
⃡ as point 𝐵,then arc
̂
𝐴𝐵𝐶 is called a major arc.
 page 343

 If the center 𝑃 lies on line ⃡𝐴𝐶 , then arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶

̂ is called a semicircle.
Picture:
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
𝐴 𝐶
𝐴 𝐶
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃

𝐴 𝐶
minor arc major arc semicircle

Definition 97: angle intercepting an arc (found on page 257)

We say that an angle intercepts an arc if each ray of the angle contains at least one endpoint
of the arc and if the interior of the arc lies in the interior of the angle.

Definition 98: the symbol for the set of all circular arcs is 𝒜̂ . (found on page 259)

Definition 99: the angle measure of an arc (found on page 259)

Symbol: 𝑚 ̂
Name: the Arc Angle Measurement Function
Meaning: The function 𝑚 ̂ : 𝒜̂ → (0,360), defined in the following way:
 If 𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ is a minor arc, then 𝑚 ̂ ) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶), where point 𝑃 is the
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
center of the circle.
 If 𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ is a major arc, then 𝑚 ̂ ) = 360 − 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶), where point 𝑃
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
is the center of the circle.
 If 𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ is a semicircle, then 𝑚 ̂ ) = 180.
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
Picture:
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
𝐴 𝐶
𝐴 𝐶
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃

𝐴 𝐶
minor arc major arc semicircle
𝑚 ̂ ) = 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶)
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ̂ ) = 180
𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ) = 360 − 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶

Definition 100: cyclic quadrilateral (found on page 269)

A quadrilateral is said to be cyclic if the quadrilateral can be circumscribed. That is, if there
exists a circle that passes through all four vertices of the quadrilateral.

Definition 101: The Euler Line of a non-equilateral triangle (found on page 281)
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 344

Given a non-equilateral triangle, the Euler Line is defined to be the line containing the
orthocenter, centroid, and circumcenter of that triangle. (Existence and uniqueness of this
line s guaranteed by Theorem 157.)

Definition 102: The three Euler Points of a triangle are defined to be the midpoints of the
segments connecting the vertices to the orthocenter. (found on page 281)

Definition 103: The nine point circle associated to a triangle is the circle that passes through the
midpoints of the three sides, the feet of the three altitudes, and the three Euler points. (The
existence of the nine point circle is guaranteed by Theorem 158.)

Definition 104: circumference of a circle and area of a circular region (found on page 285)
Given a circle of diameter 𝑑, for each 𝑘 = 1,2,3, … define 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑘 to be a polygonal region
bounded by a regular polygon with 3 ⋅ 2𝑘 sides, inscribed in the circle. Define 𝑃𝑘 and 𝐴𝑘
to be the perimeter and area of the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ polygonal region. The resulting sequences {𝑃𝑘 }
and {𝐴𝑘 } are increasing and bounded above and so they each have a limit.
 Define the circumference of the circle to be the real number 𝐶 = lim 𝑃𝑘 .
𝑘→∞
 Define the area of the circular region to be the real number 𝐴 = lim 𝐴𝑘 .
𝑘→∞

𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Definition 105: The symbol 𝑝𝑖, or 𝜋, denotes the real number that is the ratio for
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐶
any circle. That is, 𝜋 = 𝑑. (That this ratio is the same for all circles is guaranteed by Theorem
159, found on page 287.) (found on page 288)

Definition 106: arc length (found on page 293)

̂ on a circle of radius 𝑟 is defined to be the number
The length of an arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝑚 ̂ )𝜋𝑟
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂) =
𝐿̂(𝐴𝐵𝐶
180
Definition 107: Rules for computing area (found on page 293)
(1) The area of a triangular region is equal to one-half the base times the height. It does not
matter which side of the triangle is chosen as the base.
(2) The area of a polygonal region is equal to the sum of the areas of the triangles in a
complex for the region.
(3) The area of a circular region is 𝜋𝑟 2 .
̂
̂ is 𝜋𝑟 2 ⋅ 𝑚̂(𝐴𝐵𝐶).
(4) More generally, the area of a circular sector bounded by arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶 360
(5) Congruence property: If two regions have congruent boundaries, then the area of the two
regions is the same.
(6) Additivity property: If a region is the union of two smaller regions whose interiors do not
intersect, then the area of the whole region is equal to the sum of the two smaller regions.

Definition 108: Image and Preimage of a single element

If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 is used as input to the function 𝑓, then the corresponding output
𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝐵 is called the image of 𝑎.
If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, then the preimage of 𝑏, denoted 𝑓 −1 (𝑏), is the set of all elements of
𝐴 whose image is 𝑏. That is, 𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏}.
 page 345

Definition 109: Image of a Set and Preimage of a Set

If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑆 ⊂ 𝐴, then the image of 𝑆, denoted 𝑓(𝑆), is the set of all elements of 𝐵 that
are images of elements of 𝑆. That is,
𝑓(𝑆) = {𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆}
If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑇 ⊂ 𝐵, then the preimage of 𝑇, denoted 𝑓 −1 (𝑇), is the set of all elements of
𝐴 whose images are elements of 𝑇. That is,
𝑓 −1 (𝑇) = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝑇}
Definition 110: composition of fuctions, composite function
Symbol: 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓
Spoken: “𝑔 circle 𝑓”,or “𝑔 after 𝑓”, or “𝑔 composed with 𝑓”, or “𝑔 after 𝑓”
Usage: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶
Meaning: the function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐶 defined by 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)).
Additional terminology: A function of the form 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is called a composite function.
Definition 111: One-to-One Function
Words: The function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is one-to-one.
Alternate Words: The function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is injective.
Meaning in Words: Different inputs always produce different outputs.
Meaning in Symbols: ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
Contrapositive: If two outputs are the same, then the inputs must have been the same.
Contrapositive in Symbols: ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .

Definition 112: Onto Function

Words: The function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is onto.
Alternate Words: The function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is surjective.
Meaning in Words: For every element of the codomain, there exists an element of the
domain that will produce that element of the codomain as output.
Meaning in Symbols: ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

Definition 113: Bijection, One-to-One Correspondence

Words: “The function 𝑓 is a bijection”, or “the function 𝑓 is bijective”.
Alternate Words: The function 𝑓 is a one-to-one correspondence.
Meaning: The function 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto.

Definition 114: Inverse Functions, Inverse Relations

Words: Functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are inverses of one another.
Usage: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴
Meaning: 𝑓 and 𝑔 satisfy the following two properties, called inverse relations:
∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎
∀𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑏
Additional Symbols and Terminology: Another way of saying that functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are
inverses of one another is to say that 𝑔 is the inverse of 𝑓. Instead of using different
letters for a function and its inverse, it is common to use the symbol 𝑓 −1 to denote the
inverse of a function 𝑓. With this notation, we would say that 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴,
and the inverse relations become:
∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎
∀𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = 𝑏
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 346

Definition 115: The plane is defined to be the set 𝒫 of all points.

Definition 116: A map of the plane is defined to be a function 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫.

Definition 117: A transformation of the plane is defined to be a bijective map of the plane. The
set of all transformations of the plane is denoted by the symbol 𝑇.

Definition 118: Isometry of the Plane

Words: 𝑓 is an isometry of the plane.
Meaning: 𝑓 is a distance preserving map of the plane. That is, for all points 𝑃 and 𝑄, the
distance from 𝑃 to 𝑄 is the same as the distance from 𝑓(𝑃) to 𝑓(𝑄).
Meaning in symbols: ∀𝑃, 𝑄 ∈ 𝒫, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 𝑑(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑓(𝑄)).

Definition 119: The Identity Map of the Plane is the map 𝑖𝑑: 𝒫 → 𝒫 defined by 𝑖𝑑(𝑄) = 𝑄 for
every point 𝑄.

Definition 120: a Fixed Point of a Map of the Plane

Words: 𝑄 is a fixed point of the map 𝑓.
Meaning: 𝑓(𝑄) = 𝑄

Definition 121: The Dilation of the Plane

Symbol: 𝐷𝐶,𝑘
Spoken: The dilation centered at 𝐶 with scaling factor 𝑘
Usage: 𝐶 is a point, called the center of the dilation, and 𝑘 is a positive real number.
Meaning: The map 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 : 𝒫 → 𝒫 defined as follows
The point 𝐶 is a fixed point of 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 . That is, 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 (𝐶) = 𝐶.
When a point 𝑄 ≠ 𝐶 is used as input to the map 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 , the output is the unique point
𝑄 ′ = 𝐷𝐶,𝑘 (𝑄) that has these two properties:
 Point 𝑄′ lies on ray 𝐶𝑄
 The distance 𝑑(𝐶, 𝑄′) = 𝑘𝑑(𝐶, 𝑄)
(The existence and uniqueness of such a point 𝑄 ′ is guaranteed by the Congruent
Segment Construction Theorem, (Theorem 24).)
Definition 122: The Reflection of the Plane
Symbol: 𝑀𝐿
Spoken: The reflection in line 𝐿
Usage: 𝐿 is a line, called the line of reflection
Meaning: The map 𝑀𝐿 : 𝒫 → 𝒫 defined as follows
Every point on the line 𝐿 is a fixed point of 𝑀𝐿 . That is, if 𝑃 ∈ 𝐿 then 𝑀𝐿 (𝑃) = 𝑃.
When a point 𝑄 not on line 𝐿 is used as input to the map 𝑀𝐿 , the output is the unique
point 𝑄 ′ = 𝑀𝐿 (𝑄) such that line 𝐿 is the perpendicular bisector of segment 𝑄𝑄′
̅̅̅̅̅.
′
(The existence and uniqueness of such a point 𝑄 is can be proven using the axioms
and theorems of Neutral Geometry. You are asked to provide details in an exercise.)

Definition 123: A binary operation on a set 𝑆 is a function ∗: 𝑆 × 𝑆 → 𝑆.

Definition 124: associativity, associative binary operation

 page 347

Words: “∗ is associative” or “∗ has the associativity property”

Usage: ∗ is a binary operation ∗ on some set 𝑆.
Meaning: ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐

Definition 125: identity element, binary operation with an identity element

Words: “∗ has an identity element.”
Usage: ∗ is a binary operation ∗ on some set 𝑆.
Meaning:.There is an element ∃𝑒 ∈ 𝑆 with the following property: ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎
Meaning in symbols: ∃𝑒 ∈ 𝑆: ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎
Additional Terminology: The element ∃𝑒 ∈ 𝑆 is called the identity for operation ∗.

Definition 126: binary operation with inverses

Words: “∗ has inverses.”
Usage: ∗ is a binary operation ∗ on some set 𝑆.
Meaning: For each element 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, there exists is an 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝑆 such that
𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒 and 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒.
Meaning in symbols: ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, ∃𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑆: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎 −1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
Additional Terminology: The element 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑆 is called the inverse of 𝑎.

Definition 127: commutativity, commutative binary operation

Words: “∗ is commutative” or “∗ has the commutative property”
Usage: ∗ is a binary operation ∗ on some set 𝑆.
Meaning: ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎

Definition 128: Group

A Group is a pair (𝐺,∗) consisting of a set 𝐺 and a binary operation ∗ on 𝐺 that has the
following three properties.
(1) Associativity (Definition 124)
(2) Existence of an Identity Element (Definition 125)
(3) Existence of an Inverse for each Element (Definition 126)

Definition 129: Commutative Group, Abelian Group

A commutative group (or abelian group) is a group (𝐺,∗) that has the commutativity property
(Definition 127).

.
Chapter 16 Appendix 1: List of Definitions page 348

.
 page 349

17. Appendix 2: List of Theorems

Theorem 1: In Neutral Geometry, if 𝐿 and 𝑀 are distinct lines that intersect, then they intersect
in only one point. (page 56)

Theorem 2: In Neutral Geometry, there exist three non-collinear points. (page 56)

Theorem 3: In Neutral Geometry, there exist three lines that are not concurrent. (page 56)

Theorem 4: In Neutral Geometry, for every point 𝑃, there exists a line that does not pass
through 𝑃. (page 56)

Theorem 5: In Neutral Geometry, for every point 𝑃, there exist at least two lines that pass
through 𝑃. (page 56)

Theorem 6: In Neutral Geometry, given any points 𝑃 and 𝑄 that are not known to be distinct,
there exists at least one line that passes through 𝑃 and 𝑄. (page 57)

Theorem 7: about how many points are on lines in Neutral Geometry (page 64)
In Neutral Geometry, given any line 𝐿, the set of points that lie on 𝐿 is an infinite set. More
precisely, the set of points that lie on 𝐿 can be put in one-to-one correspondence with the set
of real numbers ℝ. (In the terminology of sets, we would say that the set of points on line 𝐿
has the same cardinality as the set of real numbers ℝ.)

Theorem 8: The Distance Function on the Set of Points, the function 𝑑, is Positive Definite.
(page 68)
For all points 𝑃 and 𝑄, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) ≥ 0, and 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 0 if and only if 𝑃 = 𝑄. That is, if
and only if 𝑃 and 𝑄 are actually the same point.

Theorem 9: The Distance Function on the Set of Points, the function 𝑑, is Symmetric. (page 68)
For all points 𝑃 and 𝑄, 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑃).

Theorem 10: (Ruler Sliding and Ruler Flipping) Lemma about obtaining a new coordinate
function from a given one (page 81)
Suppose that 𝑓: 𝐿 → ℝ is a coordinate function for a line 𝐿.
(A) (Ruler Sliding) If 𝑐 is a real number constant and 𝑔 is the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by
𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑐, then 𝑔 is also a coordinate function for line 𝐿.
(B) (Ruler Flipping) If 𝑔 is the function 𝑔: 𝐿 → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑃) = −𝑓(𝑃), then 𝑔 is also a
coordinate function for line 𝐿.

Theorem 11: Ruler Placement Theorem (page 83)

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are distinct points on some line 𝐿, then there exists a coordinate function ℎ for
line 𝐿 such that ℎ(𝐴) = 0 and ℎ(𝐵) is positive.

Theorem 12: facts about betweenness for real numbers (page 92)
(A) If 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧 then 𝑧 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥.
Chapter 17 Appendix 2: List of Theorems page 350

(B) If 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are three distinct real numbers, then exactly one is between the other two.
(C) Any four distinct real numbers can be named in an order 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 so that 𝑤 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧.
(D) If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are distinct real numbers, then
(D.1) There exists a real number 𝑐 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑐 ∗ 𝑏.
(D.2) There exists a real number 𝑑 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑

Theorem 13: Betweenness of real numbers is related to the distances between them. (page 92)
Claim: For distinct real numbers 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, the following are equivalent
(A) 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧
(B) |𝑥 − 𝑧| = |𝑥 − 𝑦| + |𝑦 − 𝑧|. That is, 𝑑ℝ (𝑥, 𝑧) = 𝑑ℝ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑ℝ (𝑦, 𝑧).

Theorem 14: Lemma about betweenness of coordinates of three points on a line (page 93)
If 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are three distinct points on a line 𝐿, and 𝑓 is a coordinate function on line 𝐿, and
the betweenness expression 𝑓(𝑃) ∗ 𝑓(𝑄) ∗ 𝑓(𝑅) is true, then for any coordinate function
𝑔 on line 𝐿, the expression 𝑔(𝑃) ∗ 𝑔(𝑄) ∗ 𝑔(𝑅) will be true.

Theorem 15: Properties of Betweenness for Points (page 94)

(A) If 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 then 𝑅 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑃.
(B) For any three distinct collinear points, exactly one is between the other two.
(C) Any four distinct collinear points can be named in an order 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, 𝑆 such that 𝑃 ∗
𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑆.
(D) If 𝑃 and 𝑅 are distinct points, then
(D.1) There exists a point 𝑄 such that 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅.
(D.2) There exists a point 𝑆 such that 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑆.

Theorem 16: Betweenness of points on a line is related to the distances between them. (page 95)
Claim: For distinct collinear points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, the following are equivalent
(A) 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅
(B) 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) = 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅).

Theorem 17: Lemma about distances between three distinct, collinear points. (page 96)
If 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are distinct collinear points such that 𝑃 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑅 is not true,
then the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) < 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true.

Theorem 18: (Corollary) Segment ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐵 is a subset of ray 𝐴𝐵 . (page 97)

Theorem 19: about the use of different second points in the symbol for a ray. (page 97)
If 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶 is any point of 𝐴𝐵 that is not 𝐴, then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 .

Theorem 20: Segment congruence is an equivalence relation. (page 100)

Theorem 21: About a point whose coordinate is the average of the coordinates of the endpoints.
(page 105)
Given ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 , and Point 𝐶 on line ⃡𝐴𝐵 , and any coordinate function 𝑓 for line ⃡𝐴𝐵 , the
following are equivalent:
 page 351

(i) The coordinate of point 𝐶 is the average of the coordinates of points 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝑓(𝐴)+𝑓(𝐵)
That is, 𝑓(𝐶) = .
2
̅̅̅̅ . That is, 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐵.
(ii) Point 𝐶 is a midpoint of segment 𝐴𝐵

Theorem 22: Corollary of Theorem 21. (page 106)

̅̅̅̅, and Point 𝐶 on line 𝐴𝐵
Given 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ , and any coordinate functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 for line 𝐴𝐵
⃡ , the
following are equivalent:
𝑓(𝐴)+𝑓(𝐵)
(i) 𝑓(𝐶) = .
2
𝑔(𝐴)+𝑔(𝐵)
(ii) 𝑔(𝐶) = .
2

Theorem 23: Every segment has exactly one midpoint. (page 106)

Theorem 24: Congruent Segment Construction Theorem. (page 107)

Given a segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 and a ray 𝐶𝐷, there exists exactly one point 𝐸 on ray 𝐶𝐷 such that
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐸 ≅ 𝐴𝐵 .

Theorem 25: Congruent Segment Addition Theorem. (page 107)

̅̅̅̅̅̅ and 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐴′𝐵′
If 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐴′ ∗ 𝐵 ′ ∗ 𝐶′ and 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅̅̅ then 𝐴𝐶
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵′𝐶′ ̅̅̅̅̅.
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐴′𝐶′

Theorem 26: Congruent Segment Subtraction Theorem. (page 107)

̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
If 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐴′ ∗ 𝐵 ′ ∗ 𝐶′ and 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴′𝐵′ and 𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅̅̅.
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝐵′𝐶′
𝐴′𝐶′ then 𝐵𝐶

Theorem 27: Given any line, each of its half-planes contains at least three non-collinear points.
(page 114)

Theorem 28: (Pasch’s Theorem) about a line intersecting a side of a triangle between vertices
(page 116)
If a line intersects the side of a triangle at a point between vertices, then the line also
intersects the triangle at another point that lies on at least one of the other two sides.

Theorem 29: about a line intersecting two sides of a triangle between vertices (page 116)
If a line intersects two sides of a triangle at points that are not vertices, then the line cannot
intersect the third side.

Theorem 30: about a ray with an endpoint on a line (page 118)

If a ray has its endpoint on a line but does not lie in the line,
then all points of the ray except the endpoint are on the same side of the line.

Theorem 31: (Corollary of Theorem 30) about a ray with its endpoint on an angle vertex (p.
119)
If a ray has its endpoint on an angle vertex and passes through a point in the angle interior,
then every point of the ray except the endpoint lies in the angle interior.

Theorem 32: (Corollary of Theorem 30.) about a segment that has an endpoint on a line (p. 119)
If a segment that has an endpoint on a line but does not lie in the line,
Chapter 17 Appendix 2: List of Theorems page 352

then all points of the segment except that endpoint are on the same side of the line.

Theorem 33: (Corollary of Theorem 32.) Points on a side of a triangle are in the interior of the
opposite angle. (page 119)
If a point lies on the side of a triangle and is not one of the endpoints of that side,
then the point is in the interior of the opposite angle.

Theorem 34: The Z Lemma (page 120)

⃡ , then ray 𝐴𝐶 does not intersect ray 𝐵𝐷.
If points 𝐶 and 𝐷 lie on opposite sides of line 𝐴𝐵

Theorem 35: The Crossbar Theorem (page 120)

̅̅̅̅ at a point between 𝐴 and 𝐶.
If point 𝐷 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, then 𝐵𝐷 intersects 𝐴𝐶

Theorem 36: about a ray with its endpoint in the interior of a triangle (page 122)
If the endpoint of a ray lies in the interior of a triangle, then the ray intersects the triangle
exactly once.

Theorem 37: about a line passing through a point in the interior of a triangle (page 122)
If a line passes through a point in the interior of a triangle, then the line intersects the triangle
exactly twice.

Theorem 38: Three equivalent statements about quadrilaterals (page 124)

For any quadrilateral, the following statements are equivalent:
(i) All the points of any given side lie on the same side of the line determined by the
opposite side.
(ii) The diagonal segments intersect.
(iii) Each vertex is in the interior of the opposite angle.

Theorem 39: about points in the interior of angles (page 133)

Given: points 𝐶 and 𝐷 on the same side of line ⃡𝐴𝐵 .
Claim: The following are equivalent:
(I) 𝐷 is in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.
(II) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) < 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶).

Theorem 40: Every angle has a unique bisector. (page 135)

Theorem 41: Linear Pair Theorem. (page 136)

If two angles form a linear pair, then the sum of their measures is 180.

Theorem 42: Converse of the Linear Pair Theorem (page 138)

If adjacent angles have measures whose sum is 180, then the angles form a linear pair.
That is, if angles ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 are adjacent and 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐵𝐶) = 180,
then 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶.

Theorem 43: Vertical Pair Theorem (page 138)

If two angles form a vertical pair then they have the same measure.
 page 353

Theorem 44: about angles with measure 90 (page 140)

For any angle, the following two statements are equivalent.
(i) There exists another angle that forms a linear pair with the given angle and that has
the same measure.
(ii) The given angle has measure 90.

Theorem 45: If two intersecting lines form a right angle, then they actually form four. (page
142)

Theorem 46: existence and uniqueness of a line that is perpendicular to a given line through a
given point that lies on the given line (page 142)
For any given line, and any given point that lies on the given line, there is exactly one
line that passes through the given point and is perpendicular to the given line.

Theorem 47: Angle congruence is an equivalence relation. (page 144)

Theorem 48: Congruent Angle Construction Theorem (page 144)

Let 𝐴𝐵 be a ray on the edge of a half-plane 𝐻. For any angle ∠𝐶𝐷𝐸, there is exactly one
ray 𝐴𝑃 with point 𝑃 in 𝐻 such that ∠𝑃𝐴𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐶𝐷𝐸.

Theorem 49: Congruent Angle Addition Theorem (page 144)

If point 𝐷 lies in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 and point 𝐷′ lies in the interior of ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′, and
∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≅ ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐷′ and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐷′𝐵′𝐶′, then ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′.

Theorem 50: Congruent Angle Subtraction Theorem (page 144)

If point 𝐷 lies in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 and point 𝐷′ lies in the interior of ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′, and
∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≅ ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐷′ and ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′, then ∠𝐷𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐷′𝐵′𝐶′.

Theorem 51: triangle congruence is an equivalence relation (page 152)

Theorem 52: the CS  CA theorem for triangles (the Isosceles Triangle Theorem) (page 156)
In Neutral geometry, if two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the angles opposite those
sides are also congruent. That is, in a triangle, if CS then CA.

Theorem 53: (Corollary) In Neutral Geometry, if a triangle is equilateral then it is equiangular.

(page 157)

Theorem 54: the ASA Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry (page 157)
In Neutral Geometry, if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two
triangles, and two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of the other triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are
congruent as well, so the correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

Theorem 55: the CA  CS theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry (page 159)
In Neutral geometry, if two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite those
angles are also congruent. That is, in a triangle, if CA then CS.
Chapter 17 Appendix 2: List of Theorems page 354

Theorem 56: (Corollary) In Neutral Geometry, if a triangle is equiangular then it is equilateral.

(page 159)

Theorem 57: (Corollary) The CACS theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry. (page 160)
In any triangle in Neutral Geometry, congruent angles are always opposite congruent sides.
That is, CA  CS.

Theorem 58: the SSS congruence theorem for Neutral Geometry (page 160)
In Neutral Geometry, if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two
triangles, and the three sides of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of the
other triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are congruent as well, so the
correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

Theorem 59: Neutral Exterior Angle Theorem (page 162)

In Neutral Geometry, the measure of any exterior angle is greater than the measure of either
of its remote interior angles.

Theorem 60: (Corollary) If a triangle has a right angle, then the other two angles are acute.
(page 164)

Theorem 61: the BS  BA theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry (page 164)
In Neutral Geometry, if one side of a triangle is longer than another side, then the measure of
the angle opposite the longer side is greater than the measure of the angle opposite the shorter
side. That is, in a triangle, if BS then BA.

Theorem 62: the BA  BS theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry (page 164)
In Neutral Geometry, if the measure of one angle is greater than the measure of another
angle, then the side opposite the larger angle is longer than the side opposite the smaller
angle. That is, in a triangle, if BA then BS.

Theorem 63: (Corollary) The BABS theorem for triangles in Neutral Geometry. (page 165)
In any triangle in Neutral Geometry, bigger angles are always opposite bigger sides. That is,
BA  BS.

Theorem 64: The Triangle Inequality for Neutral Geometry (page 166)
In Neutral Geometry, the length of any side of any triangle is less than the sum of the lengths
of the other two sides.
That is, for all non-collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, the inequality 𝐴𝐶 < 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 is true.

Theorem 65: The Distance Function Triangle Inequality for Neutral Geometry (page 167)
The function 𝑑 satisfies the Distance Function Triangle Inequality.
That is, for all points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, the inequality 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑅) ≤ 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) + 𝑑(𝑄, 𝑅) is true.

Theorem 66: existence and uniqueness of a line that is perpendicular to a given line through a
given point that does not lie on the given line (page 170)
For any given line and any given point that does not lie on the given line, there is exactly
one line that passes through the given point and is perpendicular to the given line.
 page 355

Theorem 67: The shortest segment connecting a point to a line is the perpendicular. (page 172)

Theorem 68: In any right triangle in Neutral Geometry, the hypotenuse is the longest side. (page
173)

Theorem 69: (Lemma) In any triangle in Neutral Geometry, the altitude to a longest side
intersects the longest side at a point between the endpoints. (page 173)
Given: Neutral Geometry triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, with point 𝐷 the foot of the altitude line
drawn from vertex 𝐶 to line 𝐴𝐵 ⃡ .
̅̅̅̅ is the longest side (that is, if 𝐴𝐵 > 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐴𝐵 > 𝐵𝐶), then 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵.
Claim: If 𝐴𝐵

Theorem 70: the Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry (p.175)
In Neutral Geometry, if there is a correspondence between parts of two right triangles such
that two angles and a non-included side of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding
parts of the other triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are congruent as well,
so the correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

Theorem 71: the Hypotenuse Leg Congruence Theorem for Neutral Geometry (page 176)
In Neutral Geometry, if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of any two
right triangles, and the hypotenuse and a side of one triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of the other triangle, then all the remaining corresponding parts are
congruent as well, so the correspondence is a congruence and the triangles are congruent.

Theorem 72: the Hinge Theorem for Neutral Geometry (page 177)
In Neutral Geometry, if triangles Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and Δ𝐷𝐸𝐹 have ̅̅̅̅ 𝐷𝐸 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐶 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹 and
𝑚(∠𝐴) > 𝑚(∠𝐷), then 𝐵𝐶 > 𝐸𝐹.

Theorem 73: Equivalent statements about angles formed by two lines and a transversal in
Neutral Geometry (page 178)
Given: Neutral Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇, with points 𝐴, ⋯ , 𝐻 labeled as
in Definition 61, above.
Claim: The following statements are equivalent:
(1) The first pair of alternate interior angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐹𝐸𝐵.
(2) The second pair of alternate interior angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐶𝐵𝐸 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐵.
(3) The first pair of corresponding angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐺 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐺.
(4) The second pair of corresponding angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐻 ≅ ∠𝐷𝐸𝐻.
(5) The third pair of corresponding angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐶𝐵𝐺 ≅ ∠𝐹𝐸𝐺.
(6) The fourth pair of corresponding angles is congruent. That is, ∠𝐶𝐵𝐻 ≅ ∠𝐹𝐸𝐻.
(7) The first pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal has measures that add
up to 180. That is, 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐸) + 𝑚(∠𝐷𝐸𝐵) = 180.
(8) The second pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal has measures that
add up to 180. That is, 𝑚(∠𝐶𝐵𝐸) + 𝑚(∠𝐹𝐸𝐵) = 180.

Theorem 74: The Alternate Interior Angle Theorem for Neutral Geometry (page 180)
Given: Neutral Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇
Claim: If a pair of alternate interior angles is congruent, then lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel.
Chapter 17 Appendix 2: List of Theorems page 356

Contrapositive: If 𝐿 and 𝑀 are not parallel, then a pair of alternate interior angles are not
congruent.

Theorem 75: Corollary of The Alternate Interior Angle Theorem for Neutral Geometry (p. 181)
Given: Neutral Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇
Claim: If any of the statements of Theorem 73 are true (that is, if lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 have the
special angle property), then 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel .
Contrapositive: If 𝐿 and 𝑀 are not parallel, then all of the statements of Theorem 73 are
false (that is, lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 do not have the special angle property).

Theorem 76: Existence of a parallel through a point 𝑃 not on a line 𝐿 in Neutral Geometry.
(page 181)
In Neutral Geometry, for any line 𝐿 and any point 𝑃 not on 𝐿, there exists at least one line 𝑀
that passes through 𝑃 and is parallel to 𝐿.

Theorem 77: In Neutral Geometry, the Number of Possible Intersection Points for a Line and a
Circle is 0, 1, 2. (page 187)

Theorem 78: In Neutral Geometry, tangent lines are perpendicular to the radial segment. (p.188)
Given: A segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 and a line 𝐿 passing through point 𝐵.
Claim: The following statements are equivalent.
(i) Line 𝐿 is perpendicular to segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 .
(ii) Line 𝐿 is tangent to 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐴𝐵) at point 𝐵. That is, 𝐿 only intersects 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐴𝐵)
at point 𝐵.

Theorem 79: (Corollary of Theorem 78) For any line tangent to a circle in Neutral Geometry, all
points on the line except for the point of tangency lie in the circle’s exterior. (page 189)

Theorem 80: about points on a Secant line lying in the interior or exterior in Neutral Geometry
(page 189)
Given: 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟) and a secant line 𝐿 passing through points 𝐵 and 𝐶 on the circle
Claim:
(i) If 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐶, then 𝐷 is in the interior of the circle.
(ii) If 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 or 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐷, then 𝐷 is in the exterior of the circle.

Theorem 81: (Corollary of Theorem 80) about points on a chord or radial segment that lie in the
interior in Neutral Geometry (page 190)
In Neutral Geometry, all points of a segment except the endpoints lie in the interior of the
circle. Furthermore, one endpoint of a radial segment lies on the circle; all the other points of
a radial segment lie in the interior of the circle.

Theorem 82: In Neutral Geometry, if a line passes through a point in the interior of a circle, then
it also passes through a point in the exterior. (page 190)

Theorem 83: In Neutral Geometry, if a line passes through a point in the interior of a circle and
also through a point in the exterior, then it intersects the circle at a point between those two
points. (page 190)
 page 357

Theorem 84: (Corollary) In Neutral Geometry, if a line passes through a point in the interior of a
circle, then the line must be a secant line. That is, the line must intersect the circle exactly twice.
(page 190)

Theorem 85: about special rays in isosceles triangles in Neutral Geometry (page 191)
Given: Neutral Geometry, triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 and ray 𝐴𝐷 such that 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐶.
Claim: The following three statements are equivalent.
(i) Ray 𝐴𝐷 is the bisector of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶.
(ii) Ray 𝐴𝐷 is perpendicular to side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ .
̅̅̅̅ . That is, point 𝐷 is the midpoint of side 𝐵𝐶
(iii) Ray 𝐴𝐷 bisects side 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ .

Theorem 86: about points equidistant from the endpoints of a line segment in Neutral Geometry
(page 192)
In Neutral Geometry, the following two statements are equivalent
(i) A point is equidistant from the endpoints of a line segment.
(ii) The point lies on the perpendicular bisector of the segment.

Theorem 87: In Neutral Geometry, any perpendicular from the center of a circle to a chord
bisects the chord (page 192)

Theorem 88: In Neutral Geometry, the segment joining the center to the midpoint of a chord is
perpendicular to the chord. (page 192)

Theorem 89: (Corollary of Theorem 86) In Neutral Geometry, the perpendicular bisector of a
chord passes through the center of the circle. (page 192)

Theorem 90: about chords equidistant from the centers of circles in Neutral Geometry (p. 193)
Given: Neutral Geometry, chord 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ in 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝑟) and chord 𝑄𝑅 ̅̅̅̅ in 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟) with the
same radius 𝑟.
Claim: The following two statements are equivalent:
(i) The distance from chord 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ to center 𝐴 is the same as the distance from
̅̅̅̅ to center 𝑃.
chord 𝑄𝑅
(ii) The chords have the same length. That is, 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑄𝑅
̅̅̅̅.

Theorem 91: about points on the bisector of an angle in Neutral Geometry (page 194)
Given: Neutral Geometry, angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶, and point 𝐷 in the interior of the angle
Claim: The following statements are equivalent
(i) 𝐷 lies on the bisector of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶.
(ii) 𝐷 is equidistant from the sides of angle ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶.

Theorem 92: in Neutral Geometry, the three angle bisectors of any triangle are concurrent at a
point that is equidistant from the three sides of the triangle. (page 194)

Theorem 93: about tangent lines drawn from an exterior point to a circle in Neutral Geometry
(page 195)
Chapter 17 Appendix 2: List of Theorems page 358

Given: Neutral Geometry, 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟), point 𝐴 in the exterior of the circle, and lines ⃡𝐴𝐵
and ⃡𝐴𝐶 tangent to the circle at points 𝐵 and 𝐶.
Claim: ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 and ∠𝑃𝐴𝐵 ≅ ∠𝑃𝐴𝐶.

Theorem 94: In Neutral Geometry, if three points lie on a circle, then they do not lie on any
other circle. (page 195)

Theorem 95: in Neutral Geometry, every triangle has exactly one inscribed circle. (page 196)

Theorem 96: In Neutral Geometry, if one circle passes through a point that is in the interior of
another circle and also passes through a point that is in the exterior of the other circle, then
the two circles intersect at exactly two points. (page 197)

Theorem 97: (Corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the answer to the recurring question is exactly
one line. (page 202)
In Euclidean Geometry, for any line 𝐿 and any point 𝑃 not on 𝐿, there exists exactly one line
𝑀 that passes through 𝑃 and is parallel to 𝐿.

Theorem 98: (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, if a line intersects one of two parallel lines,
then it also intersects the other. (page 202)
In Euclidean Geometry, if 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel lines, and line 𝑇 intersects 𝑀, then 𝑇 also
intersects 𝐿.

Theorem 99: (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, if two distinct lines are both parallel to a third
line, then the two lines are parallel to each other. (page 203)
In Euclidean Geometry, if distinct lines 𝑀 and 𝑁 are both are parallel to line 𝐿, then 𝑀 and 𝑁
are parallel to each other.

Theorem 100: Converse of the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem for Euclidean Geometry (page
203)
Given: Euclidean Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇
Claim: If 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel, then a pair of alternate interior angles is congruent

Theorem 101: (corollary) Converse of Theorem 75. (page 204)

Given: Euclidean Geometry, lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 and a transversal 𝑇
Claim: If 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel, then all of the statements of Theorem 73 are true (that is,
lines 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 have the special angle property).

Theorem 102: (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, if a line is perpendicular to one of two

parallel lines, then it is also perpendicular to the other. That is, if lines 𝐿 and 𝑀 are parallel, and
line 𝑇 is perpendicular to 𝑀, then 𝑇 is also perpendicular to 𝐿. (page 204)

Theorem 103: In Euclidean Geometry, the angle sum for any triangle is 180. (page 204)

Theorem 104: (corollary) Euclidean Exterior Angle Theorem. (page 205)

 page 359

In Euclidean Geometry, the measure of any exterior angle is equal to the sum of the measure
of its remote interior angles

Theorem 105: (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the angle sum of any convex quadrilateral is
360. (page 205)

Theorem 106: In Euclidean Geometry, the perpendicular bisectors of the three sides of any
triangle are concurrent at a point that is equidistant from the vertices of the
triangle. (This point will be called the circumcenter.) (page 206)
Theorem 107: (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, every triangle can be circumscribed. (p. 207)

Theorem 108: equivalent statements about convex quadrilaterals in Euclidean Geometry (p.208)
In Euclidean Geometry, given any convex quadrilateral, the following statements are
equivalent (TFAE)
(i) Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel. That is, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
(ii) Both pairs of opposite sides are congruent.
(iii) One pair of opposite sides is both congruent and parallel.
(iv) Each pair of opposite angles is congruent.
(v) Either diagonal creates two congruent triangles.
(vi) The diagonals bisect each other.

Theorem 109: (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, parallel lines are everywhere equidistant.
(page 208)
In Euclidean Geometry, if lines 𝐾 and 𝐿 are parallel, and line 𝑀 is a transversal that is
perpendicular to lines 𝐾 and 𝐿 at points 𝐴 and 𝐵, and line 𝑁 is a transversal that is
perpendicular to lines 𝐾 and 𝐿 at points 𝐶 and 𝐷, then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷.

Theorem 110: The Euclidean Geometry Triangle Midsegment Theorem (page 209)
In Euclidean Geometry, if the endpoints of a line segment are the midpoints of two sides of a
triangle, then the line segment is parallel to the third side and is half as long as the third side.
That is, a midsegment of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half as long.

Theorem 111: Properties of Medial Triangles in Euclidean Geometry (page 210)

(1) The sides of the medial triangle are parallel to sides of outer triangle and are half as long.
(2) The altitude lines of the medial triangle are the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the
outer triangle.
(3) The altitude lines of the medial triangle are concurrent.

Theorem 112: In Euclidean Geometry any given triangle is a medial triangle for some other.
(page 210)

Theorem 113: (Corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the altitude lines of any triangle are
concurrent. (page 211)

Theorem 114: about 𝑛 distinct parallel lines intersecting a transversal in Euclidean Geometry
(page 212)
Given: in Euclidean Geometry, parallel lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , ⋯ , 𝐿𝑛 intersecting a transversal 𝑇 at
points 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , ⋯ , 𝑃𝑛 such that 𝑃1 ∗ 𝑃2 ∗ ⋯ ∗ 𝑃𝑛 .
Chapter 17 Appendix 2: List of Theorems page 360

Claim: The following are equivalent

(i) Lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , ⋯ , 𝐿𝑛 are equally spaced parallel lines.
(ii) The lines cut congruent segments in transversal 𝑇. That is, ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃2 𝑃3 ≅ ⋯ ≅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 .

Theorem 115: (Corollary) about 𝑛 distinct parallel lines cutting congruent segments in
transversals in Euclidean Geometry (page 212)
If a collection of 𝑛 parallel lines cuts congruent segments in one transversal, then the n
parallel lines must be equally spaced and so they will also cut congruent segments in any
transversal.
Theorem 116: about concurrence of medians of triangles in Euclidean Geometry (page 212)
In Euclidean Geometry, the medians of any triangle are concurrent at a point that can be
called the centroid. Furthermore, the distance from the centroid to any vertex is 2/3 the
length of the median drawn from that vertex.

Theorem 117: Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry is one-to-one and onto. (page )

Theorem 118: Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry preserves betweenness. (page 220)
If 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 are lines, and 𝑇 intersects both 𝐿 and 𝑀, and 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are points on 𝐿 with 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶,
then 𝐴′ ∗ 𝐵 ′ ∗ 𝐶′.

Theorem 119: Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry preserves congruence of segments.

(page 220)
If 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 are lines, and 𝑇 intersects both 𝐿 and 𝑀, and 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are points on 𝐿 with ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷, then 𝐴′𝐵′ ≅ 𝐶′𝐷′.

Theorem 120: Parallel Projection in Euclidean Geometry preserves ratios of lengths of

segments. (page 221)
If 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑇 are lines, and 𝑇 intersects both 𝐿 and 𝑀, and 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are points on 𝐿 with 𝐶 ≠ 𝐷,
𝐴′𝐵′ 𝐴𝐵
then 𝐶′𝐷′ = 𝐶𝐷.

Theorem 121: (corollary) about lines that are parallel to the base of a triangle in Euclidean
Geometry. (page 221)
̅̅̅̅ of triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 and intersects rays
In Euclidean Geometry, if line 𝑇 is parallel to side 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸
𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 at points 𝐷 and 𝐸, respectively, then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 .

Theorem 122: The Angle Bisector Theorem. (page 222)

In Euclidean Geometry, the bisector of an angle in a triangle splits the opposite side into two
segments whose lengths have the same ratio as the two other sides. That is, in Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, if 𝐷 is
𝐷𝐴 𝐵𝐴
the point on side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 such that ray 𝐵𝐷 bisects angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, then 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶 .

Theorem 123: triangle similarity is an equivalence relation (page 223)

Theorem 124: The Angle-Angle-Angle (AAA) Similarity Theorem for Euclidean Geometry
(page 225)
If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two triangles, and each pair of
corresponding angles is a congruent pair, then the ratios of the lengths of each pair of
 page 361

corresponding sides is the same, so the correspondence is a similarity and the triangles are
similar.

Theorem 125: (Corollary) The Angle-Angle (AA) Similarity Theorem for Euclidean Geometry
(page 226)
If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two triangles, and two pairs
of corresponding angles are congruent pairs, then the third pair of corresponding angles is
also a congruent pair, and the ratios of the lengths of each pair of corresponding sides is the
same, so the correspondence is a similarity and the triangles are similar.
Theorem 126: (corollary) In Euclidean Geometry, the altitude to the hypotenuse of a right
triangle creates two smaller triangles that are each similar to the larger triangle.
(page 226)

Theorem 127: The Side-Side-Side (SSS) Similarity Theorem for Euclidean Geometry (p. 226)
If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two triangles, and the ratios
of lengths of all three pairs of corresponding sides is the same, then all three pairs of
corresponding angles are congruent pairs, so the correspondence is a similarity and the
triangles are similar.

Theorem 128: The Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Similarity Theorem for Euclidean Geometry (p. 227)
If there is a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of two triangles, and the ratios
of lengths of two pairs of corresponding sides is the same and the corresponding included
angles are congruent, then the other two pairs of corresponding angles are also congruent
pairs and the ratios of the lengths of all three pairs of corresponding sides is the same, so the
correspondence is a similarity and the triangles are similar.

Theorem 129: About the ratios of lengths of certain line segments associated to similar triangles
in Euclidean Geometry. (page 228)
In Euclidean Geometry, if Δ~Δ′, then
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
= = =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒′ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒′ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟′ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛′

Theorem 130: The Pythagorean Theorem of Euclidean Geometry (page 229)

In Euclidean Geometry, the sum of the squares of the length of the two sides of any right
triangle equals the square of the length of the hypotenuse. That is, in Euclidean Geometry,
given triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with 𝑎 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑏 = 𝐶𝐴 and 𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵, if angle ∠𝐶 is a right angle, then
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 .

Theorem 131: The Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem of Euclidean Geometry (page 230)
In Euclidean Geometry, if the sum of the squares of the length of two sides of a triangle
equals the square of the length of the third side, then the angle opposite the third side is a
right angle. That is, in Euclidean Geometry, given triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with 𝑎 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑏 = 𝐶𝐴
and 𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵, if 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 , then angle ∠𝐶 is a right angle.

Theorem 132: In Euclidean Geometry, the product of 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⋅ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 in a triangle does not
depend on which side of the triangle is chosen as the base. (page 230)
Chapter 17 Appendix 2: List of Theorems page 362

Theorem 133: (accepted without proof) Given any polygonal region, any two complexes for that
region have the same area sum. (page 242)
If 𝑅 is a polygonal region and 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are two complexes for 𝑅, then the sum of the areas
of the triangular regions of complex 𝐶1 equals the sum of the areas of the triangular regions
of complex 𝐶2 .

Theorem 134: Properties of the Area Function for Polygonal Regions (page 243)
Congruence: If 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are triangular regions bounded by congruent triangles,
then 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅1 ) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅2 ).
Additivity: If 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are polygonal regions whose interiors do not intersect,
then 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅1 ∪ 𝑅2 ) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅1 ) + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑅2 ).

Theorem 135: about the ratio of the areas of similar triangles (page 245)
The ratio of the areas of a pair of similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of the
lengths of any pair of corresponding sides.

Theorem 136: polygon similarity is an equivalence relation (page 246)

Theorem 137: about the ratio of the areas of similar n-gons (page 248)
The ratio of the areas of a pair of similar n-gons (not necessarily convex) is equal to the
square of the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides.

Theorem 138: If two distinct arcs share both endpoints, then the sum of their arc angle measures
̂ and 𝐴𝐷𝐶
is 360. That is, if 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ are distinct, then 𝑚 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ) = 360. (page 260)
̂ (𝐴𝐷𝐶

Theorem 139: Two chords of a circle are congruent if and only if their corresponding arcs have
the same measure.(page 260)

Theorem 140: The Arc Measure Addition Theorem (page 260)

̂ and 𝐶𝐷𝐸
If 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ and 𝐴𝐶𝐸
̂ are arcs, then 𝑚 ̂) = 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐶𝐸 ̂) + 𝑚
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ ).
̂ (𝐶𝐷𝐸

Theorem 141: the angle measure of an inscribed angle (Type 2) is equal to half the arc angle
measure of the intercepted arc. (page 262)

Theorem 142: (Corollary) Any inscribed angle that intercepts a semicircle is a right angle. (page
264)

Theorem 143: the angle measure of an angle of Type 3. (page 264)

The angle measure of an angle of Type 3 is equal to the average of the arc angle measures of
two arcs. One arc is the arc intercepted by the angle, itself. The other arc is the arc
intercepted by the angle formed by the opposite rays of the original angle.

Theorem 144: the angle measure of an angle of Type 4. (page 265)

The angle measure of an angle of Type 4 is equal to one half the difference of the arc angle
measures of the two arcs intercepted by the angle. (The difference computed by subracting
the smaller arc angle measure from the larger one.)
 page 363

Theorem 145: the angle measure of an angle of Type 5. (page 265)

The angle measure of an angle of Type 5 can be related to the arc angle measures of the arcs
that it intersects in three useful ways:
(i) The angle measure of the angle is equal to 180 minus the arc angle measure of
the smaller intercepted arc
(ii) The angle measure of the angle is equal to the arc angle measure of the larger
intercepted arc minus 180
(iii) The angle measure of the angle is equal to half the difference of the arc angle
measures of the two arcs intercepted by the angle. (The difference computed
by subracting the smaller arc angle measure from the larger one.)

Theorem 146: the angle measure of an angle of Type 6. (page 266)

The angle measure of an angle of Type 6 is equal to one half the arc angle measure of the arc
intercepted by the angle.

Theorem 147: the angle measure of an angle of Type 7. (page 267)

The angle measure of an angle of Type 7 is equal to one half the difference of the arc angle
measures of the two arcs intercepted by the angle. (The difference computed by subracting
the smaller arc angle measure from the larger one.

Theorem 148: In Euclidean Geometry, in any cyclic quadrilateral, the sum of the measures of
each pair of opposite angles is 180. That is, if 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑(𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷) is cyclic, then 𝑚(∠𝐴) + 𝑚(∠𝐶) =
180 and 𝑚(∠𝐵) + 𝑚(∠𝐷) = 180. (page 269)

Theorem 149: about angles that intercept a given arc (page 269)
̂ and a point 𝑃 on the opposite side of line 𝐴𝐶
In Euclidean geometry, given an arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ⃡ from
point 𝐵, the following are equivalent:
(1) Point 𝑃 lies on 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶).
̂)
̂ (𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝑚
(2) 𝑚(∠𝐴𝑃𝐶) = 2 .
Theorem 150: In Euclidean Geometry, in any convex quadrilateral, if the sum of the measures
of either pair of opposite angles is 180, then the quadrilateral is cyclic. (page 270)

Theorem 151: The Intersecting Secants Theorem (p. 271)

In Euclidean geometry, if two secant lines intersect, then the product of the distances from
the intersection point to the two points where one secant line intersects the circle equals the
product of the distances from the intersection point to the two points where the other secant
line intersects the circle. That is, if secant line 𝐿 passes through a point 𝑄 and intersects the
circle at points 𝐴 and 𝐵 and secant line 𝑀 passes through a point 𝑄 and intersects the circle at
points 𝐷 and 𝐸, then 𝑄𝐴 ⋅ 𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐴 ⋅ 𝑄𝐵.

Theorem 152: about intersecting secant and tangent lines. (page 273)
In Euclidean geometry, if a secant line and tangent line intersect, then the square of the
distance from the point of intersection to the point of tangency equals the product of the
distances from the intersection point to the two points where the secant line intersects the
circle. That is, if a secant line passes through a point 𝑄 and intersects the circle at points 𝐴
and 𝐵 and a tangent line passes through 𝑄 and intersects the circle at 𝐷, then
(𝑄𝐷)2 = 𝑄𝐴 ⋅ 𝑄𝐵
Chapter 17 Appendix 2: List of Theorems page 364

Theorem 153: Miquel’s Theorem (page 279)

If points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 are given such that points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear and 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 and
𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐶 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐴, then 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐴, 𝐷, 𝐹) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐵, 𝐸, 𝐷) and 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐶, 𝐹, 𝐸) exist
and there exists a point 𝐺 that lies on all three circles.

Theorem 154: Menelaus’s Theorem (page 279)

Given: points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 such that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear and 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷 and 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐶
and 𝐶 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐴
Claim: The following are equivalent
(1) 𝐹 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐷
𝐴𝐷 𝐵𝐸 𝐶𝐹
(2) 𝐷𝐵 ⋅ 𝐶𝐸 ⋅ 𝐴𝐹 = −1

Theorem 155: Ceva’s Theorem (found on page 280)

Given: points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 such that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear and 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐶
and 𝐶 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐴
Claim: The following are equivalent
(1) Lines ⃡𝐴𝐸 , ⃡𝐵𝐹 , ⃡𝐶𝐷 are concurrent
𝐴𝐷 𝐵𝐸 𝐶𝐹
(2) 𝐷𝐵 ⋅ 𝐶𝐸 ⋅ 𝐴𝐹 = 1

Theorem 156: (Corollary to Ceva’s Theorem) (found on page 280)

If 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points and 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐶 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐴 are the points of
tangency of the inscribed circle for Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, then lines ⃡𝐴𝐸 , 𝐵𝐹 ⃡ are concurrent.
⃡ , 𝐶𝐷

Theorem 157: Collinearity of the orthcenter, centroid, and circumcenter (found on page 281)
If a non-equilateral triangle’s orthcenter, centroid, and circumcenter are labeled 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶,
Then 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are collinear, with 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶 and 𝐴𝐵 = 2𝐵𝐶.

Theorem 158: Existence of a circle passing through nine special points associated to a triangle
(found on page 282)
For every triangle, there exists a single circle that passes through the midpoints of the three
sides, the feet of the three altitudes, and the three Euler points.

𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Theorem 159: The ratio is the same for all circles. (page 287)
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

Theorem 160: The circumference of a circle is 𝑐 = 𝜋𝑑. The area of a circle is 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 . (p. 290)

Theorem 161: Function composition is associative. (page 298)

For all functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 and ℎ: 𝐶 → 𝐷, the functions ℎ ∘ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) and
(ℎ ∘ 𝑔) ∘ 𝑓 are equal.

Theorem 162: Bijective functions have inverse functions that are also bijective. (page 302)
If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a bijective function, then 𝑓 has an inverse function 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴. The
inverse function is also bijective.
 page 365

Theorem 163: If a function has an inverse function, then both the function and its inverse are
bijective. (page 303)
If functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴 are inverses of one another (that is, if they satisfy the
inverse relations), then both 𝑓 and 𝑔 are bijective.

Theorem 164: about the inverse of a composition of functions (page 304)

If functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 are both bijective, then their composition 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 will
be bijective. The inverse of the composition will be (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)−1 = 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 .

Theorem 165: the pair (𝑇,∘) consisting of the set of Transformations of the Plane and the
operation of composition of functions, is a group. (page 310)

Theorem 166: The composition of two isometries of the plane is also an isometry of the plane.
(page 312)

Theorem 167: Every isometry of the plane is one-to-one. (page 312)

Theorem 168: For three distinct points, betweenness is related to distance between the points.
(page 313)
For distinct points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, the following two statements are equivalent.
(i) 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐶
(ii) 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) + 𝑑(𝐵, 𝐶) = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶)

Theorem 169: Isometries of the plane preserve collinearity. (page 313)

If 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are distinct, collinear points and 𝑓 is an isometry of the plane, then
𝑓(𝐴), 𝑓(𝐵), 𝑓(𝐶) are distinct, collinear points.

Theorem 170: Every isometry of the plane is onto. (page 314)

Theorem 171: (corollary) Every isometry of the plane is also a transformation of the plane.
(page 315)

Theorem 172: Every isometry of the plane has an inverse that is also an isometry. ( page 316)

Theorem 173: the pair (𝐼,∘) consisting of the set of Isometries of the Plane and the operation of
composition of functions, is a group. (page 316)

Theorem 174: Isometries of the plane preserve lines. (page 317)

If 𝐿 is a line and 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫 is an isometry, then the image 𝑓(𝐿) is also a line.

Theorem 175: Isometries of the plane preserve circles. (page 318)

If 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫 is an isometry, then the image of a circle is a circle with the same radius.
More specifically, the image 𝑓(𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑃, 𝑟)) is the circle 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑓(𝑃), 𝑟).

Theorem 176: If an isometry has three non-collinear fixed points, then the isometry is the
identity map. (page 319)
Chapter 17 Appendix 2: List of Theorems page 366

Theorem 177: If two isometries have the same images at three non-collinear fixed points, then
the isometries are in fact the same isometry. (page 319)
If 𝑓: 𝒫 → 𝒫 and 𝑔: 𝒫 → 𝒫 are isometries and 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-collinear points such that
𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑔(𝐴) and 𝑓(𝐵) = 𝑔(𝐵) and 𝑓(𝐶) = 𝑔(𝐶), then 𝑓 = 𝑔.